The proposal needs to convince the funding or supervising agency that the research is worthy funding/supervising. A proof that there is worth for every dollar.
Research Guide: A working handbook
Research Guide: A working handbook
Paul Njiruh Nthakanio
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Research Guide: A working handbook
Dedicated to researchers
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Research Guide: A working handbook
"Well begun is half done" –Aristotle.
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Research Guide: A working handbook
SYNOPSIS ..........................................................................................................................................5 1. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH / ACADEMIC RESEARCH ......................................................6 2. TYPES OF DATA......................................................................................................................13 3. PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH ...............................................................................................14 4. ETHICS IN RESEARCH ...........................................................................................................15 5. CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH IDEAS ............................................................................17 6. EVALUATION OF RESEARCH ..............................................................................................20 7. TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ................................................................................56 8. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ......................................................................................................59 9. TECHNICAL WRITING ...........................................................................................................67 10. RESEARCH DOCUMENTS......................................................................................................86 CHAPTER 11 ..................................................................................................................................104 11. DATA ANALYSIS METHODS ..........................................................................................104 12. DATA ENTRY ..........................................................................................................................115
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Research Guide: A working handbook
SYNOPSIS For sometimes now, I have had a chance of instructing students in research methods. In the course of this, I have developed some notes that I wish to share with other instructors, teachers, students and researchers. It is a good resource when developing post graduate students’ guidelines. I do hope it will be of use to all those who access it.
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Research Guide: A working handbook
CHAPTER 1 1. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH / ACADEMIC RESEARCH 1.1Definition Definition of research: Research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical proportions about the presumed relationships among natural phenomena. It involves careful inquiry or examination which must be systematic and free from bias. Product of research: It is new information or verification of existing knowledge. Definition of educational research: This is a research that leads to award of an academic certificate like diploma, Bachelors, Masters PhD degrees or and other academic award. This is different from other research that do not lead to any academic certificate. 1.2 Types of research i) ii) iii)
Pure research Applied research Action research
1.2.1 Pure research Characteristics of research Conducted in laboratories primarily by researchers in the hard sciences (not by educators) Result may not have immediate practical application Applied research Aimed at testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situation
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It is extension of pure research
Research Guide: A working handbook
1.2.3 Action research Seeks immediate solutions to concrete problems (not the development of abstract theory, or result with only general application). It is often important in solving local problems. Reason of conducting research i) To help in decision making. Research provide the decision makers with practical relevant information useful in problem solving. 1.3 Steps in research process When defining a research process the tendency is to organize such work flows from broad to specific. i) Select a topic Characteristic of a good research topic a) Aimed at solving a problem or making issues to be better understood. b) Specific – topic should be specific and reasonable and in line with the objective ii) Back ground It identifies the key concepts underlying the problem to be solved. Identify concepts most appropriate to search topic Define concepts Show what would be the variables in the concept (these are variable to provide setup at experimental design level. ii) Statement of problem Problem to be solved must be specified in a very clear manner. 7
Research Guide: A working handbook
Problem is a further narrow down of research topic. It identifies the gap in research to be solved. iii) Justification It describes the significance, or importance of research. This is one of the major components in that, it is the part that makes the donor/financial/ supervisor see the worth of funding / supporting the research. This part is written with a view of funding agency/donor in mind. The proposal needs to convince the funding or supervising agency that the research is worthy funding/supervising. A proof that there is worth for every dollar invested is needed. This is done by indicating the output and outcome with utility. The idea is to bargain for or market the project. Note that the “sweeter” the story the better the support. Most donors would like to see worth of each dollar or each minute put into investment. Thus they want to see the following; a) b) c) d) e)
The significance or impact of results to community. Innovations made Contribution to knowledge if it is pure research Economic or social welfare to human kind. Clinical importance if it is of medical nature etc
iv) Research question: A Research Question is a statement that identifies the direction of the problem to be studied and as the research question is answered the research problem is solved. It guides and centers research in such a manner that the researcher does not lose focus of the targeted research problem. It is believed that research problem is still broad enough, so the research question is a narrow down of the problem (it relates strongly to problem). Research question needs to give a further direction of research and prevents the researcher from getting out of topic. It should be stated in the interrogative form. The question must identify 8
Research Guide: A working handbook
the independent and dependent variables. Examples of research questions; a) Can changes in fertilize use compensate for genetic abnormalities? b) In what ways is brain development affected by experience? c) What causes moving DNA elements? d) What is the relationship between rainfall and potato bright infections? e) Is there any relationship between improved soil fertility and abundance of soil nematodes? Characteristics of researchable problem a) Number of variables – about two. b) Clear and non-ambiguous. c) It should be possible to collect data to solve the problem. d) Problem should be testable using empirical methods. e) Problem should be researchable by a single researcher on a limited budget and time frame. f) Variables identified should be testable. g) When solving the problem ethics should be observed. v)
Hypothesis It is a specific statement of prediction. It is a further narrow down of research question. The idea is that if the problem to be solved is known then the problem to be solved can be predicted. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have empirically hypotheses. Alternative hypothesis ( HA or H1)- This is hypothesis that you support (your prediction). Null hypothesis (HO or H0) – Is the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes.
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Research Guide: A working handbook
Characteristics of a good hypothesis i) Should be specific and testable ii) Related to the topic of research vi) Research objectives Objectives need to be very specific that they are not interpreted in a way any other than they are meant to be. Characteristics : Must be SMART
vi)
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic and related to the topic of research
Time bound
Output of research Research is required to bring about a good and or service. 1.4 Review of literature It helps in selecting/identifying a research problem. Problem could be any of the following; i) Educational phenomena to be described ii) Observed problem to be explained iii) Problem to be solved
1.5Materials of research 10
Research Guide: A working handbook
Materials specified are the materials that will take role of variables (they are varied to achieve results and give direction to results). Site of research: It is needed where site affects outcome of results. Like materials can be affected by soil type, rainfall, diseases, humidity hence influence the final outcome. Example (a) situation of comparing soil humus content: Soils on a sloppy area may have low content than soil in the low lands; soils near fencing may have more content than those far from the fence. b) A case of analyzing mineral levels of a soil sample; location of the lab does not influence outcome but type of equipment do. 1.6 Methods It provides the following; Any activity that lead to realization of objectives. It involves development of techniques and measuring instruments that will provide reliable data pertinent to the hypothesis. A good method must provide mechanism to reduce errors. This mechanism is called a research design. Include Monitoring and evaluation methods and issues of ethics observation. Identify the appropriate methods of collecting data and analyzing data. Note: computer software is not a method. 1.7
Budgeting
i) A reasonable research budget to enable realization of research objectives is needed. ii) Budget items need justification
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Research Guide: A working handbook
1.8Time in research It is important because it helps to determine scheduling of activities. Specific timelines including time to start, evaluation points and end of research are needed. There are two fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature: crosssectional versus longitudinal studies. a) Cross-sectional study is one that takes place at a single point in time. b) Longitudinal study is one that takes place over time – there are at least two (and often more) waves of measurement in a longitudinal design. 1.9 Conduct research: Record of data. Can be done by writing, photography, sound recording or videoing. It is good practice to capture every possible data because it becomes difficult to good back to the lab or field. 1.10 Analysis of data and provide results: Appropriate statistical method is needed. 1.11 Drawing conclusions: It is done in relation to the hypothesis based on the data . 1.12 Recommendations : it is based on results and need to enable furtherance of research
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Research Guide: A working handbook
CHAPTER 2
2.
TYPES OF DATA
2.1 Two types of data: Qualitative - is data not in numerical form. Note that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings etc. i) Quantitative –is data in numerical form Note: Qualitative information can be easily converted into quantitative, and there are many times when doing so would add considerable value to your research. The simplest way to do this is to divide the qualitative information into units and number them. 2.2
Units of Analysis
The unit of analysis is the major entity that will be used in analyzing data in the study. For instance, any of the following could be a unit of analysis in a study: individuals groups artifacts (books, photos, newspapers) geographical units (town, census tract, state) social interactions (dyadic relations, divorces, arrests) Why is it called the 'unit of analysis' and not something else (like, the unit of sampling)? Because it is the analysis you do in your study that determines what the unit is. For instance, if you are comparing the children in two classrooms on achievement test scores, the unit is the individual child because you have a score for each child.
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Research Guide: A working handbook
CHAPTER 3 3.
PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH
3.1
The research fallacies
A fallacy is an error in reasoning, usually based on mistaken assumptions. 1) Ecological fallacy occurs when conclusions are made about individuals based only on analyses of group data. For instance, assume that you measured the math scores of a particular classroom and found that they had the highest average score in the district. This does not mean every one is a high scorer. 2) Exception fallacy is sort of the reverse of the ecological fallacy. It occurs when conclusion of a group are made on the basis of exceptional cases. e.g., the stereotype like in a situation where a man is seen drunk and a conclusion is made that all men are “irresponsible drinkers”. 3.2
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
In logic, reference is made to two broad methods of reasoning; deductive and inductive approaches. a) Deductive- reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. Theory Hypothesis observation confirmation b) Inductive- reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach. Confirmationobservation Hypothesis Theory 3.3
Validity
Validity: the best available approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference, or conclusion. 14
Research Guide: A working handbook
CHAPTER 4
4. ETHICS IN RESEARCH 4.1
Ethical Issues
There are a number of key phrases that describe the system of ethical protections that the contemporary social and medical research establishment have created to try to protect better the rights of their research participants. a) Voluntary participation -requires that people not be coerced into participating in research. b) Informed consent- Essentially, this means that prospective research participants must be fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in research and must give their consent to participate. c) Risk of harm -Ethical standards also require that researchers not put participants in a situation where they might be at risk of harm as a result of their participation. Harm can be defined as both physical and psychological. d) Confidentiality -Almost all research guarantees the participants - they are assured that identifying information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. e) Anonymity -The stricter standard is the principle of anonymity which essentially means that the participant will remain anonymous throughout the study - even to the researchers themselves. Clearly, the anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish, especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time points (e.g., a pre-post study). f) Right to service. Increasingly, researchers have had to deal with the ethical issue of a person's right to service. Good research practice often requires the use of a no-treatment control group -- a group of participants who do not get the treatment or program that is being studied. But when that treatment or 15
Research Guide: A working handbook
program may have beneficial effects, persons assigned to the notreatment control may feel their rights to equal access to services are being curtailed. 4.2 Institutional Review Board (IRB) -Today many institutions have a panel of persons who reviews grant proposals with respect to ethical implications and decides whether additional actions need to be taken to assure the safety and rights of participants.
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Research Guide: A working handbook
CHAPTER 5
5.
CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH IDEAS
Dwells on how to develop/ generate research ideas. This can be done by; a) Problem formulation in applied social research. b) Concept mapping approach 5.1
Problem Formulation Approach
"Well begun is half done" –Aristotle. Where do research topics come from? a) Practical problems in the field- based on what they see happening around researchers. b) Literature in your specific field c) Some researchers think up their research topic- ideas you come up with on your own maybe influenced by your background, culture, education and experiences. 5.1.1 Feasibility of study Things to consider; a) How long the research will take to accomplish. b) Ethical constraints that need consideration. c) Can you achieve cooperation needed to take the project to its successful conclusion. d) Costs of conducting the research. Note: Failure to consider any of these factors can mean disaster later. 5.1.2 The Literature Review One of the most important early steps in a research project is the conducting of the literature review. A literature review is designed to identify related research, to set the current research 17
Research Guide: A working handbook
5.1.3 18
project within a conceptual and theoretical context. When looked at that way, there is almost no topic that is so new or unique that we can't locate relevant and informative related research. Some tips about conducting the literature review. i) Concentrate your efforts on the scientific literature. Try to determine what the most credible research journals are in your topical area and start with those. ii) Second, do the review early in the research process. Purpose of literature review i) First, you might be able to find a study that is quite similar to the one you are thinking of doing and get literature review to get a quick-start on your own. ii) To seek new approaches to doing research and avoid the archaic approaches. iii) Prior research will help assure that you include all of the major relevant constructs / methods in your study. Get insight into other methods of doing research. iv) The literature review will help you to find and select appropriate measurement instruments. You will readily see what measurement instruments researchers use themselves in contexts similar to yours. v) It will help to build from recommendations of other researchers. vi) Literature review will help you to anticipate common problems in your research context. You can use the prior experiences of other to avoid common traps and pitfalls. vii) Enables sampling of current opinion in the area of research Steps in reviewing literature 1) Define the problem 2) Review secondary source of data 3) Select most appropriate preliminary source(s) 4) Translate the problem statement into keywords 5) Search the preliminary primary sources 6) Organize notes – make notes cards. 7) Write proposal . Tools for Recording literature review.
Research Guide: A working handbook
i) ii)
Bibliography cards Reading and note taking
Sample of note card Author ……………………………………………………………………………….. Title ………………………………………………………………………………….. Source ……………………………………………………………………………….. Problem ……………………………………………………………………………….. Procedures ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………….. Finding ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………….. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. Comment ………………………………………………………………………………..
5.2
Concept mapping approach
What is concept mapping? Essentially, concept mapping is a structured process, focused on a topic or construct of interest, involving input from one or more participants, that produces an interpretable pictorial view (concept map) of their ideas and concepts and how these are interrelated. i) Prepare the project Focus / problem or concept participants – identify participants schedule - make a time schedule. ii) Generate ideas – are ideas aimed at solving the problem iii) Structure ideas as follows; a) Sort ideas b) Rate idea iv) Compute maps / ideas e.g. c) Multi-dimensional scaling- scale to get workable ideas b) Cluster analysis v) Interpret maps / ideas vi) Utilize maps / ideas - involves using the ideas to help address the original focus / problem. Conduct research
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Research Guide: A working handbook
CHAPTER 6 6.
EVALUATION OF RESEARCH
6.1
Definitions of Evaluation
1. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of some object. 2. Systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object. 6.2
The Goals of Evaluation
To provide "useful feedback" to audiences e.g. sponsors, donors, client-groups, administrators, staff, and other relevant constituencies. There is broad consensus that the major goal of evaluation should be to influence decision-making or policy formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback. Items evaluated include; i) Title – specificity, research ability ii) Introduction – is research founded on a good background iii) Objectives – Should be SMART iv) Statement of problem v) Justification iv) Hypothesis – is it testable v) Literature review- is it adequate vi) Methods- validity , suitability, reliability of methods and homogeneity of the materials vii) Results a) reliability Factors affecting reliability – number of items considered –the greater the number the more the reliability , time, range of items- the narrower the range there higher the reliability. b) Accuracy of scoring viii) Discussion - is it based on results
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Research Guide: A working handbook
viii) Conclusion – is to coordinating with result and discussion, are there fallacies etc. ix) Recommendation
6.3 Types of Evaluation a) Formative evaluation. b) Summative evaluation. 6.3.1 Formative evaluation Formative evaluations strengthen or improve the object being evaluated -- they help form it by examining the delivery of the program or technology, the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the organizational context, personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on. Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types: Need assessment -determines who needs the program, how great the need is, and what might work to meet the need. Availability assessment -determines whether an evaluation is feasible and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness Structured conceptualization -helps stakeholders define the program or technology, the target population, and the possible outcomes Implementation evaluation -monitors the fidelity of the program or technology delivery process evaluation -investigates the process of delivering the program or technology, including alternative delivery procedures 6.3.2 Summative evaluation Summative evaluations, in contrast, examine the effects or outcomes of some object -- they summarize it by describing what happens subsequent to delivery of the program or technology; assessing whether the object can be said to have caused the outcome; determining the overall impact of the causal factor beyond only the immediate target outcomes; and, estimating the relative costs associated with the object. Summative evaluation is divided into;
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Research Guide: A working handbook
a) Outcome evaluations -investigate whether the program or technology caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined target outcomes. b) Impact evaluation -is broader than outcome evaluation and assesses the overall or net effects - intended or unintended of the program or technology as a whole. c) Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis -address questions of efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their dollar costs and values d) secondary analysis -reexamines existing data to address new questions or use methods not previously employed e) Meta-analysis -integrates the outcome estimates from multiple studies to arrive at an overall or summary judgment on an evaluation question 6.4 Evaluation Questions and Methods 6.4.1 Evaluation questions Evaluators ask many different kinds of questions and use a variety of methods to address them. These are considered within the framework of formative and summative evaluation as presented above. In formative research the major questions and methodologies are: What is the definition and scope of the problem or issue, or what's the question? Formulating and conceptualizing methods might be used including brainstorming, focus groups, nominal group techniques, Delphi methods, brainwriting, stakeholder analysis, synectics, lateral thinking, input-output analysis, and concept mapping. Where is the problem and how big or serious is it? The most common method used here is "needs assessment" which can include: analysis of existing data sources, and the use
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Research Guide: A working handbook
of sample surveys, interviews of constituent populations, qualitative research, expert testimony, and focus groups. How should the program or technology be delivered to address the problem? Some of the methods already listed apply here, as do detailing methodologies like simulation techniques, or multivariate methods like multiattribute utility theory or exploratory causal modeling; decision-making methods; and project planning and implementation methods like flow charting, and project scheduling. How well is the program or technology delivered? Qualitative and quantitative monitoring techniques, the use of management information systems, and implementation assessment would be appropriate methodologies here. The questions and methods addressed under summative evaluation include: What type of evaluation is feasible?
6.4. 2 Research Evaluation Methods It employs the following tools; 1. Logical framework Objective 1
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O b j e c t i v e A c t i v i t i e s
A c t i v i t y
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1 A A c ct ti iv vi
O bj ec tiv el y V er ifi ab le In di ca to rs (n ot m or e th an thr ee an d in cl ud e bo th qu an tit ati ve an d qu ali
Research Guide:
M A working e handbook a n s o f v e r i f i c a t i o n
K e y a s s u m p t i o n s
Obj ecti ve 2
Research Guide: A working handbook
2. Itemized Budget To make a investor of donor part with manner is no easy adventure. They want to see a rational way on how their money will be used. (Usually unless and certain exceptions institutional overheads/charges are not accepted as part of budget). A
Equipment (Specify and describe each item)
COST IN KSHS
Expendable supplies
COST IN KSHS
Other costs (specify)
COST IN KSHS
1 2 3 4 5 Sub-total B
1 2 4 5 6 Sub-total C
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Research Guide: A working handbook
2 3 4 5 Sub-total TOTAL PROJECT BUDGET (KSHS): (Not exceeding advertised limits) d Budgetary Notes List the items you requested funding for in the budget, describing their function, explain their cost, and defend their use in the innovation project
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Research Guide: A working handbook
3) Work plan Must be tied to realization of the objectives
A c t i v i t y 1 . i)
2 . 3
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Y e a r
Y e a r
Y e a r
1
2
3
q u a r t e r s
1
2
3
4
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2
3
4
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2
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Research Guide: A working handbook
. e . t c
Characteristics a) b) c) 4.
Activities needs to be in line with proposed budget Needs to be clearly and specifically stated Needs to be linked to Reporting of work progress 4.1
Gant Chart approach
Table 1 : Gant chart of events P Name: Paul r Njiruh i Nthakanio n c i p a l I n v e s t
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objectives
Research Guide: A working handbook
i g a t o r T i t l e
PRODUCTION OF RESISTANT AND YIELDING
BLAST HIGH
o f P r o j e c t : R e p o r t f o r
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BASMATI 370 HYBRIDS RICE April 2011- September2013
S i g n a t u r e :
Research Guide: A working handbook
t h e p e r i o d Main activity and Dates M M o on n th t s h fr s o m f Ja r nu o ar m y 20 A 12 p r i l 2 0 1 1
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M on th s fr o m Ja nu ar y 20 13
Research Guide: A working handbook
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Research Guide: A working handbook
#
T a s k / A c t i v i t y
A MJ J A S O N D J F MA MJ J A S O N D J F MA MJ J A
D e s c r i p t i o n Main Objective : 1) To produce blast resistant PGMS / TGMS lines with aroma gene that will be used as female parent in production of hybrid rice seeds in Kenya. Sub objective: Sowing and Multiplication of PGMS rice under green house conditions M a i n
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Research Guide: A working handbook
a c t i v i t i e s 1 A c q u i s i t i o n
o f P G M S / T
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P
Research Guide: A working handbook
G M S r i c e s e e d s f r o m I R R I 2 3
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A Co nst ruc tio n of gre en ho use
Research Guide: A working handbook
i )
P
M a k i n g o f o u t e r s h e l t e r i i ) M a k
35
A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
i n g o f c o n c r e t e p a d d i e s / L a n d p r e p a r 36
Research Guide: A working handbook
a t i o n i i i ) F i l l i n g o f p a d d i e s w i t h
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A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
b l a c k c o t t o n s o i l / L a n d p r e p a r a t i o n A
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Research Guide: A working handbook
i v )
P
R o o f i n g o f g r e e n h o u s e #
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T a s k / A c t
A MJ J A S O N D J F MA MJ J A S O N D J F MA MJ J A
Research Guide: A working handbook
i v i t y D e s c r i p t i o n v ) S o l a r i n s t a l l a
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A P
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t i o n 4
S e e d
A P
c e r t i f i c a t i o n a t K E P H I S A
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5
S o w i n g
P
o f P G M S / T G M S i n n u r s e r y 6
42
T r a
A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
n s p l a n t i n g o f s e e d l i n g s i n t h e G r e e n 43
Research Guide: A working handbook
h o u s e p a d d y
7
S o w i n g o f B A S M A T I 3 7 0
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A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
a n d 2 1 7 i n n u r e s r y b e d
8
45
T r a n s p l a n t i
A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
n g B A S M A T I 3 7 0 a n d 2 1 7 i n p o t s 9
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R e p o
A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
r t W r i t i n g ( Q 1 , Q 2 , Q 3 , Q 4 , Q 5 , Q 6 ) 1 0
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M u l t
A P l a n
Research Guide: A working handbook
i p l i c a t i o n
B
o f P G M S / T G M S s e e d s 5
48
P l a n
Research Guide: A working handbook
P G M S
B P l a n
/
B
T G M S o n f a r m e v a l u a t i o n P l
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a n
M o r p h o l o g i c a l C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
50
B P l a n B
Research Guide: A working handbook
o f P G M S / T G M S P l a n
1 1
C r o s s i n g t o o b t
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B P
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a i n F 1
s e e d s 1 2
D i s c o v e r y o f n e w r i c e
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A P
Research Guide: A working handbook
l i n e ( P G M S / T G M S s e g r e g a n t s ) a n d t h e i 53
Research Guide: A working handbook
r e v a l u a t i o n A
a) Mon ey disbu rsed …..m illion
b) Mon ey appro ved for 1st and 2nd Quart er
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C o m p l e t e d O n T r a c k
P
P L A N N E D
A A C T U A L
Research Guide: A working handbook
using Emb u Univ ersity Mana geme nt syste m …….
P r e p a r e " p l a n
c) Impr est so far claim ed ….m illion
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B " I m p l e m e n t
Planned Implementation Behind schedule
Research Guide: A working handbook
" p l a n B " CHAPTER 7
7. TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
7.1. Descriptive It describes the characteristics of the subject of science a) Survey research Purpose - Explore and describe Tools used – interview and questionnaires Used when details of a topic is needed Disadvantages – subject bias b) Case study – purpose – Explore and describe but the difference is that in case study n (number of samples) is smaller than in survey c) Direct observation Advantages – gathers direct information about the population behaviour. 7.2 Correlational research It explores relationships between and among variables.
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Research Guide: A working handbook
- is a relational study e.g. correlation in Temperature and malaria outbreak 7.3 Causal –comparative Ex post facto research - does not establish causality, but explains, predicts and substitutes for an experimental research. It uses naturally occurring treatment – maybe because artificial treatment are unethical or immoral. 7.4 Experimental It involve manipulation of one or more variables and measures the effect of the manipulations on one set of variables to the other. Independent variable is deliberately manipulated to see if it causes change on dependent variable Types i) True experimental ii) Quasi- experimental. i) True experimental Treatment influence the independent variable The subjects who participate are randomly designed Disadvantage- Difficult to manipulate more than 3-4 variables i) Quasi- experimental - Used in many education studies - Samples are non-randomly selected. - Lack control groups are found in experimental research 7.5. Action research It is one that gathers evidence to help make specific local educational decisions, not generalizations.
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Advantages- Easy to conduct makes a good tool to solve local situations Disadvantage –cannot be applied beyond the sample.
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CHAPTER 8 8. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 8.1 Definition i) Refer to procedure used by a researcher to explore relationship between variables, to form subject into groups, administer the measures, apply treatment to the groups and analyze the data and to realize research objectives. ii) Ensures that research process is scientific enough and systematic such that results obtained can be applied in real-life situations Characteristics of a good research design i) Free from bias ii) Free from confounding i.e. effects should be separable iii) Control of extraneous variables iv) Precise data for adequate statistical testing of hypothesis 8.2 Relationship While all relationships tell about the correspondence between two variables, there is a special type of relationship that holds that the two variables are not only in correspondence, but that one causes the other. Correlational relationship. A correlational relationship simply says that two things perform in a synchronized manner. For instance, we often talk of a correlation between contamination and infection, water and crop yield, heat and dehydration, inflation and unemployment e.t.c. When contamination is high, infection is also tends to be high. When inflation is low, unemployment also tends to be low. Patterns of relationships a) No relationship . If you know the values on one variable, you don't know anything about the values on the other. For instance, I suspect that there is no relationship between the length of the lifeline on your hand and your grade point average. If I know your height, I don't have any idea how long your lifeline is. 59
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b) Positive relationship. In a positive relationship, high values on one variable are associated with high values on the other and low values on one are associated with low values on the other (Fig1). In this example, we assume an idealized positive relationship between level of contamination and disease outbreak.
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a b Fig. 8.1 Positive and negative relationship . Figures a and b shows positive and negative relationship. c) Negative or inverse relationship implies that high values on one variable are associated with low values on the other (Fig. 2). Here, we show an idealized negative relationship between a measure of self esteem and a measure of paranoia in psychiatric patients. d) Other relationships There are pattern of a relationship that can be more complex. For instance, the figure 3 below shows a relationship that changes over the range of both variables, a curvilinear relationship. In this example, the horizontal axis represents dosage of a drug for an illness and the vertical axis represents a severity of illness measure. As dosage rises, severity of illness goes down. But at some point, the patient begins to experience negative side effects associated with too high a dosage, and the severity of illness begins to increase again.
Fig.
8.3
Relationship
of
variables 8.3
Variables
Definition. A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For 61
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instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value. Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical. The variable 'gender' consists of two text values: 'male' and 'female'. An attribute is a specific value on a variable. For instance, the variable sex or gender has two attributes: male and female. Or, the variable agreement might be defined as having five attributes: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree Independent and Dependent variable These need to be differentiated particularly when you are investigating cause-effect relationships. The independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable -- your effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your measures of achievement are the dependent ones. Exhaustive: Each variable should be exhaustive, it should include all possible answerable responses. For instance, if the variable is "religion" and the only options are "Protestant", "Jewish", and "Muslim", there are quite a few religions I can think of that haven't been included. The list does not exhaust all possibilities. On the other hand, if you exhaust all the possibilities with some variables - religion being one of them you would simply have too many responses. The way to deal with this is to explicitly list the most common attributes and then use a general category like "Other" to account for all remaining ones. Mutually exclusive In addition to being exhaustive, the attributes of a variable should be mutually exclusive, no respondent should be able to have two attributes simultaneously. 62
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While this might seem obvious, it is often rather tricky in practice. For instance, you might be tempted to represent the variable "Employment Status" with the two attributes "employed" and "unemployed." But these attributes are not necessarily mutually exclusive -- a person who is looking for a second job while employed would be able to check both attributes. Methods of controlling variance i) Randomization - aimed at spreading effects of variables evenly across the groups of the study. -Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample. Randomization can be ensured by; a) using independent variables in the design b) holding factors constant - reducing a factor to a constant. this reduces the effect of the factor on the independent variable. c) statistical control – involve adjusting the independent variable scores to remove the effect of the control variable e.g. use of ANOVAs. 8.4 Sampling Definition: This is getting a few cases in order to provide information that can be used to make judgments on the population. Sample should be a representative of a population. Random sampling: is unbiased sample e.g. random assignment, random selection, random units etc. Types of sampling; a) Simple sampling b) Stratified sampling c) Area or cluster sampling d) Systematic sampling Determination of sample size;
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Sample size needs to be as large a possible so as to present the population. Refer to various statistic books for the formula to calculate sample since. Factors that determine sample size include; d) Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the population, b) The breakdown planned in tabulation, c) Type of sampling, d) Funds and time available. 8.5 Example of types of research design a) Randomized Block Design Randomized block designs are constructed to reduce noise or variance in the data. How do they do it? They require that the researcher divide the sample into relatively homogeneous subgroups or blocks (analogous to "strata" in stratified sampling). Then, the experimental design is implemented within each block or homogeneous subgroup. The key idea is that the variability within each block is less than the variability of the entire sample. Thus each estimate of the treatment effect within a block is more efficient than estimates across the entire sample. And, when these more efficient estimates across the blocks are pooled together, then an overall more efficient estimate is obtained than that without blocking. The treatments are then assigned at random within the blocks. Randomized incomplete block design Randomized complete block design. B1 Treat 3 Treat6 Treat4 Treat 8 Treat 1 Treat 9 Treat 7 Treat 2
B2 Treat 1 Treat 5 Treat 6 Treat 9 Treat 7 Treat 3 Treat 2 Treat 8
B3 Treat 4 Treat 5 Treat 7 Treat 8 Treat 1 Treat 3 Treat 2 Treat 9
Missing Treatments
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B1 B2 B3 Treat 3 Treat 1 Treat 4 Treat 6 Treat 5 Treat 5 Treat 5 Treat 4 Treat 6 Treat 4 Treat 6 Treat 7 Treat 8 Treat 9 Treat 8 Treat 1 Treat 7 Treat 1 Treat 9 Treat 3 Treat 3 Treat 7 Treat 2 Treat 2 Treat 2 Treat 8 Treat 9
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8.6
Factorial Designs
Two-way Factorial The Ministry of health wants to know the effect of a drug on treatment of malaria when given in three (3) different dosages of 1, 2 and 3 tablets and different frequencies morning, morning + midday, and morning +midday +evening. An experimental study was made to determine the effects of each of the three dosages taken once a day (Morning only), twice a day (only morning and midday) and three times a day (morning, midday and evening). Experimental was done in Twelve hospitals in same malaria infested zone . Factors: a) Number of dosages or number of elements in factor dosage (1 tablet, 2 tablets and 3 tablets ) b) Frequency of drug taking or number of elements in factor frequency (Morning alone, morning + midday and morning + miday + evening) Number of treatments: 3 x3 =9. This was replicated in 12 hospitals Total samples = 9 x12 = 108
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ANOVA for two-way factorial design
Frequency Dosag e Tablet 1 Tablet 2 Tablet 3
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F1 (morning) Population 1
F2 (morning, midday) Population 2
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CHPATER 9 9. TECHNICAL WRITING 9.1
Project proposal writing
A good proposal must be well organized so that the ideas flow. It should be in such a way that it can be read and understood without having to make many references. So the language must be technical but simple. The key thing is organization should very well done. Enable organization a proposal is divided into components below; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Title Abstract Introduction Literature review Materials and methods Work schedule References Appendix (Optional)
9.2 Technical organization of a research proposal 1. Title - should be researchable given the funds and time available 2.
Abstract – 300-500 words
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d) objectives e) materials and methods 3.
Chapter I
Below is the organization of this chapter; 1.0Introduction 1.1
Background - geographical - historical - relation to other topics - ecological/ environmental etc - It address the genesis of the
1.2
Statement of problem -Is a narrow down of title (relate strongly
problem
to title) -It should be straight forward - It addresses the research gap to be filled. 1.3 Research questions A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. It guides and centers your research.For example, “What resources are helpful to new and minority drug abuse researchers?” It is a narrow down of problem (relate strongly to problem) Research question needs to give the direction of research and prevents the research from getting out of topic. Examples of Research Techniques and Designs a) Can changes abnormalities?
in
fertilize
use
compensate
for
genetic
b) In what ways is brain development affected by experience? 68
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c) What causes moving DNA elements?
Address of the questions below help in developing a strong and helpful research question: Are research questions leading to getting solutions to stated problem? Are research question specific Are the question leading to realization of the objectives What are the important research questions in my field? What areas need further exploration? Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding? Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area? 1.4 Justification Can also be referred to as Significance / social impact / clinical importance 1.5 Hypothesis – is predictive statement Each hypothesis takes two versions H(A or 1) alternative – is the outcome you expect H(O or 0) null – all other possible outcome (other than the expected) Characteristics Testable using empirical methods 1.6 Objectives Characteristics SMART
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Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Reasonable
Time bound
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4.
Chapter 2
The organization for this part is as follows; 2.
Literature review
The literature review need to fulfill the following; -Needs to be adequate -Demonstrate ability to quote Relevance of literature review First, you might be able to find a study that is quite similar to the one you are thinking of doing and get literature review to get a quick-start on your own. To seek new approaches to doing research and avoid the archaic approaches. Prior research will help assure that you include all of the major relevant constructs / methods in your study. Get insight into other methods of doing research. The literature review will help you to find and select appropriate measurement instruments. You will readily see what measurement instruments researchers use themselves in contexts similar to yours. It will help to build from recommendations of other researchers. Literature review will help you to anticipate common problems in your research context. You can use the prior experiences of other to avoid common traps and pitfalls. Enables sampling of current opinion in the area of research Steps in reviewing literature Define the problem 70
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Review secondary source of data Select most appropriate preliminary source(s) Translate the problem statement into keywords Search the preliminary primary sources Organize notes – make notes cards. Write proposal 5.
Chapter 3
The organization for this part is as follows; 3.
Materials and Methods
3.1 Materials Identity the biological materials you are going to use in the most specific way. Describe the biological material the best way possible. 3.2 Site of study. It must be included especially in situations the location where material are sampled influence results. 3.2
Methods
Activities that are performed enable realization of objectives are collected referred to as methods . They included the following; - Processing/treatment of materials - research design (set up) - Data analysis - Ethical considerations - exclusion and inclusion criteria (criteria you use to include or exclude member of your). 71
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sample). E.g. People know to suffer specific allergy may be excluded from some drug test experiments 6. Chapter 4 4. List of equipments Some donors want to assess the capacity of a laboratory to conduct research they are requested to fund. In such a scenario applicant is called upon to provide a list of equipment in the lab to prove its readiness and capacity to carry out the work.
7 Chapter 5 5.
Budget Estimate. The organization for this part is as follows; Budget needs to be realistic and detailed enough. Some donors require the budget to be justified. This requires justification why each item is needed and also the cost. List includes but not limited to;
Reagents and their estimated cost
Estimate cost for equipment bought
Traveling and Boarding / lodging cost etc
8. Chapter 6 6. Work plan Sometime it is called work schedule or Calendar of work. Research Applicant / researcher is required a detailed schedule
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of activities to be undertaken. This includes time plan and corresponding activity. 9. Referencing 7. Reference Ability to list references in an internationally accepted format must be demonstrated. There different referencing systems on offer. Which ever one is picked, consistency must be maintained. Example Harvard referencing system i) If a journal Author Sir name, Initials, year of publication, title of paper, publishing journal, volume (series) page. e.g. a) One author Prentice, C 2010, 'Terms of ambivalence: cultural politics and symbolic exchange', Australian Literary Studies, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 33-54. b) Two authors Harkness, S & Evans, M 2011, 'The employment effects of recession on couples in the UK: women's and household employment prospects and partner's job loss', Journal of Social Policy, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 675-693. c) Three authors Schulhofer, SJ, Tyler, TR & Huq, AZ 2011, "American policing at the crossroads: unsustainable policies and the procedural justice alternative", The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 335-374. 73
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d) Many authors Grant, SK, Deckman, IC., Minnich, MD, Culp, J, Franklin, S, Dreyer, GB, Tomaszek, Jr, TA, Debouck, C, & Meek, TD 1991, Purification and biochemical characterization of recombinant simian immunodeficiency virus protease and comparison to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease. Biochemistry 30: 8424–8434.
7.2
If book
Author Sir name, Initials, year of publication, title of BOOK, Edition, pages, publishing Company, City, Country a) One author Brick, J 2009, Academic culture: a student’s guide to studying at university, National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Sydney. b) Organisation as author United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 2006, Human development report 2006: beyond scarcity: power, poverty and the global water crisis, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. *initials in round brackets only if you have used initials in your in-text citations c) Two authors Carter, R & McCarthy, M 2006, Cambridge grammar of English: a comprehensive guide, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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*retain order of authors given in the source d) Three authors Bretag, T, Crossman, J & Bordia, S 2010, Communication skills, McGraw-Hill, Sydney. *retain order of authors given in the source e) Four or more authors Czinkota, M, Ronkainen, I, Sutton-Brady, C & Beal, T 2008, International marketing, Cengage Learning Australia, South Melbourne. *retain order of authors given in the source f) No author *use title in place of author Reference list Style manual for authors, editors and printers 1996, 5th edn, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. *use title in italics in place of author g) Second or later edition *do not confuse edition with edited book Reference list Godfrey, J, Hodgson, A, Tarca, A, Hamilton, J & Holmes, S 2010, Accounting theory, 7th edn, John Wiley & Sons, Australia, Milton. *retain order of authors given in the source 7.3
If internet down loaded material
Write the website as it is. 75
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HTTP://WWW.FISHBASE.ORG
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9.2
REPORT WRITING
In this part the aim is to report as clearly as possible. Component of a report include;
a) Title - should be researchable given the funds and time available Title Page, it will vary according to requesting intuition. Example CHARACTERIZATION MICROSATELLITE MARKERS IN TUBERCLOSIS DIAGNOSIS By WALKER STEPHEN Student No 108P02659A
A Project Report Submitted to the School of Health and Biotechnology in Partial Fulfilment for the Award of a degree in Biotechnology ………………………...
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI August, 2004.
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b) Declaration c) Certification Dedication Acknowledgement Abstract – 500 words Needs to capture; brief background problem to be researched on Hypothesis tested objectives materials and methods Results Conclusion Table content List of Figures List Tables Abbreviations
Chapter I 1. Introduction 1.1
Background - geographical - historical - relation to other topics - ecological/ environmental - It address the genesis of the
problem 1.2 Statement of problem -Is a narrow down of title (relate strongly to title) -It should be straight forward 78
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- It addresses the research gap to be filled. 1.3
Research questions Is a narrow down of problem (relate strongly to problem) 1.5
Justification Can also be referred to as Significance / social impact / clinical importance 1.6 Hypothesis – is predictive statement Each hypothesis takes two versions H(A or 1) alternative – is the outcome you expect H(O or 0) null – all other possible outcome (other than the expected) Characteristics Testable using empirical methods
1.7
Objectives Characteristics Must be SMART Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic / Reasonable Time bound
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Chapter 2 2.0
Literature Review
-Need to be adequate -Demonstrate Ability to quote Relevance of literature review First, you might be able to find a study that is quite similar to the one you are thinking of doing and get literature review to get a quick-start on your own. To seek new approaches to doing research and avoid the archaic approaches. Prior research will help assure that you include all of the major relevant constructs / methods in your study. Get insight into other methods of doing research. The literature review will help you to find and select appropriate measurement instruments. You will readily see what measurement instruments researchers use themselves in contexts similar to yours. It will help to build from recommendations of other researchers.
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Literature review will help you to anticipate common problems in your research context. You can use the prior experiences of other to avoid common traps and pitfalls. Enables sampling of current opinion in the area of research Steps in reviewing literature
Define the problem Review secondary source of data Select most appropriate preliminary source(s) Translate the problem statement into keywords Search the preliminary primary sources Organize notes – make notes cards Write report Chapter 3 3.0
Materials and Methods
Language of reporting is past tense of past participle
3.1 Materials Identity the biological materials that was used in the most specific way. Describe the biological material the best way possible. Note : Site of location can be described particularly if it influences research 3.2
Methods
Describe the following
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- Processing of materials - research design (set up) - Data analysis - Ethical considerations - exclusion and inclusion criteria (criteria you use to include or exclude member of your). sample). E.g. People know to suffer specific allergy may be excluded from some drug test experiments Chapter 4 4.0
Results
Present results as observed. It is descriptive. i) Presentation Tables a) It is written as Table 1, or Table 2 etc (above the table) then; b) Title of table (following the table No.) c) Title should be precise and informative Example Table 1 Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) in Kenya in 2013 and 2014 J F M o n t h Y e a r 2 0 1 82
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4 2 0 1 3 A v e r a g e ii) Presentation of Figures a) Can bar graph, line graph, pie chart, photo etc b) The figure number is indicated as Figure 1 or abbreviated as Fig. 1; Figure 2 or Fig.2 etc (Abbreviation of not depends on requesting authoring) c) By convention number and title figure(s) appear below the figure Example
a b Fig. 4.2 Microinjection of of male pronuclei into a female egg. Fig a shows event after male pronuclei enter the egg and b is even just before the male and female pronuclei fuse.
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c) Test Hypothesis using data collected At level of presentation and analysis of data, hypothesis is tested, accepted or rejected. It helps to generate some of the tables like ANOVA tables etc. Chapter 5 5.0 Discussion Analyze and explain your results and findings based on data obtained. During discussion results are supported by research results from other people (published information). Note: Avoid exaggerations opinions. Chapter 6 6.0 Conclusion It a high level discussion where decisions are made based on findings. Make some judgments based on result obtained and objectives Chapter 7 Limitations and Recommendations Limitation – challenging factors / issues encountered in result finding or during solving of the problem. Recommendation – It is a chance to identify further gaps left the research and provided chance to suggest/ recommend furtherance the research.
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8. Appendix 9. ReferencesTests ability to list references in an internationally accepted format Refer to the part on the proposal above
Also see the Harvard referencing system http://guides.lib.monash.edu/content.php?pid=346637&sid=3402 717
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CHAPTER 10
10. RESEARCH DOCUMENTS This includes documents used as instruments of research
10.1
Questionnaires
Questionnaire items a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)
Introduction Objectives of questionnaire The qualities of a good questionnaire Preliminary decisions in questionnaire design Choose the method(s) of reaching target respondents Decide on question content Develop the question wording Disadvantages are also present when using such questions Closing questions Physical appearance of the questionnaire Piloting the questionnaires Key Terms Definition List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to extract specific information. Advantages of a questionnaire (1) collect the appropriate data, (2) make data comparable and amenable to analysis, (3) minimize bias in formulating and asking question, (4) to make questions engaging and varied
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Characteristics of a good questionnaire i) Questionnaire should lead to solving the problems ii) Question should leading to realization of objectives
Types of questionnaires a) Structured questionnaire : Write- sent respondent to write b) Un- structured questionnaire : Oral – interview répondent Here interviewer asks questions and records answer as interviewee/respondent answer Sample Questionnaire c) Mailed questionnaire d) Hand delivered questionnaire
No survey can achieve success without a well-designed questionnaire. Unfortunately, questionnaire design has no theoretical base to guide the marketing researcher in developing a flawless questionnaire. All the researcher has to guide him/her is a lengthy list of do's and don'ts born out of the experience of other researchers past and present. Hence, questionnaire design is more of an art than a science. Objectives of a questionnaire a) Respondent need to be made to understand the objective responding to a questionnaire b) Well designed questionnaire need to adopt a framework for developing questionnaires. Structure questionnaire This refers to framework of questionnaire. The qualities of a good questionnaire The design of a questionnaire will depend on type od data to be collected.
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a) b)
c)
a) b) 88
Exploratory questionnaires: work where the data to be collected is qualitative and it is not to be statistically be evaluated. For example, on Mau Mau war. Formal standardized questionnaires: Needed where data neds to be quantified and hypotheses statistically tested. Characteristics of a formal questionnaire It requires prescribed wording and order of questions, to ensure that each respondent receives the same stimuli prescribed definitions or explanations for each question, to ensure interviewers handle questions consistently and can answer respondents' requests for clarification if they occur are needed. Response format needs to be prescribed, to enable rapid completion of the questionnaire during the interviewing process. NB: There are no fixed rules on how to design a questionnaire, but there are a number of key to be included: 1. Questionnaire should meet the research objectives. 2. It should enable obtaining the most complete and accurate data. Therefore questionnaire designer needs to ensure that respondents fully understand the questions are willing to provide information without hiding any. A good questionnaire should encourage respondents to provide accurate, unbiased and complete information. 3. Questionnaire should make it easy for the interviewer to record the data/information given. Recorded information should be arranged so that sound analysis and interpretation are possible. 4. Questionnaire should be designed to keep interview brief and the respondent(s) remain interested throughout the information collection exercise. Note: It is good to do a piloting exercise to check the appropriateness of questionnaire . Preliminary decisions in questionnaire design Steps involved in the development of a questionnaire: Determine the target respondents Decide the type of data / information to be collected
Research Guide: A working handbook
c) Determine the method(s) of collecting data/information from respondents d) Formulate question content e) Develop the question wording f) Arrange questions in the right order and format g) Edit questionnaire to the right length/size. Avoid too long a questionnaire h) Perform pilot exercise to pre-test the questionnaire i) Develop the final survey form.
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Decide the type of data / information to be collected The first step is to decide 'what are the things one needs to know from the respondent in order to meet the research objectives. Note: it is good to review secondary data to get some of the possible pitfalls. Determine the target respondents Define the population and sample from where data will be collected. Example use of pesticide, decided where the survey covers small or large scale farmers or both. Secondly, researchers have to draw up a sampling frame. When designing the questionnaire factors such as the age, education, etc. of the target respondents need to be taken into account. Determine the method(s) of collecting data/information from respondents The main methods available in survey research are: i) personal interviews ii) group or focus interviews iii) mailed questionnaires iv) telephone interviews.
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NB: A general rule is that the more sensitive or personal the information, the more personal the form of data collection should be.
a)
b) c) d)
a)
91
Formulate question content Question included should the only that directly provide the data needed. Note: "redundant" questions might be included as an opening questions that are easy to answer and which are not perceived as being "threatening", and/or are perceived as being interesting, can greatly assist in gaining the respondent's involvement in the survey and help to establish a rapport. This, however, should not be an approach that should be overly used. It is almost always the case that questions which are of use in testing hypotheses can also serve the same functions. "Dummy" questions can disguise the purpose of the survey and/or the sponsorship of a study. Develop the question wording Survey questions can be classified into three forms, i.e. closed, open-ended and open response-option questions. i) Closed questions Advantages; It provides the respondent with an easy method of indicating his answer - he does not have to think about how to articulate his answer. It 'prompts' the respondent so that the respondent has to rely less on memory in answering a question. Responses can be easily classified, making analysis very straightforward It permits the respondent to specify the answer categories most suitable for their purposes. Disadvantages of closed questions They do not allow the respondent the opportunity to give a different response to those suggested.
Research Guide: A working handbook
b) They 'suggest' answers that respondents may not have considered before. With open-ended questions the respondent is asked to give a reply to a question in his/her own words. No answers are suggested. Example: "What do you like most about this implement?" ii) Open-ended questions Advantages i) They allow the respondent to answer in his own words, with no influence by any specific alternatives suggested by the interviewer. ii) They often reveal the issues which are most important to the respondent, and this may reveal findings which were not originally anticipated when the survey was initiated. iii) Respondents can 'qualify' their answers or emphasise the strength of their opinions. Disadvantages i) Respondents may find it difficult to 'articulate' their responses i.e. to properly and fully explain their attitudes or motivations. ii) Respondents may not give a full answer simply because they may forget to mention important points. Some respondents need prompting or reminding of the types of answer they could give. iii) Data collected is in the form of verbatim comments - it has to be coded and reduced to manageable categories. This can be time consuming for analysis and there are numerous opportunities for error in recording and interpreting the answers given on the part of interviewers. iv) Respondents will tend to answer open questions in different 'dimensions'. For example, the question: "When did you purchase your car?", Possible answers could be A short while ago. Last year". When I sold a piece of plot.
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a)
b)
a) b) c)
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Such responses need to be probed further unless the researcher is to be confronted with responses that cannot be aggregated or compared. Open response question Open response-option questions largely eliminate the disadvantages of both close ended and open ended. An open response-option is a form of question which is both open-ended and includes specific response-options as well. For example, What features of this implement do you like? i) Performance ii) Quality iii) Price iv) Weight v) Others mentioned: Advantages The researcher can avoid the potential problems of poor memory or poor articulation by then subsequently being able to prompt the respondent into considering particular response options. Recording during interview is relatively straightforward. Disadvantage :This form of question requires the researcher to have a good prior knowledge of the subject in order to generate realistic/likely response options before printing the questionnaire. However, if this understanding is achieved the data collection and analysis process can be significantly eased. There are a series of questions that should be posed as the researchers develop the survey questions themselves: Question should be a way that the respondent is able to answer the question correctly. Inability to answer a question arises due to the following factors: Having never been exposed to the answer, e.g. "How much does your husband earn?" Forgetting, e.g. What price did you pay when you last bought maize meal?" An inability to articulate the answer: e.g. "What improvements would you want to see in food preparation equipment?"
Research Guide: A working handbook
Sources of errors in a questionnaire a) External events that might bias response to the question For example, judging the popularity of beef products shortly after a foot and mouth epidemic is likely to have an effect on the responses. b) Situations words/question have more than one meaning among respondents?" What is you Farming income? It can be gross or net. c) Using words or phrases loaded or leading in any way For example," Is Nairobi a high cost city No chance is given so as to compare. d) Asking questions with implied alternatives within the question Would you travel to London of Paris if you had money? May be I would like to go to the two places It is good practice to keep questions as simple as possible. Use of vague words or phrases Questions such as 'What is your income?' It could be net or gross Asking personal or of a potentially embarrassing nature Avoid questions that infringe on customs, morals and traditions in the community being studied. Asking questions that on facts difficult to spell out Putting questions into a meaningful order and format Opening questions: Opening questions should be easy to answer and not in any way threatening to the respondents. The first question is crucial because it is the respondent's first exposure to the interview and sets the tone for the nature of the task to be performed. If they find the first question difficult to understand, or beyond their knowledge and experience, or embarrassing in some way, they are likely to break off immediately. If, on the other hand, they find the opening question easy and pleasant to answer, they are encouraged to continue.
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Question flow: Questions should flow in some kind of psychological order, so that one leads easily and naturally to the next. Questions on one subject, or one particular aspect of a subject, should be grouped together. Respondents may feel it disconcerting to keep shifting from one topic to another, or to be asked to return to some subject they thought they gave their opinions about earlier. Question variety: Respondents become bored quickly and restless when asked similar questions for half an hour or so. It usually improves response, therefore, to vary the respondent's task from time to time. An open-ended question here and there (even if it is not analysed) may provide much-needed relief from a long series of questions in which respondents have been forced to limit their replies to pre-coded categories. Questions involving showing cards/pictures to respondents can help vary the pace and increase interest. Closing questions It is natural for a respondent to become increasingly indifferent to the questionnaire as it nears the end. Because of impatience or fatigue, he may give careless answers to the later questions. Those questions, therefore, that are of special importance should, if possible, be included in the earlier part of the questionnaire. Potentially sensitive questions should be left to the end, to avoid respondents cutting off the interview before important information is collected. In developing the questionnaire the researcher should pay particular attention to the presentation and layout of the interview form itself. The interviewer's task needs to be made as straight-forward as possible. a) Questions should be clearly worded and response options clearly identified. b) Prescribed definitions and explanations should be provided. This ensures that the questions are handled consistently by all interviewers and that during the interview process the interviewer can answer/clarify respondents' queries.
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Ample writing space should be allowed to record open-ended answers, and to cater for differences in handwriting between interviewers. Physical appearance of the questionnaire The physical appearance of a questionnaire can have a significant effect upon both the quantity and quality of marketing data obtained. The quantity of data is a function of the response rate. Poorly designed questionnaires can give an impression of complexity, medium and too big a time commitment. Data quality can also be affected by the physical appearance of the questionnaire with unnecessarily confusing layouts making it more difficult for interviewers, or respondents in the case of selfcompletion questionnaires, to complete this task accurately. Attention to just a few basic details can have a disproportionately advantageous impact on the data obtained through a questionnaire. Use booklets
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of
The use of booklets, in the place of loose or stapled sheets of paper, make it easier for interviewer or respondent to progress through the document. Moreover, fewer pages tend to get lost.
Simple, clear formats
The clarity of questionnaire presentation can also help to improve the ease with which interviewers or respondents are able to complete a questionnaire.
Creative use of space and typeface
In their anxiety to reduce the number of pages of a questionnaire these is a tendency to put too much information on a page. This is counter-productive since it
Research Guide: A working handbook
gives the questionnaire the appearance of being complicated. Questionnaires that make use of blank space appear easier to use, enjoy higher response rates and contain fewer errors when completed. Use colour coding
of
Interviewer instructions
Colour coding can help in the administration of questionnaires. It is often the case that several types of respondents are included within a single survey (e.g. wholesalers and retailers). Printing the questionnaires on two different colours of paper can make the handling easier. Interviewer instructions should be placed alongside the questions to which they pertain. Instructions on where the interviewers should probe for more information or how replies should be recorded are placed after the question.
In general it is best for a questionnaire to be as short as possible. A long questionnaire leads to a long interview and this is open to the dangers of boredom on the part of the respondent (and poorly considered, hurried answers), interruptions by third parties and greater costs in terms of interviewing time and resources. In a rural situation an interview should not last longer then 30-45 minutes. Piloting the questionnaires
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Even after the researcher has proceeded along the lines suggested, the draft questionnaire is a product evolved by one or two minds only. Until it has actually been used in interviews and with respondents, it is impossible to say whether it is going to achieve the desired results. For this reason it is necessary to pretest the questionnaire before it is used in a full-scale survey, to identify any mistakes that need correcting. The purpose of pretesting the questionnaire is to determine: a) whether the questions as they are worded will achieve the desired results b) whether the questions have been placed in the best order c) whether the questions are understood by all classes of respondent d) whether additional or specifying questions are needed or whether some questions should be eliminated e) whether the instructions to interviewers are adequate. Usually a small number of respondents are selected for the pretest. The respondents selected for the pilot survey should be broadly representative of the type of respondent to be interviewed in the main survey. If the questionnaire has been subjected to a thorough pilot test, the final form of the questions and questionnaire will have evolved into its final form. All that remains to be done is the mechanical process of laying out and setting up the questionnaire in its final form. This will involve grouping and sequencing questions into an appropriate order, numbering questions, and inserting interviewer instructions.
QUESTIONNAIRE NOTE In compiling the items of questionnaire the following were put into consideration; 98
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a) Empirical evaluation of situation of hybrid rice situation in Kenya b) Attitude towards hybrid rice c) Breeding situation as far as hybrid and Blast resistant rice is concerned A. GENERAL INFORMATION ON RICE a) What major crops do you grow? i) ii) iv) v)
iii) iv)
b) What is the size of farm land? c) What is total hecterage devoted to rice production?
d) Among crops grown, how do you rank rice? Major them ………………………………..
If yes major rank
Minor e) How much rice is produced using the following methods? i) Rain-fed farming ii) Irrigated farming f) Please give estimated rice yield per hectare B. INFROMATION ON HYBRID RICE a) Have you heard of hybrid rice? Yes information …………………………….
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If yes give source of
Research Guide: A working handbook
No b) Could you like to try hybrid rice production? Yes acreage …………………………………
If yes, give
No why? …………………………….
If no,
C) INFROMATION ON AROMATIC PRODUCTION a) Do you produce the following? Aromatic rice Type(s) ………………………………..
RICE
If yes,
Acreage ……………………………… Non Aromatic Type……………………………. Acreage…………………………… b) What is the hectare ?............................................
If Yes,
estimate
yield
per
c) Is there any special limitations experienced in producing aromatic rice Yes If yes indicate them ……………………………….. No
D:
INFORMATION FROM BREEDERS
a) What methods of breeding do you use b) What are the yield traits do you consider? 100
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c) Please give the trait(s) you consider major for yield improvement
d) Which is the major trait limiting yield?
e) Which breeding methods do you plan to introduce to increase yield?
f) Do you breed for hybrid rice?
Yes used………………………………..
If yes, Give method
No why? …………………………….
If no,
g) What are main diseases affecting rice
h) Have you had a major problem with rice blast disease?
Yes the ……………………………….. No it? …………………………….
If yes indicate
If no, how do you avoid
a) Have you locally experienced other types of blasts (other than the one mention above)? b) Estimate yield loss due to blast attack c) Do you have blast resistant rice lines 101
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Yes If yes, Name them…………………….……………………………….. No
10.2 10.3
Field manuals Debriefing documents.
In a "debriefing" a researcher explains the purpose of the study, explains the use of deception (if any was used), encourages the participant to ask questions about the study, and allows the researcher to address any harm to the participant that may have resulted from their participation in the study. Debriefing is important to make sure the participant does not feel harmed from the the study in any way. 10.4
Thesis : Research report written to report a master /post graduate work
10.5
a) b)
c) 102
Scientific papers: Format of a scientific paper vary from journal to journal. However which ever the format the following information is included when submitting a paper for publication Title of paper Authors details i) Full names of authors ii) Affiliation of authors (include details like Name of institution; department; Po Box No.; Email and Telephone; iii) Corresponding author Abstract – written as one paragraph Key words listed just below the abstract
Research Guide: A working handbook
d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)
Introduction coupling as literature review Materials and methods Results Discussion Conclusions Recommendations Acknowledgement if any List of references
10.6
Power point slides Format /design depends on the operating system. Some general rules are a) Avoid over crowding : four to five lines per slide is ok b) Maintain uniform font as much as possible c) Avoid to small font: as a guide between 24 and 32 is good enough. d) Maintain colour balance. Use complimenting colours. Some people are colour blind. e) Space utilization : spatial usage of slide space . Distribute the works as equally as possible within the space. 10.7 Technical reports: format depends on the requesting organization 10.8 Posters 10.9 brochures, 10.10 videos, 10.11 Policy briefs 10.12 press releases.
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CHAPTER 11 11. DATA ANALYSIS METHODS 11.1
Sample
11.1.1 Definition of a sample: A number of observations X1,X2,X3 ........XN of a random variable. A sample is a random sample if the probability density describing the probability for the observation of X1,X2,X3 ........ is given by a product ; ((X1,X2.......,XN) = g(x1)g(x2) .........g(XN). This implies in particular that the Xi are independent, i.e. that the result of any observation does not influence any other observations. In statistical nomenclature, sample is usually short for random sample , taken from a population . 11.1.2 Sampling - is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern, especially for the purposes of statistical inference. 11.1.3 Sample size – sample size of a statistical sample is the number of observations that constitute it. It is typically denoted n, a positive integer (natural number). Typically, all else being equal, a larger sample size leads to increased precision in estimates of various properties of the population. Repeated measurements and replication of independent samples are often required in measurement and experiments to reach a desired precision. Too large a sample may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to inaccurate results. In many cases, we can easily determine the minimum sample size needed to estimate a process parameter, such as the population mean . When sample data is collected and the sample mean is calculated, that sample mean is typically different from the population mean . This difference between the sample and population means can be thought of as an error. The margin of 104
Research Guide: A working handbook
error E is the maximum difference between the observed sample mean and the true value of the population mean
:
where: is known as the critical value, the positive value that is at the vertical boundary for the area of standard normal distribution. is the population standard deviation. is the sample size.
in the right tail of the
Rearranging this formula, we can solve for the sample size necessary to produce results accurate to a specified confidence and margin of error.
This formula can be used when you know and want to determine the sample size necessary to establish, with a confidence of , the mean value Sample Size Calculation Example
to within
Problem We would like to start an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and need to estimate the average Internet usage of households in one week for our business plan and model. How many households must we randomly select to be 95% sure that the sample mean is 105
Research Guide: A working handbook
within 1 minute of the population mean . Assume that a previous survey of household usage has shown = 6.95 minutes. Solution We are solving for the sample size . A 95% degree confidence corresponds to = 0.05. Each of the shaded tails in the following figure has an area of
= 0.025.
The region to the left of and to the right of = 0 is 0.5 – 0.025, or 0.475. In the Table of the Standard Normal ( ) Distribution, an area of 0.475 corresponds to a value of 1.96. The critical value is therefore
= 1.96.
The margin of error = 1 and the standard deviation Using the formula for sample size, we can calculate :
= 6.95.
So we will need to sample at least 186 (rounded up) randomly selected households. With this sample we will be 95% confident that the sample mean will be within 1 minute of the true population of Internet usage. Small (