Reflections on Problem-Based Learning

Reflections on Problem-Based Learning

[pbl]

Issue 17 [July 2017]

Contents Editorial

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Article 1 The Importance of Trilogy of Mind in Qualifying as a Teacher

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Anthony Leow

Peter Carter

Article 2 The Effect of Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) on a PBL Pedagogy-Based Journalism Curriculum: A Pilot Study

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Article 3 The Effects of Facilitator Behaviours on Student Interests in Problem-Based Learning: Do Subjects Matter?

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Article 4 A Pilot Study on the Phenomena of Entry-Level Lecturers Developing Pedagogy after Formal Foundational Training

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Article 5 Examining the Impact of Online Cognitive Tools Used in a Problem-Based Learning Environment

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Article 6 From Reluctance to Engagement: TP Students’ Journey of Transformation through a Cross-Cultural Communication Module using Problem-Based Learning

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Article 7 Problem-Based Learning: Towards Developing an Instrument that Measures Self-Directed Learning

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Article 8 Problem-Based Learning into the Future: Imagining an Agile PBL Ecology for Learning

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David Chin Kah Chin and Lisa-Angelique Lim

David Kwok and Kiu Cheong Mau

Tan Ai Chin

Sia Geok Soon, Chris Wong Hin Lai and Ang Beng Koon

Radha Ravindran

Jeeva Periasamy and Andrew V

Megan Y.C. A. Kek and Henk Huijser

About the Contributors

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Editorial Anthony Leow Assistant Director Centre for Educational Development This issue is a special one for many reasons. As we mark Republic Polytechnic’s (RP) 15th year anniversary and celebrate this significant milestone, it is an opportune time to look back on our past and remind ourselves of the considerable difficulties surmounted by the pioneers of RP in the early days, and of our own proud record of having achieved several ‘firsts’ in both academia and industry. Perhaps, something that has remained constant throughout the past 15 years is our steadfast dedication in staying true to the spirit of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) by identifying not only problems but also potential solutions as we serve our calling as One RP— united as one team with a singular mission to nurture our students as we prepare them for their professional lives in a dynamic world. Indeed, with the advent of the SkillsFuture national movement and the establishment of the Committee on the Future Economy, there is an increased emphasis on problem-solving skills and innovation. Given the centrality of innovation and transformation for Singapore to stay relevant and thrive in a more challenging and rapidly changing economy, it is pivotal for us as educators to move beyond the classrooms of our past — from one where we prepare students for jobs that currently exist to one where the jobs have yet to be created. As global, regional and local circumstances evolve, it is increasingly difficult for us to predict exactly what knowledge and skills students will require once they move on from formal schooling. However, it will be remiss of us if we do not prepare our students to navigate the challenges of the 21st century. While we cannot future-proof our students, we can help facilitate their acquisition of knowledge and skills to be future-ready, that is, as technology advances and the economic outlook evolves, our students will be ready. As you read through the articles, you will begin to see the commonalities that all PBL facilitators face, regardless of geographical location or students’ learning needs, and it will become evident that PBL remains a relevant and powerful leverage in education. PBL has to be understood as a hybridisation of all of the following considerations: Who determines what is to be learnt, who delivers, who learns, what is learned, how knowledge is co-created and shared, where and how much learning occurs. These are all key factors affecting how PBL is evolving and being practised in different contexts. I invite you to go beyond viewing the authors’ words through your own lens but instead see these ‘problems’ through the eyes of the author(s). As you reflect on the different research approaches of various authors, what emerges are the deep insights around education in the field of PBL. The challenge is to read the articles with an open mind in order to see how PBL can be harnessed to enrich the teaching and learning of 21st century learners. We welcome you to contribute your manuscripts and thoughts. You can write to our publications editor, Mark Chia ([email protected]). I look forward to hearing from you.

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Article 1

However, a full account of the impact of any teaching methodology requires us to go beyond its impact on cognition (Kyndt, Dochy, & Cascallar, 2014) which means we must also investigate its affective and conative effects on the learners. Although it is widely considered that the tripartite mind—comprising affect, cognition, and conation—cannot be completely separated into discrete domains in complex learning situations (Dickinson & Dickinson, 2015), there is benefit in reaching a deeper understanding of how learners’ experience with a course impact their thoughts, emotions, and actions (Wood, Quinn, & Kashy, 2002) especially with regard to how this translates into task performance in their future professional practice (Gerdes & Stromwall, 2008). THE IMPORTANCE OF TRILOGY OF MIND IN QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER Peter Carter1 Department of International Studies of Culture Kyushu Sangyo University Fukuoka, Japan Abstract

This study investigates the importance of the three domains of mind in a required Problem-Based Learning teacher qualification course. The domains of cognition, affection, and conation (intentionality) influence student post-graduation outcomes, but few PBL studies incorporate all three. After ascertaining that the course necessitated use of all three domains, student learning diaries were analysed by frequency. Although in all cases affect was the most commonly recorded domain, data showed a marked difference between students who subsequently qualified as teachers and those who did not. Specifically, the diaries of students who became teachers contained more frequent instances of conation. Keywords: Cognition; Conation; Affect; Teacher Training.

Introduction Tertiary institutions and their students are increasingly mindful of the fact that many occupations now require not only a degree but also additional credentials. As such, there has been an upswing in the proportion of courses taught through methods that lend themselves well to learners obtaining professional knowledge, skills, and licenses. This paper examines the experience of university students enrolled in such a class, a Problem-Based Learning (PBL) course that forms part of a government-approved teacher qualification program. Theoretical objections to PBL (Savery, 2006; Engel, 2008) have been raised, most notably due to a belief that it makes use of “minimal guidance” (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006) on the part of instructors. In practice, however, problem-based approaches have been found to be particularly effective in courses where contrasting cases are presented to the learners, where learner solutions are discussed in the class, and where canonical solutions are common (Loibl, Roll, & Rummel, 2016). Loibl, Roll and Rummel (2016)’s review found consistently strong evidence for positive cognitive outcomes across a range of academic disciplines.

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In order to become a primary or secondary school teacher in Japan, it is necessary to pass an examination which can only be taken after a number of requirements have been met. Among these is a series of university-taught courses designed to prepare future teachers for life in the classroom. Communicative Language Learning is a year-long course aimed at pre-service teachers who hope to qualify as English language teachers in Japanese secondary schools. The course aims to teach basic principles of second language instruction, and have the students apply them in a mock-practicum setting. To achieve this, the semesters are delivered in discrete styles; specifically, the first semester of the course is taught in a traditional lecture followed by group discussion format, while in the second semester a hybrid form of PBL (Ross, 2008) is used. During this semester, students will perform the work necessary to successfully complete a teaching practicum, such as creating and delivering lessons, adapting materials, and designing activities. The split semester style of traditional lecture followed by PBL has been in place since 2006. Two sources of data are available to assess the impact of the course: (i) Official surveys mandated by the university, and (ii) classroom assessment tasks set by the instructor. Together, these two sources of data shed light on the effect of teaching preservice teachers through traditional lectures and PBL. Data from the institution’s own surveys across the past 10 years is highly consistent and suggests that both forms of instruction are effective and popular with students, but that the PBL semester fosters greater personal development, is more meaningful, and is typically rated as more effective by the learners. However, despite the consistency of the findings, they must be approached with some caution due to the possibility of ceiling and ordering effects. An experimental design is not considered desirable as the lectures in the first semester are used to prepare the students for the hybrid-PBL semester, and reversing the order would cause problems for students in their quest to qualify as teachers. As an alternative, classroom assessment tasks have the potential to help us better understand the relative importance of the mind’s three domains as they relate to successfully navigating the steps on the way to acquiring a teaching licence.

Corresponding author's email: [email protected]

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Research Aims For the purpose of this paper, Dickinson and Dickinson’s (2015) explanation of the three mental domains will be used. The cognitive domain relates to what the student knows and understands; the affective domain encompasses student feelings and reflections; and the conative domain describes how the student purposefully chooses to act in a certain way and then acts on that decision (Dickinson & Dickinson, 2015). Conation is of particular interest in PBL contexts, because it helps to explain why students can produce solutions that are insufficient or inappropriate despite being able to understand the concepts being taught. The aim of the present study is to gauge whether the hybrid-PBL semester requires students to make use of all three domains and, if so, to understand the implications for students. Methods Participants were all 2nd or 3rd grade students at a private university in Japan, taking a teaching license course in addition to their 4-year degree program. The first stage of the study comprised data taken from the learning diaries of seven currently enrolled students, who had just completed the PBL semester of the course, with the purpose of ascertaining whether all three domains would appear in their reflections. The course usually has around 20 students in each semester, but in this iteration only seven students were able to register. As such, the sample was the whole class. Entries were manually coded at the sentence level, using hypothesis coding (Saldana, 2016). One hundred sentences were coded per student, with four codes being employed (affective, cognitive, conative, and not applicable). As students were still enrolled, it was felt that any issues in the data could be clarified with them. All three domains could be found in the students’ diaries. Straightforward examples include: (Affect) To be honest, I was anxious. My group contains younger students, and I didn’t know what to say to them. I thought they should be more active, but I wondered how to tell them. (Cognition) Learning about the different stages in a listening activity (pre-listening, listening, and post-listening) was useful in understanding my other language classes. (Conation) We set the deadlines, and we absolutely must keep to them. To do this, I finished my part as quickly as possible. Furthermore, domains often co-occurred, such as the following example, in which actions taken (conation) lead to reflection (affect) “I made the worksheets too quickly and without thinking deeply about the topic [...] this caused some trouble in our presentation”. A common pattern in the data was when two negative statements were followed by a positive one. “My preparation for the presentation was not sufficient. The script wasn’t written using my own words, so I should have practiced more. In the end, I got advice from the writer and then I could understand everything”. In the next example, a student performs poorly, receives criticism, but then works to avoid a repetition: “I lost my USB and my presentation was poor. I was criticised by my team for this. My motivation increased as a result”.

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The second stage used historical data from the Communicative Language Learning course held in 2010. This allowed for a purposeful sample to be selected, specifically, as these participants had graduated some years ago, their post-graduation outcomes were known to the institution, and they could thus be separated into two groups: Those who were offered work as teachers, and those who were not. Seven diaries were randomly selected to represent each group, and these were then coded using the same method as was used for the currently enrolled students. Analysis and Discussion For the currently enrolled group, the four-way coding system was simplistic, but effective. Reflection is considered a form of affect (Dickinson & Dickinson, 2015) so it is no surprise that this domain formed a majority of the data. As PBL demands much deliberate action on the part of the learners, the finding that almost one-quarter of the comments in their diaries relate to executing plans is also not surprising. At 13%, cognition appears low, but experience with learning diaries suggests that this may be an artefact of time. Students initially had to work to understand concepts introduced in the class, but as knowledge accretes, the focus shifts from experience to memory (Kahneman & Riis, 2005). Learning diaries naturally contain ideas that do not directly pertain to the question at hand, and also structural words or phrases (such as prepositions) that do not apply to any domain, and this makes up 11% of the content. Table 1. Coding of current student diaries (%)

Affect Cognition Conation N/A

53 13 23 11

As for the participants who had already graduated and embarked on their careers, a clear difference can be seen in the affective and conative domains. Table 2. Frequency of codes by percentage

Teachers Affect 48 Cognition 12 Conation 32 N/A 8

Non-teachers 64 9 18 9

For both the non-applicable data and the domain of cognition, little difference exists between the two groups. However, the students that were subsequently offered teaching work significantly differed in terms of affect and conation. These students showed a strong tendency to complete the tasks at hand in an efficient manner, while the other students were either more passive, or reflected that they had intended to do better. As such, the affective and conative domains appear to be linked and correlated with a successful outcome in teacher training, at least in the program in question.

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Learning diaries are theoretically an opportunity for pre-service teachers to reflect on the process of moving towards becoming an educator (Farrell, 2007) and one of the common features of successful teacher training programs (Loughran, 2006). However, it should be noted that working conditions in Japanese secondary schools can be harsh, and many promising candidates drop out after completing the practicum, or chose to do other work despite receiving an offer of a teaching position. For the currently enrolled students, it cannot be said that they will all go on to teach, and for the sample of students who were ultimately offered work as teachers, two chose not to accept and took work outside of the education field. Despite these caveats, the data showed that the tripartite model of mind has applicability to PBL instruction. Limitations and Future directions Data from 21 students’ learning diaries showed the importance of the conative domain in reaching one’s early career goals. The limited sample size is one issue that can be remedied in a larger replication of this study, or avoided completely by institutions with larger classes or multiple sections of the same class. Furthermore, in teaching contexts where PBL is common, the lack of an experimental design could also be overcome: The benefit of this approach is that it would allow institutions to find out more about the role that conation plays in shaping their students’ future prospects.

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References Dickinson, M., & Dickinson, D. (2015). Reconfiguring affective, conative and cognitive outcomes in IBL: A multi-disciplinary case study. In P. Blessinger & J. M. Carfora (Eds.), Inquiry-based learning for multidisciplinary programs: A conceptual and practical resource for educators, (pp. 297–320). UK: Emerald. Engel, C.E. (2008). Not just a method but a way of learning. In D. Boud & G. Feletti (Eds.), The challenge of problem-based learning (pp. 17–27). Oxon: Routledge. Farrell, T.S.C. (2007). Failing the practicum: narrowing the gap between expectation and reality with reflective practice. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 193–201. Gerdes, K. E., & Stromwall, L. K. (2008). Conation: A missing link in the strengths perspective. Social Work, 53(3), 233–242. Kahneman, D., & Riis, J. (2005). Living and thinking about it: Two perspectives on life. In N. Baylis, F. A. Huppert, & B. Keverne (Eds.), The science of well-being (pp. 285–301). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. Kyndt E., Dochy F., & Cascallar, E. (2014). Students’ approaches to learning in higher education: The interplay between context and student. In D. Gijbels, V. Donche, J. Vermunt, & J. Richardson (Eds.) Learning patterns in higher education in the 21st Century: dimensions and research perspectives (pp. 249–272). London: Routledge. Loibl, K., Roll, I., & Rummel, N. (2016). Towards a Theory of When and How Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Supports Learning. Educational Psychology Review. DOI:10.1007/s10648-016-9379-x Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education. Oxon: Routledge. Ross, B. (2008). Towards a framework for problem-based learning. In D. Boud & G. Feletti (Eds.), The challenge of problem-based learning (pp. 1–14). Oxon: Routledge. Saldana, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London: Sage. Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based learning: Definitions and Distinctions, The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based learning, 1(1), 9–20. Wood, W., Quinn, J. M., & Kashy, D. A. (2002). Habits in everyday life: thought, emotion, and action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1281–1297.

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Article 2

a learner’s interaction with a task by creating conditions for the learner to cognitively process information efficiently. The MLE approach does not focus on the content but on building cognitive foundation, so learners can apply problem-solving skills across other content or tasks (Feuerstein, Rand, Hoffman & Miller, 1980).

THE EFFECT OF MEDIATED LEARNING EXPERIENCE (MLE) ON A PBL PEDAGOGY-BASED JOURNALISM CURRICULUM: A PILOT STUDY David Chin Kah Chin School of Sports Health and Leisure Republic Polytechnic, Singapore 1

Lisa-Angelique Lim University of South Australia Adelaide, Australia Abstract This research investigated the impact of a Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) intervention in a ProblemBased Learning (PBL) class of third-year students taking a developmental journalism module. The intervention focused on mediating cognitive functions considered important to journalistic writing. To that end, this study measured the effects of MLE on students’ metacognition, critical thinking, perceived task value and academic performance. The key findings showed an increase in perceived task value for the experimental group compared to the control group which suggests an important effect of MLE intervention. However, the experimental group decreased in both their perceived abilities in critical thinking and metacognition. The authors suggest that it was possibly due to the group becoming more aware of their challenges with critical thinking and metacognition, which caused them to assess themselves more critically. The comparison of test results revealed no conclusive patterns, suggesting the challenge of translating the development of deep cognitive learning into academic results in the short-term. Nevertheless, the results suggested the possibility of using MLE to complement PBL pedagogy in a classroom to enhance cognitive functions and how learning strategies can be can applied across different subject modules. Further investigation can be explored to investigate if MLE can enhance the perceived task value of other subjects, as well as whether the effects persist over time once the intentional MLE mediation is removed. Keywords: Mediated Learning Experience; Problem-Based Learning; Metacognition; Critical thinking; Cognitive Functions; Cognitive Apprenticeship.

Literature Review Feuerstein proposed that cognitive functions are primarily acquired through exposure to Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) which in turn results in structured cognitive modifiability (SCM) (Feuerstein, Rand, Hoffman & Miller, 1980). The theory of MLE—where the mediator bridges the task and learner—is consistent with research in metacognition and self-regulation (Tan, 2004; Borkowski, 1992; Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2001). The presence of a mediator helps learners bridge the zone of proximal development (ZPD) or learning zone that a learner is unable to bridge on his own (Vygotsky 1978). The mediator deliberately places himself between an activity and a learner and facilitates

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Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

In addition, Feuerstein defined a set of deficient cognitive functions (DCFs) that enables a mediator to target specific cognitive functions that a learner lacks. These DCFs can be categorised into impairments at the input phase (the way learners take in information), elaboration phase (how learners process the information), and the output phase (the way the learner communicates the information). These are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Feuerstein’s deficient cognitive functions in the phases of a mental act or cognitive process of a learner. Input Blurred and Sweeping perception Impulsive and unsystematic exploratory behavior Lack of appropriate verbal tools and labels Impaired spatial orientation Impaired temporal concepts Lack of conservation of constancy Lack of precision and accuracy Impaired ability to consider multiple sources of information

Elaboration Lack of planning behavior Impaired ability to recognize and define the problem Inability to select relevant cues or information Lack of comparative behavior Narrow mental field Episodic grasp of reality (unable to relate prior learning or experiences) Lack of summative behavior Impaired logical, hypothetical or inferential thinking

Output Inability to take perspective (egocentric) Difficulty in projecting virtual relationships Blocking Trial and error responses Inability to communicate responses Impaired visual transport Impulsive behavior Lack of precision and accuracy in communicating response

Tan Oon-Seng (2004) noted that MLE principles are consistent with metacognition and self-regulation (Borkowski, 1992; Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2001). Flavell (1979) described metacognition as the interaction between a learner, task, and strategies to do the task, which aligns to the theory of MLE where the mediator functions as a bridge between the task and learner and mediates intentionality and reciprocity, as well as the meaning of the task to the learner. PBL has been linked to enhanced metacognitive abilities (de Grave, Boshuizen, & Schmidt, 1996; Downing, Ning, & Shin, 2011) and academic performance (Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2001), and some research has also explored the use of PBL in journalism training (Meadows, 1997; Sheridan Burns, 2004). However, little research has been done on the impact of both PBL and MLE in developing metacognition and thinking in the context of journalistic writing.

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Research Aims This aim of this study was to investigate the impact of using MLE intervention to enhance cognitive functions in students doing a PBL-based journalism module at Republic Polytechnic. The following research questions were proposed: (1) To what extent does an MLE intervention impact students’ metacognitive selfregulation, critical thinking and perceived task value of the module? (2) To what extent does an MLE intervention impact students’ academic performance in the module? Methodology This study employed a quasi-experimental design involving two classes of students (n =44). Over 12 weeks in the semester, the experimental group (n=22) had a 15-minute intervention activity prior to exploring the PBL problem. The control group (n=22) proceeded through the lesson without the intervention. The intervention used three Feuerstein Instrumental Enrichment (FIE) paper and pencil exercises (Feuerstein, Feuerstein, Falik, & Rand, 2006) to enhance cognitive functions: Organisation of Dots, Orientation in Space 2, and Analytic Perception. All participants completed pre- and post-experiment surveys comprising subscales of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991) to measure metacognitive self-regulation, critical thinking, and perceived task value. Academic performance data was also collected from the students’ exam results.

Figure 1. Students’ perception of their metacognitive abilities over time (blue = experimental group)

Results A two-way mixed Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyse the MSLQ scores for both the experimental and control groups. Table 2 provides a summary of the results with the corresponding graphs in Figures 1, 2 and 3. Table 2. Differences between experimental and control groups on levels of metacognition Means

Sub-group

Control (n = 13) Experimental (n = 16)

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Metacognitive selfregulation

Critical Thinking

Task Value

Pre-test

4.77 (.73)

5.14 (.64)

5.64 (.70)

Post-test

4.72 (.64)

5.14 (.59)

5.53 (.68)

Pre-test

4.61 (.57)

5.18 (.90)

5.63 (.60)

Post-test

4.53 (.81)

5.06 (.69)

5.68 (.78)

Figure 2. Students’ perception of their critical thinking skills over time (blue = experimental group)

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Analysis and Discussion The results showed that the experimental group reported lower perceived critical thinking and metacognitive self-regulation. This was possibly due to the group becoming more aware of their challenges with critical thinking and metacognition, which caused them to assess themselves more critically. However, there was an increase in perceived task value in the experimental group (Figure 3), which may indicate the value of MLE in mediating meaning and transcendence to students. However, the differences were not statistically significant.

Figure 3. Students’ perception of the task value over time (blue = experimental group) Academic performance A mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance on the test results of the two groups over three time periods found significant interaction between test results and time, Wilks’ Lambda = 0.817, F (2, 37) = 4.03, p = .02, partial eta squared = 0.18 (see Figure 4).

The exam results—based on the guideline proposed by Cohen (1988)—suggest a very large effect size indicating that the two groups differed in the way their scores changed over time, with the experimental group doing significantly better for the midsemester exam (Figure 4). However, the performance for both groups levelled off in the final exam and there was no significant difference in the overall module grades between the two classes. This may be due to the fact that the mid-term exam focused more on explaining journalism principles and applying them to articles while the final exam focused more on writing. Thus, short-term exposure to MLE may have the positive effect on mid-level cognitive complexity (application and analysis) but less impact on higher order cognition that involves synthesis and creation, which may require more time to develop. Limitations and Recommendations The main limitations were as follows: (1) The lecturer for the experimental and control groups was the same, lending the possibility of experimental bias. (2) The sample size from participants who completed the surveys was 29 out of 44, which may not have been large enough to pick up significant effects.

Figure 4. Interaction between test results and time

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Nevertheless, the results do suggest short-term effects of MLE in increasing task value and making learning more meaningful, as well as some near term effects on academic performance where application and analysis are concerned. The effects of a larger scale study and longer duration of exposure to MLE can be considered for future studies. The prospect of using MLE to complement PBL can have far reaching implications in terms of developing cognitive skills that students can intentionally apply across modules. Thus, future studies can also track academic progress in other modules as well. In addition, with increasing interest in cognitive apprenticeship, the theory and practice of MLE can be included as part of cognitive skills training modules to create an environment where students become more aware of their own thinking process, realise the benefit of generalising principles that can be applied in other contexts, and employing strategies to take charge of their own learning.

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References Borkowski, J. G. (1992). Metacognitive theory: A framework for teaching literacy, writing, and math skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(4), 253–57. Cohen J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Routledge Academic.De Grave, W. S., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Schmidt, H. G. (1996). Problem-based learning: Cognitive and metacognitive processes during problem analysis. Instructional Science, 24(5), 321-341. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. Feuerstein R, Feuerstein RS, Falik L, Rand Y (2006). Creating and enhancing Cognitive Modifiability: The Feuerstein Instrumental Enrichment program. Jerusalem, Israel: ICELP. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hoffman, M. B., & Miller, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment: An intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company. Meadows, M., (1997). Taking a problem-based learning approach to journalism education. Asia Pacific Media Educator, 1(3), 89-107. Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner, (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 451–502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A., Garcia, T.,& McKeachie, W.J. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. Sheridan Burns, L. (2004). A reflective model for teaching journalism. Art, Design & Communication in Higher Education, 3(1), 5-16. Tan, O. S. (2004). Enhancing thinking through problem-based learning approaches: international perspectives. Singapore: Thomson Learning. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, & E.Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society: The development of higher psychology processes (pp.79-91). Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press. Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: an overview and analysis. In B. J. Zimmerman, & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Selfregulated learning and academic achievement: theoretical perspectives (2nd ed.) (pp. 1–38). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Article 3

THE EFFECTS OF FACILITATOR BEHAVIOURS ON STUDENT INTERESTS IN PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: DO SUBJECTS MATTER? David Kwok1 and Kiu Cheong Mau Centre for Educational Development Republic Polytechnic, Singapore Abstract This study aims to (1) investigate if there are differences in student interests between different subjects, and (2) examine the extent to which the various facilitators’ behaviours (subject matter expertise, social congruence, and cognitive congruence) influence student interests in different subjects conducted using problem-based learning (PBL). The results showed that student interests in Effective Communication was significantly higher compared to Mathematics and Physics. Depending on the type of subjects (STEM2 or non-STEM), the study provided preliminary findings that either subject matter expertise or social congruence is a significant predictor of cognitive congruence, which in turn, significantly influences student interests. Finally, implications of the study, along with directions for future research, are discussed in the paper. Keywords: Facilitator Behaviours; Student Interests; Problem-Based Learning.

Introduction Interest is linked to intrinsic motivation, and influence what and how students choose to learn, and how well they learn (Schraw & Lehman, 2001). Studies have shown that interest can affect how students use specific learning strategies and allocate their attention (Wade, Schraw, Buxton, & Hayes, 1993), and the extent they are engaged in the task emotionally and cognitively and employed deep processing (Schraw, 1998). In a Problem-Based Learning (PBL) environment, interest acts as the catalyst for students’ learning (Schmidt, Rotgans & Yew, 2011). When students perceive the study tasks to be interesting, they become intrinsically motivated, which affects the type, quality and amount of contributions made to discussion (Wijnia, Loyens, Derous, & Schmidt, 2014). Individual interest is described as a relatively enduring disposition towards or intrinsic desire for specific domains, activities or learning in general (Schraw & Lehman, 2001). In contrast, situational interest refers to short term, context-specific affective reactions triggered by enviromental stimuli such as puzzles, videos or challenging tasks (Hindi & Renninger, 2006). In this study, individual interest is employed as an dependent variable and refers to student interest in the domain-specific PBL subject. 1 2

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Corresponding author's email: [email protected] STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

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There is a plethora of studies examining the impact of a PBL facilitator on students’ outcomes, including student academic achievement (Chng, Yew, & Schmidt, 2015; Davis, Nairn, Paine, Anderson, & Oh, 1992; Hay & Katsikitis, 2001), and students’ performance in small groups and their perceptions of PBL (Budé, Imbos, vd Wiel, Broers, & Berger, 2009). However, there are limited studies that have investigated how PBL facilitators influence student interests, and whether these differ by the type of PBL subjects. This present study attempts to bridge the gap in the literature, and hopes to contribute to the growth of student interest-related studies in PBL. Literature Review There is a dearth of studies that examine the differences in student individual interests between PBL subjects. Rotgans and Schmidt (2014) studied the differences in student individual interests between five first-year mandatory PBL subjects taken by 4,068 students in a polytechnic, and found that student individual interest on Mathematics was significantly lower compared to Basic Science, Philosophy, Communication Skills and Enterprise Skills. The study also found that student interest in Communication Skills was rated significantly higher than Basic Science and Mathematics. Schmidt and Moust (1995) proposed a useful framework for an effective PBL facilitator that includes 3 characteristics important for effective facilitation: (a) Subject matter expertise (SM) refers to the facilitator’s knowledge about a subject domain; (b) social congruence (SC) relates to how well the facilitator is socially aligned with the students including whether they are interested in the students’ personal lives; and (c) cognitive congruence (CC) indicates the ability of the facilitator to express oneself in a way easily understood by the students. Using path analysis, Schmidt and Moust (1995) found that the cognitive congruence and subject matter expertise of a PBL facilitator are significant predictors of cognitive congruence, which in turn, significanly influenced student interests in subject matter via tutorial-group functioning. Schmidt and Moust (1995) suggested that the necessary conditions for cognitive congruence to occur include both subject matter expertise and social congruence. In another study, Rotgan and Schmidt (2011) investigated the influence of three facilitator behaviours (SM, SC and CC) on situational interests in students taking a PBL lesson. The results showed that students supported by facilitators who demonstrated the three behaviours reported significantly higher levels of situational interest. In addition, cognitive congruence was found to be the most significant predictor of situational interest. Research Objectives

Methods The sample consisted of 2,156 first-year polytechnic students taking 4 among 230 subjects taught using PBL (i.e., 2 science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects: Mathematics (MATH), Physics (PHYS), and 2 non-STEM subjects: Organisational Behaviour (OB), and Effective Communication (COM)). The students taking the 4 selected PBL subjects were randomly selected to participate in a separate end-of-semester course and lecturer evaluation surveys administered online. The survey comprised 9 statements on facilitator behaviours, adapted from Schmidt and Moust’s (1995) study, and consisted of Subject Matter Expertise (3 items), Social Congruence (3 items), and Cognitive Congruence (3 items). Sample survey items included “The facilitator has a lot of content knowledge about the module (SM)”, “The facilitator recognised the efforts we put into our learning (SC)”, and “The facilitator asked questions that helped us arrive at answers to better understand the subject matter (CC)”. The student interest scale in the subject was adapted from Rotgan and Schmidt (2014)’s study and measured using four items. The interest scale comprised two items on emotion-related component, referring to the extent students like the subject, and two items on value-related component, indicating the extent to which the students recognised that the subject can be relevant to the their future career. Sample survey items on student interest included “I enjoyed the module” and “I find that the module is relevant to the profession I am being prepared for”. All survey items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Results The descriptive statistics for each study variable are shown in Table 1. The mean ratings of the four variables ranged between 4.08 and 4.39, which are above the mid-point of 3.00 of the 5-point scale, indicating favourable responses by the students. The standard deviations which ranged from .68 to .77 showed a narrow spread around the mean. The internal consistency reliability of each variable was assessed using cronbach’s alpha, and ranged between .83 and .91. This range exceeded the cut-off of .70 and deemed adequate for further analysis (DeVellis, 2016). The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients of the four variables showed that the three facilitator behaviours (SC, SM, CC) are significantly and highly correlated with each other (.87 ≤r ≤.89, p