ARTICLE IN PRESS
Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121 www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
Regional-specific emission inventory for NH3, N2O, and CH4 via animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia Kazuyo Yamajia,, Toshimasa Oharaa,b, Hajime Akimotoa a
Frontier Research System for Global Change, 3173-25, Showa-mach, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0001, Japan b National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2, Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan Received 20 September 2003; received in revised form 25 May 2004; accepted 9 June 2004
Abstract Ammonia, nitrous oxide, and methane emission from animal farming of South, Southeast, and East Asia, in 2000, was estimated at about 4.7 Tg NH3–N, 0.51 Tg N2O–N, and 29.9 Tg CH4, respectively, using the FAO database and countries’ statistic databases as activity data, and emission factors taking account of regional characteristics. Most of these atmospheric components, up to 60–80%, were produced in China and India. Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, which were large source countries next to China and India, contributed more than a few percent of total emission of each atmospheric component. The largest emission livestock were cattle whose contribution was considerably high in South, Southeast, and East Asia; more than one-fourth of ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions: more than half of methane emission. The other major livestock for nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions were pigs. For methane emission, buffaloes were second source livestock. To provide spatial distributions of these gases, the emissions of county and district level were allocated into each 0.51 grid by means of the weighting by high-resolution land cover datasets. The regions with considerable high emissions of all components were able to be found at the Ganges delta and the Yellow River basin. The spatial distributions for ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions were similar but had a substantial difference from methane distribution. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Ammonia; Nitrous oxide; Methane; Emission inventory; Livestock; South, Southeast, and East Asia
1. Introduction Human activity has greatly altered the atmospheric composition and trace gas concentrations, and accordingly impacts global environment. Atmospheric modeling plays an important role in understanding the chemical and physical mechanisms of transformation and transport of the atmospheric trace species, and the prediction of future climate changes and global envirCorresponding author. Tel.: +81 45 778 5719; fax: +81 45 778 5496. E-mail address:
[email protected] (K. Yamaji).
onmental issues. To run such kind of atmospheric models, it is necessary to have emission inventories of the trace species with high accuracy and resolution as input data. For this purpose, our group has been developing a regional emission inventory database of trace species from anthropogenic and natural sources in South, Southeast, and East Asia, named regional emission inventory in Asia (REAS). REAS provides trace gas emission data from each source by country and district levels, and gridded datasets with a 0.51 resolution on the web page (http://www.jamstec.go.jp/frsgc/ research/d4/emission.htm). This paper focuses on the emission from animal farming which is one of the major
1352-2310/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.06.045
ARTICLE IN PRESS 7112
K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
anthropogenic sources of the atmospheric trace gases in Asia. Animal farming is one of the most important sources of ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4) which affects the global environment and climate change. NH3 and N2O are produced via the animal wastes management system (AWMS). N2O is well known as a greenhouse gas with a long lifetime and also plays a significant role as one of ozone depletion species in the stratosphere. Among the global emission, N2O was 17.7 Tg N2O–N yr1 in 1994, whose 54% was emitted from natural sources (Mosier et al., 1998a; Kroeze et al., 1999). Animal farming contributed to onefourth of the remaining anthropogenic N2O emission, 2.1 Tg N2O–N yr1. On the other hand, NH3 has a short lifetime, only a few hours to a few days, and belongs to such air pollutants that influence air quality, soil, and ecosystem. NH3 plays a role as an acid-neutralizing agent in the atmosphere but also as a precursor substance of components contributing to soil acidification. The global emission of NH3 was 54 Tg NH3–N yr1, about 40% of which was produced through AWMS in 1990 (Bouwman et al., 1997). Atmospheric methane (CH4), which plays a role not only as a greenhouse gas but also as a photochemical reactant gas in the tropospheric and stratospheric atmosphere, was produced at 410–660 Tg CH4 yr1 globally in 1990 (Nakicenovic and Swart, 2000). The contribution of animal farming toward the global CH4 emission was 65–100 and 20–30 Tg CH4 yr1 through enteric fermentation in livestock and AWMS, respectively (Nakicenovic and Swart, 2000). Animal farming is one of the most important sources of these atmospheric trace components which affects the global environment and climate change. Gripping the accurate emission values of these atmospheric components from animal farming is worth understanding and predicting the present and future global environment. In particular, South, Southeast, and East Asia hold a lot of livestock, for example 23% of the global cattle and 82% of the global buffaloes, each of which is a source of atmospheric NH3, N2O, and CH4. In fact, it was pointed out that animal farming in many countries of Asia, like India, China, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, is a major source of these gases (for example, Lerner et al., 1988; Olivier et al., 1998, 1999). Recently, several studies on CH4 emission from animal farming in Asia have been reported based on theoretical, observational, and experimental methods (Dong et al., 1996; Singh and Mohini, 1996; Wang et al., 1996; Li, 2000; Terada, 2000; Garg et al., 2001; Yamaji et al., 2003). On the other hand, emission inventories of N2O and NH3 in Asia have yet relied mostly on European observational and experimental data (Zhao and Wang, 1994; Olivier et al., 1998; Kannari et al., 2001; Lee and Park, 2002). Therefore, it is important for N2O and NH3
that those emission values are re-evaluated by considering regional characteristics. We have tried to estimate NH3, N2O, and CH4 emissions from animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia taking into account the emission factors with regional specificities and livestock species’ characteristics. NH3, N2O, and CH4 emissions via AWMS of livestock (non-dairy cattle, dairy cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, asses and mules, camels, and poultry) and CH4 emissions through enteric fermentation in livestock (non-dairy cattle, dairy cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, asses and mules, and camels) were estimated. This paper provides the country and district emission values of NH3 and N2O from animal farming in this area for the base year, 2000, together with their geographical distributions. On the other hand, entrusting the detailed descriptions for CH4 to our previous paper (Yamaji et al., 2003), this paper focuses on the comparison of NH3 and N2O emissions with CH4 emission. Since livestock breeding has been expanded due to the growth of human population, and the land use has been changing due to rapid economic growth in this area, it will be worthwhile to construct more accurate updated database incorporating the emission factors with enough regional characteristics and the detailed geographical information for studies of atmospheric chemistry and climate change.
2. Methodology Our primary source for livestock populations was statistical databases on the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) web page (http://apps.fao.org/) in which annual populations of various kinds of livestock for each country as well as livestock productions of milk, meat, and egg were provided. For some countries we also obtained countries’ statistic databases for populations of sub-livestock types on district level. For India, Thailand, China, Taiwan, and Japan, we could obtain country- and district-level statistics, which also divided some livestock populations into subtypes (for example, age, sex, and purpose of their breeding) (Samnakngan Sathiti haeng Chat, 1996; AH&D (Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying), 1999; Census and Statistics Department, 2000; Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2000; Council for Agriculture, 2001; Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan Republic of China (CEPD), 2001; National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBS), 2001; Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF), 2001, 2002). However, the statistic data of India and Thailand was of 1992 and 1993, respectively, and these were too old to use directly in this study. Therefore only the ratios of these data were used to
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
distribute the 2000 FAO livestock population into sublivestock categories. At first, these livestock populations on each country or district level were allocated into a 0.51 0.51 grid using land area and land cover gridded datasets. Next, gas emissions from livestock in each grid, Eij (kg yr1) were given as Eij=EFij LPi, where subscript i and j signifies the kind of livestock and atmospheric components, respectively. EFij (kg head1 yr1) is emission factors for each livestock. For major livestock, we also used specific emission factors for sub-livestock types only in case in which more detail information was obtained. LPi (head) is the population of each livestock or each sub-livestock type in a grid.
2.1. Spatial allocation of livestock populations We used a methodology similar to that of Lerner et al. (1988) for obtaining the geographic distribution of animals. The basic method to allocate livestock populations is to distribute them into all area having vegetations or land cover surface types where livestock seems to live. We constructed original population density maps of animals using newer and finer gridded datasets though the older density maps by Lerner et al. (1988) were still used in some previous papers (Bouwman et al., 1995, 1997; Olivier et al., 1999). Livestock populations in Japan were allocated using land use area database in the geographical digital information, which were published by the Geographical Survey Institute (GSI) (1991). The database includes the information of administration area, total land area, and each land use area of 11 types on a 4500 3000 latitude–longitude (about 1 km 1 km) grid. Each livestock population on prefecture level in Japan was allocated into a 0.51 0.51 grid using the ratio of area with four farm types, paddy field and several agricultural field types to a total land area in a grid. For other countries, allocation was carried out based on two databases, the area grid database in the Gridded Population of the World version 2 (GPW v2) dataset and the 3000 Land Cover Data Set giving the land cover gridded database. The former is provided by International Earth Science Information Network in Columbia University (CIESIN), and is available from the web page of Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center
7113
(SEDAC) (http://sedac.ciesin.org/). Additionally, the land area dataset is available for each country and district in large countries, for example, India and China. The latter is provided by the Land Cover Working Group (LCWG) of the Asian Association on Remote Sensing (AARS) and Center for Environmental Remote Sensing (CEReS) in Chiba University. The detailed information is obtained from the web page (http:// wwwsv.cr.chiba-u.ac.jp/) (LCWG and CEReS, 1999). The resolution of this dataset is much fine with a 3000 3000 latitude–longitude. Each grid is classified by a superior land-use pattern, which consists of 59 classes including 47 classes for vegetation, 8 classes for nonvegetation, and 4 classes for water. By using these databases, each livestock population on district level for India and China and on country level for remainder was allocated into a 0.51 0.51 grid using the area ratio with total area of crops, grasslands (included grass crops), and mixed vegetations of the grid in each region.
2.2. Emission factors Some research groups have presented NH3 inventories for Asia (Zhao and Wang, 1994; Kannari et al., 2001; Lee and Park, 2002). However, especially for NH3 emissions from AWMS, these studies have quite relied on emission factors based on animal farming conditions in European countries (Klaassen, 1991; Asman, 1992; European Environment Agency (EEA), 1999) because they did not have enough information on Asian-specific emission factors. We tried to estimate NH3 emissions from AWMS by taking into account the N-excretion values from major livestock, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and pigs in Asia (Steffens and Vetter, 1990; Europe Center for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals (ECETOC), 1994; Van der Hoek, 1994; Vetter et al., 1989) by combining with coefficients for NH3 volatilization in different breeding periods based on Klaassen (1991). The emission factors for other livestock, camels, horses, mules, asses, and poultry were used directly from Klaassen (1991) (Table 1). For major livestock, cattle, pigs, and poultry in Japan, emission factors for NH3 were obtained by taking into account the N-excretion values from livestock and the type of manure (liquid/solid) (Livestock Industry’s Environmental Improvement Organization (LEIO),
Table 1 Regional emission factors for ammonia (kg NH3–N head1 yr1) from AWMS in Asia Non-dairy cattle
Dairy cattle
Buffaloes
Sheep
Goats
Camelsa
Pigs
Horsesa
Mules and assesa
Poultrya
3.0
5.6
3.4
1.4
1.1
7.0
1.5
7.0
7.0
0.12
a
Using European values from Klaassen (1991).
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
7114
poultry, sheep, pigs, and the other animals in each region, which were quoted from ECETOC (1994), Vetter et al. (1989), and Steffens and Vetter (1990). In addition to these recommended values by IPCC, we obtained N2O emission factors also taking into account the Nexcretion values of the other four types of livestock, buffaloes, camels, horses, and goats quoted from Van der Hoek (1994) (Table 3). In Table 3, it should be noted that our emission factors are substantially lower than those of IPCC particularly for goats. Recently, Japanese government has developed a methodology to calculate N2O emission factors considering each management system of livestock’s urine and feces, amount of their excrement, and nitrogen content in the excrement using results of actual experiments. Emission factors for major livestock in Japan (beef cattle, dairy cattle, pigs, broilers, and hens) were obtained based on its methodology using detailed data from country reports (LEIO, 1998; JLTA, 1999) as shown in Table 4. Emission factors for the rest of livestock were the same values as Asian emission factors. The detailed descriptions of emission factors for
1998; Advancing Livestock Technology (JLTA), 1999) combining with coefficients for NH3 volatilization based on Klaassen (1991). Emission factors for the rest of livestock were the same as values used for other Asian countries (Table 2). The methodology to estimate N2O emission from animal farming was summarized in the IPCC guidelines (Houghton et al., 1997), which took into account the type and number of livestock, the N-excretion by each animal, the type of AWMS, and its share in each region. The AWMS types were classified by Safley et al. (1992). They also provided default values for percentage of manure N produced for each AWMS in some regions of the world (Safley et al., 1992). Default emission factors for the different AWMS types derived on the basis of a very limited amount of information were given as uniform values all over the world (Houghton et al., 1997; Mosier et al., 1998b). The IPCC guideline showed N2O emission from AWMS in each region of the world using tentative values for N-excretion per head of six different types of livestock, non-dairy cattle, dairy cattle,
Table 2 Regional emission factors for ammonia (kg NH3-N head1 yr1) from AWMS in Japan Cattle (beef)
3.5 a
Sheepa
Cattle (dairy)
7.4
Goatsa
1.4
Pigs
1.1
0.78
Horsesb
7.0
Poultry Broilers
Laying hens
0.18
0.17
Using Asian values (Table 2). Using European values from Klaassen (1991).
b
Table 3 Regional emission factors for nitrous oxide (kg N2O–N head1 yr1) from AWMS in Asia
IPCCa a
Non-dairy cattle
Dairy cattle
Buffaloes
Sheep
Goats
Camels
Pigs
Horses
Mules and asses
Poultry
0.34 0.34
0.29 0.29
0.39 0.34
0.21 0.21
0.17 0.77
1.06 0.77
0.18 0.18
0.87 0.77
0.87 0.77
0.0069 0.0068
Horsesa
Poultry
Obtained from Appendix B in IPCC guidelines (Houghton et al., 1997).
Table 4 Regional emission factors for nitrous oxide (kg N2O–N head1 yr1) from AWMS in Japan Cattle (beef) o2
0.34
2p
0.36
Sheepa
Cattle (dairy) Milking
0.35
Breeding
0.37
Milking
0.86
o2: less than 2 yr, 2 p: 2 yr or more. a Using Asian values.
Goatsa
Dry
0.49
Pigs Fattening
0.21
0.17
0.36
Sows
0.66
Broilers
0.87
0.00106
Laying hens Young
Adult
0.00267
0.00617
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
CH4 were entrusted to our previous paper (Yamaji et al., 2003).
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Emissions estimates and comparison with previous studies NH3 and N2O from AWMS for each type of livestock, except for emissions after application as fertilizers was estimated at country and district level by multiplying the specific emission factor taking into account the N-excretion value from each livestock by the livestock population. Amount of total NH3 and N2O emission from AWMS in South, Southeast, and East Asia was estimated at 4.7 Tg NH3–N and 0.51 Tg N2O–N yr1, respectively, in the base year 2000, as shown in Tables 5 and 6. Our estimation of NH3 emissions cannot be compared directly with previous studies (Olivier et al., 1998; Zhao and Wang, 1994) since their values included NH3 emissions after application as fertilizers. Thus, Table 5 also presents the NH3 emission values from animal excreta used as manure which were estimated by Yan et al. (2003). As compared with Ace-Asia and Trace-P Modeling and Emission Support System (ACESS) data, our estimation for India was 25% larger while emissions in other countries were comparable (Streets et al., 2003; ACESS web page, http://www.cgrer.uiowa.edu/ACESS/ acess_index.htm). Considering the year’s gap, our result and Olivier’s for China agreed reasonably well, while NH3 emission by Olivier et al. (1998) for India is more than 30% larger than our estimation. The reasons for these differences are not clear. Similarly, emission values
7115
by Zhao and Wang (1994) for India and Asian total were larger than ours (Table 5). Estimating NH3 emissions from AWMS by considering the N-excretion values from Asian livestock gave us values smaller than those obtained by Zhao and Wang (1994). For N2O, the estimation using the IPCC’s emission factors (Table 3), 0.7 Tg N2O–N yr1 is about 0.2 Tg bigger than the present result. The IPCC’s method must have overestimated N2O emissions from goats which have been bred greatly in Asia. As shown in Table 3, the IPCC’s method assumed the same high emission factor for goats as horses’, camels’, and so on. The N2O emission value by Olivier et al. (1998) is much too small particularly for China (Table 6). The reason for this large difference is not clear. On the other hand, new data by Olivier’s group, EDGAR 3.2 (the sum of ‘‘confined’’ and ‘‘deposited on soil’’ in Table 6) which does not include ‘‘application’’ provides considerably higher N2O emissions than our values. Their Asian total value is about 28% larger than our total value. That is attributable to their using the IPCC guidelines because the IPCC methodology gives too high emission factors for a category including grazing animals, especially goats as shown in Table 3. On this point, we believe this paper provides more realistic emission data. However, our emission inventory for N2O and NH3 has yet included the significant uncertainties because our estimations have still relied on the emission factors mostly based on European experiments and observations. As shown in Table 7, total CH4 emissions via enteric fermentation and AWMS were 28.3 and 29.9 Tg CH4 yr1 for 1995 and 2000, respectively. By comparison with NH3 and N2O emissions, our results and EDGAR data for CH4 agreed quite well.
Table 5 Comparison of ammonia emissions from livestock with previous studies (kg NH3–N yr1) This study Base year source
2000
1995
ACESSa
Olivier et al. (1998)
Zhao and Wang (1994)
2000
1990
1989/91
AWMSb
Applicationc
AWMSb
Applicationc
Alld
Alld
Alld
China India Pakistan Indonesia Bangladesh
2.2 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.1
2.3 1.7 0.2 0.1 0.1
2.1 1.3 0.3 0.2 0.1
2.0 1.6 0.2 0.1 0.1
4.2 2.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
3.2 3.8
3.3 4.1 0.4 0.2 0.3
Asian total
4.7
5.0
4.5
4.7
8.7e
a
9.3e
Quoted from ACESS web page (http://www.cgrer.uiowa.edu/ACESS/acessindex.htm). Ammonia emissions from AWMS. c Ammonia emissions from application of wastes to agricultural lands (Yan et al., 2003, REAS web page; http://www.jamstec.go.jp/ frsgc/research/d4/emission.htm/). d Ammonia emissions from all stage of animal wastes treatment. These values are equal to the sum of AWMS and application. e Excepting Afghanistan. b
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
7116
Table 6 Comparison of nitrous oxide emissions from livestock with previous studies (kg N2O–N yr1) This study Base year source
2000
1995
Olivier et al. (1998)
EDGARd
1990
1995 Confinede
AWMSa
Applicationc
AWMSa
Applicationb
Alld
Deposited on soilf
China India Pakistan Indonesia Bangladesh
234 151 27 15 15
124 83 14 6 4
227 143 33 18 15
109 77 12 7 4
129 185 — — —
96 32 5 5 3
167 168 53 15 29
Asian total
508
233
498
233
—
160
478
a
Nitrous oxide emissions from AWMS. Nitrous oxide emissions from application of wastes to agricultural lands (Yan et al., 2003, REAS web page; http:// www.jamstec.go.jp/frsgc/research/d4/emission.htm/). c Nitrous oxide emissions from all stages of animal wastes treatment. These values are equal to the sum of AWMS and application. d EDGAR3.2, quoted from EDGAR group web page (http://arch.rivm.nl/env/int/coredata/edgar/). Sum of these values (confined and deposited on soil) is equal to AWMS value. e Nitrous oxide emissions from confined animal wastes. f Nitrous oxide emissions from deposited animal wastes. b
Table 7 Comparison of methane emissions from livestock with a previous study (Tg CH4 yr1) Base year
This studya
EDGARb
2000
1995
1995
China India Pakistan Indonesia Bangladesh
10.4 11.8 1.8 0.8 0.9
9.5 11.1 1.8 0.8 0.9
8.7 11.8 2.3 0.9 1.0
Asian total
29.9
28.3
28.7
a
Quoted from Yamaji et al. (2003). EDGAR3.2, quoted from EDGAR group web page (http:// arch.rivm.nl/env/int/coredata/edgar/). b
3.2. Contribution by livestock and countries to emissions For NH3 the livestock with largest emission were cattle which emitted 1.6 Tg NH3–N yr1 and the livestock with next largest emission were pigs and poultry which emitted 0.8 Tg NH3–N yr1. Contribution of cattle was one-third of total NH3 emission from AWMS in this area. China was the highest emission country where 2.2 Tg NH3–N yr1 was produced through AWMS. The next highest country was India where 1.3 Tg NH3–N yr1 was produced via AWMS. The other relatively high emission countries were Pakistan, Indonesia, and Bangladesh each of which produced
0.1–0.2 Tg NH3–N yr1 (Fig. 1 and Table 5). The largest N2O emission livestock were cattle which emitted 0.15 Tg N2O–N yr1 and the next largest emission livestock were pigs which emitted 0.10 Tg N2O–N yr1. Other high emitters were goats, buffaloes, sheep, and poultry each of which contributed more than 0.05 Tg N2O–N yr1 (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 also shows the contribution of the N2O emission from AWMS in each country. The largest and the second largest country were China and India, where N2O production was at 0.23 and 0.15 Tg N2O–N yr1, respectively. For both livestock and countries, contribution ratios by each source categories to N2O and NH3 emissions were similar because these emissions rely on N-excretions from each animal. On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 3, main CH4 emitters were cattle and buffaloes, which produced 16.8 and 7.1 Tg CH4 yr1, respectively, and these sums contributed more than three-fourths of CH4 emission from animals in this area. Such a large contribution to the CH4 emission is due to the large number of cattle and buffalo which have been bred in this area and due to their high CH4 production ability per head by their enteric fermentations. Another main CH4 emission livestock were goats, sheep, and pigs which produced around 1–2 Tg CH4 yr1. Goats and sheep produced CH4 mainly through enteric fermentation, but pigs, which are key livestock in China, produced most of CH4 through the AWMS. The largest CH4 emission countries were India and China where 11.7 and 10.4 Tg CH4 yr1 were produced through animal farming. These two countries contributed to more than two-thirds of CH4 emission from animal farming in this area. The other consider-
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
7117
2.5 Others
Cattle
1.1Tg
1.6Tg
2.0
1.5 0.8Tg
1.0
Buffaloes Sheep 0.4Tg
TgNH3-N
Pigs
0.5Tg Goats 0.4Tg
0.5
0.0
sgp brn btn lka lao nkr cmb mys twn skr npl afg phl mmr jpn tha mng vnm bgd idn pak ind chn Country
Fig. 1. Ammonia emission from animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia for 2000. The circle graph shows ammonia emission value from each livestock. The bar graph shows nitrous oxide emission value from each country.
0.25 Others
Cattle
0.08Tg
0.15Tg
0.20
Pigs
Sheep 0.05Tg
Buffaloes 0.06Tg
0.10
TgN2O-N
0.15
0.10Tg
Goats 0.06Tg 0.05
brn sgp btn lka lao nkr mys cmb twn skr npl tha afg mmr phl jpn vnm mng bgd idn pak ind chn
0.00
Country
Fig. 2. Nitrous oxide emission from animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia for 2000. The circle graph shows nitrous oxide emission value from each livestock. The bar graph shows nitrous oxide emission value from each country.
ably high emission countries were Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, where around 1–2 Tg CH4 yr1 CH4 was produced from animal farming (Fig. 3). For both livestock and countries, contribution ratios by each source categories to CH4 emissions were different from the contribution ratios of N2O and NH3 emissions. This difference is caused by difference of main processes producing these gases: CH4 is mainly produced via
enteric fermentation; N2O and NH3 are mainly produced via AWMS. 3.3. Spatial distributions of emissions Fig. 4 shows the spatial distribution of NH3 emissions from AWMS in South, Southeast, and East Asia in 2000. The highest NH3 emission areas with 3 Gg NH3–N
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
7118
Others 0.8Tg Sheep
12
Pigs
1.3Tg
2.2Tg
10
Goats 1.7Tg
8 6
16.8Tg
TgCH4
Cattle Buffaloes 7.1Tg
4 2 0
brn sgp btn nkr lka twn mys lao skr cmb afg mng npl phl jpn tha vnm mmr idn bgd pak chn ind Country
Fig. 3. Methane emission from animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia for 2000. The circle graph shows methane emission value from each livestock. The bar graph shows methane emission value from each country.
50N
40N
30N
20N
10N
0 Gg NH3-N grid-1 yr-1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
60E
1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
80E
100E
120E
140E
Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of ammonia from livestock in 2000.
grid1 are found at the lower part of Yellow River, North China Plain to the east coast provinces, Shandong and Jiangsu. In addition to cattle, pigs and poultry also increase NH3 emissions in this region. The high emission areas with more than 2 Gg NH3–N grid1
are found in southern parts of China (area along the course of Xi River and Hainan) and Taiwan. In South Asia, the highest NH3 emission areas with 3 Gg NH3–N grid1 appear in the Ganges delta, where a lot of cattle are bred for milk production and as power animals. The
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
7119
northwest India, where buffaloes are mainly bred as draft and dairy animals. The high emission area is found also in South India, Kerala. In China, a region with higher CH4 emission is found in the lower part of Yellow River, North China Plain, where cattle are bred mainly for meat. In contrast to spatial distributions of N2O and NH3, the area with CH4 emissions as high as in the northeast India to Bangladesh is not recognized in China.
other high emission areas are in the spread at northwest part of India, Punjab and Haryana where the contribution by buffaloes, goats, and sheep is large and the southwest coast of India, Kerala, where the contribution by cattle and goats is large. Fig. 5 shows the spatial distribution of N2O emissions in 2000. Spatial distributions for N2O and NH3 emission tend to be similar. In India the highest N2O emission area with 0.5 Gg N2O–N grid1 appears to be in the Ganges delta. The other high N2O emission regions exist in Punjab, Haryana, and Kerala where NH3 emissions are also high. The highest emission areas of China with 0.3–0.4 Gg N2O–N grid1 are along the course of Yellow River. On the other hand, our gridded database shows that Taiwan, where a lot of pigs are fed, is one of the large sources of NH3 and N2O from AWMS. EDGAR database did not give the emission rate for the grid of Taiwan since the emission from Taiwan is included in China. Fig. 6 shows the spatial distribution of CH4 emission from animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia. Whole India stands out by high CH4 emission, more than 10 Gg CH4 grid1. The highest CH4 emission regions spread from the Ganges delta to area along the course of the Ganges. The appreciably high emission grids that exceed 20 Gg CH4 grid1 are concentrated in the northeast India upto Bangladesh, where cattle that are mainly bred as draft and dairy animals greatly contribute to the high CH4 emission. Another area with highest emission grids also happen in
4. Summary and conclusions This study presented amounts of emissions of atmospheric trace components, NH3, N2O, and CH4, which were produced from animal farming. The NH3, N2O, and CH4 emission from South, Southeast, and East Asia were estimated at 4.7 Tg NH3–N, 0.51 Tg N2O–N, and 29.9 Tg CH4, respectively in 2000. Animal farming in India and China was a significant source of atmospheric trace components as reported previously. In addition to breeding cattle in these countries, large number of pigs in China had a great influence on NH3 and N2O production and also large number of buffaloes in India affected CH4 production significantly. Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia also contributed to amounts of emissions of these atmospheric components. This study also provided the 0.51 0.51 latitude–longitude gridded databases of NH3, N2O, and CH4 emissions from
50N
40N
30N
20N
10N
0 10-1 Gg N2O-N grid-1 yr-1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
60E
80E
5
100E
120E
Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of nitrous oxide from livestock in 2000.
140E
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121
7120
50N
40N
30N
20N
10N
0 Gg CH4 / grid / year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
60E
80E
100E
120E
140E
Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of methane from livestock in 2000.
AWMS in South, Southeast, and East Asia in 2000. These emissions were extremely high in the basin of the Ganges and the lower parts of the Yellow River basin where a large number of cattle or buffalo were bred. Patterns of NH3 and N2O emissions distribution were quite similar, but the spatial distribution pattern of CH4 emissions had a substantial difference from those for NH3 and N2O. For CH4, in addition to the highest emission in the area along the course of the Ganges, whole India was covered with relatively high emissions.
References AH&D (Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, 1999. Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics. AH&D, New Delhi. Asman, W.A.H., 1992. Ammonia emission in Europe: updated emission and emission variations. Report 228471008. National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection. The Netherlands. Bouwman, A.F., van der Hoek, K.W., Olivier, J.G.J., 1995. Uncertainty in the global source distribution of nitrous oxide. Journal of Geophysical Research 100, 2785–2800. Bouwman, A.F., Lee, D.S., Asman, W.A.H., Dentener, F.J., van der Hoek, K.W., Olivier, J.G.J., 1997. A global highresolution emission inventory for ammonia. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 11, 561–587.
Census and Statistics Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 2000. Hong Kong annual digest of statistics 2000, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong. CEPD (Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan Republic of China), 2001. Taiwan Statistical Data Book. CEPD, Taipei. Council for Agriculture, 2001. Agricultural statistics yearbook 2001. Council for Economic Planning and Development, Taipei. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India, 2000. Indian Agriculture in Brief, 27th edition. Government of India, Delhi. Dong, H.M., Erda, L., Li, Y., Rao, M.J., Yang, Q.C., 1996. An estimation of methane emissions from agriculture activities in China. Ambio 25, 292–296. ECETOC (Europe Center for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals), 1994. Ammonia emissions to air in Western. Technical Report 62. ECETOC, Brussels. EEA (European Environment Agency), 1999. Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook, Second edition. EEA, Copenhagen. LEIO (Livestock Industry’s Environmental Improvement Organization), 1998. Handbook for Management and Use of Livestock Waste. LEIO, Tokyo (in Japanese). Garg, A., Bhattacharya, S., Shukla, P.R., Dadhwal, V.K., 2001. Regional and sectoral assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in India. Atmospheric Environment 35, 2679–2695. GSI (Geographical Survey Institute), 1991. Land use area. (ID: KS-200-1). In: Geographical digital information.
ARTICLE IN PRESS K. Yamaji et al. / Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 7111–7121 Houghton, J.T., Meira Filho, L.G., Lim, B., Treanton, K., Mamaty, I., Bonduki, Y., Griggs, D.J., Callender, B.A. (Eds.)., 1997. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual, Vol. 3. UK Meteorological Office, Bracknell. JLTA (Advancing Livestock Technology), 1999. Emission control of greenhouse gases on animal farming No. 4. Tokyo (in Japanese). Kannari, A., Baba, T., Hayami, H., 2001. Estimation of ammonia emission in Japan. The Journal of Japan Society for Atmospheric Environment 36, 29–38 (in Japanese). Klaassen, G., 1991. Past and future emissions of ammonia in Europe. Part 1 of a Report to: Ministry for Public Housing, Physical Planning and Environment. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria Kroeze, C., Mozier, A., Bouwman, L., 1999. Closing the N2O Budget: a retrospective analysis. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13, 1–8. LCWG (Land Cover Working Group) and CEReS (Center for Environmental Remote Sensing), 1999. AARS Asia 30— second land cover data set with ground truth information. http://wwwsv.cr.chiba-u.ac.jp/. Lee, Y.-H., Park, S.-U., 2002. Estimation of ammonia emission in South Korea. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 135, 23–37. Lerner, J., Matthews, E., Fung, I., 1988. Methane emission from animals: a global high-resolution data base. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2, 139–156. Li, Y., 2000. Improving the estimates of GHG emissions from animal manure management systems in China. In: Proceedings of the IGES (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies)/NIES (National Institute for environmental studies) Workshop on GHG Inventories for Asian Pacific Region. pp. 61–75. MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries), 2001. Livestock statistic. Association of Agriculture and Fisheries statistics, Tokyo (in Japanese). MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries), 2002. Pocket livestock statistics. Association of Agriculture and Fisheries statistics, Tokyo (in Japanese). Mosier, A., Kroeze, C., Nevison, C., Oenema, O., Seitzinger, S., van Cleemput, O., 1998a. Closing the global N2O budget: nitrous oxide emissions through the agricultural nitrogen cycle—OECD/IPCC/IEA phase II development of IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventory methodology. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 52, 225–248. Mosier, A.R., Duxburry, J.M., Freney, J.R., Heinemeyer, O., Minami, K., Johnson, D.E., 1998b. Mitigation agricultural emissions of methane. Climate Change 40, 39–80. Nakicenovic, N.J., Swart, R. (Eds.)., 2000, IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, USA. NBS (National Bureau of Statistics of China), 2001. China Agriculture Yearbook. China Statistics Press, Beijing.
7121
Olivier, J.G.J., Bouwman, A.F., Van der Hoek, K.W., Berdowski, J.J.M., 1998. Global air emission inventories for anthropogenic sources of NOx, NH3, and N2O in 1990. Environmental Pollution 102, 135–148. Olivier, J.G.J., Bouwman, A.F., Berdowski, J.J.M., Veldt, C., Bloos, J.P.J., Visschedijk, A.J.H., van der Mass, C.W.M., Zandveld, P.Y.J., 1999. Sectional emission inventories of greenhouse gases for 1990 on a per country basis as well as on 11 11. Environmental Science & Policy 2, 241–263. Safley, L.M., Casada, M.E., Woodbury, J.W., Roos, K.F., 1992. Global Methane Emissions from Livestock and Poultry Manure. US Environmental Protection Agency, Climate Change Division, Washington, DC. Samnakngan Sathiti haeng Chat, 1996. 1993 Agricultural census: central region, Bangkok. Singh, G.P., Mohini, M., 1996. Methane production by Indian ruminant livestock. Current Science 71, 580–582. Steffens, G., Vetter, H., 1990. Neue Faustzahlen ueber Nachrstoffgehalte und Naehrstoffanfall. Landwirtsschaftsblatt Weser-Ems. 3. Streets, D.G., Bond, T.C., Carmichael, G.R., Fernandes, S.D., Fu, Q., He, D., Klimont, Z., Nelson, S.M., Tsai, N.Y., Wang, M.Q., Woo, J.-H., Yarber, K.F., 2003. An inventory of gaseous and primary aerosol emissions in Asia in the year 2000. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (D21), 8809. Terada, F., 2000. Methane emission inventory from enteric fermentation of ruminant livestock in Japan and Asia. In: Proceedings of the IGES (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies)/NIES (National Institute for environmental studies) Workshop on GHG Inventories for Asian Pacific Region. pp. 41–49. Van der Hoek, K. W., 1994. Calculation of N excretion and NH3 emissions by greenhouse gases in the Netherlands. Technical Report 222901003, National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, The Netherlands. Vetter, H., Klasnik, A., Steffens, G., 1989. Mist und Guelleduengung nach Mass. VDLUFA-Schriftenreihe 19, 41–66. Wang, M., Ding, A., Lei, W., Chen, D., 1996. China: interim report on greenhouse gas emissions: non-energy sources. In: Braatz, V.B., Jallow, P.B., Molna´r, S., Murdiyarso, D., Perdomo, M., Fitzgerald, F.J. (Eds.)., Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 171–182. Yamaji, K., Ohara, T., Akimoto, H., 2003. A country-specific, high-resolution emission inventory for methane from livestock in Asia in 2000. Atmospheric Environment 37, 4393–4406. Yan, X., Akimoto, H., Ohara, T., 2003. Estimation of nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, and ammonia emissions from croplands in East, Southeast, and South Asia. Global Change Biology 9, 1080–1096. Zhao, D., Wang, A., 1994. Emission of anthropogenic ammonia emission in Asia. Atmospheric Environment 28, 689–694.
