religions
Article Article
Sanctifying Security: Jewish Approaches to Religious Sanctifying Security: Jewish Approaches to Religious Education in Jerusalem Education in Jerusalem Isaac Calvert Isaac Calvert Department of Educational Leadership and Foundations, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; Department of Educational Leadership and Foundations, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA;
[email protected]; Tel.: +1-408-896-6065
[email protected]; Tel.: +1‐408‐896‐6065
Received: 1 December 2018; Accepted: 20 December 2018; Published: 1 January 2019 Received: 1 December 2018; Accepted: 20 December 2018; Published: 1 January 2019
Abstract: Abstract: While While Schmitt’s Schmitt’s Political Political Theology Theology paints paints modern modern theories theories of of the the state state as as secularized secularized theological concepts, prominent threads of Jewish religious education in 20th century Jerusalem theological concepts, prominent threads of Jewish religious education in 20th century Jerusalem have have moved in a different direction, that is, the toward the re‐sacralization of such secularized moved in a different direction, that is, toward re-sacralization of such secularized theological theological concepts. Orthodox schools Jerusalem, yeshivot, take an orthopractic concepts. Orthodox Jewish schoolsJewish in Jerusalem, or in yeshivot, take anor orthopractic approach to religious approach to religious education as informing all aspects of life, rather than a delimited of education as informing all aspects of life, rather than a delimited set of doctrines or beliefs. Asset such, doctrines beliefs. As of security fall within the purview religious questions or of security fall such, withinquestions the purview Jewish religious education. To lookJewish more closely at education. To look more closely at the relationship between orthodox Jewish religious education, the relationship between orthodox Jewish religious education, sanctity and security, I spent seven sanctity and security, I spent seven months enrolled as a student‐observer in three Jerusalem yeshivot months enrolled as a student-observer in three Jerusalem yeshivot taking daily field notes, conducting taking daily field notes, conducting interviews, attending classes, and studying related sacred texts. interviews, attending classes, and studying related sacred texts. By examining both Jewish sacred texts By both Jewish sacred texts Jerusalem and ethnographic data from contemporary Jerusalem andexamining ethnographic data from contemporary yeshivot, this article highlights how geo-political yeshivot, this article highlights how geo‐political ideals of security in modern Jerusalem are being re‐ ideals of security in modern Jerusalem are being re-sacralized by contemporizing ancient sacred texts sacralized by contemporizing ancient sacred texts and approaching religious education itself as a and approaching religious education itself as a means of eliciting divine aid in the securitization means of eliciting divine aid in the securitization process for Jewish Jerusalem. process for Jewish Jerusalem. Keywords: Jerusalem; Jewish education; sanctification; religious education; security Keywords: Jerusalem; Jewish education; sanctification; religious education; security
1. Introduction 1. Introduction While many of Judaism’s theological references to security, warfare, and geo‐politics had long While many of Judaism’s theological references to security, warfare, and geo-politics had since been interpreted in a strictly allegorical sense, with the establishment of the State of Israel, such long since been interpreted in a strictly allegorical sense, with the establishment of the State of theology attained a relevance unaddressed since antiquity The re‐ Israel, such theology attained atheretofore relevance theretofore unaddressed since (Cohen antiquity2007). (Cohen 2007). introduction of sacred texts into the realm of modern securitization has not only brought the content The re-introduction of sacred texts into the realm of modern securitization has not only brought of those texts into the conversation, but the sacralization those texts imply, as well. While Schmitt’s the content of those texts into the conversation, but the sacralization those texts imply, as well. Political Theology Political paints Theology modern paints theories of the state of as the secularized theological theological concepts, While Schmitt’s modern theories state as secularized contemporary Jewish religious exhibits a exhibits different tendency, tendency, that is, toward re‐ concepts, contemporary Jewish education religious education a different that is, the toward sacralization of such theological concepts, security not least among them. One One of the the re-sacralization ofsecularized such secularized theological concepts, security not least among them. of principle means by which contemporary Orthodox Judaisms in Jerusalem sacralize the security of the principle means by which contemporary Orthodox Judaisms in Jerusalem sacralize the security of Jerusalem is through the processes of teaching and learning within their religious communities. Jerusalem is through the processes of teaching and learning within their religious communities. Within Judaism’s famed corpus of over six hundred commandments, Jewish scripture describes Within Judaism’s famed corpus of over six hundred commandments, Jewish scripture describes one—the ))כנגד:: equal one—the commandment commandment to to teach teach and and learn—as learn—as kaneged kaneged kulam kulam (כולם ( equal to to all all other other commandments combined. By “studying, Jews see themselves as performing a holy act” (Holtz 1984, commandments combined. By “studying, Jews see themselves as performing a holy act” (Holtz p. 24) whose divinely‐ordained realization and links them to God, (Kadushin 1972, p. 213) who is 1984, p. 24) whose divinely-ordained realization and links them to God, (Kadushin 1972, p. 213) who is said to teach and learn with them every day (Alexander 2001, p. 5). Inasmuch as teaching and learning said to teach and learn with them every day (Alexander 2001, p. 5). Inasmuch as teaching and learning are means walking in God’s (see Deuteronomy 10:12; in other words, are aa means of of walking in God’s ways, ways, (see Deuteronomy 10:12; 28:9) or, in28:9) other or, words, “perform[ing] “perform[ing] actions like those (Seeskin God performs”, pp. 191–203) in the actions like those God performs”, 1996, pp.(Seeskin 191–203)1996, participating in the participating process of education process of education is a response to God’s invitation to the Jewish people to be holy. In this sense, is a response to God’s invitation to the Jewish people to be holy. In this sense, not only are teaching not only are teaching and learning considered a “sacred” and “holy pursuit” (Steinberg 1947, p. 67), and learning considered a “sacred” and “holy pursuit” (Steinberg 1947, p. 67), but a pursuit with the but a pursuit with the power to sanctify those who participate therein (Neusner 2003, pp. xvii–xxii). power to sanctify those who participate therein (Neusner 2003, pp. xvii–xxii). Religions 2019, 10, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW Religions 2019, 10, 23; doi:10.3390/rel10010023
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This capacity consecration among religious religious Jewish Jewish education’s education’s most This capacity forfor consecration isis among most transcendent transcendentand and defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( חניוך ), is derived from a root that defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( ), is derived from a root that This capacity for consecration is among religious Jewish education’s most transcendent and “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. As such, “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that ), is derived from a root that is his destiny”. As such, from defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( חניוך Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW thisfrom this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the human “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. As such, human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of the altar This capacity of for is among religious education’s most transcend sphere, referring just as much “to the education a consecration child” as to “the consecration ofJewish the altar in the from this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( חניוך ), is derived from a holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch ( ) human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of the altar Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW ()חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) which, in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 1965, p. from this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends be This capacity for consecration is among (Shapiro religious Jewish education’s according to Rabbinic “in all ramifications of existence” 1965, p. 46). Such most transcend (חניוך ) is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW tradition, inheres 2 of 11 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, through human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( ), is derived from a r seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, through chinuch ()חניוך, which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 1965, p. chinuch ()חניוך, enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, a “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. A This capacity for consecration is among religious Jewish education’s most transcendent and enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro 1965). 46). Such dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, through 1965). seeds of holiness remain ()חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 19 from this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends bey defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( ), is derived from a root that One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch (חניוך manifests its consecratory capacity is by chinuch ( חניוך ), enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ( )חניוך,), manifests its consecratory capacity is by which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. As such, playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought 1965). playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as from this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ( )חניוך, manifests its consecratory capacity is by (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos )חניוך, enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (chinuch ( )חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 19 human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of the altar depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to 1965). 2 which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch 2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s have used Torah1 to1 create the universe, “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos have used Torah to create the universe, One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ( )חניוך, manifests its consecratory capac 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, ()חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in this depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in this world, chinuch ()חניוך, enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” ( which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 1965, p. 1 to create the universe, 2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s world, including “millions of holy, supramundane worlds” is made “conditional upon man’s study including “millions of holy, supramundane worlds” is made “conditional upon man’s study of have used Torah (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire 1965). 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, through Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in this world, depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is be One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ()חניוך, manifests its consecratory capac chinuch ()חניוך, enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illustrate. 1 creation 2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved b instrumental in safeguarding the security of all the broadest scale upon they could illustrate. including “millions of holy, supramundane worlds” is on made “conditional man’s study of have used Torah to create the universe, playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic 1965). “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in th (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ( )חניוך, manifests its consecratory capacity is by to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and meditation on to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for moment of our study of and on including “millions of one holy, supramundane worlds” is meditation made “conditional upon man’s instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illustrate. depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is bel playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and 1 to create the universe, 2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish trad Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end have used Torah (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos 3 Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning 3 Many nothingness”. instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illu nothingness”. considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and meditation on study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in thi depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic gesture 2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s and 1the security of the cosmos as a “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a is symbolic gesture including “millions of holy, supramundane worlds” made “conditional upon man’s s Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and have used Torah to create the universe, rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and medit 3 Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning rich in meaning. Rabbi ChaimTorah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradi himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular nothingness”. study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in this world, round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, including Sabbaths and Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to ch instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illu round-the-clock (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, Sabbaths including and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic gesture “millions of holy, shifts supramundane worlds” is made “conditional upon including man’s study of and holidays, holidays, in order to ensure the uninterrupted study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 123) and, by 3 Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and nothingness”. “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are in order to ensure the uninterrupted study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 123) and, by association, the very rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular association, the very survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, however, the and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and medit instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illustrate. survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, however, cosmic security brought round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, the including Sabbaths and cosmic security brought about through sacred educational pursuits takes a much more local flavor. rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to ch “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end about through sacred takes a study much more local flavor. holidays, in order to educational ensure the pursuits uninterrupted of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. and 123) academic and, by Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a holy city across various religious 3 Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, including Sabba nothingness”. to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and meditation on Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a holy city across various religious and academic association, the very survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, however, the 4 contexts (Dumper 2014), key passages in Judaism’s sacred textual tradition specifically describe holidays, in order to ensure the uninterrupted 4 study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 123) and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and contexts (Dumper key passages in 5Judaism’s sacred textual tradition specifically describe cosmic security brought about through sacred educational pursuits takes a much more local flavor. 6, the light 7, the Jerusalem as the 2014), world’s spiritual center , its most beautiful location of the world association, the very survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, how 3 rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “ 5 6 7 , the nothingness”. Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning Jerusalem asJerusalem’s thecreation world’s spiritual center ,of itsas most beautiful location , thereligious light of the world 8 general 9 And Beyond recognition a holy city across various and academic origin of all and the epicenter the connection between heaven and earth. while cosmic security brought about through sacred educational pursuits takes a much more loca round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, including Sabba and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic gesture 8 9 4 specifically origin of(Dumper all creation and thepassages epicenter the connection between heaven and earth. And while contexts 2014), key in ofJudaism’s sacred textual tradition describe diverse Jewish communities may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem differently Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a holy city across various holidays, in order to ensure the uninterrupted study of Torah” (Lamm religious 1989, p. and 123) a rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular 5, its 6, the light 7, the diverse may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem differently Jerusalem as the communities world’s spiritual center most beautiful location of the world (e.g., Jewish interfaith relations, geopolitics, security, etc.), nearly all share a common understanding of 4 contexts (Dumper 2014), key passages in Sabbaths Judaism’s sacred textual tradition specifically association, the very survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, howe round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, including and 8 and the 9 And while (e.g., interfaith relations, geopolitics, security, etc.), nearly all share common understanding origin of all creation epicenter of the connection between heaven and earth. Jerusalem as “uncontroversially and consensually ... holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such worthy 5a Jerusalem as the world’s spiritual center , its most beautiful location6of , the light of the wo cosmic security brought about through sacred educational pursuits takes a much more local holidays, in order to ensure the uninterrupted study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 123) and, by Jerusalem as “uncontroversiallyorigin and consensually . . . holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such worthy of the greatest security they can muster. 8 9 An diverse Jewish communities may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem differently of all creation and the epicenter of the connection between heaven and earth. Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a holy city across various religious and a association, the very survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, however, the Despite the Talmud’s description of Jerusalem as a place of almost mystical safety (“a snake or of theinterfaith greatest security they can muster. (e.g., relations, geopolitics, security, etc.), nearly all share a common understanding of 4 diverse Jewish communities may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem di contexts (Dumper 2014), key passages in Judaism’s sacred textual tradition specifically cosmic security brought about through sacred educational pursuits takes a much more local flavor. 10 ), however, both historically and at present, one scorpion injured description anyone in interfaith Jerusalem” Despite never the Talmud’s ofas Jerusalem as spiritual ageopolitics, place of almost safetyall (“a snake Jerusalem as “uncontroversially and consensually ... holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such worthy 5, its mystical 6a (e.g., security, etc.), beautiful nearly share common understa Jerusalem the relations, world’s center location , the light of the wo Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a holy city across various religious and most academic 10 , however, both historically and at present, one or scorpion never injured anyone in Jerusalem” 8 of the greatest security they can muster. Jerusalem as “uncontroversially and consensually ... holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such 4 specifically origin of all creation and the epicenter of the connection between heaven and earth.9 An contexts (Dumper 2014), key passages in Judaism’s sacred textual tradition describe 1 Torah ()תורה can be translated as a verbal‐noun meaning “teaching”. It could rightly be interpreted in that characteristic the Holy City that seems capablelocation of eclipsing that holiness is its7, nagging reputation of the greatest security they can muster. Despite the Talmud’s description of Jerusalem as a place of almost mystical safety (“a snake or 5, diverse Jewish communities may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem dif 6, the light Jerusalem as the world’s of spiritual center its most beautiful of the world the sense here. 10 ), however, both historically Despite the Talmud’s description of Jerusalem as a place of almost mystical safety (“a 8 9 scorpion never injured anyone in Jerusalem” and at present, one (e.g., interfaith relations, geopolitics, security, etc.), nearly all share a common understan origin of all creation and the epicenter of the connection between heaven and earth. And while 2 Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 (ed. Theodor‐Albeck, p. 2, see other sources further cited 10 ), however, both historically and at pres scorpion never injured anyone in Jerusalem” Jerusalem as “uncontroversially and consensually ... holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such diverse Jewish communities may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem differently in footnote); Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei Rabbati, chp. 9, beg.). 1 1 Torah ()תורה can be translated as a verbal‐noun meaning “teaching”. It could rightly be interpreted in that of the greatest security they can muster. be interpreted inof that sense here. 3 relations, Torah ( ) can be translated as a verbal-noun meaningall “teaching”. could rightly (e.g., interfaith geopolitics, security, etc.), nearly share a Itcommon understanding Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. 2 1 Torah ()תורה can be translated as a verbal‐noun meaning “teaching”. It could rightly be interpret Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 (ed. Theodor-Albeck, p. 2, see other sources further cited in footnote); 4 For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishnah, Talmud Bavli, Zohar, etc. Despite the Talmud’s description of Jerusalem as a place of almost mystical safety (“a s sense here. Jerusalem as “uncontroversially and consensually ... holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such worthy Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei sense here. Rabbati, chp. 9, beg.). 2 Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 (ed. Theodor‐Albeck, p. 2, see other sources further cited 5 Tanchuma Kedushim 10. injured anyone in Jerusalem” 10 ), however, both historically and at prese of the greatest security they can muster. scorpion never 3 Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. 2 Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 (ed. Theodor‐Albeck, p. 2, see other sources fur 6 Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. 4 in footnote); Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei Rabbati, chp. 9, beg.). Despite the Talmud’s description of Jerusalem as a place of almost mystical safety (“a snake or For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishnah, Talmud Bavli, Zohar, etc. in footnote); Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei Rabbati, chp. 9, beg.). 3 5 Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. 7 Bereshit Rabba 59. 1 Torah ()תורה can be translated as a verbal‐noun meaning “teaching”. It could rightly be interprete Tanchuma 10.in Jerusalem” 10 ), however, both historically and at present, one scorpion never injured Kedushim anyone 3 Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. 6
8 Zohar, II, 1867, p. 222; III, p. 131. Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishnah, Talmud Bavli, Zohar, etc. sense here. 4 For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishnah, Talmud Bavli, Zohar, etc. 7 Bereshit Rabba 59. 9 Talmud Bavli, Brachot 27a. 2 Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 (ed. Theodor‐Albeck, p. 2, see other sources furt 8 Tanchuma Kedushim 10. 5 Torah ()תורה can be translated as a verbal‐noun meaning “teaching”. It could rightly be interpreted in that Zohar, II, 1867, p. 222; III, p. 131. Tanchuma Kedushim 10. 10 Talmud Bavli, Yoma 21a. 6 Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. in footnote); Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei Rabbati, chp. 9, beg.). 9 6 Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. sense here. Talmud Bavli, Brachot 27a. 3 Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. 7 10 Bereshit Rabba 59. Talmud Bavli, Yoma 21a. 7 Bereshit Rabba 59. Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 (ed. Theodor‐Albeck, p. 2, see other sources further cited 4 For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishnah, Talmud Bavli, Zohar, etc. 8 Zohar, II, 1867, p. 222; III, p. 131. 8 Zohar, II, 1867, p. 222; III, p. 131. in footnote); Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei Rabbati, chp. 9, beg.). 5 Tanchuma Kedushim 10. 9 Talmud Bavli, Brachot 27a. 9 Talmud Bavli, Brachot 27a. Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. 6 Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. 10 Talmud Bavli, Yoma 21a. 10 Talmud Bavli, Yoma 21a. For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishnah, Talmud Bavli, Zohar, etc. 7 Bereshit Rabba 59. Tanchuma Kedushim 10. 8 Zohar, II, 1867, p. 222; III, p. 131. Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. 9 Talmud Bavli, Brachot 27a. Bereshit Rabba 59.
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as a dangerous one. Among “at least 118 separate conflicts in and for Jerusalem during the past four millennia”, (Cline 2004, p. 2) each year on Tish B’Av, the Jewish community mourns in remembrance of what they consider the worst among them: the destruction of the Holy City and its temple, first at the hands of the Babylonians in 586 BCE and again in 70 CE by the Romans under Titus. This mournful remembrance is made all the more poignant by rabbinic commentaries that explain why these catastrophes ever took place. Both Rebbi Natan’s commentary11 and Eichah Rabbah12 claim that the cause of Jerusalem’s destruction in both instances as Israel’s abandonment of Torah study. Contemporary rabbinic commentary continues to see uninterrupted religious education as crucial to the security of the Jewish people in a markedly literal sense, even claiming that its abandonment was what “brought about the European Holocaust” (Selengut 1994, p. 247). With both the weight of the cosmos and the safety of the Jewish people resting on their shoulders, it is not small wonder that many orthodox Jewish communities in Jerusalem pursue their studies quite literally as though their lives depended on it. Those within such communities tend to take one of two main approaches to contributing to Jerusalem’s security in this religiously-motivated way. On the one hand, religious-Zionists believe that both Torah study and practical military defense are equally necessary parts of Jerusalem’s security. Under Rav Kook in the early 20th century, many religious-Zionists took the stance that “the metaphysical and tangible criteria for Israel’s survival” were “inextricably fused” (Cohen 2012, p. 43). As such, both active participation in religious education as well as military service were not only permissible, but seen as religious obligations for the orthodox community as a whole (Cohen 2007). While this position may not be as extreme as the haredi stance outlined below, it still acknowledges the indispensable role of religious education to both the sanctity and security of Jerusalem as a holy place. The haredi, or Ultra-Orthodox, view “maintains that Israel’s security remains absolutely dependent upon God’s will, and hence entirely contingent upon the transcendental forces over which He alone exercises sway” (Cohen 2012, p. 43). As such, the haredi contribution to Jerusalem’s security is through Torah study alone with the understanding that “diligent study constitutes Israel’s primary lifeline” and that, “by comparison, all conventional agencies of protection must be deemed totally irrelevant” (Cohen 2012, p. 43). In this sense, those who participate in religious education believe that “they contribute as much (if not more) than do soldiers to national survival” (Cohen 2012, p. 44) and that “if the government2 of 11 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW knew how much [Torah] students protect the state’s well-being through their study, it would put guards capacity for consecration among religious Jewish education’s most transcendent and in the schools, This making sure that Torah study isis never interrupted” (Selengut 1994, p. 245). defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( חניוך ), is derived from a root that This has implications with regard to the dual definition of chinuch ( ) as both “education” “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. As such, and “consecration”. Rabbi Shach, a prominent voice in haredi Jerusalem, posited that the security of the Jewishfrom this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the people in Jerusalem had more to do with Torah study than even the land itself. Because human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of the altar Abraham “possessed the Torah in Haran (i.e., before entering the Holy Land)”, the Jews “became an in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch everlasting people before [they] had the ‘land of Israel’ or ‘territories’”. This stance suggests that the ()חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) Holy Land owes both its security and its sanctity in some degree to the religious education realized which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 1965, p. within its precincts. Rabbi Shach’s idea, namely, that “other than the Torah we have no security” (Doron 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, through 13 and 1988, p. 504) is supported bothReligions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW within the Jewish scriptural canon by Peter’s assertion that a chinuch ()חניוך, enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro holy city owes much of its sanctity to the religious education realized therein (Peters 1986). 1965). This of capacity for exegesis consecration is pedigree among religious education’s most transcend In this sense, “based upon passages rabbinic whose stretchesJewish back for almost One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ( )חניוך, manifests its consecratory capacity is by defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( ))חניוך, is derived from a 2000 years” (Cohen 2012, p. 44), the educative and consecratory dimensions of Judaic chinuch ( playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought contribute(most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos both to the sanctity“implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. of Jerusalem itself as well as the physical security of those who live from this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends be there. So intertwined are education’s dual capacities for both consecration and securitization that, at depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of 1 2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s least in this haredi interpretation of Jerusalem’s sanctity and security, they are hardly distinguishable. have used Torah to create the universe, in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, a study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in this world, ()חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 19 including “millions of holy, supramundane worlds” is made “conditional upon man’s study of which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 11 Avot de Rebbi Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are Natan 1:2. 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, 12 Eichah Rabbah (ed. Buber, 1:20, pp. 92–93). instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illustrate. 13 Avot de Rebbi Natan (1:2) claims that chinuch ( חניוך ), enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” neglecting Torah study was the cause of Jerusalem’s destruction, while Eichah Rabbah “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end (ed. Buber, 1:20, pp. 92–93) maintains that it was the result of having neglected both the teaching and learning of Torah. 1965). to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and meditation on One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ()חניוך, manifests its consecratory capac Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic nothingness”.3 Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic gesture depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is be rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular have used Torah1 to create the universe,2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved b round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, including Sabbaths and
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This connection between education, sanctity, and security runs deeply through the sacred texts and contemporary rabbinic commentary that inform Jerusalem’s orthodox Jewish religious education. While this connection has been the subject of a rich legacy of research, little has been done to illustrate how those who daily participate in Orthodox Jewish religious education today implement and experience it. As such, this paper explores how the unique relationship between sanctity, religious education and security affect Orthodox Jews in contemporary Jerusalem yeshivot. 2. Methods In order to understand how the relationship between sanctity, education, and security in Jerusalem affected the lived experience of yeshiva students there, I enrolled as a student-researcher in two orthodox yeshivot in Jerusalem. While enrolled over the course of seven months, I attended daily classes from morning until late into the night, studied with various learning partners (khavrusa) and conducted dozens of one-on-one interviews with students and rabbis. At the first yeshiva, Merkaz David, I conducted eight interviews with students and another eight with rabbis. Each lasted approximately one hour and included semi-structured questions about sacred dimensions of yeshiva study generally. At Or Akiva, I conducted another five student interviews and nine with rabbis. Through daily observation, active participation in the community (Adler and Adler 1987; Fetterman 2010 qualitative interviews (Kvale and Brinkmann 2009), and detailed field notes (Emerson et al. 2011), in short, an ethnographic process, I gained intimate glimpses into the daily life of yeshiva students and their teachers. By coming “to understand and be attentive to the feelings of another on their terms” (Mills and Morton 2013), I invited community members to teach me from their point of view (Spradley 2016). As part of my yeshiva studies, I also immersed myself in Judaism’s sacred texts, studying the Babylonian Talmud, Tanakh, Mishnah, and other texts in the Jewish canon in their original Hebrew and Aramaic. In gathering fieldwork data, I followed commonly accepted qualitative research standards including member checking, transcript review, prolonged engagement, triangulation of data, progressive subjectivity checks, maintenance of an audit trail, and persistent observation and thick description (Lincoln and Guba 1985). I analyzed interview transcripts and field note journal entries in NVivo, coding them thematically. My position and role as student-researcher within these yeshivot was a delicate balance between Insider and Outsider. As I am not Jewish, I could not become an Insider without converting, which I was clear from the outset was not my intention. At the same time, in order to deeply investigate the community, I needed near-Insider access to lessons, interviews, and other rituals and gatherings. In speaking with yeshiva leadership, we addressed this issue by the clothes I wore to daily study. Students and rabbis wore black suits, white shirts and kippas to yeshiva each day. In order to stand apart so that all students and rabbis would instantly recognize me as a non-student, I wore a blue tweed suit coat, brown trousers and a blue shirt with a tie. This showed, they explained, that I respected the sanctity of the space while also communicating that I was not a traditional student. In order to show that I was welcome in these sacred precincts, however, I was also invited to wear a kippa. As a traditional outward symbol of Jewish religiosity, my wearing of the kippa showed that I was welcome in the space and was respectful of its sanctity, even though the rest of my costume communicated that I was neither an Insider nor interested in converting to become one. As such, my position was neither Insider nor Outsider, but a blended, welcome participant-observer. My non-Jewish status was problematic in the initial stages of the study. I approached over 50 yeshivot in Jerusalem to propose this study and only three agreed to grant me access. Due to the sanctity of the educative process conducted in these communities, this exclusivity is understandable. However, because I speak Hebrew, have a traditionally Jewish name and am of the proper age (18–30) and gender of traditional yeshiva students in these orthodox communities, I was granted preliminary access. Unfortunately, had I been a woman, yeshiva leadership informed me, I would simply not have been granted access to these communities at all. By the same token, had I sought to ask these same questions in a more modern, all-female yeshiva, I would have encountered the same problem in
instrumental in safeguarding the security of all cr “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even f Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower w Religions 2019, 10, 23 5 of 11 nothingness”.3 Many considered the connection b and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrum Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11 5 of 11 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11 11 rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this c Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW those communities. Because of a strict separation between reverse and men 5 of 11 not been granted access to Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5 of of 11 11 between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, round‐the‐clock shifts ethnographic (mishmarot) of students e Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. rthodox Jewish communities, ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. between men and women during prayer and study in these particular orthodox Jewish communities, research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. holidays, in order to ensure the uninterrupted ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. leadership ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. After prolonged engagement with the students, I of earned the trust of yeshiva leadership After prolonged engagement with the students, I students, earned the trust of yeshiva leadership as I as I as as ethnographic research among them seems to consistently encounter this significant limitation. between men and women during pray prolonged engagement the students, I association, the very survival of the universe itsel earned the trust of yeshiva leadership After prolonged engagement with the I earned the trust of yeshiva I I is significant limitation. After After prolonged engagement with thewith students, I earned the trust yeshiva leadership as I showed After prolonged engagement with the students, I earned the trust of yeshiva leadership as I After prolonged engagement with the students, I earned the trust of yeshiva leadership as I showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the After prolonged engagement students, I earned the trust My of yeshiva leadership as I showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the ethnographic research among them se showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the ust of yeshiva leadership as showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the I or no interest ulterior motive outsidewith thatthe of my primary investigation. presence in the schools cosmic security brought about through sacred edu showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the showed no interest or ulterior motive outside that of my primary investigation. My presence in the schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position After prolonged schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position stigation. My presence in the schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position as engagement wit schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a schools had little influence on the content of lessons or the study practices of students, as my position as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence showed no interest or ulterior motive as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence ces of students, as my position as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence student-research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence as student‐research most closely resembled that of a newcomer to the yeshiva. As such, my presence contexts (Dumper 2014), the key passages in Judais was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal schools had little influence on the conte was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal yeshiva. As such, my presence was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted normal was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal 5, as was largely ignored by the rabbis during lessons. Interviews, as a rule, never interrupted the normal schedule those involved in daily study. this sense, it was my goal throughout to Jerusalem the world’s spiritual center its mo schedule of those involved in daily study. In sense, this sense, it was my goal throughout to be to as be as student‐research most closely resem schedule of involved those involved in daily study. In it this sense, it throughout was my goal throughout never interrupted the normal schedule of of those involved in daily study. In In this sense, it as was my goal throughout to as be be as schedule of those inin daily study. In this was my goal to be asto unobtrusive schedule of those involved daily study. In this sense, it was my goal throughout be as schedule of those involved in daily study. In this sense, it was my goal throughout to be as schedule of those involved in daily study. In this sense, it was my goal throughout to be as 8 unobtrusive as possible throughout the course of my fieldwork. In this way, I designed my unobtrusive as possible possible throughout the course of my fieldwork. In this way, I designed my was largely ignored by the rabbis duri as possible throughout the course of my fieldwork. In this way, I fieldwork designed my my my goal throughout to unobtrusive be as unobtrusive as throughout possible throughout the course of my In of fieldwork. In this way, I designed origin all creation and the epicenter of the co as possible throughout the course of my fieldwork. In this way, I designed my ethnographic unobtrusive as the course of my fieldwork. this way, I designed my unobtrusive as possible possible throughout the course of my fieldwork. In this way, designed my unobtrusive as throughout the course of my fieldwork. In this way, I I designed my ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing schedule of those involved in daily ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing In this way, I designed my to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing the potential negative diverse Jewish communities may approach conte ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing ethnographic fieldwork to have minimal impact on their daily lives of study participants, reducing the potential negative impact of this research project on them. the potential negative impact of this research project on them. unobtrusive as possible throughout the potential negative impact of this research project on them. study participants, reducing the potential negative impact of this research project on them. impact of this research project on them. the potential negative impact of this research project on them. (e.g., the potential negative impact of this research project on them. the potential negative impact of this research project on them. interfaith relations, geopolitics, security, et ethnographic fieldwork to have minim Jerusalem as “uncontroversially and consensually 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem the potential negative impact of this re 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem of the greatest security they can muster. Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state-of-the-art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Jerusalemite religious education spans a spectrum from the state‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s Despite the Talmud’s description of Jerusalem 3. On Jewish Education in Jerusalem flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas ‐of‐the‐art facilities of Israel’s flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas flagship Hebrew University, to the ascetic lifestyles of Eastern Orthodox monks, to Islamic madrassas scorpion never injured anyone in Jerusalem” 10 ) the throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that ()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that ()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that (()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ ) throughout Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education inJerusalemite religious education s Jerusalem that x monks, to Islamic madrassas ()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that ()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ ()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that
()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ throughout the Old City and East Jerusalem. Jewish religious education in Jerusalem that departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or flagship Hebrew University, to the asc departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or s education in Jerusalem that departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or departs from an exclusive focus on Talmudic study often has ties to the Jewish Enlightenment, or 1just haskalah , in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah ()תורה in Jewish schools was haskalah ()הסקלה , in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah in Jewish schools was haskalah ()הסקלה , in which the idea of teaching more than Torah ()תורה in Jewish schools was Torah ()תורה can be translated as a verbal‐noun me haskalah ()הסקלה , in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah ()תורה in Jewish schools was ()ﻣﺪﺍﺭﺱ schools throughout the Old City and haskalah ()הסקלה , in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah ()תורה ()תורה in Jewish schools was was haskalah ()הסקלה , in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah ()תורה in Jewish schools haskalah ( ), in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah ( ) in Jewish schools was the Jewish Enlightenment, or haskalah ()הסקלה, in which the idea of teaching more than just Torah ()תורה in Jewish was 14 15 14 14This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept 15 14 This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept 14 15 14 15 15 introduced. This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept (ארץ דרך עם )תורה , 14 introduced. (ארץ דרך , introduced. (ארץ דרך עם )תורה introduced. This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept (ארץ דרך עם )תורה , 14 15 This introduced. movement This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept (ארץ דרך , ,15, 15 ()תורה in Jewish schools was introduced. This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept דרך )תורה עם also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept ( דרך sense here. departs from an exclusive focus on Ta introduced. This movement also included Hirsch’s torah im derekh aretz concept (ארץ ארץ( עם עם)תורה ,), )תורה which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together 15 2 which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together haskalah ()הסקלה , in which the idea of which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together tz concept (דרך ארץ עםwhich proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together )תורה ,which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together which proposed that religious and secular topics could and in some cases should be taught together Zohar II, p. 161a. (Terumah); Cf. Bereshit Rabbah 1:4 ( in a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the ישבה (yeshiva). At present, education that in a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the ישבה in footnote); Tanhuma (Buber ed.), Bereshit 5; Mishlei (yeshiva). At present, education that 14 This movement also incl in a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the ישבה (yeshiva). At present, education that in a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the ישבה (yeshiva). (yeshiva). At present, education that introduced. ישבה (yeshiva). At present, education that in a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the ישבה ישבה (yeshiva). At present, education that ses should be taught together in a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the (yeshiva). At present, education that in ain a traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the traditionally Jewish educational environment, like the At present, education that involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education 3 involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education va). At present, education that involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices of Israel’s State Religious Education involves Talmudic and academic topics falls under the auspices Israel’s Statewhich proposed that religious and sec Religious Education of Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational 4 modern (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational in a traditionally Jewish educational en (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational el’s State Religious Education (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, modern and nationalistic educational (SRE), which itself has multifaceted and interrelated religious, and nationalistic educational For example, see such central sacred texts as Mishna 16 16 goals for its students. goals for its students. 16 16 16 16 16 16 goals for its students. goals for its students. 5 goals for its students. involves Talmudic and academic topic and nationalistic educational goals for its students. goals goals for its students. for its students. in Tanchuma Kedushim 10. many There is, is, in short, no no one model of Jewish education in Jerusalem. There are, instead, There is, in short, no one model of Jewish education Jerusalem. There are, instead, many There in short, one model of Jewish education in Jerusalem. There are, instead, many There is, short, no one model of Jewish in Jerusalem. There are, instead, many There is, short, no one model of Jewish education in Jerusalem. There are, instead, many (SRE), which itself has multifaceted an There is, in is, short, no one model of Jewish education in Jerusalem. There are, instead, many There in in short, no one model of Jewish education in Jerusalem. There are, instead, many 6 education There is, in in short, no one model of Jewish education in Jerusalem. There are, instead, many Talmud Bavli, Kidushin 49b. multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish 16 multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish em. There are, instead, many multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods and structures of Jewish multifaceted Jewish educational movements that shape the aims, methods andgoals for its students. structures of Jewish 7 Bereshit Rabba 59. education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות are exception. Outside of the SRE system are are the Haredim education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות no are no exception. Outside of the SRE system are the Haredim education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות are no exception. Outside of the SRE system the Haredim education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות are no exception. Outside of the SRE system are the Haredim education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות are no exception. Outside of the SRE system are the Haredim There is, in short, no one model education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות are exception. the SRE system are the Haredim hods and structures of Jewish education, to which no are no exception. of system the SRE are the Haredim education, to which yeshivot ( yeshivot ) are()ישבות no exception. Outside ofOutside theof SRE aresystem the Haredim 8Outside Zohar, II, 1867, p. 222; III, p. 131. ()חרדים , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational ()חרדים , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational ()חרדים , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational ()חרדים , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational multifaceted Jewish educational move ()חרדים , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational SRE system are ()חרדים the Haredim ()חרדים , who both seek to function independent of the State of Israel, and embrace an educational (philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits ), who both seek to function independent of the State Israel, and embrace an educational 9 of Talmud Bavli, Brachot 27a. philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits education, to which yeshivot ()ישבות a philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits and embrace an educational philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de‐emphasize, academic pursuits philosophy that tends to either exclude, or at the very least heavily de-emphasize, academic pursuits 10 Talmud Bavli, Yoma 21a. outside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim ()חרדים , Jerusalem is also outside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim ()חרדים , Jerusalem is also outside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim ()חרדים , Jerusalem is also outside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim ()חרדים , Jerusalem is also outside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim ()חרדים , Jerusalem is also , who both seek to function ind outside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim , Jerusalem is also emphasize, academic pursuits ()חרדים , Jerusalem is also outside ofoutside of daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim daily Talmudic study. Apart from being a center for the Haredim ()חרדים ( ()חרדים ), Jerusalem is a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive 17 a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive philosophy that tends to either exclude a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for intensive edim ()חרדים, Jerusalem is also also a center for visiting yeshiva students from abroad, many of whom come in their gap year for 17 yeshiva study. Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv ()קירוב oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva (תשובה )בעלי yeshiva study. Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv ()קירוב oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva (תשובה )בעלי 17 Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv yeshiva study. ()קירוב oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva (תשובה )בעלי 17 17 17 Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv 17 Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv 17 yeshiva study. Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva yeshiva study. ()קירוב kiruv oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva (תשובה )בעלי (תשובה outside of daily Talmudic study. Apar yeshiva study. ()קירוב (תשובה )בעלי)בעלי )בעלי in their gap year for intensive yeshiva study. Some Jerusalem yeshivot are kiruv ()קירוב oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva (תשובה intensive yeshiva study. Some Jerusalem yeshivot are()קירוב (oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva ) oriented, inviting ba’ale tshuva to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ a center for visiting yeshiva students fro to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ ting ba’ale tshuva to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ (תשובה )בעלי to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study toward re‐ (familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also ) to return from secular Judaism back to orthodoxy, orienting traditional Talmudic study familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also 17 Some Jerusalem yeshiv familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also yeshiva study. familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also al Talmudic study toward re‐ familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions can also have separate but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ()עלייה and toward re-familiarization with traditional Jewish values and worldviews. Many of these institutions have separate but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ()עלייה and have separate but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ()עלייה and have separate but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah and have separate but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ()עלייה permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder to return from secular Judaism back to have separate but but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ()עלייה and and of these institutions can also have separate but related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ()עלייה permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder can also have separate related Zionist agendas, inviting visiting students to make aliyah ( and ) ()עלייה permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder (()עלייה חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a (permanently חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder s to make aliyah permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder and permanently immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related to the State of Israel are hesder and immigrate to the State of Israel. Even more closely related familiarization with traditional Jewish to the State of Israel (חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a 18 These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted 18 These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted religious Zionist framework. ( חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a religious Zionist framework. 18 (are חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a have separate study but related Zionist ag ( חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a to the State of Israel are hesder ( חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic study within a hesder ) yeshivot, which combine Israel’s mandatory military service with Talmudic religious Zionist framework. These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted 18 These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted 18 18 18 nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small 18 nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small religious Zionist framework. religious Zionist framework. These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted permanently immigrate to the State of religious Zionist framework. These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted religious Zionist framework. These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and multifaceted with Talmudic study within a within a religious Zionist framework. These few examples serve to illustrate the complex and nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small part. part. nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small (חסדר ) yeshivot, which combine Israel nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small he complex and multifaceted nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are only a small multifaceted nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education, of which the two communities outlined here are part. In the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools In the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools 18 These f part. part. religious Zionist framework. In the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools part. outlined here are only a small part. only a small part. called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea In the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea In the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools nature of Jerusalem’s Jewish education In the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools In theIn the course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools course of my ethnographic fieldwork, I studied in three orthodox Jewish religious schools Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea part. called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea odox Jewish religious schools called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The first of these was Merkaz David. Located on the border of Mea 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged Located on the border of Mea Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 male students aged Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orthodox neighborhoods, it houses nearly 70 maleIn the course of my ethnographic students aged elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one called yeshivot (singular, yeshiva). The 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one nearly 70 male students aged 20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most orth elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught re for only a year or two, one into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late 14 20–29. While many of its students had these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late program. Nine rabbis taught these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). 15 (Ayalon and Abraham 1998). into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which elite group enrolled for three to four into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which m six in the morning until late into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which 14 14 (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). 16 14 (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). (Gross 2002). (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). these young men six days a week (exc ghout the day between which 15 (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). 15 (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). 17 15 (Berger 1997). (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). 14 14 14 14 18 16 (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). 16 (Gross 2002). into the night. Daily study included th (Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). and (Gross 2002). (Birnbaum Persoff 1989). 16 (Gross 2002). 17 18
17 15 18 16
15 15 (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). 1715 (Berger 1997). (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). (Berger 1997). (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). 17 (Berger 1997). 18 16 16 16 (Gross 2002). (Gross 2002). (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989). (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989). (Gross 2002). (Gross 2002). 18 (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989). 17 (Berger 1997). 17 17 (Berger 1997). (Berger 1997). (Berger 1997). 18 (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989). 18 18 (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989). (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989). (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989).
16 17 18 14 15
(Feiner 2002; Schweid 2002). (Ayalon and Yogev 1998). (Gross 2002). (Berger 1997). (Birnbaum and Persoff 1989).
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20–29. While many of its students had come from abroad to study there for only a year or two, one elite group enrolled for three to four years in a rabbinical ordination program. Nine rabbis taught these young men six days a week (excluding the Jewish Sabbath) from six in the morning until late into the night. Daily study included three to five classes spread throughout the day between which students would read passages from the Talmud in pairs or pray together in the yeshiva’s main hall. As a Chabad yeshiva, Merkaz David focused on Chassidic philosophy, mysticism, and personal piety through prayer and ritual while also emphasizing the central importance of study in Jewish life. Or Akiva was slightly larger than Merkaz David, housing nearly 200 students and over 30 rabbis. Unlike Merkaz David, however, Or Akiva espoused a Lithuanian approach to Torah study. This meant that lessons focused less on personal piety and prayer and more on the intellectual rigor of cerebral Torah study itself. As such, lessons were more frequent, and rabbis consistently expected a much higher level of textual analysis from their students than at other yeshivot. Students at Or Akiva also came from more diverse populations, leading many lessons to be conducted in Hebrew, French, Spanish, and English. 4. Results and Discussion Throughout the process of data collection and analysis, I acted as co-researcher with members of the yeshiva community to create ethnographic portraits and vignettes (Mills and Morton 2013). These are intended to provide the reader with an in-depth look at what the relationship between security, education and the sacred looks like in the everyday, lived experiences of students and teachers in contemporary Jerusalem’s orthodox Jewish schools. The following three sections each begin with a short narrative that illustrates one dimension of this relationship, followed by a discussion of the implications that follow. The first outlines how those at Merkaz David observed Israel’s Independence Day by contributing to the very security it celebrated through Torah study. The second illustrates the lived experience of studying with the idea that the continued security of Judaism’s holiest city, not to mention the sustained existence of the cosmos itself depends upon that study. The third vignette describes an example of a warrior-scholar who contributes to the religious-Zionist vision of Jerusalem’s security, that is, both the study and by military action. Each of these examples is intended to illustrate a different dimension of the relationship between religious education, holiness, and security within contemporary Jerusalem’s orthodox communities. The ethnographic vignettes that follow are not meant to establish the validity of the concepts outlined in the introduction regarding the relationship between religion, education and security among certain orthodox Jewish learning communities in Jerusalem. Instead, the vignettes that follow serve as a first step to exploring the lived experience of this dynamic relationship from an emic perspective. To this end, they give readers a preliminary, exploratory glimpse into the role that security plays in daily Torah study within these communities. Future research could address more nuanced dimensions of this relationship through in-depth, qualitative interviews within similar communities. However, the current study serves as a first, introductory step into the ways in which the relationship between security, education, and religion as outlined in sacred texts is manifest in the lived experience and daily practices of these communities. 4.1. Yom Ha’Atsmaut: Observing Israel’s Independence Day I awoke later than usual that morning. No buses were running, and I had to walk a little over a mile to arrive at the yeshiva. But despite the late start and a long walk, I wasn’t worried of missing anything. It was Israel’s Independence Day and as I passed row upon row of empty shops and streets, I only assumed I would find the same vacancy at the school when I arrived. The yeshiva had been full of students from morning until night since the day I’d arrived and, truth be told, if I hadn’t wanted to see what it looked like when empty, I might have stayed home that day. But at the end of a long walk through empty streets, when I finally arrived at the entrance to the main study hall, it was just as full
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as if it had been any other day. Not a single student or rabbi I knew was absent from the chorus of studious discussion that greeted me. As I stood in the entrance hoping to make sense of the situation, I noticed Rabbi Berg place a hand on my shoulder. “Rabbi”, I said, “why is everyone here? It’s a holiday and nearly everyone I know is either still at home or out of town to celebrate. Why are you all studying?” Rabbi Berg looked out at the crowd of students for a moment before he answered. “Some might take a private moment to pray on their own”, he began, “to show their gratitude for the freedom to study as we do each day. But”, he continued, “we study even today just like we would any other day”. He gave me a knowing look, tapped my shoulder again with his hand and walked into the sea of students that filled the room with snatches of prayer and holy argument. Though the empty streets outside that day told another story, in here the sacred burden of Torah study lay so heavily on the shoulders of those who bore it that even on a day commemorating a new era for Jewish Jerusalem’s security they remained. 4.2. Education as a Temporal Consecration Those who studied at yeshiva were already enveloped in several layers and dimensions of holiness. Not only were we studying in Jerusalem’s spatial sanctity, but in a temporal dimension of holiness, as well. In our intermediate state as neither outside the community nor yet fully-fledged Torah scholars as yet, we studied in a large-scale, transient, liminal state (Turner 1967). This kind of temporal sanctity is at home in the Jewish tradition. For instance, Heschel described how the Jewish people, living for centuries without physical materials with which to build a temple, built instead what he called “a palace in time”, “made of soul, of joy and reticence” to act as “a reminder of adjacency to eternity” (Heschel 1951, p. 14). In this sense, time intentionally set apart for sacred purposes becomes “a paraphrase of [God’s] sanctification” (Heschel 1951, p. 16). In the case of yeshiva students, the sacred purpose to which they had dedicated their time had been outlined in Torah already. “And thou shalt teach ... diligently ... when thou sittest in this house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up”.19 In describing so many different situations in which one must continue to teach and learn, this scriptural passage demands a significant investment of time from its adherents. Inasmuch as students and rabbis dedicated their time to fulfilling this divine injunction in yeshiva each day, then, they sanctified that time to a holy purpose. Participating in religious education, in this sense, has a capacity for sanctification. Again, it was the absence of this temporal sanctification through teaching and learning Torah, the sages say, that led to some of the greatest losses of security in the history of the Jewish people. It is significant, then, that these students spent a day set apart for the celebration of Jerusalem’s security to invest their time in Torah study as a way to assure that that security might be maintained by their efforts. While ignoring a national holiday might appear on the surface like an insular retrenchment, the motivating disposition behind it is more altruistic. For these students and teachers studied that day not just to maintain the integrity of the universe, but to protect their friends and families living within the precincts of its holiest city, the Eye of the Universe, even Jerusalem itself. This suggests that a primary motivation for religious education among many in Jerusalem’s orthodox Jewish community is linked to the question of security and that part of education’s sanctifying power is that it can contribute meaningfully to that security. 4.3. Rabbi Wichnin: A Matter of Life and Death I was well into my third week at the Merkaz David Yeshiva and most of the students and rabbis had by then grown accustomed to my being among them. It hadn’t been so easy on my first day. Students and teachers who otherwise would have remained entirely engrossed in the voluminous tomes propped up in front of them adjusted their glasses as they cast me second glances. Such had
19
see Deuteronomy 6:7.
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been the first days of my time at yeshiva, but all that had changed as I had come to know those who studied with me there after long days and nights at the books. So it came as quite a shock when a rabbi I had never met before walked briskly up to me that day and, shaking a long white finger in my face as though it were a sword, asked, “Who are you and what are you doing here?” After a brief though rather heated interview, he extended a hand in friendship and asked if I would walk with him. As we walked, though he no longer suspected me of trespassing, his tone lost none of its intensity. “Do you see these men around you?” he asked, gesturing to the hundreds of students seated at desks all around us. I nodded, trying to maintain eye contact with him as we weaved through the narrow labyrinth of rows between students at their desks. He suddenly stopped walking, fixed my gaze in his and said more seriously, “You must know of the sacrifice that goes on here every day.” The sea of sound to which I’d grown accustomed over the past months washed over us as we stood in the middle of the room at the center of this man’s whole world, the epicenter of his tradition’s holiness on earth. “Everyone here”, he went on, his quiet, scruffy old voice somehow cutting through the chorus of shouts all around us, “everyone is willing to die for this tradition—not just once, but to die each day anew, killing themselves in eighteen hours of grueling study every single day”. He placed a hand under my arm and, gripping it with surprising strength for a man his age, stared at me over his gold-rimmed spectacles. “If that doesn’t make all this sacred”, he said with finality, “I don’t know what would.” We continued to listen to the raucous debates that swirled all around us for a moment longer when, just as suddenly as he had appeared, Rabbi Wichnin released his grip, turned, and was gone. Disappearing into the crowd of students who awaited him, he went back to the sacrifice that made that place sacred—an education that made that place a school, a sanctum and a safety from the world. 4.4. Education as Sacrifice for Security Key passages of Jewish scripture describe the process of teaching and learning as inherently and inescapably difficult.20 To study Torah, the Talmud maintains, one must be willing to “submit himself like an ox to the yoke”21 or like a sleepless man to his toothache.22 One passage even describes Torah study as the arduous process of grinding wheat into one’s flesh and blood so that it might turn into the bread of life (Patterson 2005). Rabbinic tradition tells of a moment when Moses, Judaism’s archetypal teacher, asked Israel if they were aware of how difficult it was for him to learn Torah from God at Sinai. “Are you aware”, he asked, “of the pain I suffered for Torah’s sake? The toil I put into it? The backbreaking labor I devoted to it?” Then, with in a stunning prophetic pronouncement, he declared, “As I have learned it in pain, so you will learn it in pain.”23 The difficulty of this process as well as the sacrifice involved therein both contribute significantly to education’s consecratory power. This power, as noted earlier, is seen to sustain the vitality of the universe and the security of the Jewish people within it. Both students and rabbis at this yeshiva pursued their studies with a remarkable urgency and diligence, often beginning before dawn and always finishing late into the night. And all during those long hours, studies continued at a fever pitch that made the main study hall seem more like an emergency room than a library. Such sustained, earnest involvement in study suggests that, from the emic perspective of yeshiva students and teachers, security’s dependence on that study was much more than symbolic passage among many in the corpus of Jewish scripture. From this perspective, it played an integral role as a significant motivating factor behind their daily routines based on an abiding belief that Jerusalem’s security depends in large part upon the daily efforts of teachers and students to actively study Torah. This further suggests that the
20 21 22 23
see Pirkei Avot 2:12. B. AZ 5b. Tanhuma B, Mi-ketz, §16; Yalkut, Ps., §850. Sif. Deuteronomy, §307.
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relationship between the practice of religious education in contemporary Jerusalem and the security of those who live there is not a uniquely theoretical construct, but a dynamic, living relationship in the daily lives of many who live there. One dimension of the lived experience of this relationship is the motivation with which yeshiva students and their rabbis engage in the rigors of daily Torah study. 4.5. Rabbi Stein: Wielding the Scroll and the Sword I only ever met Rabbi Stein on a single occasion during my entire time at his yeshiva. He taught only the most advanced classes who were preparing for rabbinic ordination. And though his time was limited, his name was frequently the topic of discussion between classes and at mealtimes among the students, even among those who had never met him. The rarity of his appearance among ordinary students like us only fed his reputation. Only in his mid-40s, he had already read all 517 tractates of the Babylonian Talmud, a feat which many noteworthy Torah scholars go their entire lives without ever accomplishing. He had, so yeshiva students whispered, become so well-known for this achievement that he had been even more scarce at the school, spending more and more time responding to invitations to speak to eager students and their rabbis elsewhere around the Holy City. But it wasn’t his intellectual prowess alone that made our conversations die when he passed us in the hall. It was that he had accomplished all this after returning home to Jerusalem from years of combat duty in the Israeli military. To the students, Rabbi Stein was more than a teacher, more than a role-model: he was a hero. And in their own way, whether they heard it from him or in the embellished whispers of another, they venerated everything he did and said. When I finally had the chance to meet with Rabbi Stein, our interview lasted only 5 or 10 min. Yet, despite its brevity, it was one of the most impactful exchanges I was privileged to have with a rabbi during the course of my fieldwork in the Holy City. When we had finished discussing my usual questions on holiness, education and their relationship in the Jewish tradition, he quickly placed his hands on the table set between us, ready to lift himself from his chair to leave. But just then, his hands still resting on the table in front of him, he looked straight at me and asked, “Will there ever be peace?” I looked right back and, before I could respond, listened as he, sighing deeply, continued, “We hit them. They hit us. It goes on and on. Will it ever be enough?” Not knowing what to say, I gave him a sympathetic look and shrugged my shoulders. “Please”, he said as tears welled up in his eyes. “Please tell people what you’ve seen here. Tell the world what we’re doing within these walls—what we’re doing for peace. Will you do that?” As I nodded, he smiled gratefully and hurried off to another lesson, intent on doing his part for the sanctity and security of the students and the Holy City they inhabited. 4.6. Hero Worship: The Scroll and Sword Those who taught alongside Rabbi Stein at his yeshiva had come from many different backgrounds. Some were ba’ale t’shuvah, those who had grown up in non-observant households only to become religious later in life. Others had trained at the finest yeshivot in Mea Shearim, one of Jerusalem’s most ultra-orthodox neighborhoods. Still others were religious Zionists who saw the establishment and continued survival of Israel and Jerusalem as dependent upon God and their own practical efforts. Having grown up in a non-observant home, Rabbi Stein himself was a ba’al t’shuvah, which made his completion of the Babylonian Talmud so early in life all the more miraculous in the eyes of his students, many of whom had grown up in non-observant homes themselves, as well. But most noteworthy of all to his students was Rabbi Stein’s involvement in the military. Given the choice between military service and Torah study as a way to contribute to Jerusalem’s security (“the sword” or “the scroll”) (Cohen 1997), all the students at this yeshiva had chosen the latter. Far from alienating him from his students, however, Rabbi Stein’s decision to do both instilled in his students an even deeper awareness of the importance of Jerusalem’s security as well as Torah study’s contribution to that security. Despite having seen active combat in defense of the Holy Land, Rabbi Stein still considered Torah study as a crucial contribution to the defense and security of that land. Had this
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role model for the students considered his military contributions to Jerusalem’s safety sufficient, the students often considered amongst themselves, he would not have invested, and continue to invest, so much of his life in the pursuit of this alternate, sanctifying means of securing this goal. That this was what motivated him in his studies became clear in the last moments of our brief interview together. After describing what he considered the continued futility of continued military action, he emphasized how important his work at the yeshiva was for the sake of peace and protection. Rather than ask me to tell the world what he had done on the battlefield, he invited me to share what he and his students were doing for peace through study. While the faith of the haredi position that study and study alone is sufficient for Jerusalem’s security, Rabbi Stein’s position emphasizes the instrumental power of religious education in a different light. While maintaining that practical military defense is integral to security, he maintains that such efforts seem futile without intervention from another source. His means of accessing what he believes to be divine aid in this pursuit is religious education. This belief, in turn, is believed to consecrate the concept of security by ascribing to the belief that, without Torah study as 2 a of means 11 of invoking divine intervention, the fighting for Jerusalem’s security would never end. Even from a non-haredi perspective, then, the relationship between religious mong religious Jewish education’s most transcendent and education and security appears instrumental, made contingent on the sanctifying influence of Judaic rd for “education”, chinuch ( ), is derived from a root that chinuch ()חניוך: consecration through education. an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. As such, 5. Conclusions ast, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the the education of a child” as to “the consecration of the altar Seen as “the breath of their nostrils, their greatest joy and the finest portion of their lives” tary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch (Montefiore and Loewe 2012), in contemporary Judaisms, teaching and learning Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11 are seen as a mplies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) sanctifying practice (Neusner 2003) that links them to God (Kadushin 1972, p. 213), “to Judaism inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 1965, p. This capacity for consecration is the among religious Jewish education’s most transcendent and mant in all things uniquely until they among emerge religions, as mankind, processes through of learning are sacred and study a holy pursuit” (Steinberg defining characteristics. The Hebrew word for “education”, chinuch ( ), is derived from a root that 1947, p. 67). The sanctity of Jewish education, or chinuch ()חניוך, is again considered instrumental in that phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro “implies the initial entry of a person or an object into a trade or path that is his destiny”. As such, it enables the dormant, inherent sanctity in all things “to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro 1965). from this etymological perspective, at least, the consecratory power of education extends beyond the Part of that consecratory power lies in education’s capacity to create security, both on a macrocosmic24 n, or chinuch ()חניוך, manifests its consecratory capacity is by human sphere, referring just as much “to the education of a child” as to “the consecration of the altar as well as a microcosmic25 level. Simply stated, “other than the Torah [the Jewish people] have no Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought in the holy temple” (see Rashi’s commentary on Parshat Lech Lecha). Further, education, or, as chinuch security” (Doron 1988, p. 504). This close relationship between religious education and security plays m), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos ()חניוך is also translated, consecration, implies “the actualization of a potential” (Shapira 1991, p. 4) an active role in the daily lives of Torah students and teachers in orthodox Jewish learning communities ment in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to which, according to Rabbinic tradition, inheres “in all ramifications of existence” (Shapiro 1965, p. “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s in Jerusalem today. It manifests itself through temporal consecration, personal sacrifice and an abiding 46). Such seeds of holiness remain dormant in all things until they emerge as mankind, through her words, the continued survival of all things in this world, belief in the instrumental efficacy of Torah study to bring about conditions of divinely-sanctioned chinuch ()חניוך, enables these “hallowed phases of reality to achieve their holiness in full” (Shapiro dane worlds” is made “conditional upon as man’s of they consider its holiest city, Jerusalem. security in the universe wellstudy as what 1965). e, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are One way in which Jewish education, or chinuch ( חניוך ), manifests its consecratory capacity is by Funding: This research was funded in part by the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain and Brasenose y of all creation on the broadest scale they could illustrate. playing an instrumental role in security. Broadly interpreted, prominent threads in Rabbinic thought College, Oxford. bi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end (most notably outlined in the Nefesh Chaim), suggest that the continued existence of the entire cosmos Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. oid even for one moment of our study of and meditation on depends on mankind’s perpetual engagement in the process of Torah study. While God is believed to d lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and have used Torah1 to create the universe,2 “the sustenance of existence by Torah is achieved by Israel’s References nection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106) In other words, the continued survival of all things in this world, al, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic gesture Patricia, and Peter Adler. 1987. Membership in Field Research. Thousand Oaks: Sageof Publications. including Adler, “millions of holy, supramundane worlds” is Roles made “conditional upon man’s study ook this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular Alexander, Hanan. 2001. God as Teacher: Jewish Reflections on a Theology of Pedagogy. Journal of Beliefs and Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 106). In this sense, sacred teaching and learning in this Jewish tradition are tudents engaged in Torah study, including Sabbaths and Values 22: 5–17. [CrossRef] instrumental in safeguarding the security of all creation on the broadest scale they could illustrate. terrupted study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 123) and, by Ayalon, Hanna, and Yogev Abraham. 1998. Torah with secular studies (Torah im derekh Eretz): “The undoubted truth”, wrote Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin, “is that if all the world, from one end The alternative verse itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, however, the perspective for State-religious high school education. In Curricula as Social Reconstruction. Edited by to the other were—Heaven forefend—void even for one moment of our study of and meditation on acred educational pursuits takes a much more local flavor. Hanna Ayalon. Tel Aviv: Ramot Publishers, Tel Aviv University, pp. 33–54. Torah, then immediately all the upper and lower worlds would be destroyed and revert to chaos and ition as a holy city across various religious and academic 3 Many considered the connection between the sanctifying act of teaching and learning Berger, Shalom. 1997. A Year of Study in an Israeli Yeshiva Program: Before and After. Ph.D. dissertation, Azrieli nothingness”. in Judaism’s sacred textual tradition 4 specifically describe Graduate School of Education and Administration, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA. and the security of the cosmos as a literal, instrumental relationship, rather than a symbolic gesture r5, its most beautiful location6, the light of the world7, the Birnbaum, Eli, and Menachem Persoff. 1989. The Israel Yeshiva Guide for Overseas Students. Jerusalem: OU/NCSY. rich in meaning. Rabbi Chaim himself took this connection so seriously that he instituted “regular of the connection between heaven and earth.9 And while round‐the‐clock shifts (mishmarot) of students engaged in Torah study, including Sabbaths and ach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem differently holidays, in order to ensure the uninterrupted study of Torah” (Lamm 1989, p. 123) and, by curity, etc.), nearly all share a common understanding of 24 Nefesh HaChaim 4:11. association, the very survival of the universe itself. For those who study in Jerusalem, however, the sensually ... holy” (Dumper 2014, p. 99), and as such worthy 25 see Avot de Rebbi Natan 1:2; see also Eichah Rabbah (ed. Buber, 1:20, pp. 92–93). cosmic security brought about through sacred educational pursuits takes a much more local flavor. Beyond Jerusalem’s general recognition as a holy city across various religious and academic Jerusalem as a place of almost mystical safety (“a snake or contexts (Dumper 2014), key passages in Judaism’s sacred textual tradition 4 specifically describe salem” 10 ), however, both historically and at present, one Jerusalem as the world’s spiritual center5, its most beautiful location6, the light of the world7, the origin of all creation8 and the epicenter of the connection between heaven and earth.9 And while ‐noun meaning “teaching”. It could rightly be interpreted in that diverse Jewish communities may approach contemporary issues surrounding Jerusalem differently
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