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ScienceDirect Procedia CIRP 61 (2017) 645 – 650

The 24th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering

Remanufacturing and Refurbishing in Developed and Developing Countries in Asia – A Case Study in Photocopiers Koshi Kamigakia, Mitsutaka Matsumotoa,*, Yun Arifatul Fatimahb a

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Namiki 1-2-1, Tsukuba, 305-8564, Japan b Muhammadiyah University of Magelang, Metroyudan, Magelang, 56172, Indonesia

* Corresponding author. Tel.:+81-29-861-7193; Fax: +81-29-861-7098. E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract Product reuse, refurbishing, and remanufacturing are critical elements in realizing sustainable consumption and production in our society. These are particularly important in Asian region where consumptions of products, materials and energy as well as economies are growing rapidly. The article presents the current situations of reuse, refurbishing, and remanufacturing in Asian region. The study focused on photocopier industry where these activities are actively undertaken and product service systems (PSS) prevail in high levels. Case studies including interviews with OEM remanufacturers and third-party refurbishers in three countries, namely, Japan, Indonesia, and Singapore, were conducted. The article presents the findings and discusses the vision for an effective international cooperative remanufacturing system in the future. © Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license © 2017 2017The The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 24th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering. Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 24th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering Keywords: Remanufacturing; Refurbishing; Cross-border product life cycle; Photocopier; Developing countries

1. Introduction The lifetime extension of products and product components is an essential means to save the consumption of material resources. Product refurbishing and remanufacturing (hereinafter written “Ref/Rem”) have effects of extending the duration of usage of products and components, and thus, these activities are critically important in achieving sustainable consumption and production (SCP) in our society. Developing a vision for effective product Ref/Rem systems in the future is one of the important challenges in the product life cycle Nomenclature OEM IR SCP Ref/Rem PSS MPS

original equipment manufacturer independent refurbisher or remanufacturer sustainable consumption and production refurbishing and/or remanufacturing product service systems managed print service

engineering field. Moreover, developing such a vision is particularly important in Asian region where consumption of products, materials and energy as well as economies are growing rapidly. This article presents a study on the current situations of Ref/Rem in Asian region. In conducting the study and exploring a vision, this study focused on the product area of photocopiers. The photocopier is one of the product areas where remanufacturing has been conducted actively. In addition, it is a product area where product related services are provided in advanced ways, or the product service systems (PSS) are advanced. Although remanufacturing and PSS in photocopiers have been studied in a number of previous studies [1-10], most of the cases studied were those in developed countries, and the situations in developing countries have been rarely studied. The situations and the context in developing countries are significantly different from those in developed countries. To discuss SCP in today’s developing countries and from the global perspectives, Ref/Rem, or especially refurbishing, which are conducted in developing countries on a massive scale usually by

2212-8271 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 24th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering doi:10.1016/j.procir.2016.11.223

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Koshi Kamigaki et al. / Procedia CIRP 61 (2017) 645 – 650

independent refurbishers (IRs) must not be missed paid attentions. Both the merits and problems in such activities need to be clarified, and the effective product life cycles today and in the future including the possibilities of cross-border product life cycles should be explored. The authors conducted case studies on Ref/Rem of photocopiers in three countries, namely, Japan, Indonesia, and Singapore. The study included the interviews with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) which undertake remanufacturing of their own products, IRs and an OEM’s sales company which does refurbish of the OEM’s products. The article presents the findings of the case studies, and discusses the elements that need considered when a future vision of product Ref/Rem systems is explored. 2. Literature review Photocopier is a product area where remanufacturing has been undertaken actively. Photocopier remanufacturing has been studied and cited in a number of scientific literatures. One of the most widely reported remanufacturing systems is that of Xerox Corporation. The company has recovered used equipment since the 1960s, and developed a more formal remanufacturing system in the late 1980s [1,2]. Japanese major OEMs, Fuji Xerox, Ricoh, and Canon, started remanufacturing in the late 1990s and the 2000s [3]. The studies of photocopier remanufacturing include: assessment of the environmental and economic benefits of remanufacturing [1], analyses of the business and relevant policies [2-4], and management studies [5]. Photocopiers’ operations remanufacturing has been also studied as a case of PSS [6-8]. Many manufacturing companies today make efforts to servitize their businesses, and servitization not only increases economic profits of the companies but also facilitates their offering remanufactured products. This is even more apparent when the companies retain the ownership of the products. In such cases, they take responsibility for the entire product life cycle, and they are motivated to reduce the total cost of ownership, and remanufacturing provides a means to reduce this cost. Photocopiers’ remanufacturing has provided a good example of the cases [6-8]. In addition, servitization of manufacturing companies is one of the hot issues in the business study fields. Photocopier OEMs’ service offering provides a good case of servitization. Photocopier OEMs constructed a business model that combines products and services since the inception of the industry in the 1950s. Xerox today, for example, no longer defines itself as a photocopier manufacturer, but identifies itself as an “enterprise for business process and management” [9]. The history of servitization in the photocopier industry has been studied in a number of scientific publications [9,10]. These studies mostly have focused on remanufacturing and servitization in developed countries. Product Ref/Rem in developing countries have not been studied much so far. Besides the practices in photocopier industry, studies on remanufacturing in developed countries have been increasingly undertaken in recent years. Lund has pioneeringly reported the practices in developing countries [11]. In recent years, automotive parts remanufacturing in

Asian countries began growing, and the practices such as in China [12], Malaysia [13], and Indonesia [14] have been analyzed. Also remanufacturing in electronic product areas and others have also been studies in recent years [15-17]. It is significant to clarify the situations in countries where the situations and contexts are different, and to address a vision for effective Ref/Rem systems from a global perspective. 3. Methods The case studies are based on the authors’ interviews with companies. The interviewed companies include: major photocopier OEMs in Japan; OEM’s Southeast Asian regional sales headquarters located in Singapore; and local photocopier IRs in Indonesia and Singapore. Table 1 lists the interviewed companies. The interviews were conducted in 2016 (mostly in June and July 2016). Interviews were conducted in semistructured styles and lasted from one to several hours. Interviews were supplemented with observations and secondary data. Table 1. Companies interviewed Company feature and size

Country

Company A

OEM, large

Japan

Company B

OEM, large

Japan

Company C

IR, medium

Indonesia

Company D

IR, small

Indonesia

Company E

OEM regional sales headquarter, large

Singapore

Company F

IR, small

Singapore

The following issues were intended to be clarified through the interviews. y Current situations of refurbishing, and remanufacturing (Ref/Rem) y Trends of Ref/Rem (increasing or decreasing) y Motivations of the entities for Ref/Rem y Main customers of Ref/Rem products y Situations of product services y Effects of services on Ref/Rem In addition to these items, the following issues were discussed. x Material saving effects of Ref/Rem x Economic benefits x Cannibalization between new products and Ref/Rem products within OEMs x Cannibalization between OEMs’ products and IRs’ products x Job creation effects x Social welfare increase effects x E-waste problem (Product life cycle afterwards) 4. Findings 4.1. Case in Japan: OEMs’ remanufacturing and refurbishing The market of photocopiers in Japan has matured like in many other developed countries. The number of annual sales of photocopiers (including multifunction photocopiers) is


around 600 thousand in the last 15 years. Photocopier OEMs have been conducting remanufacturing for more than a decade. In Japan, Fuji Xerox started remanufacturing in the 1990s, after which Ricoh and Canon began selling remanufactured machines in the 2000s. The interviewed companies – Company A and B – are two of those companies. In Japan, over 80% of used photocopiers are taken back by OEMs. OEMs remanufacture products by using a part of the collected products. Company A remanufactures about 15% of the used products, while Company B remanufactures less than 10% of used products. Remanufactured products have the same function level with newly manufactured products, and OEMs provide the same level warranties to them with newly manufactured products. 80 to 90% by weight of a typical remanufactured product comprises used components. According to Company A, total CO 2 emissions for remanufacturing a product is usually 80% less than those for manufacturing a new product. These indicate the environmental benefits of remanufacturing. The motives to conduct remanufacturing include the economic benefits, marketing purposes, and environmental benefits. A part of customers prefers purchasing (or leasing) remanufactured products, and such customers are increasing, however, still such demands are limited. Remanufactured products are often bundled to newly manufactured products when a large-lot customer purchases (or leases) products. The profit margins of remanufactured products are as high as that of newly manufactured products. However, it depends on the conditions. For example, as the number of remanufactured products increases, it becomes difficult to collect used products in sufficiently high qualities, and thus, the cost of remanufacturing increases. As the cost increases, a company has more incentive to provide new products. The amounts of remanufactured products supplied by both Company A and Company B are increasing. Company A, for example, developed a new large remanufacturing facility in 2016 to increase the capacity of remanufacturing (see Fig. 1). The facility plans to remanufacture 20,000 photocopiers per year.

country markets, most of used products cannot be collected. According to the companies, it is one of the obstacles for remanufacturing in the markets outside Japan. 4.2. Case in Indonesia: IRs’ refurbishing Although Japanese photocopier OEMs have large shares in Indonesian market, they rarely provide remanufactured products in the market. Refurbished photocopiers provided by local independent refurbishers (IRs) have a large share in the market. Refurbished products are different from remanufactured products in that their qualities are not guaranteed to be as high as newly manufactured products. The price of refurbished products is usually around 20% of new products whereas the price of remanufactured products is around half of new products. The authors interviewed with one medium size company which has over 100 employees (Company C) and one small size company which has about 10 employees (Company D). Company C is one of the three largest photocopier IRs in Indonesia. According to the companies, in the black and white (B/W) photocopier market in Indonesia, refurbished products are estimated to comprise 60 to 70% of the market. The rests are new products. The Indonesian government, in most cases, restricts the imports of used products. But the government permits the imports of used B/W photocopiers, while it strongly restricts the imports of used color photocopiers. Company C refurbishes a few thousand photocopiers annually. The used products are imported from China and Singapore. The products imported from Singapore are products that were originally used in various countries such as the US, European countries, Australia, and so on. Over 90% of products the company deals with is the products of Japanese OEMs. The imported used products are usually around 5 year old products. Fig. 2 is the stockyard of the company. The company imports used products in the price about 10% that of new products, and sells refurbished products in prices about 20% that of new products. The company provides 1 year warranty for refurbished products, and it also provides repair and maintenance services to the customers. The products it sells are usually used by large companies for 3 years, and 5 years by SMEs. The used products do not come back to the company. The customers sell them to recyclers.

Fig. 1. OEM’s remanufacturing facility (Japan)

Both the companies have large shares in the global market. They provide remanufactured products in European and North American markets. An obstacle for remanufacturing in the foreign markets is the low rates of take-back of used products. Even in European and North American markets, over half of used products are not taken back by OEMs. In the developing

Fig. 2. Stock of imported used photocopiers in an IR (Indonesia)

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In recent years, color photocopiers have become popular in developed countries. The restriction of imports of used color photocopiers makes IRs’ businesses harder in Indonesia. In fact, both companies’ sales of refurbished products are decreasing in the last years. According to Company C, its relationship with OEMs is not harsh. It is because the customer segments of the company are different from those of the OEMs. Their customers, at least at the current point, can only afford refurbished products and not afford new products. This indicates the IRs’ businesses have effects of increasing social welfare of the country. 4.3. Case in Singapore: IR’s refurbishing and OEM’s sales company’s refurbishing In Singapore, the market comprises mostly new products. However, there also exist refurbishers. One of the IRs (Company F) were interviewed. According to the company, refurbished photocopiers comprise about 20% of the market in Singapore. The company has about 20 employees, and refurbishes about 500 photocopiers annually. The company imports used products mainly from Australia and the US. The imported products are mostly 1 to 3 years old. The company purchases used products with the price of about 20 to 30% of new products, and sells refurbished products with the price of 30 to 40% of new products. It provides 4 to 5 year full guarantees to the customers, which are the same term guarantees with those for new products. It also provides maintenance services to the customers. More products are for leasing and renting than for selling, and about 40% are for short term renting for the government where the products are usually used at temporal events. The components used for refurbishing are easily available because global third party companies exist and they provide compatible components of photocopiers to the refurbishers. Company E is the Southeast Asian regional sales headquarter of a Japanese photocopier OEM. The company rarely provides remanufactured products in Singapore. However, it provides refurbished products. Although the amount of refurbished products it provides is limited so far – several % of new products, the amount is increasing. The increase is partially because of the increase of new type service businesses which is called managed print services (MPS). MPS refers to solutions that aim to optimize and manage customers’ document output environments [8,9]. While under a traditional contract, a customer pays for products and services separately, under an advanced MPS, a customer is charged for product renting and services altogether. For example, in the former case of separate payment, customers pay for purchasing or leasing products; in addition, they are charged for services according to the number of printed pages. Conversely, in the case of an advanced MPS, the charge includes both renting and service fees, and the price per copy is higher than that in the former case. In both cases, OEMs’ sales companies typically guarantee the time that the products normally function (e.g., downtime less than 5%). In these type contracts, the companies have incentives to minimize their products’ life

cycle costs as long as they can achieve the guaranteed functioning level. This has led the companies to use refurbished products. The incentive is more apparent in advanced MPS. Refurbished products are used in MPS not only in Singapore, but also in Japan and other countries. The service business model, in this case, has effects of increasing OEMs’ Ref/Rem practices. 4.4. Summary The case studies clarified that the situations of the market as well as practices of Ref/Rem in photocopier industry differ significantly in different countries. Table 2 contrasts the situations in Japan and Indonesia. Singapore’s situation is in between and close to Japan. While in Japan, OEMs’ remanufacturing is the main Ref/Rem practice, in Indonesia, IRs’ refurbishing is the main practice. Refurbished products in Indonesia comprise the majority of the market, while in Japan, new products comprise the majority. Remanufacturing in Japan is increasing gradually, and it has still room to increase furthermore. Refurbishing in Indonesia seems to decrease gradually. The decrease is largely because the imports of used color photocopiers are restricted by the government. Table 2. Summary of the case studies

Ref/Rem motive

Japan Around 10% products are remanufactured products. Slightly increasing. Economic benefits, customer satisfaction, environmental benefits

PSS situation

Majority is leasing; MPS is increasing

Maintenance and repair services are provided; Leasing and rental are also provided.

PSS’s effects on Ref/Rem

Limited; But MPS may increase Ref/Rem products

Limited

Material saving effects

Product/component life time is extended.

Product/component life time is extended.

Job creation

Jobs are created.

Jobs are created.

Social welfare increase

Limited, but it has the effects.

It has significant effects.

E-waste prevention Conflict between new and Ref/Rem products

Prevented. Most used products are collected by OEMs.

Ref/Rem situation Ref/Rem trend

Limited so far.

Indonesia Around 70% of black and white photocopiers are refurbished products. Gradually decreasing. Economic benefits

Possibly not prevented. Users sell used products to recyclers. Limited so far. The market segments are different. But OEMs fear the conflicts in future.

Both OEMs and IRs provide maintenance and repair services. In both countries, leasing and rentals are common for photocopiers. Both remanufacturing and refurbishing in the countries have effects of material saving. They also have job creation effects. Refurbishing in Indonesia increases social welfare because it provides photocopiers in lower prices, and the customers cannot afford photocopiers if the refurbished products are not provided in the market. In Japan, OEMs take back most of the products after the use, thus, used products do not cause e-waste problem. However, in Indonesia, used products are sold to recyclers,

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and the product flow afterwards cannot be traced. Used photocopiers may possibly cause the e-waste problem in Indonesia and in other countries. The conflict between OEMs and IRs in Indonesia is not severe so far because their market segments are different. However, OEMs fear that IRs eventually come to take away their customers. The refurbishment businesses in Indonesia will survive for next decades. However, the businesses are likely to shrink in the long run as the economy of the country grows. It is because the businesses prerequisite low labor costs, and in addition, as economy grows, customers become more sensitive to product qualities and less sensitive to prices, which may lead customers not to prefer refurbished products. Taking the expected long term trends into account, preferable Ref/Rem systems need to be envisioned, and product life cycles which enable such systems should be envisioned.

5. Discussion The case study provided glimpses of today’s situations of Ref/Rem activities in Asian region. One the goals of this study is to take the first step to address the vision for sustainable Ref/Rem systems. The requirements for sustainable Ref/Rem systems would be assumed to include the following elements. y Material consumptions in product life cycle are minimized y Customer values are maximized – Reasonable price, and controlled product qualities y Jobs are created y Economic profits are properly allocated, in particular between OEMs and IRs y Environmental pollutions are minimized In the context of photocopier industry, at least, the scenarios for future Ref/Rem systems, particularly focused on the actors which play the major roles in Ref/Rem, include the following. 1. OEMs undertake Ref/Rem proactively, and their activities dominate Ref/Rem markets (OEM-lead scenario). 2. OEMs and IRs cooperate in Ref/Rem. Today’s IRs may become OEMs’ contracted Ref/Rem undertakers (OEMIR cooperate scenario). 3. IRs’ refurbishments become the majority in markets. OEMs’ Ref/Rem practices are limited, and customers accept IRs’ Ref/Rem products more (IR-lead scenario). 4. OEMs and IRs coexist like in today’s developing countries. They provide products to respective different market segments (OEM-IR segregate scenario). The features of each scenario are described in Table 3. It is needless to say that the actual outcomes depend on various factors and they contain plenty of uncertainties, and thus, the scores in Table 3 were tentatively and subjectively provided. For the “OEM-lead scenario” to be realized, OEMs need to develop highly productive Ref/Rem processes. The Ref/Rem processes may become automated either partially or fully. In this scenario, the quality control of Ref/Rem products is most

highly implemented, and the risks of environmental pollutions are kept in a minimum level because products after use are likely to be recycled appropriately. On the other hand, Ref/Rem products’ prices may be higher than in other scenarios, and the job creation effects may be limited especially if Ref/Rem processes are fully or partially automated. The “OEM-IR cooperate scenario” would be another feasible future scenario. In the scenario, the OEMs are assumed to contract with IRs to promote Ref/Rem in the regions. The features of the scenario are expected to be moderate (see Table 3). If IRs evolve by involving business model innovations, the “IR-lead scenario” would become feasible. The features in the scenario would depend highly on IRs’ characteristics. However, there possibly remain the risks of insufficient controls of product qualities, and environmental pollutions caused by e-wastes of inappropriate recycling. In addition, OEMs may not be able to obtain appropriate economic returns for their product development in the scenario. Finally, the “OEM-IR segregate scenario” reflects today’s situations in developing countries such as in Indonesia. Like in IR-lead scenario, there may be risks of insufficient controls of product qualities and of environmental pollutions. Table 3. Future Ref/Rem system scenarios and features (tentatively scored) Scenario

P

Q

R

S

T

U

OEM-lead

‫ۑ‬

‫ڹ‬

‫۔‬

‫ڹ‬

‫۔‬

‫ۑ‬

OEM-IR cooperate

‫ۑ‬

‫ۑ‬

‫ۑ‬

‫ۑ‬

‫ۑ‬

‫ۑ‬

IR-lead

‫ۑ‬

‫۔‬

‫ڹ‬

‫۔‬

‫ڹ‬

‫ڹ‬

OEM-IR segregate

‫ۑ‬

‫ۑ‬

‫ڹ‬

‫۔‬

‫ڹ‬

‫ۑ‬

P: Material saving; Q: Reasonable price; R: Product quality control; S: Job creation; T: Pollution risk prevention; U: Profit allocation ‫۔‬: Likely to have good effects; ‫ۑ‬: Likely to have relatively good effects; ‫ڹ‬: Has risks of not good effects

Regardless of scenarios, prerequisites to promote Ref/Rem in the future include the following. First, take back of used products must increase. Second, customers’ awareness of Ref/Rem products must increase. Third, inappropriate restrictions of trades of used products for Ref/Rem need to be removed. New business models and new technologies are also the keys. According to a literature, the circular economy assumes the development of digital economy, and it creates 4.5 trillion USD market in 2030 in the world [18]. Moreover, the market growth is based on the five business models, namely, Product as a service, Sharing platform, Product life extension, Recovery and recycling, and Circular supply chain [18]. To envision the future Ref/Rem business systems, it is effective to recapture the changes in the business models of the midstream and downstream of the circular supply chain within the framework of the five business models. First, the development of IoT of photocopiers by each OEM is situated in the midstream of the supply chain. It evolved to the stage of cloud service utilizations, and it needs to be utilized in the downstream, or the remanufacturing and recycling processes.

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Second, the major cost-saving potential in photocopier usages exists in their low operating rates. OEMs can achieve substantial energy saving and material saving by improving the operating rates. The operating rates can be improved by utilizing IoT technologies, and the service business models such as MPS and central reprographics department (CRD) can also help improve the rates. To enable the business model of “Product as a service,” a cost rate reduction is critically important. The cost for services composed of those for labor, spare components, consumables, and administrative expenses. Thus, the OEMs attempt to reduce the service costs usually by improving the durability of the products and by minimizing the component costs. The main challenge for OEMs at this stage is the reduction of the spare parts inventory. This can be solved by communalizing the components and by implementing IoT-based product eco-design. Third, the photocopier market in developing countries is divided into two segments: new product market and used product market. Remanufacturing in the new product market is conducted by mainly OEMs, while Ref/Rem businesses in the used product market is run by a variety of IRs. In the new market which targets the companies with higher credit and qualification for the financial has appeared strong effects of the digital economy in the progress of its IoT. On the contrary, IoT development of the used product market is far behind. To utilize the Photocopier as an IoT terminal, it is necessary to do the setting and installing a driver software for not only the photocopier but also the LAN server as well as the cloud server. However, OEMs which have grown by enclosing their own customers, assume the IRs which do not belong to their supply chain without a proper business contract compromise their "enclosure strategy". Therefore, the OEMs refuse to provide any supplies and technical aids to the IRs such as their products’ data, parts supply and consumables, and so on. Herewith the IRs which cannot experience any technical assistances are not capable of making use of photocopiers as IoT terminals completely. An effective international Ref/Rem industry of photocopier is difficult to grow in the market in which IRs have a large share, because it premises the business model of “Product as a service.” Although IRs, on the other hand, can support the “Sharing platform” businesses which are in the form of copy shops in developing countries today, the businesses in today’s form are likely to change in the near future. To develop an effective international Ref/Rem market, it is necessary to have a mechanism of supplying the original components in the midstream of the supply chain to the IRs in the downstream. This requires a comprehensive product life cycle management system which utilizes the different attributes of the life cycles of new products and used products in the entire market. 6. Conclusion The article presented case studies of Ref/Rem in three countries in Asia. The situation of Ref/Rem in developed countries and developing countries are different significantly. Based on the insights of the situations today, the future

sustainable Ref/Rem systems should be envisioned. The legislations, business model, and technologies including IoT techniques, must be coordinated and developed to realize such systems, and thus to realize circular economy as well as sustainable consumption and production (SCP) in global. Acknowledgements This research is supported by S16 program of the Environmental Research and Technology Development Fund, Japan Ministry of the Environment. References [1] Kerr W, Ryan C. Eco-efficiency gains from remanufacturing A case study of photocopier remanufacturing at Fuji Xerox Australia. Journal of Cleaner Production 2001;9:75–81. [2] King A, Miemczyk J, Bufton D. Photocopier remanufacturing at Xerox UK: A description of the process and consideration of future policy issues. In: Brissaud D, Tichkiewitch S, Zwolinski P, editors. Innovation in Life Cycle Engineering and Sustainable Development. Dordrecht: Springer; 2006. p.173-86. [3] Matsumoto M, Umeda Y. An analysis of remanufacturing practices in Japan. Journal of Remanufacturing 2011;5:1-11. [4] Toffel MW. Strategic management of product recovery. California Management Review 2004;46:120-41. [5] Van der Laan E, Salomon M, Dekker R. An investigation of lead-time effects in manufacturing/remanufacturing systems under simple Push and Pull control strategies. Eur J Operational Research 1999;115:195-214. [6] Tukker A. Eight types of product-service system: eight types of sustainability? Experiences from SusProNet. Business Strategy and the Environment 2004;13:246-60. [7] Matsumoto M, Kamigaki K. Development and changes in the industrial product service systems: A case study of the photocopier PSS. In: Shimomura Y, Kimita K, editors. The Philosopher's Stone for Sustainability. Berlin: Springer; 2013. p.167-72. [8] Matsumoto M, Nasr N. Remanufacturing as an enabler for green service models. In: Jones A, Strom P, Hermelin B, Rusten G, editors. Service and the Green Economy. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2016. p.75-98. [9] Visintin F. Photocopier industry: at the forefront of servitization. In: Lay G, editor. Servitization in Industry. Switzerland: Springer; 2014. p.22-43. [10] Vandermerwe S, Rada J. Servitization of business: adding value by adding services. European Management Journal 1988;6:314-24. [11] Lund RT. Remanufacturing: The experience of the United States and implications for developing countries. Washington D.C.: World Bank; 1984. [12] Zhang T, Chu J, Wang X, Liu X, Cui P. Development pattern and enhancing system of automotive components remanufacturing industry in China, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2011;55:613–22. [13] Yusop NM, Wahab DA, Saibani N. Realising the automotive remanufacturing roadmap in Malaysia: Challenges and the way forward. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016;112:1910-9. [14] Fatimah AF, Biswas W. Remanufacturing as a means for achieving low carbon SMEs in Indonesia. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 2016;1-17 (in press). [15] Hatcher GD, Ijomah W, Windmill J. Design for remanufacturing in China: A case study of electrical and electronic equipment. Journal of Remanufacturing 2013;3:1-11. [16] Fatimah AF, Biswas WK. Sustainability assessment of remanufactured computers. Procedia CIRP 2016;40:150-5. [17] Priyano A. Locomotive remanufacturing to sustainable development: Lessons learned from Indonesia. Management of Sustainable Development 2016;8:23-7. [18] Lacy P, Rutqvist J. Waste to Wealth. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2015.