renewable energy sources for the australian tourism industry - CiteSeerX

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES FOR THE AUSTRALIAN TOURISM INDUSTRY

By Tom E. Baldock, Matt Tomkins, Gordon Dalton, Maria Skyllass-Kazacos & Nicholas Kazacos


TECHNICAL REPORTS The technical report series present data and its analysis, meta-studies and conceptual studies and are considered to be of value to industry, government and researchers. Unlike the Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre’s Monograph series, these reports have not been subjected to an external peer review process. As such, the scientific accuracy and merit of the research reported here is the responsibility of the authors, who should be contacted for clarifications of any content. Author contact details are at the back of this report.

EDITORS Prof Chris Cooper Prof Terry De Lacy Prof Leo Jago

University of Queensland Sustainable Tourism CRC Sustainable Tourism CRC

Editor-in-Chief Chief Executive Director of Research

National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication Data Renewable energy sources for the Australian tourism industry. Bibliography. ISBN 1 920704 67 1. 1. Tourism - Power supply - Australia. 2. Renewable energy sources - Australia. 3. Remote area power supply systems - Australia. 4. Sustainable development - Australia. I. Baldock, Tom. II. Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism.

338.479194

Copyright © CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd 2006 All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. Enquiries should be directed to Brad Cox, Communications Manager ([email protected]) or Trish O’Connor, Publishing Manager ([email protected]).

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CONTENTS ABSTRACT____________________________________________________________________________ VI SUMMARY ___________________________________________________________________________ VII CHAPTER 1 REMOTE AREA POWER SYSTEMS___________________________________________ BACKGROUND _________________________________________________________________________ Regulators _____________________________________________________________________________ Inverters_______________________________________________________________________________ Batteries_______________________________________________________________________________ AREAS OF IMPROVEMENT _______________________________________________________________ STANDARDS____________________________________________________________________________ RAPS SUPPLIERS IN AUSTRALIA _________________________________________________________

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

CHAPTER 2 RENEWABLE ENERGY _____________________________________________________ 3 SOLAR ENERGY ________________________________________________________________________ 3 Introduction ____________________________________________________________________________ 3 Make Up Of Photovoltaic Systems __________________________________________________________ 3 National Programs _______________________________________________________________________ 3 Installed Systems ________________________________________________________________________ 4 Suppliers ______________________________________________________________________________ 5 Solar Power Plants In Australia_____________________________________________________________ 5 WIND ENERGY ________________________________________________________________________ 10 Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________ 10 Large Wind Projects Using Rebate Programs _________________________________________________ 11 Wind Manufacturers And Developers _______________________________________________________ 12 Wind Power Plants In Australia ___________________________________________________________ 13 WAVE ENERGY ________________________________________________________________________ 19 Wave Energy Resource __________________________________________________________________ 19 Wave Energy Technology ________________________________________________________________ 20 TIDAL ENERGY ________________________________________________________________________ 21 Tidal Energy Resource __________________________________________________________________ 21 Tidal Energy Technology ________________________________________________________________ 22 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ________________________________________________________________ 23 Geothermal Energy Resource _____________________________________________________________ 23 Geothermal Energy Technology ___________________________________________________________ 24 CHAPTER 3 ENERGY STORAGE________________________________________________________ GENERAL OVERVIEW __________________________________________________________________ Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________ Reasons For Energy Storage ______________________________________________________________ TYPES OF ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES____________________________________________ Battery Systems________________________________________________________________________ Hydrogen _____________________________________________________________________________

27 27 27 27 28 29 34

CHAPTER 4 RENEWABLE ENERGY REBATE SCHEMES__________________________________ 36 WESTERN AUSTRALIA _________________________________________________________________ 36 Renewable Energy Water Pumping Program (REWP) __________________________________________ 36 NORTHERN TERRITORY ________________________________________________________________ 37 Renewable Energy Rebate Program (RERP) Water Pumping Rebate_______________________________ 37 QUEENSLAND _________________________________________________________________________ 37 Working Property Rebate Scheme (WPRS) __________________________________________________ 37 SOUTH AUSTRALIA ____________________________________________________________________ 38 Renewable Remote Power Generation Program (RRPGP) _______________________________________ 38 TASMANIA ____________________________________________________________________________ 38 Residential Remote Area Power Supply Program (RAPS) _______________________________________ 38 NEW SOUTH WALES ___________________________________________________________________ 39 VICTORIA _____________________________________________________________________________ 39 iii


CHAPTER 5 SURVEY OF TOURISM OPERATIONS IN REMOTE AREAS OF AUSTRALIA: PENETRATION AND PERCEPTIONS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SPS ____________________________________ BACKGROUND ________________________________________________________________________ SURVEY FORMAT AND RESULTS ________________________________________________________ Survey Details _________________________________________________________________________ Attitudes To Renewable Energy Technology _________________________________________________

40 40 42 42 44

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS _________________________________ 46 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE ACTION______________________________________________ 47 APPENDIX A – WAVE ENERGY RESOURCE______________________________________________ APPENDIX B – TIDAL ENERGY RESOURCE______________________________________________ APPENDIX C – GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE _____________________________________ APPENDIX D – HOT DRY ROCK GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE _____________________ APPENDIX E – WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ______________________________________________ APPENDIX F – SOLAR ENERGY RESOURCE _____________________________________________ APPENDIX G – DISTRIBUTION OF SURVEY RESPONDENTS BY STATE/TERRITORY________ APPENDIX H – SURVEY FORMS ________________________________________________________

48 55 62 63 67 69 70 74

REFERENCES _________________________________________________________________________ 76 AUTHORS_____________________________________________________________________________ 79

List of Tables Table 1: Systems installed at the three stations___________________________________________________ 4 Table 2: Solar power plants in New South Wales_________________________________________________ 5 Table 3: Solar power plants in Northern Territory ________________________________________________ 6 Table 4: Solar power plants in Queensland______________________________________________________ 7 Table 5: Solar power plants in South Australia___________________________________________________ 8 Table 6: Solar power plants in Victoria ________________________________________________________ 9 Table 7: Solar power plants in Western Australia________________________________________________ 10 Table 8: Wind power plants in New South Wales _______________________________________________ 13 Table 9: Wind power plants in Northern Territory _______________________________________________ 14 Table 10: Wind power plants in Queensland ___________________________________________________ 15 Table 11: Wind power plants in South Australia ________________________________________________ 16 Table 12: Wind power plants in Tasmania _____________________________________________________ 17 Table 13: Wind power plants in Victoria ______________________________________________________ 18 Table 14: Wind power plants in Western Australia ______________________________________________ 19 Table 15: Application comparisons of different energy storage technologies __________________________ 32 Table 16: Energy and power ratings comparisons of different energy storage technologies _______________ 33 Table 17: Size and weight comparisons of different energy storage technologies _______________________ 33 Table 18: Capital cost comparisons of different energy storage technologies __________________________ 33 Table 19: Life efficiency comparisons of different energy storage technologies ________________________ 34 Table 20: Per cycle cost comparisons of different energy storage technologies _________________________ 34 Table 21: Field visits by state and territory for the tourist sector ____________________________________ 40 Table 22. Tourist sites – field survey results of system type and operational status ______________________ 41 Table 23: Response to renewable energy mail-out/email survey by state and territory ___________________ 42 Table 24: Geographic location of respondents to renewable energy survey ____________________________ 42 Table 25: Accommodation type _____________________________________________________________ 43 Table 26: Use of stand-alone power systems (SPS) – survey response by accommodation type ____________ 43 Table 27: Survey results of stand-alone power system (SPS) type ___________________________________ 44 Table 28: Installation of renewable energy power supply – survey response by accommodation type _______ 44 Table 29: Installation of renewable energy power supply – survey response by geographic location ________ 44 Table 30: HDR energy resources in Australia___________________________________________________ 63 Table 31: Estimated energy resources in granite bodies ___________________________________________ 64

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List of Figures Figure 1: Hybrid RAPS System using more than one form of renewable energy ________________________ 1 Figure 2: Number of PV installations by state ___________________________________________________ 4 Figure 3: Solar power plant locations in New South Wales _________________________________________ 5 Figure 4: Solar power plant locations in Northern Territory_________________________________________ 6 Figure 5: Solar power plant locations in Queensland ______________________________________________ 7 Figure 6: Solar power plant locations in South Australia ___________________________________________ 8 Figure 7: Solar power plant locations in Victoria _________________________________________________ 9 Figure 8: Solar power plant locations in Western Australia ________________________________________ 10 Figure 9: Development of wind sites in Australia________________________________________________ 11 Figure 10: Comparison of CO2 savings________________________________________________________ 12 Figure 11: Wind power plant locations in New South Wales _______________________________________ 13 Figure 12: Wind power plant locations in Northern Territory ______________________________________ 14 Figure 13: Wind power plant locations in Queensland ____________________________________________ 15 Figure 14: Wind power plant locations in South Australia _________________________________________ 16 Figure 15: Wind power plant locations in Tasmania______________________________________________ 17 Figure 16. Wind power plant locations in Victoria _______________________________________________ 18 Figure 17: Wind power plant locations in Western Australia _______________________________________ 19 Figure 18: Vanadium Redox flow cell concept with separate energy conversion and energy storage components ____________________________________________________________________ 30 Figure 19: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia _________________ 48 Figure 20: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia _________________ 49 Figure 21: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in New South Wales, Australia ____________ 49 Figure 22: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Victoria, Australia ____________________ 50 Figure 23: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in South Australia, Australia ______________ 51 Figure 24: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Western Australia, Australia ____________ 52 Figure 25: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in the Northern Territory, Australia_________ 53 Figure 26: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Tasmania, Australia___________________ 54 Figure 27: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia___________________ 55 Figure 28: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia___________________ 56 Figure 29: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in New South Wales, Australia______________ 57 Figure 30: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Victoria, Australia______________________ 57 Figure 31: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in South Australia, Australia________________ 58 Figure 32: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Western Australia, Australia______________ 59 Figure 33: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in the Northern Territory, Australia __________ 60 Figure 34: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Tasmania, Australia ____________________ 61 Figure 35: Estimated temperature at a depth of 5 km across Australia ________________________________ 62 Figure 36: Distribution of hot dry rock resources. Areas shaded red illustrate regions where the estimated temperature at a depth of 5 km exceeds 225 oC ________________________________________ 63 Figure 37: Eromanga Basin geothermal area – location where granite has been found or inferred from gravity lows __________________________________________________________________________ 65 Figure 38: Energy resources in granite bodies for tourism regions in Queensland, Australia ______________ 65 Figure 39: Energy resources in granite bodies for tourism regions in New South Wales, Australia _________ 66 Figure 40: Energy resources in granite bodies for tourism regions in South Australia, Australia ___________ 66 Figure 41: Approximate average wind speeds in autumn - data from the Bureau of Meteorology___________ 67 Figure 42: Approximate average wind speeds in spring - data from the Bureau of Meteorology____________ 67 Figure 43: Approximate average wind speeds in winter - data from the Bureau of Meteorology ___________ 68 Figure 44: Approximate average wind speeds in summer - data from the Bureau of Meteorology __________ 68 Figure 45: Approximate annual average daily solar intensity in megajoules per square metre - data from the Bureau of Meteorology ___________________________________________________________ 69 Figure 46: Approximate annual average daily sunshine in hours - data from the Bureau of Meteorology_____ 69 Figure 47: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Queensland________________ 70 Figure 48: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in New South Wales___________ 70 Figure 49: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Victoria __________________ 71 Figure 50: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in South Australia_____________ 71 Figure 51: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Western Australia___________ 72 Figure 52: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in the Northern Territory _______ 72 Figure 53: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Tasmania _________________ 73

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ABSTRACT This report presents data on renewable energy resources in Australia, together with survey data obtained from tourism operations in remote areas. The purpose of the data is to provide an overview of the renewable energy resources available in different states and an indication of the perception of Renewable Energy Technology by tourism operators. The report is in five parts. Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS) and their application, the relevant Australian Standards for installation and use and a list some of the main suppliers of theses power systems. Chapter 2 discusses Renewable Energy Sources (RES); resources analysed include Solar, Wind, Wave, Tidal and Geothermal. Present technology is also reviewed in terms of application to smaller scale power generation. Maps showing the distribution of RES by location are given in associated Appendices. Chapter 3 provides a detailed review of Energy storage; an essential feature of RAPS which have no associated grid connection. Chapter 4 presents an overview of Renewable Energy Rebate Schemes offered by Federal and State Governments and provides details on the funding available and rebate conditions. Chapter 5 reviews previous survey work on renewable energy systems and presents new data from a survey undertaken in this study. The survey obtained data on tourism operator attitudes and perceptions to Renewable Energy Technology (RET), installed or not, together with details of installed non-grid Stand-alone Power Supply (SPS). The research indicates that RES are widespread and have the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism development in many areas of Australia. Further, operator attitudes to RET are generally favourable, with 60% of survey respondents indicating an interest in SPS. The principal perceived barrier to uptake appears cost and uncertainty over long term benefits. This perception is not helped by a low awareness of available rebate schemes, and the future of many of these is uncertain. However, where installed, cost savings were perceived as favourable, indicating that improved information and examples of demonstrated technology might yield significant increases in SPS uptake. Many operators were willing to participate in detailed case studies focused on RES/SPS applications at their operation.

Acknowledgements The Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre, an Australian Government initiative, funded this research. Support of the following organisations is also acknowledged: • University of Queensland • University of New South Wales

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SUMMARY This report presents the results of the STCRC scoping study ‘Geographic distribution of renewable energy sources for the Australian tourism industry operating in remote locations’. The study is a cooperative project between the Division of Civil Engineering at the University of Queensland and the Department of Chemical Engineering & Industrial Chemistry at the University of New South Wales.

Objectives of Study • • • • • • •

Provide an overview of Remote Area Power Systems, with a focus on Renewable Energy Systems as opposed to fossil fuel systems. Review present Renewable Energy Technology, applications utilising different resources and present federal and State Rebate Schemes. Assess the availability of alternative energy sources for the tourism industry in different parts of Australia. Develop maps indicating the types of available Renewable Energy Sources in remote locations around Australia. These include Solar, Wind, Wave, Tidal and Thermal. Review of Energy Storage Technology appropriate to Remote Area Power Systems. Survey tourism operators to determine perceptions to Renewable Energy Technology. Survey tourism operators to gather information on installed Stand-alone Power Supply systems and user perceptions of the benefits or otherwise of such installed systems.

Methodology A literature review was conducted to provide the required information on Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS), Renewable Energy Technology (RET) and present Federal and State Government Rebate schemes. Sources included books, journal articles, conferences, reports and web based information. A search of information sources providing data on Renewable Energy Sources (RES) was conducted and relevant data extracted or derived. Sources included journals, Government Agencies, public domain charts and web-based resources. Data was obtained at a range of geographic scales relevant to the variability of the resource. Data was then synthesised into map form, again at a range of scales. Where possible, individual maps were created for each State and data is shown in relation to major towns and the boundaries of different tourism regions as defined by Tourism Australia in 2001. Data was cross-checked against different sources where the information source provided insufficient detail on the original data collection and analysis methodology. Data was collected for the following Renewable Energy Sources: • Solar • Wind • Wave • Tidal • Geothermal A review of previous survey work in this area was carried out to determine the focus of the present survey. Survey techniques and formats appropriate to a combined e-mail/postal survey were analysed. This information was synthesised and a three page survey designed to provide data on the following: • Tourism operation type, location, remoteness, certification and number of accommodation units. • Perceptions of the operation manager, or owner, on RET and stand-alone power systems (SPS). • Knowledge of rebate schemes, interest in installing a SPS system and willingness to participate in more detailed case studies. • Details of installed or previously installed SPS systems, whether RES based or diesel based. • Reasons for installation of SPS, together with perceived benefits and disadvantages. A paper and web search was conducted to form a database of tourism operators, focusing on, but not exclusively limited to, operations in different geographic remote locations. The survey format was trialled on a limited subset of the data base, with the feedback used to revise the survey form in order to optimise the response rate and the accuracy of the information obtained. This version was sent to the remainder of the database. In total 213 survey forms were sent by e-mail or post, covering all states in Australia and the following geographic locations: • Absolute Coastal (waterfront) • Island • Ranges, Downs, Tablelands • Coastal and Coastal Hinterland vii


Mountain Outback The survey database covered a range of accommodation types as follows: • Hotels • Motels • Apartments/Suites • Villas and Cabins • Lodges • Stations • Self-catering units • Bed & Breakfast • Combinations of the above Survey data was collated and analysed in terms of response rate from different geographic regions, accommodation type, use of SPS by accommodation type, SPS types installed, and attitudes to Renewable Energy SPS systems by accommodation type and geographic location. It should be noted that a similar survey has been conducted for a more extensive database of Queensland tourism operators, with extensive follow-up to increase the return rate. Those results form part of a separate STCRC project and will be reported elsewhere (Dalton, Lockington & Baldock 2006). • •

Key Findings All objectives given above were achieved in the study. Renewable Energy Sources are available throughout Australia, with solar and wind as expected the most geographically widespread. While the data are best illustrated in map form as given in the Appendices to the report, a summary is as follows: • Annual average daily solar intensity peaks across a broad band of northern Western Australia, and South Australia, western Queensland and almost the whole of Northern Territory. Solar intensity drops to less than half this across southern Victoria and in Tasmania. • Annual average daily sunshine hours follow a similar pattern, ranging from 10 hours in the Gascoyne and Pilbara regions of Western Australia to four to five hours along the south coast of Victoria and in Tasmania. • Average wind speeds vary geographically and seasonally but can be grouped across broad regions to aid assessment as a potential resource. • Average wind speeds are highest across much of western Western Australia, the south coast of the South Australia, the north coast of Northern Territory, southeast Queensland and Tasmania. Wind speeds are lower across the heavily populated regions of New South Wales and Victoria. • Wave heights are greatest in northwest Tasmania, but consistently high around the full exposed coastline of Tasmania. Southwest Western Australia, the Eyre peninsular, western Victoria and the central coast New South Wales also experience an energetic wave climate. • The minimum wave energy occurs across along most of the Queensland, Northern Territory and northern Western Australia coasts. • Tidal range variation is almost the reverse of that for the wave climate. Maximum tidal range occurs along the central Queensland coast, the northwest coast of Western Australia, and the northeast coast of Northern Territory. • On a broad scale, tidal energy is minimum for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and southern Western Australia. • Geothermal energy is high across the Arnhem region of Northern Territory, across Gascoyne Western Australia, outback South Australia and Queensland and the Flinders ranges of South Australia. • Pockets of hot dry rock resource exist in basins scattered geographically, with the highest resources in south west Queensland. In terms of SPS use the survey results are summarised as follows: • Return rate was 19%, consistent with typical return rates for this form of survey format. • Return rate was highest in South Australia and Tasmania at 30% • Data analysis was based on all 40 returns, encompassing all geographic locations. • Responses were received from all accommodation types except Bed & Breakfast; number of rooms ranged from 3 to over 450. • 17% of respondents reported certification with Ecotourism Australia, none with Green Globe 21. • 37% of respondents reported some form of SPS, 60% of those considered themselves to be in very remote locations. • 46% of those operations with SPS involved a component based on renewable energy. • 54% of SPS were primarily used as the main power source, with 31% of SPS used as backup in case of gridfailure. viii


• Diesel stand-alone SPS was the most common system, followed by RES hybrid-diesel systems. In terms of tourism operator perceptions of RES and SPS the survey results can be summarised as follows: • Tourism operator attitudes were generally positive to renewable energy SPS, with 60% interested in installing a renewable energy stand-alone system. • Operators of motels and lodges appeared most interested in installing a renewable energy SPS. • The principal barrier to uptake appears cost and uncertainty over long term benefits, although the data suggests this view changes once SPS is installed. • A large number of operators were identified as willing to participate in more detailed case studies.

Conclusions Interest in Renewable Energy Technology is high within the tourism sector; primarily for cost savings, ethical reasons and social responsibility as opposed to benchmarking, marketing or as a potentially more reliable energy source. Renewable Energy resources are widespread across Australia, with different resources optimal in different locations and appropriate to different scales of tourism operation. Advances in technology will provide further choice of systems. However, awareness of State and Federal rebate schemes is low. This, together with uncertainties in specialist technology and its application, remains a barrier to improved sustainability and expansion of Renewable Energy SPS schemes.

Recommendations for Future Action •

State and Federal government rebate schemes should be promoted more widely or effectively to the tourism industry. This could be through tourism agencies or via the STCRC.

•

Production of a user-friendly guide outlining the first steps required to investigate the cost-effectiveness and application of different of Renewable Energy Technologies and/or Renewable Energy Sources should be considered by the STCRC. This could be combined with software or a web-based ‘calculator’ to enable individual operators to explore likely outcomes from different single source and hybrid power systems. A number of example templates for common tourism operations could be included to ensure ease of use. The guide or software could make use of data from the present study, with additional ground-truthing for specific local conditions and selected tourism operations.

•

Future research projects with potential commercial applications should be explored. Opportunities exist to develop small scale technology for exploitation of tidal and wave energy resources. Similarly, further advances in storage technology focused on applications within the tourism industry can promote reliability and lower costs.

•

The STCRC should consider enabling further research through setting up a number of demonstration projects in partnership with tourism operators. These would promote technology and best practice to the broader tourism Industry and also act as ‘test-bed’ sites for emerging technology under development within Australia. The ‘test-bed’ sites would provide a firm link between academic research and industrial applications. These projects would provide hard data on the cost savings and environmental benefits that are required to demonstrate sustainability. The present study has identified a large number of operators likely to be interested in participating in such projects.

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Chapter 1

REMOTE AREA POWER SYSTEMS Background In Australia, most electricity is supplied via grids. These main grids provide electricity to the majority of Australians using mainly large coal and gas fired power stations and large hydro generation schemes. A large proportion of the Australian continent does not have grid coverage however, and in the absence of a grid, Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) systems can meet electricity requirements. A RAPS system that has a combination of energy sources is termed a hybrid RAPS system. RAPS systems can be used to replace older diesel generation systems, which are noisier, have higher fuel costs and cause high levels of pollution. RAPS systems have been used in Australia for over 20 years with several thousands installed. They are generally used by houses, farms, and small communities and mine sites that are geographically isolated from the main grid (Genta 2001) and are ideal for areas of low population density or difficult terrain Figure 1 shows a typical RAPS configuration. Figure 1: Hybrid RAPS System using more than one form of renewable energy (AGO 2004)

Electricity is generated by solar panels, wind turbines or micro hydro turbines, and is fed into a bank of specially designed batteries via a regulator or other form of power controller, to be stored for use when required. The power can then be used directly from the batteries with DC appliances, or passed via an inverter for use with normal mains appliances. A typical RAPS will consist of a 1-5 kW wind turbine, a series of three to four solar panels, three to four days battery storage, and small diesel backup generator (RETRSG 2002).

Regulators The energy sources usually produce unregulated, highly variable power flow. The regulator device stops the battery bank from being overcharged when it is full, often diverting excess power somewhere else, such as to a water heater. This reduces any damage to the battery (AGO 2004).

Inverters Most household appliances use alternating current (AC) electricity, which is what comes out of the power point of a mains-grid connected house. However, the batteries used in RAPS supply DC electricity. The inverter converts DC electrical energy into AC form. The inverter needs to be sized to suit the electrical requirements, a common size being around 2,000 watts for domestic applications (AGO 2004).

Batteries Energy is stored in large batteries. They are usually of the lead-acid variety, either 'sealed' or 'flooded cell'. A properly sized, well maintained battery bank is vital to guarantee a reliable, long lasting system. Lead-acid

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batteries require regular maintenance, flooded cells need to be topped up with distilled water from time to time and charged and discharged to a timetable. The following equipment can also be used in conjunction with a RAPS system: maximum power point trackers, system controllers, metering, protection, and communication equipment. These devices can be used to monitor the RAPS system from a central location (RETRSG 2002). A RAPS system to provide all of the power requirements for an energy-efficient house with a typical range of appliances can cost between $15,000 and $50,000. Rebates are available to pay for up to half of the system costs. Connecting to a grid may cost $10,000 per kilometre of power lines, making the option of a RAPS system a viable alternative for many locations that are just a few kilometres from the nearest grid (AGO 2004). The cost of a small renewable energy system to run a farm shed light using one panel and a small battery can be as low as $200. It can be more economic for some users to connect a small RAPS systems than connecting to the grid. Local RAPS technologies are also providing potential for a significant export industry, especially to the Asia-Pacific region (RETRSG 2002).

Areas of Improvement While RAPS systems already offer important power solutions for remote locations, considerable improvement is still needed to make them a more attractive option over alternative power supply options. These improvements include (RETRSG 2002): • better design, installation, operation and user support (make fully integrated solutions) • better monitoring and evaluation to improve performance and decommissioning • less reliance on complex parts in areas with no support • need for a cheaper, longer life, more reliable battery (compared to the current lead acid batteries which has problems with long charging times and restrictions on the depth of discharge) that result in the need for significant oversizing.

Standards The following standards need to be adhered to in Australia for the installation and general use of stand alone power systems (Standards Australia 2004): • AS 4509.11999, Standard-alone power systems Part 1: Safety requirements, sets out specifications for the safe operation of stand-alone power systems • AS 4509.31999, Standard-alone power systems Part 3: Installation and maintenance, covers requirements and recommendations for their proper installation and maintenance.

RAPS Suppliers in Australia Below is a list of some of the RAPS system suppliers in Australia: Power Solutions: www.powersolution.com.au/raps/ Solar Energy Systems: www.sesltd.com.au/html/raps.htm Synergy Power Corporation: www.synergypowercorp.com/proj2.htm Solar Technology: www.solartech.com.au/products/raps.htm Sustainable Earth Technologies: www.sustainable.com.au/renewable.html Ergon Energy: http://www.ergon.com.au/my_account/remote_areas.asp?nf=true&platform Advanced Energy Systems: http://www.aesltd.com.au/ Planetary Power: www.planetarypower.com.au/

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Chapter 2

RENEWABLE ENERGY Solar Energy Introduction Australia's vast size and sparse population have made effective remote area telecommunications, power supplies, navigation aids and transport route signalling critical and expensive. Because of this photovoltaic cell (PV) technology has and will continue to provide an important commercial alternative to diesel and expensive grid supplies for maintaining these links (Origin Energy 2004). It also has the advantage of being environmentally benign and superabundant, so has the potential to save fossil fuels in the future. With the addition of energy storage a grid connected PV system can also provide UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply), or with high energy storage can even carry supply load without grid connection. This is needed to handle the variations in solar intensity collected per day and per season, as this technology is very reliant on the weather conditions (RETRSG 2002). Off-grid non-domestic applications still dominate Australia's cumulative installed capacity (about 65% by 2000, down from 75% four years earlier) with an annual growth rate of around 8% (Cassedy & Grossman 2000). Grid-connected installations continue to increase, now approaching 10% of the total installed capacity compared with less than 1% three to four years ago (Cassedy & Grossman 2000).

Make up of Photovoltaic Systems Photovoltaic cells use semi-conductor materials which are adapted to release electrons which form the basis of electricity (RETRSG 2002). Individual photovoltaic cells are known as solar cells, they supply d.c. electric power with efficiencies ranging up to a theoretical limit of about 30% (Cassedy & Grossman 2000). Most solar cells are made of silicon, other materials are gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide, cadmium telluride, and dye sensitive titania (RETRSG 2002). The key components of PV systems are: solar cells, material to support/cover cells, fixing systems, wiring harnesses, equipment for power conditioning, protection, monitoring and control, storage (RETRSG 2002).

National Programs PV technology is expensive to implement due to high capital costs of materials and installations, so until more technology breakthroughs are made, additional services and incentives are needed, such as space and water heating as well as electricity, to justify the installation (RETRSG 2002). The Australian Government has initiated a number of measures to support renewable energy in general and, in some cases, PV in particular.

Mandatory renewable energy target This target seeks to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources in Australia's electricity mix by 9,500 GWh per year by 2010. Under the measure, electricity retailers and large energy users will have to purchase increasing amounts of electricity from renewable sources. Trade in Renewable Energy Certificates and financial penalties for non-compliance are features of this scheme (IEA 2004).

Supporting the use of renewable energy for remote power generation (RRPGP) This program will make AUD$264 million available over four years for the conversion of remote area power supplies (including public generators and mini-grids) from diesel to renewable energy sources, and for new renewable installations that would otherwise have been fuelled by diesel (IEA 2004).

Supporting the use of solar photovoltaic electricity on residential and community buildings (PVRP) AUD$31 million available as rebates to householders or community building owners who install grid-connected or stand-alone photovoltaic power systems. Under the PVRP householders are eligible for a rebate of AUD$5 per watt (min. capacity of 450 W) with the rebate capped at AUD$7,500 (or 1.5 kW). Extensions to an 3


existing system can also attract a rebate. Community buildings attract the same rebate except it is capped at AUD$10,000 (or 2 kW) (IEA 2004).

Supporting renewable energy commercialization activities (RECP) This is a five year AUD$55.6 million grants scheme (IEA 2004). Commercial PV production capacity was 11 MWp during 2000. Australia's current production capacity and usage allows about 60% of PV product to be exported. Other companies are heading towards production phase. These include Sustainable Technologies Australia (using titanium dioxide) and Pacific Solar (with plans for a 20 MW thin film Si manufacturing plant) (IEA 2004). Over 200 Australian PV system suppliers design and install off-grid and grid-connected systems, and the export market for PV systems, particularly to the Asia-Pacific region, are expanding. Locally produced support frames, array trackers, inverters, charge control regulators and maximum power point trackers are available with varying degrees of sophistication and built-in diagnostics (IEA 2004). Off-grid applications are still the major Australian market, accounting for around 75% of capacity that was installed during 1999. This market is widespread across Australia, has been largely unsubsidised and comprises domestic, water pumping, telecommunications, cathodic protection, navigation aid and signalling systems (IEA 2004). The built environment PV market is growing rapidly at present and continues to attract the interest of a variety of parties. Recent installations include roof-mounted systems on schools, commercial buildings and residences, systems integrated into structures such as lighting towers, and ground-mounted systems of various capacities (IEA 2004).

Installed Systems Kirkalocka, Mount Farmer and Boogardie homesteads all have PV installations typical of the sheep stations in the goldfields region of Western Australia (see Table 1). All three stations use photovoltaics to provide 240 volt AC power to the homesteads, though the shearing sheds and other farm equipment are still powered by diesel. They are within 75 km of the mining town of Mount Magnet, which is about 560 km north of Perth on the main north-south state highway. Each station is about 1,000 km2 in area (Renewable Energy World 2004). Table 1: Systems installed at the three stations Homestead Kirkalocka Station Boogardie Station Mount Farmer Station

PV (kW) 1.26 1.18 2.64

Inverter (kW) 3.3 4.9 10

Battery (kWh) 16.8 31.8 98

Figure 2 also shows the Photovoltaic Applications installed by state, splitting the figures into stand alone and grid connected. Figure 2: Number of PV installations by state (Solar Buzz 2004)

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Suppliers Following is a list of various solar manufacturers with offices in Australia: • Pacific Solar Pty Limited • Solenergy • Air Marine Australia • Cygnus Renewable Energy • Kyocera Solar Pty Ltd • BP Solar • Shell Solar A list of Global manufacturers can be found at: http://www.ecobusinesslinks.com/links/solar_energy_solar_power_panels.htm

Solar Power Plants in Australia Figures 3 to 8 and Tables 2 to 7 show the locations of the solar power plants in each of the States and Territories in Australia and are based on data supplied by the AGO (2003). Figure 3: Solar power plant locations in New South Wales

Table 2: Solar power plants in New South Wales No. 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 14 15 16 17 18

Name White Cliffs Nimbin NSW Public Schools Dubbo Singleton Broke Salamander Bay Bathurst Queanbeyan, Canberra Church Point Manly Vale Huntingwood Olympic Boulevard Sydney

Capacity (kW) 42 3 204 50 400 4 10 5 50,450 3 10 15 150 7

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Figure 4: Solar power plant locations in Northern Territory

Table 3: Solar power plants in Northern Territory No.

6

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Kakadu

4

2

Bulman

55

3

Jilkminggan

17

4

Coniston Station

5

5

Kings Canyon

6

Boomerang Bore

4

7

Indigenous Community

5

8

Hamilton Downs

4

280


Figure 5: Solar power plant locations in Queensland

Table 4: Solar power plants in Queensland No.

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Coconut Island

25

2

Alexandra Bay

4

3

Pinnacle Station

5

4

Inkerman Station

10

5

Pastoral Property

4

6

Corrikie Station

15

7

Tewantin

5

8

Caboolture

5

9

Nathan

4

10

Nimbin

3

7


Figure 6: Solar power plant locations in South Australia

Table 5: Solar power plants in South Australia No.

8

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Watarru

13

2

Ernaballa

220

3

Parachilna

21

4

Wilpena Pound

100

5

Stansbury

4

6

Tusmore

9


Figure 7: Solar power plant locations in Victoria

Table 6: Solar power plants in Victoria No.

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Pyramid Hill

60

2

Axedale

24

3

Wendouree

5

4

Greater Melbourne

5

Brunswick

3

6

Yarra Junction

3

7

Pascoe Vale

5

8

Cranbourne South

3

200

9


Figure 8: Solar power plant locations in Western Australia

Table 7: Solar power plants in Western Australia No. 1 2 3 4 5

Name West Kimberley Broome Yagga Yagga Mt Newman rail line Kalbarri

Capacity (kW) 3 4 20 75 10

Wind Energy Introduction The wind on the earth is derived from the sun, resulting in atmospheric pressure differentials created by uneven solar warming of the earth’s surface. Wind has been used over the ages in the form of windmills and the like to turn wind energy into a different form of power (Patel 1999). Over the years wind turbines have been developed to turn the power of wind into electricity with the development of wind farms in western and northern Europe growing in demand and usage at favourable sites (where annual wind speeds are at least 12 mph) (Cassedy & Grossman 2000). Wind Power is fully competitive with traditional fossil fuels and about 10 GW is currently installed world wide. A widespread availability of good wind energy resources are known to exist in Australia (RETRSG 2002). The most common design consists of a three-bladed (where glass reinforced plastic is used for the blades), horizontal axis wind turbine connected via gearbox to an induction generator, all mounted on a tubular steel tower (RETRSG 2002). Improvements have been made to the rotors and hub heights to improve efficiency and costs over the years. This has lead to machines getting bigger and more reliable, meaning the potential for more energy to be generated. Advances in energy storage are also leading to wind power becoming more efficient and reliable. But these systems have a high maintenance requirement, and are very site specific (so need to be near a utility grid for easier power transmission) (RETRSG 2002). A typical wind farm of 20 turbines will probably use an area of a square kilometre, but only 1% of the land 10


area would be taken out of use, the rest of the land space can be used for agriculture or as natural habitat. One 600 kilowatt wind turbine at a reasonable site could produce enough electricity to meet the annual needs of 375 households. A wind turbine usually lasts around 20 to 25 years (Hydro Tasmania 2004). The power available from a wind turbine is higher the greater the wind speed. By doubling the wind speed you can achieve as much as an eight-fold increase in power. Therefore it is important to site wind generators in a place where the wind speed is high, and relatively constant. The length of the rotor blades is also important. By doubling the diameter of the circle made by the blades produces a four-fold increase in power (Australian Academy of Science 2004). Another factor to be taken into account is that the wind is slowed by friction with the land surface. Modern wind turbines are therefore mounted on towers 40 to 60 meters high to expose the blades to a higher wind speed. New technologies are also available to store surplus energy generated during windy periods for use at a calmer time (Australian Academy of Science 2004). Today, 75% of all wind turbines exported in the world are Danish-made. Wind turbines have a wide range and diversity. The smallest wind turbines can generate several hundred watts for charging batteries in the developing world. At the other end of the spectrum, developers in New Zealand have produced 3 MW turbines, and the Danes are in the process of building 2 MW turbines for off-shore wind electricity generation (Renewable Energy Europe 2004). A recent study conducted by the Wind Force 12 group has found the following regarding the take up and installation of Wind Energy in Australia and globally (Greenpeace Australia Pacific 2003): • Installed capacity has continued to grow at an annual rate over 30%. • In 2002, more than 7,000 MW of new capacity was added to the grid (worth A$16.2 billion). • In 2003, global wind power installations had reached a level of 32,000 MW in 50 countries (employing 90 to 100,000 people). • The production cost of a kilowatt hour of wind power has fallen by 20% over past five years mostly due to the advances in the technology.

2500

Figure 9: Development of wind sites in Australia (Greenpeace Australia Pacific 2003)

WA

MW

2000 1500

TAS SA

1000

VIC NSW QLD

500 0 1997

1998

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Year

Large Wind Projects Using Rebate Programs The Renewable Remote Power Generation Program provides rebates for large renewable energy power systems (with a rebate value greater than $500,000) replacing diesel generation in off-grid areas. So far funding has been approved for three large projects, which are described below:

Nine Mile Beach Wind Farm, Esperance (Sustainable Energy Development Office 2004) This consists of six 600 kW variable speed turbines with a total capacity of 3.6 MW. The wind farm is estimated to cost $10.6 million and up to $5.3 million in Renewable Remote Power Generation Program funds have been committed to the project. The wind farm is expected to reduce diesel consumption by 2.3 million litres per annum and greenhouse gas emissions by 6,100 tonnes CO2 per annum.

Rottnest Island Wind Project (Sustainable Energy Development Office 2004) This project involves the installation of a wind turbine with a capacity of around 600 kW and an associated control system. The project is estimated to cost $2 million and up to $1 million in Renewable Remote Power Generation Program funds have been approved. The wind turbine will supply around 1.5 GWh per annum, 11


meeting about 36% of the Island's electricity needs. Fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced by around 400,000 litres and 940 tonnes CO2 per annum respectively.

Hopetoun Wind Project (Sustainable Energy Development Office 2004) This involves the installation of a 600 kW wind turbine with a control and power management system. The project is estimated to cost $3 million and up to $1.34 million in Renewable Remote Power Generation Program funds have been approved. The wind turbine will be built and operated by Western Power. It will supply around 1.44 GWh per annum, meeting about 42% of the town's electricity needs and providing fuel and greenhouse gas savings of around 400,000 litres and 1,110 tonnes CO2 per annum respectively. Figure 10 shows the potential CO2 emission savings by continuing to use Wind Power in the future: Figure 10: Comparison of CO2 savings (Ayotte 2003)

Some of the issues that have arisen in recent years include (Sinclair 2003): • Interference with native birds and bats in the area • Possible Interference of Wind Turbines to TV Reception & Telecommunications • The noise generated by the wind turbines • Possible Indigenous Issues in Wind Farm Projects. The funding provided by the government to help assist renewable energy as compared to fossil fuels is also an issue (Greenpeace Australia Pacific 2003): • • •

According to Minister Kemp, the Australian Greenhouse Office will spend $1 billion over a 14 year period to deal with climate change. According to the Institute for Sustainable Futures, subsidies that encourage fossil fuel use in Australia equals $8.9 billion per year. Per Australian per week the difference is $8.56 fossil subsidies compared to 7 cents for climate action.

Wind Manufacturers and Developers The main manufacturers and developers of wind systems and turbines around the world are listed below along with their website addresses.

Manufacturers Vestas www.vestas.dk Enercon www.enercon.de/englisch/fs_start.html NEG Micon www.neg-micon.dk Nordex www.nordex-online.com GE Wind Energy www.gewindenergy.com Bonus www.bonus.dk 12


Gamesa www.gamesa.es/home.htm Lagerwey www.lagerwey.nl De Wind www.dewind.de Made www.made.es Suzlon Energy Ltd www.suzlon.com

Developers AMEC www.amec.com/wind Stanwell Corporation Limited www.stanwell.com Pacific Hydro Limited www.pacifichydro.com.au Hydro Tasmania www.hydro.com.au Western Power www.westernpower.com.au Wind Prospect www.windprospect.com Energy Visions www.energy-visions.com.au New Energy Partners www.newenergypartners.com SkyFarming Pty Ltd www.skyfarming.com.au Wind Power Pty Ltd www.wind-power.com.au For further links to manufactures and resources click on the link below: http://www.windlogics.com/links.html

Wind Power Plants in Australia Figures 11 to 17 and Tables 8 to 14 show the locations of the wind power plants in each of the States and Territories in Australia and are based on data supplied from the AGO (2003). Figure 11: Wind power plant locations in New South Wales

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Table 8: Wind power plants in New South Wales Name Capacity (kW) Armidale 30 Blayney 9,900 Crookwell 4,800 Hampton 1,200 Malabar 150 Kooragang 600

13


Figure 12: Wind power plant locations in Northern Territory

Table 9: Wind power plants in Northern Territory No.

14

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Epenarra

80

2

Boomerang Bore

6

3

Indigenous Community

4


Figure 13: Wind power plant locations in Queensland

Table 10: Wind power plants in Queensland No.

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Coconut Is

10

2

Thursday Island

450

3

Inkerman Station

8

4

Windy Hill

5

Pastoral Property

10

6

North Keppel Island

8

7

Fraser Island

5

12,000

15


Figure 14: Wind power plant locations in South Australia

Table 11: Wind power plants in South Australia No.

16

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Watarru

6

2

Pitjinjarra settlement

5

3

Coober Pedy

150

4

Harbour Point

10

5

Lake Bonney

50,000

6

Parkside

7

Starfish Hill

5 34,000


Figure 15: Wind power plant locations in Tasmania

Table 12: Wind power plants in Tasmania No.

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

King Island

750

2

Flinders Island

25

3

Flinders Island

55

4

Woolnorth

5

Mawson Base

10,500 900

17


Figure 16: Wind power plant locations in Victoria

Table 13: Wind power plants in Victoria No.

18

Name

Capacity (kW)

1

Challicum Hills

52,500

2

Codrington

18,000

3

Breamlea

60

4

Merri Creek

10

5

Melbourne

8

6

Tortoise Head

10

7

Toora

8

Wilson's Promontory Lighthouse

10

9

Point Hicks Lighthouse

10

10

Gabo Island Lighthouse

10

21,000


Figure 17: Wind power plant locations in Western Australia

Table 14: Wind power plants in Western Australia No.

Name

Capacity (kW)

1 2 3 4 5

Exmouth Denham Swan Valley Albany Salmon Beach

75 690 20 22,000 360

Wave Energy Wave Energy Resource Wave energy as a resource for remote renewable energy projects in Australia has been assessed using the Australian Natural Resources Atlas (ANRA 2004), a product of the National Land & Water Audit (NHT 2004). Wave information is prepared from the Australian Region GEOSAT Wave Dataset and appears as contours of significant wave height at intervals of 0.25 m. Significant wave height (Hs) refers to the mean height of the highest third of all ocean waves in the recording period. The GEOSAT Wave Dataset derived information from the above surface method of wave recording using a satellite radar altimeter. Wave information for the east and west coast of Australia recorded from wave rider buoys was considered in addition to the GEOSAT Wave Dataset. Both sources of information were cross-checked and appear to be consistent with each other. This included data from recording programs along the Queensland coast held by the Environmental Protection agency and the south-west coast of Western Australia held by the Department for 19


Planning and Infrastructure. Visual observations of wave climate published by the Beach Protection Authority of Queensland under the Coastal Observation Programme Engineering (COPE) were also considered. Emphasis was also placed on collecting wave information in sheltered sea areas given that technologies are now being considered (e.g. Bernhoff, Sjösedt & Leijon 2003) for areas not naturally considered as having a favourable wave climate. Data from these sources also provided a sense of seasonal variation in wave height. In these cases, the median value was considered on plots of percentage (of time) exceedance of significant wave heights for all wave periods in the recording period. As a resource, wave energy is generally considered in terms of the wave energy flux. The energy flux in Watts per metre of wave crest is written as: Ef =

1 2kh ⎞ ⎛ ρ gH 2 c ⎜ 1 + ⎟ 16 sinh 2kh ⎠ ⎝

(1)

This equation (c.f. Dean & Dalrymple 1990) is based on small amplitude wave theory, where ρis the fluid density, g is gravitational acceleration, H is the wave height, c is the wave celerity, k is the wave number 2π/L, L is the wave length and h is the water depth. In deep water (h/L>0.5), the energy flux is written as Ef =

1 ρ gH o 2 co 16

(2)

In this equation (c.f Dean & Dalrymple 1990), Ho is the deep water wave height and co is the deep water wave celerity. In shallow water (h/L 4 m]) adjacent to King Sound, Western Australia. For eastern Australia, relatively high currents were also predicted in the Torres Strait and Broad Sound region. The Gulf of Carpentaria, Spencer Gulf, Gulf of St. Vincent, Bass Strait and Torres Strait were also recognised as areas of relatively strong currents where mesotidal (2 m to 4 m) and microtidal (< 2 m) gulfs and shelf seaways exist (Porter-Smith et al. 2004). The reference value for the energy flux available per unit cross section area of a marine current conversion device may be written as (c.f. Garrett & Cummins 2004):

Ef =

1 ρuo3 2

(6)

where uo is the current velocity.

Tidal Energy Technology Technology to convert tidal energy typically takes the form of large-scale structures that act as artificial impoundments to control tidal flow or devices incorporating various arrangements of turbo machinery to directly extract energy from marine currents. The former technology concept involves blocking the site, e.g. estuary, bay entrance with a barrage (tidal fence) with a number of sluices. Water enters the site on the flood tide with closing of the sluices at high tide. Water outside the barrage falls with the ebb tide. The closed site effectively forms an impounded basin with sufficient head to drive turbines as the water is discharged; the process being analogous to a low-head hydro-electric dam. A minimum tidal range of approximately 7 m is required to provide a sufficient head of water for the turbines and allow economic operation (POEMS 2004), not considering assistance from a pumping system to further raise the water level. These types of tidal energy conversion systems will not be further considered here given their scale. Marine current technology generally involves turbo machinery orientated normal to the direction of flow. Devices are either bottom-fixed or mounted with floating structures where the turbine rotor is an axial-flow type (horizontal axis) or cross-flow type (vertical axis) which may have a fixed geometry or allow adjustment of pitch. Devices fixed to the seabed are most suitable for installation in water depths around 20 m to 30 m, while floating structures are typically associated with installation in deeper water, i.e. water depths greater than about 50 m. As with offshore wave energy conversion systems, these deep water installations would seem unlikely for small and medium tourist operations. Again, only devices located near shore will be considered. Proposed tidal energy technology suitable for near shore installation includes tidal turbines (Blue Energy Power System, Seaflow project) and reciprocating wing devices (Stingray). Both the Seaflow project and Stingray project involve devices in the full-scale prototype stage.

Blue Energy Power System The Blue Energy Power System consists of a high density arrangement of ocean-class Davis Hydro Turbines which effectively form a permeable tidal fence. The technology is a large-scale concept with the capacity to form the superstructure of marine platforms and bridges. Of interest are the Davis Turbines, which are vertically stacked in the Blue Energy Power System. The Davis Turbine consists of four fixed vertical hydrofoil working blades attached to a rotor shaft by support arms. The rotor blades are mounted and rotate within a concrete caisson unit with contracting sidewalls. The device is operable during both flood and ebb tides.

22


Seaflow Project Assisted by the UK Government through the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and the European Commission, Marine Current Turbines Ltd are running a tidal turbine development programme based on a monopile-mounted axial-flow rotor system. The first phase of the program involves installation of an experimental 300 kW single rotor system (11 m diameter) off Lynmouth, Devon, UK (MCT 2004). The rotor drives a generator via a gearbox in a manner similar to a hydro-electric turbine. As opposed to later programme phases, the system is not connected to the grid and operates only with one tidal direction. A mean spring peak velocity exceeding approximately 2.5 m/s with a depth of 20 m to 30 m is required for the tidal stream system to generate power economically (MCT 2004).

Stingray Project The Stingray project is another DTI assisted development program enabling The Engineering Business Ltd to develop the Stingray Tidal Stream Generator. The Stingray operates on a reciprocating wing concept where a variable-pitch hydroplane orientated normal to the flow forces oscillation of a support arm during tidal flow. The oscillating support arm drives hydraulic cylinders, which in turn allows oil under high pressure to drive a generator. Deployment of a full-scale prototype in Yell Sound off the Shetland Islands (UK) during the second phase of the development program demonstrated a peak hydraulic power of 250 kW and a time averaged output of 90 kW in a 1.5 m/s current (ENGB 2004).

Geothermal Energy Geothermal Energy Resource Geothermal energy as a resource for power generation relies on deep subsurface regions where heat flow is concentrated. Geothermal energy may be hydrothermal, i.e. water at high temperatures and steam at depths around 100 m to 4,500 m, geopressured where water at high temperature exists in aquifers under high pressure at depths around 3 km to 6 km and hot dry rock (HDR), i.e. heat stored in geologic formations with low water content (Draper 2004). Magma bodies and the immediate region around a body of molten rock also exist as a potential source for geothermal energy (Brown & Garnish 2004). Geothermal energy is classed as either ‘high enthalpy’ (steam/water at T > 180 oC to 200 oC), ‘medium enthalpy’ (steam/water at T about 100 oC to 180 oC) and ‘low enthalpy’ (steam/water at T < 100 oC) where it should be noted that for a steam/water mixture the enthalpy, or total heat content per unit mass depends on volume, pressure and temperature (Brown & Garnish 2004). The source of heat for a geothermal resource is largely derived from the decay of radiogenic elements in upper crustal rocks with local contributions from regions along plate margins where heat flow is concentrated. Given the nature of material across the outer region (about 100 km) of the earth, heat transport is by conduction with much larger thermal gradients closer to the surface. Resources suitable for power generation are typically ‘high enthalpy’, the most ideal locations being those at the boundary of lithospheric plates where the earth’s interior heat can be more easily accessed (Brown & Garnish 2004). These resources are either vapour-dominated or liquid-dominated, the former being the most productive given that enthalpy is very high and the vapour is dry. Geothermal resources of lower enthalpy may also be harnessed for power generation, however present systems exploiting these resources are largely in the research/prototype stage to improve efficiency. Geothermal resources considered to be ‘low enthalpy’ generally appear as HDR resources or resources associated with deep sedimentary basins where aquifers carry geothermal fluid to exploitable depths. The geothermal HDR resource is derived from heat stored in rock strata, rather than geothermal fluid, which is typically of low permeability (Brown & Garnish 2004) and is usually in the form of basement granite beneath sedimentary basins. The overlying sedimentary rocks are usually of low conductivity, which assists thermal gradients closer to the surface by acting as an insulating layer (Brown & Garnish 2004; Draper 2004) A more appropriate term may be ‘enhanced geothermal systems’ (EGS) given that some water is usually present in the basement rocks. Geothermal energy as a resource may be considered using the heat conduction equation (c.f. Brown & Garnish 2004): dT q = kT (7) dz In this equation, q is the vertical heat flow (W/m2), kT is the coefficient of thermal conductivity and dT/dz is the thermal gradient. 23


Geothermal potential in Australia is illustrated in Appendix C and is presented as a map of temperature at a depth of 5 km. The geothermal resource map is based on a database of bottom hole temperatures (BHTs) of around 3,500 boreholes at depths between 0.1 km and 4km to 5 km (Chopra 2003). Knowing the thermal conductivity of the sedimentary cover and basement rocks, temperatures at a depth of 5 km are determined by linear extrapolation (Burns, Weber, Perry & Harrington 2000). A triangulated irregular network between the boreholes was drawn to facilitate the estimation of temperatures for the entire continent (Chopra 2003). The Eromanga Basin (Great Artesian Basin) is a considerable hydrothermal resource in Australia. Over some regions, surface temperature of borehole water is near 100 oC (Burns et al. 2000), with BHTs (at about 1,000 km depth) around 4 oC to 5 oC higher. In some cases, bore pressure has been sufficient to drive simple turbines for electricity on homesteads, however system longevity is an issue (Burns et al. 2000). Hot dry rock resources in Australia are extensive, with the majority of the resource located in the Eromanga Basin. HDR resources in Australia and an estimate of the available heat energy as compiled by Somerville et al. (1994) is presented in Appendix D. Prominent within the Eromanga Basin is the Cooper Basin, an infrabasin extending from the south-western corner of Queensland to the north-eastern corner of South Australia. The basin has long been known as an important source of fossil fuels with extensive temperature measurements from exploration boreholes identifying a significant geothermal resource (Chopra 2003). The Cooper Basin is favourable as a site for geothermal energy given the high temperatures at relatively shallow depth. Geodynamics Limited spudded the first geothermal well in 2003 recording temperatures in excess of 250 oC at a depth of around 4,300 m. Ongoing developments at the Cooper Basin are detailed by Geodynamics Ltd (2003). Other hot dry rock resources under active investigation include the Hunter Valley Anomaly (near Muswellbrook, New South Wales) and a site near Woronora (New South Wales). Further details concerning the Hunter Valley Project are discussed by Burns et al. (2000) and Chopra (2003). The Woronora Hot Dry Rock Project is further considered by Burns et al. (2000).

Geothermal Energy Technology Geothermal technology is typically based on boreholes/wells which tap into the resource, allowing geothermal fluid to flow or be pumped to the surface to be harnessed for primary power generation using conventional steam turbines, or directly for ‘non-electrical’ applications, including space heating and hot water needs in a residential/commercial setting. The latter typically makes use of ‘low enthalpy’ geothermal resources and is a well suited application of geothermal energy for off-grid tourism operations. On a larger scale, technology for direct use of geothermal heat for district heating is established and proven. Brown & Garnish (2004) provide a detailed review of several operational district heating schemes. In brief, geothermal fluid from a reservoir transfers heat to clean water in a separate heating circuit via a heat exchanger. A network delivers water for space heating (underfloor heating/radiator heating) and other hot water services. The scheme may also involve heat pumps at secondary stages to extract more heat from the fluid. Re-injection of spent geothermal fluid is now common practice. In Australia, direct use of geothermal fluid is limited. Projects have included a district heating system at Portland (Victoria) and wells to provide process water for a paper manufacturing operations in the Gippsland Basin of Victoria (Burns et al. 2000). The installation at Portland is the only system based on geothermal fluid for space heating in Australia (Burns et al. 2000). Technology for power generation using geothermal fluid has proven to be successful in Australia, albeit on a limited scale. The geothermal power system (about 10 kW) on Mulka Station (South Australia) in service between 1986 and 1989 and the system for the town of Birdsville (Queensland) have proven to be successful ventures (Burns et al. 2000). The latter system in particular demonstrated the ability to generate electricity for inland towns in the Eromanga Basin. After completion of refurbishment in 1999, the Birdsville plant demonstrated a net average output of 39 kW. Maximum power demand for the town is around 250 kW. The plant will be connected to the existing diesel grid, however there is the capacity for the system to operate as if it were autonomous for load sharing. Both systems used Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) engines for power. Alternatively known as binary cycle plant, the system uses a working fluid with a lower boiling temperature than water to drive the turbine(s). In this way, geothermal resources of lower enthalpy may be exploited (Brown & Garnish 2004). Further details for both systems are detailed by Burns et al. (2000). HDR technology is based on the need for an artificial heat exchange zone within the basement rocks. Given the lower capacity of rocks to conduct heat, significant heat transfer surfaces are essential. The pre-existing fracture network is a suitable heat exchange surface. The basis for HDR technology is a borehole which carries water at increasing pressure to ‘stimulate’ rock fractures. Microseismic monitoring (three dimensional) is used to track the opening fractures. With the release of pressure, opened fractures will once again close, however slippage during hydraulic fracturing significantly increases the permeability of the local basement rocks (Chopra 2003). This may be repeated in a second pre-drilled borehole until both stimulated zones intersect or a second borehole drilled afterwards to intersect the initial stimulated zone. Water is pumped down an injection borehole 24


through the fracture network in a loop and is superheated, remaining in liquid state given the ambient pressure. In this way, materials dissolved from the surrounding rock may remain in solution. A production borehole(s) recovers the superheated water. At the surface, heat is transferred to a working fluid via a heat exchanger in the power plant subsystem of the process. The process is cyclic with the spent water returning to the basement rock for reheating. One of the various geothermal power plant systems as discussed by Brown & Garnish (2004) would be utilised for power generation, the most viable appearing to be ORC plants (DOE 1997, Draper 2004). While surface power plant technology is economically proven, technology for the reservoir system is still being refined (OUT 1997). Brown & Garnish (2004) suggested a minimum thermal gradient of around 0.025 oC/m for HDR resources to be economical. A detailed review of HDR technology including operational concerns is provided by Brown & Garnish (2004), Chopra (2003) and OUT (1997). OUT (1997) provides an overview of performance and cost of a typical (two production wells per injection well) binary geothermal power project. A similar analysis is considered by Chopra (2003) for a HDR project in Australia. Economic modelling of geothermal resources in the Cooper Basin based on a binary geothermal power plant suggests that the break-even cost for the production of electricity is around 6 c/kWh (Chopra & Wyborn 2003). This is assuming a resource that produces at 245 oC and is capable of circulating at 100 L/s. The cost may be closer to 4 c/kWh for a larger operation based on more boreholes (Chopra & Wyborn 2003) which is approximately the current cost of generating electricity from coal-fired power stations.

Ground Source Heat Pumps Geothermal heat pump (GHP) technology may be used to service heating and hot water needs for small to medium sized operations. Heat is transferred by conduction from soil surrounding an embedded ground loop containing a heat transfer fluid. The ground loop is typically a plastic pipe within a shallow well (about 100 m to 150 m) which carries fluid to a heat pump for heat transfer (Brown & Garnish 2004). The entire system operates as a closed loop. The fluid may be water or an environmentally safe antifreeze solution (CEC 2004). Below several metres, ground temperature is relatively constant and thus geothermal heat pumps draw on a stable and even source of heat. A review of heat pump operation is presented by the CEC (2004). The use of a reversible heat pump in the system allows cooling in warmer periods, i.e. during warmer periods the subsurface loop draws excess heat from the building to the soil. The heat exchanger may be located underground and thus environmental concerns, i.e. visual impacts, noise and maintenance is reduced (CEC 2004; Stott 2004). The high initial capital cost is compensated in the long term by reduced life-cycle costs. As a general indicator, a geothermal heat pump system costs around US$2,500 per ton of capacity, with a typical home using a three-ton unit (CEC 2004). More than 2,000 residential ground source heat pumps are now installed in Australia (Burns et al. 2000). Geothermal systems may also be equipped with a desuperheater to heat water for the building hot water system. In warmer months, heat from the building which would have normally been returned to the loop may be used to heat water, while during the cooler months the desuperheater may operate in conjunction with the conventional water heater to reduce heating costs by around 50% (CEC 2004). An extensive listing of case studies is presented by the Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium (2003). Examples of larger ground source heat pump systems in Australia are discussed by Burns et al. (2000), most of which are used for building/office airconditioning Other ground source heat pumps, or ground coupled heat pumps may incorporate a horizontal heat exchanger loop(s) buried close to the surface. Given that these systems derive their energy from solar input, they are not strictly considered to be geothermal systems (Brown & Garnish 2004). While these systems are considered to be less efficient given that they are affected by surface temperature, installation costs are lower (Sunteq 2003). A typical loop of this configuration is around 130 m to 200 m in length for each ton of heating/cooling (CEC 2004). The ‘Slinky’ loop developed by the International Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA 2004) represents an improvement in the performance of horizontal ground loop configurations, whereby coils of overlapping pipe are buried close to the ground surface. The system is intended to concentrate the heat transfer surface and reduce installation space; the ‘Slinky’ configuration may reduce required trenching by one-third for an extended overlapping configuration and two-thirds for a compact configuration (Alliant Energy 2004). The IGSHPA ‘Slinky’ ground loop design utilises around 330 m of piping in a 25 m trench pipe per ton of capacity with compact overlapping. Sunteq (2003) suggests that an overall performance improvement of around 22% may be achieved with this type of configuration over other horizontal loop systems. This is using a configuration that employs around 270 m to 300 m of pipe in a 33 m trench per ton of capacity. The length of loop for all of these geothermal systems will be dependent on the chosen loop configuration, the buildings heating and air conditioning load, local soil conditions and landscaping and climate conditions (CEC 2004).

25


Groundwater Heat Pumps A groundwater heat pump system involves temperate water extracted from a standing well(s) in an open loop, i.e. water is only utilised once. Water is pumped to a groundwater heat pump for heat exchange. Typical standing wells are around 0.15 m in diameter and may be as deep as 500 m (GHPC 2003), although cost may be prohibitive depending on the depth to the water source. If only a single well exists, water is returned to the well or discharged to a nearby surface water body. If two wells exist, water is discharged to the second loop, again in an open loop. In these systems, water quality must be observed given that corrosives may be present and the costs of pumping may be higher than systems where water is circulated in a closed system (Sunteq 2003). Ground water may also be a source of heat for a closed loop system (Sunteq 2003).

Surface Water Heat Pumps Where the residential/commercial building is located near a body of water, i.e. pond or lake, fluid may circulate through an underwater loop(s) in a closed system before heat exchange in the heat pump. Alternatively, water may be drawn from and later discharged into the same water body in an open loop system.

26


Chapter 3

ENERGY STORAGE General Overview Introduction Power storage only became a major issue with the introduction of electricity, as electricity has to be used as it is generated, which causes various issues. Changes in demand are difficult to cater for without either cutting supplies at times, or having expensive excess capacity (Wikipedia 2004). Energy storage has also become important in helping to achieve the economic viability for large scale wind and solar generation, as renewable energy inputs are not always available when there is a demand. Energy storage also has the potential to be used in electric vehicles, via new technology batteries. Many new and old technologies are available to try and cater for this growing need for energy storage. The main technologies will now be discussed.

Reasons for Energy Storage Load Levelling (Wikipedia 2004) The demand for electricity falls into the following categories: • Seasonal • Weekly • Daily • Hourly • Transient (fluctuations due to individual's actions, differences in power transmission efficiency and other small factors) Changes in demand can be addressed by: • Electrical devices generally having a working voltage range that they require, commonly 110V to 120V or 220V to 240V. Minor variations in load are automatically smoothed by slight variations in the voltage available across the system. • Power plants can be run below their normal output, with the facility to increase the amount they generate almost instantaneously. This is termed 'Spinning Reserve'. • Additional power plants can be brought online to provide a larger generating capacity, though this typically takes 12 to 18 hours (or longer for nuclear plants), and so is used to deal with large, predictable variations (such as seasonal). The problem with the last two methods in particular is that they make poor use of expensive generating equipment. Power storage is a potential solution to this. Power plants would be able to run at their peak efficiency 24 hours a day throughout the year. At times when demand was lower than the total amount generated the surplus could be diverted to some storage mechanism. This storage resource could then be tapped when demand exceeded supply, without having to use additional expensive resources. This could work on a daily, weekly or even seasonal basis, depending on the characteristics of the storage mechanism.

Portability (Wikipedia 2004) Pressure has been growing for alternatives to the internal combustion engine in cars and other means of transport. These uses require much higher energy densities (the amount of power stored in a given volume or weight) than current battery technology can deliver.

Renewables Support (ESA 2004) Energy storage can increase the value of photovoltaic (PV) and wind-generated electricity, being able to supply during periods of peak consumer demand.

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Reliability (Wikipedia 2004) Most electrical devices are affected by the loss of power supply. Solutions such as UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) or backup generators are available, but these are expensive. Efficient methods of power storage would allow for devices to have a built-in backup for power cuts, by using fuel cells and flywheels.

Types of Energy Storage Technologies Pumped Hydro (2004) During off peak hours water is pumped from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. When required, the water flow is reversed to generate electricity. Some high dam hydro plants have a storage capability and can be dispatched as a pumped hydro. Pumped hydro is available at almost any scale with discharge times ranging from several hours to a few days. Their efficiency is in the 70% to 85% range. Pumped storage plants are characterised by long construction times and high capital expenditure. Pumped storage is the most widespread energy storage system in use on power networks. Its main applications are for energy management, frequency control and provision of reserve.

Flywheel (ESA 2004) Most flywheel energy storage systems consist of a massive rotating cylinder (comprised of a rim attached to a shaft) that is substantially supported on a stator by magnetically levitated bearings that eliminate bearing wear and increase system life. To maintain efficiency, the flywheel system is operated in a low vacuum environment to reduce drag. The flywheel is connected to a motor/generator mounted onto the stator that, through some power electronics, interact with the utility grid. Some of the key features of flywheels are little maintenance, long life (20 years or tens of thousands of deep cycles) and environmentally inert material. They are good for high power, short duration needs (RETRSG 2002). While high-power flywheels are developed and deployed for aerospace and UPS applications, there is an effort, pioneered by Beacon Power, to optimise low cost commercial flywheel designs for long duration operation (up to several hours). 2 kW / 6 kWh systems are in telecom service today.

Electrochemical Capacitors (EC) (ESA 2004) Electrochemical capacitors (EC) store electrical energy in the two series capacitors of the electric double layer (EDL), which is formed between each of the electrodes and the electrolyte ions. The capacitance and energy density of these devices is thousands of times larger than electrolytic capacitors. The electrodes are often made with porous carbon material. The electrolyte is either aqueous or organic. Compared to lead-acid batteries, EC capacitors have lower energy density but they can be cycled tens of thousands of times and are much more powerful than batteries (fast charge and discharge capability). While the small electrochemical capacitors are well developed, the larger units with energy densities over 20 kWh/m3 are still under development.

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) (ESA 2004) It is a peaking gas turbine power plant that consumes less than 40% of the gas used in conventional gas turbine to produce the same amount of electric output power. This is because, unlike conventional gas turbines that consume about two thirds of their input fuel to compress air at the time of generation, CAES pre-compresses air using the low cost electricity from the power grid at off-peak times and utilises that energy later along with some gas fuel to generate electricity as needed. The compressed air is often stored in appropriate underground mines or caverns created inside salt rocks. It takes about 1.5 to two years to create such a cavern by dissolving salt. The largest ever, is a 2,700 MW plant that is planned for construction in Norton, Ohio. This nine-unit plant will compress air to 1,500 psi in an existing limestone mine some 2,200 feet under ground.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) (ESA 2004) SMES systems store energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a coil of cryogenically cooled, superconducting material. A SMES system includes a superconducting coil, a power conditioning system, a cryogenically cooled refrigerator and a cryostat/vacuum vessel. SMES are highly efficient at storing electricity (greater than 95%), and provide both real and reactive power. Developers include American Superconductor.

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Thermal Thermal storage systems already exist in widely used applications. Thermal systems can either be ice-based (for peak-shaving commercial and industrial cooling loads), or heliostat-based (mirror-based) using molten salt for electric power production (still in the development phase) (Renewable Energy World 2004).

Battery Systems Lead-acid Battery (ESA 2004) Lead-acid batteries are a low cost and popular storage choice for power quality, UPS and some spinning reserve applications. Its application for energy management, however, has been very limited due to its short cycle life and poor deep discharge capabilities. The amount of energy (kWh) that a lead-acid battery can deliver is not fixed and depends on its rate of discharge. Lead-acid batteries, nevertheless, have been used in a few commercial and large-scale energy management applications. The largest one is a 40 MWh system in Chino, California, built in 1988. Some are now sealed and use a gel electrolyte (rather than free acid) which make the battery more robust and safe for transport and use in remote areas (RETRSG 2002).

Li-ion Battery (ESA 2004) The main advantages of Li-ion batteries, compared to other advanced batteries, are: • High energy density (300 to 400 kWh/m3, 130 kWh/ton) • High efficiency (near 100%) • Long cycle life (3,000 cycles @ 80% depth of discharge). The cathode in these batteries is a lithiated metal oxide (LiCoO2, LiMO2, etc.) and the anode is made of graphitic carbon with a layer structure. The electrolyte is made up of lithium salts (such as LiPF6) dissolved in organic carbonates. When the battery is being charged, the Lithium atoms in the cathode become ions and migrate through the electrolyte toward the carbon anode where they combine with external electrons and are deposited between carbon layers as lithium atoms. This process is reversed during discharge. Good in portable markets, challenges need to be overcome for making large-scale Li-ion batteries. The main hurdle is the high cost (above $600/kWh) due to special packaging and internal overcharge protection circuits. Several companies are working to reduce the manufacturing cost of Li-ion batteries to capture large energy markets.

NaS Battery (ESA 2004) A NaS battery consists of liquid (molten) sulphur at the positive electrode and liquid (molten) sodium at the negative electrode as active materials separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte. The electrolyte allows only the positive sodium ions to go through it and combine with the sulphur to form sodium polysulphides: 2Na + 4S = Na2S4 During discharge, as positive Na+ ions flow through the electrolyte and electrons flow in the external circuit of the battery producing about two volts. This process is reversible as charging causes sodium polysulphides to release the positive sodium ions back through the electrolyte to recombine as elemental sodium. The battery is kept at about 300oC to allow this process. NaS battery cells are efficient (about 89%) and have a pulse power capability over six times their continuous rating (for 30 seconds). The largest NaS installation is a 6 MW, 8 h unit for Tokyo Electric Power Company. Combined power quality and peak shaving applications in the United States of America market are under evaluation.

Metal-air Battery (ESA 2004) Metal-air batteries are the most compact and, potentially, the least expensive batteries available. They are also environmentally benign. The main disadvantage, however, is that electrical recharging of these batteries is very difficult and inefficient - not many developers offer an electrically rechargeable battery. Rechargeable metal air batteries that are under development have a life of only a few hundred cycles and an efficiency of about 50%. The anodes in these batteries are commonly available metals with high energy density like aluminium or zinc that release electrons when oxidised. The cathodes or air electrodes are often made of a porous carbon structure or a metal mesh covered with catalysts. The electrolytes are often a good OH- ion conductor such as KOH. The electrolyte may be in liquid form or a solid polymer membrane saturated with KOH. The electrical rechargeability feature of these batteries needs to be developed further before they can compete 29


with other rechargeable battery technologies.

Redox Flow Batteries The Redox Flow Cell is an electrochemical system which allows energy to be stored in two solutions containing different redox couples with electrochemical potentials sufficiently separated from each other to provide an electromotive force to drive the oxidation-reduction reactions needed to charge and discharge the cell. Unlike conventional batteries, the redox flow cell stores energy in the solutions, so that the capacity of the system is determined by the size of the electrolyte tanks, while the system power is determined by the size of the cell stacks. The redox flow cell is therefore more like a rechargeable fuel cell than a battery. Of the redox flow cell technologies that have undergone development in the last 30 years, only the Vanadium Redox Battery developed at the University of New South Wales and the Sulphur/Bromine system developed by Innogy in the United Kingdom have reached commercial realisation.

Polysulfide Bromide Battery (PSB) (ESA 2004) Polysulfide Bromide battery (PSB) is a regenerative fuel cell technology that provides a reversible electrochemical reaction between two salt solution electrolytes (sodium bromide and sodium polysulfide). Like other flow batteries, the power and energy ratings of Regenesys are independent of each other. PSB electrolytes are pumped through the battery cells where they are separated by a polymer membrane that only allows positive sodium ions to go through, producing about 1.5 volts across the membrane. Cells are electrically connected in series and parallel to obtain the desired voltage and current levels. The net efficiency of this battery is about 75%. This battery works at room temperature. Regenesys Technologies began building a 120 MWh, 15 MW energy storage plant at Innogy's Little Barford Power Station in the UK that was to be in operation in 2003. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was also planning to build a 12 MW, 120 MWh unit in Mississippi (USA) to be operational in late 2004, however this project was abandoned in late 2003.

Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB) (Skyllas-Kazacos 2002) Of the technologies listed, the VRB is the simplest technology with the lowest environmental impact. The basic VRB concept is shown in Figure 18. Figure 18: Vanadium Redox flow cell concept with separate energy conversion and energy storage components

Of the redox flow cells developed to date, the vanadium redox flow battery, or VRB system, pioneered at the University of New South Wales, Australia, has shown the greatest potential with high energy efficiencies of over 80% in large installations and long cycle life. The Vanadium Redox Flow Battery employs the V(III)/V(II) and V(V)/V(IV) redox couples in sulphuric acid as the negative and positive half-cell electrolytes respectively. The charge-discharge reaction occurring in the vanadium redox cell are: At the negative electrode: charge V3+ + e- Í===Î V2+ discharge

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E° = -0.26 V


At the positive electrode: discharge VO2+ + 2H+ + e- Í===Î charge

VO2+ + H2O

E° = 1.00V

During the charge/ discharge cycles, H+ ions are exchanged between the two half-cell electrolytes through the hydrogen-ion permeable polymer membrane. The cell voltage is 1.4 volts to 1.6 volts. The net efficiency of this battery can be as high as 85%. Like other flow batteries, the power and energy ratings of VRB are independent of each other. Most of the advantages of the vanadium battery are due to the use of the same element in both half-cells which avoids problems of cross-contamination of the two half-cell electrolytes during long-term use. This means that the electrolytes have an indefinite life so that waste disposal issues are minimised. Other advantages of the VRB include: • Low cost for large storage capacities. Cost per kWh decreases as energy storage capacity increases, typical projected battery costs for 8 or more hours of storage being as low as US$150 per kWh. • Existing systems can be readily upgraded and additional storage capacity can be easily installed by changing the tanks and volumes of electrolyte. • High energy efficiencies between 80% and 90% in large installations. • Capacity and state-of-charge of the system can be easily monitored by employing an open-circuit cell. • Negligible hydrogen evolution during charging • Can be fully discharged without harm to the battery • All cells fed with same solutions and therefore are at the same state-of-charge • No problems of cross-contamination therefore solutions have indefinite life. • Long cycle life • Easy maintenance. • Can be both electrically recharged and mechanically refuelled. VRB was pioneered in the Australian University of New South Wales (UNSW) in early 1980s. The Australian company Pinnacle VRB bought the basic patents in 1998 and licensed them to Sumitomo Electric Industries (SEI) in Japan and VRB Power in Canada. VRB storage systems up to 500 kW, 10 hrs (5 MWh) have been installed in Japan by SEI. VRBs have also been applied for power quality applications (3 MW, 1.5 sec., SEI). The first large commercial VRB outside Japan was installed for ESKOM, South Africa, by Vanteck (250 kW, 2 hrs). At the end of 2003, Pinnacle VRB in conjunction with Hydro Tasmania, installed an 800 kWh VRB system on King Island in Tasmania for wind storage and diesel fuel replacement and several other large installations are in the planning phase. In 2002, the original UNSW inventors of the VRB system patented a new Generation 2 Vanadium Bromide Redox Cell that employs a vanadium bromide electrolyte in both half-cells. The negative half-cell reaction involves the V(II)/V(III) redox couple reactions, while the positive electrode employs the Br- /Br3- couple. A new start-up company, V-Fuel Pty Ltd, was established in 2005 by the inventors and the Victorian government funded Centre for Energy and Greenhouse Technologies to commercialise this system for renewable energy storage and other applications.

ZnBr Battery (ESA 2004) The ZnBr battery is not a redox flow battery, but it does employ two electrolyte solutions that are pumped through a cell stack where the charge-discharge reactions take place. In each cell of a ZnBr battery, two different electrolytes flow past carbon-plastic composite electrodes in two compartments separated by a microporous polyolefin membrane. During discharge, Zn2+ and Br- combine into zinc bromide, generating 1.8 volts across each cell. This increases the Zn2+ and Br- ion density in both electrolyte tanks. During charge, metallic zinc is deposited (plated) as a thin film on one side of the carbon-plastic composite electrode. Meanwhile, bromine evolves as a dilute solution on the other side of the membrane, reacting with other agents (organic amines) to make thick bromine oil that sinks down to the bottom of the electrolytic tank. It is allowed to mix with the rest of the electrolyte during discharge. The net efficiency of this battery is about 75%. Meidisha demonstrated a 1 MW / 4 MWh ZnBr battery in 1991 at Kyushu Electric Power company. Some multi-kWh units are now available pre-assembled, complete with plumbing and power electronics. The main ZnBr battery developer is the Australian based company ZBB Energy Corp.

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Comparisons of Different Energy Storage Technologies (ESA 2004) Tables 15 to 20 provide performance and cost comparisons of the different energy storage technologies. Table 15: Application comparisons of different energy storage technologies Technology Pumped Storage CAES

Flow Batteries: PSB VRB ZnBr Metal-Air NaS

Advantages High Capacity, Low Cost High Capacity, Low Cost High Capacity, Independent Power and Energy Ratings Very High Energy Density High Power and Energy Densities, High Efficiency

Li-ion

High Power and Energy Densities, High Efficiency

Ni-Cd

Lead-Acid

High Power and Energy Densities, High Efficiency High Power and Energy Densities, High Efficiency Low Capital Cost

Flywheels

High Power

SMES, DSMES

High Power

E.C. Capacitors

Long Cycle Life, High Efficiency

Other Advanced Batteries

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Power Application Not feasible or economical Not feasible or economical

Energy Application Fully capable and reasonable Fully capable and reasonable

Reasonable for this application

Fully capable and reasonable

Not feasible or economical Fully capable and reasonable

Fully capable and reasonable Fully capable and reasonable


Feasible but not quite practical or economical



High Production Cost


Limited Cycle Life when deeply discharged Low Energy Density


Low Energy Density, High Production Cost Low Energy Density


Feasible but not quite practical or economical Feasible but not quite practical or economical Feasible but not quite practical or economical Not feasible or economical



Disadvantages Special Site Requirement Special Site Requirement, Need Gas Fuel Low Energy Density

Electric charging is difficult Production Costs, Safety concerns (addressed in design) High Production Cost, Requires special charging circuit



Table 16: Energy and power ratings comparisons of different energy storage technologies Technology Pumped Hydro CAES Flow Batteries: PSB VRB ZnBr Metal-Air NaS Li-ion Ni-Cd Other Advanced Batteries Lead-Acid High Power Flywheels SMES High Energy Super Capacitors High Power Super Caps Long Duration Flywheels

Discharge Time at Rated Power hours minutes hours

System Power Ratings 100Mw-1Gw 100Mw-1Gw 10kw-100Mw

hours minutes minutes minutes minutes minutes minutes seconds minutes seconds minutes

1kw-10kw 100kw-10Mw 1kw-100kw 1kw-5Mw 1kw-100kw 1kw-10Mw 10kw-100kw 10Mw-100Mw 5kw-100kw 10kw-5Mw 1kw-5kw

Table 17: Size and weight comparisons of different energy storage technologies Technology Flywheels E.C. Capacitors Zinc Air Flow Batteries Lead Acid Ni Cd NaS Li-ion Metal air

Weight Energy Density (kWh/ton) 10-15 15-20 10-15 20-30 20-35 25-75 100-150 90-160 150-700

Volume Energy Density kWh/m^3) 10-20 10-30 20-30 20-30 20-75 25-80 200-300 250-450 200-800

Table 18: Capital cost comparisons of different energy storage technologies Technology Pumped Hydro CAES Flow Batteries: PSB VRB ZnBr Metal-Air NaS Li-ion Ni-Cd Lead-Acid High Power Flywheels Zinc Air Long Duration E.C. Capacitors High Power E.C. Capacitors Long Duration Flywheels

Capital Cost per Unit Energy ($/kWh - output) 80-200 50-110

Capital Cost per Unit power ($/kW) 800-2,000 750-1,000

110-2,000

400-2,900

40-70 300-950 850-5,000 800-3,000 350-1,500 5,000-7,000 600-900 100-400 8,000-10,000 1,500-6,000

950-2,500 1,000-2,800 1,500-4,000 800-1,500 400-900 250-800 29,000-5,000 200-700 100-800 4,000-10,000

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Table 19: Life efficiency comparisons of different energy storage technologies Technology

Efficiency (w/o power electronics)

Lifetime at 80% DoD - Cycles

Metal Air Lead Acid Ni Cd Flow Batteries NaS Li-ion E.C. Capacitors Flywheels CAES Pumped Hydro

40-50% 72-76% 60-67% 72-85% 85-90% 95-98% 96-99% 90-97% 70-79% 70-85%

100-300 200-1,500 1,000-4,000 2,000-14,000 2,100-4,500 5,000-7,000 10,000-100,000 20,000-60,000 9,000-30,000 20,000-50,000

Table 20: Per cycle cost comparisons of different energy storage technologies Technology Zinc Air Lead Acid Ni Cd Li-ion NaS Flow Batteries

Long Duration Flywheels Electrochemical Capacitors CAES + gas Pumped Hydro

Capital Cost per Cycle (c/kWh – output) 90-100 40-100 40-100 30-100 9-50 6 to 90 (possible reduction due to life extension by partial refurbishment) 5-40 3-40 3-6 0.1-2

While the best energy storage technology will depend on the performance requirements of each application, it is clear that for renewable energy storage where storage times of four or more hours is needed, redox flow batteries could offer the best energy storage solution.

Hydrogen Introduction A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water. Like a battery, they both convert the energy produced by a chemical reaction into usable DC electric power. However, the fuel cell will produce electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied, never losing its charge. Fuel cells operate best on pure hydrogen and are seen for best use in combustion engines and fuel cell electric systems. Features of fuel cells include: • A fuel cell system is made up of a fuel cell stack, power conditioning equipment, fuel and oxidiser tanks, fuel reformer, heat exchangers and control system (RETRSG 2002). • Can be connected in series in a stack to produce voltages suitable for conversion to standard AC supply. Parallel may be required to achieve appropriate power rating (RETRSG 2002).

Hydrogen's Properties (DOE 1997; The National Hydrogen Association 2004) • • •

•

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Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, accounting for 90% of the universe by weight. It is not commonly found in its pure form since it readily combines with other elements (water). Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, and non-poisonous gas under normal conditions on Earth. Hydrogen is highly flammable; it only takes a small amount of energy to ignite it and make it burn. It also has a wide flammability range, meaning it can burn when it makes up 4% to 74% of the air by volume. The combustion of hydrogen produces no carbon dioxide (CO2), particulate, or sulphur emissions. It can produce nitrous oxide (NOX) emissions under some conditions.


•

• •

Typically, a gasoline internal combustion engine (ICE) is 18% to 20% efficient (S&TR); hydrogen ICEs are about 25% efficient (Automotive Fleet); methanol fuel cells are about 38% efficient (AMI); and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles like Toyota’s FCHV-4 are 60% efficient – three times better than today’s gasoline fuelled engines (Toyota). The amount of energy produced by hydrogen per unit weight of fuel is about three times the amount of energy contained in an equal weight of gasoline, and almost seven times that of coal (FSEC). Hydrogen energy density per volume is quite low at standard temperature and pressure. Volumetric energy density can be increased by storing the hydrogen under increased pressure or storing it at extremely low temperatures as a liquid.

How is Hydrogen Produced (The National Hydrogen Association 2004) Most methods of producing hydrogen involve splitting water (H2O) into its component parts of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The most common method involves steam reforming of methane (from natural gas), although there are several other methods: • Steam reforming converts methane (and other hydrocarbons in natural gas) into hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction with steam over a nickel catalyst. • Electrolysis uses electrical current to split water into hydrogen at the cathode (+) and oxygen at the anode (-) . • Steam electrolysis (a variation on conventional electrolysis) uses heat, instead of electricity, to provide some of the energy needed to split water, making the process more energy efficient. • Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals and heat in multiple steps to split water into its component parts. • Photoelectrochemical systems use semi-conducting materials (like photovoltaics) to split water using only sunlight. • Photobiological systems use micro-organisms to split water using sunlight. • Biological systems use microbes to break down a variety of biomass feedstocks into hydrogen. • Thermal water splitting uses a very high temperature (approximately 1,000°C) to split water. • Gasification uses heat to break down biomass or coal into a gas from which pure hydrogen can be generated. The US hydrogen industry currently produces 9 million tons of hydrogen per year (enough to power 20 to 30 million cars or five to eight million homes) for use in chemicals production, petroleum refining, metals treating and electrical applications.

Barriers to Wide-Scale Hydrogen Production Cost is the biggest impediment to using hydrogen more widely as a fuel as the technology is still very immature. There is also a need to overcome the following challenges (RETRSG 2002): • Hydrogen needs to be removed from compounds through hydrolysis, which requires electrical energy, which is an added cost, so production needs to be improved. • Greater transportation and storage hurdles than liquid fuels. • Combustion of hydrogen in air rather than oxygen may produce nitrogen oxides, as the nitrogen in the air may burn with the hydrogen. • Currently too expensive to compete with other electricity sources, but offers potential in the stationery power generation market and transport sectors. • It is highly modular so most economies of scale are in manufacture rather than installation. • Australian market is small so it is likely that large scale manufacture will occur overseas.

Transportation (DOE 1997; The National Hydrogen Association 2004) • • • •

Hydrogen is currently transported by pipeline or by road via cylinders, tube trailers, and cryogenic tankers (for long distances, then vaporised when arrives). Pipelines, which are owned by merchant hydrogen producers, are limited to a few areas in the US where large hydrogen refineries and chemical plants are concentrated. Hydrogen can be stored as a compressed gas or liquid, or in a chemical compound. Advantages of Hydrogen (National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2004): − Hydrogen is safer than gasoline, diesel, or natural gas. − Hydrogen can help prevent the depletion of fossil fuel reserves. − Hydrogen can be produced in any country. − Low chemical\acoustic\thermal emissions (RETRSG 2002). 35


Chapter 4

RENEWABLE ENERGY REBATE SCHEMES Through The Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO 2004), financial support is provided by the Commonwealth Government to increase the uptake of renewable energy technology and use of renewable energy. Funds available through the Renewable Remote Power Generation Program (RRPGP) for participating states and territories (all except Victoria) are aimed at remote areas that rely on diesel fuel to produce electricity. The funds provide assistance for existing isolated households, commercial operations (including tourist operations) and communities (indigenous or otherwise) to reduce or remove the dependence on diesel to generate off-grid electricity. Funding may also be available for new off-grid installations where electricity generation would have otherwise relied on diesel (AGO 2004). The RRPGP offers support in the form of rebates of up to 50% of the capital costs of RE equipment. Equipment typically refers to the RE generating equipment (PV array, wind turbine, etc.) the enabling equipment (inverters, batteries etc.) and costs associated with project commissioning and management. The RRPGP eligibility, rebate level and value vary for each participating State/Territory. Background information for each State/Territory sub-program, which established/future tourism operators may be eligible for, is listed below. Specific details concerning eligibility criteria, program guidelines, application procedures and owner obligations are available from the respective bodies administering the grants (see References). It should be noted that from mid-2006 the effective excise on fuel used for power generation will be removed (DPMC 2004) which may affect the uptake of renewable energy technologies.

Western Australia Remote Area Power Supply Program (RAPS) – the sub-program is jointly funded by the Commonwealth Government under the RRPGP and the Western Australian State Government. The RAPS is administered by the Sustainable Energy Development Office (SEDO 2004a), and is expected to run until June 2008. The RAPS provides rebates for renewable energy systems that remove completely or in part the dependence on existing diesel fuel power systems (in use for at least one year) in off-grid locations (SEDO 2004b). Funding is also available for renewable energy systems where a diesel based system would have otherwise been used. A rebate of 55% (50% under the RRPGP, 5% from the Western Australian Government) of the capital cost (up to a maximum of $550,000) is available for new RE power systems and additions to existing systems that satisfy the RAPS guidelines. Capital costs of RE systems refer to the RE generating equipment (PV arrays, wind turbines, etc.), essential enabling equipment (inverters, batteries, etc.) and essential non-equipment expenditure i.e. design and installation costs. Expenditure on RE generating equipment must represent a minimum of 30% of the total RE power system cost. For additions to existing systems, the RE generating equipment must supply a minimum of 30% of the total system load. Tourist operators will typically need to comply with the conditions and procedures detailed in the Business Remote Area Power Supply Program. For tourist operations considered as large renewable energy projects (rebate value greater than $500,000) rebates may be available under the RRPGP.

Renewable Energy Water Pumping Program (REWP) The sub-program is funded under the Commonwealth Government RRPGP and is administered by the Sustainable Energy Development Office (SEDO 2004c). The REWP provides rebates for renewable energy based pumps to provide an alternative to diesel powered pumps in off-grid locations of Western Australia. The program is expected to be available until June 2006. Any tourist operation running as a business for profit where pumping water is essential to the operation may be eligible for the rebate. Other general eligibility criteria include the RE based pump to be a new complete system, replacing an existing diesel pump or used where a diesel pump would have otherwise been used. The renewable energy pump must deliver a minimum average of 8,000 L/d at a total static head of 20 m. Rebates apply to the renewable energy component of the pump e.g. the PV modules or windmill head (including the supporting frame), enabling equipment and flow meters to satisfy monitoring obligations. The rebate offered to eligible pumps covers 50% of the capital cost of the RE component, minus $1,000. The maximum rebate available is $20,000 for large projects (pastoral stations, communities and towns) and $10,000 for smaller sites (farms and other sites). The rebate is not limited to a single pumping system. Provided REWP criteria are met, each separate pumping system on a site may be eligible for the rebate. Where a rebate has been obtained, the renewable energy pump(s) must remain at the specified site for a minimum of five years.

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Northern Territory Renewable Energy Rebate Program (RERP) Power Supply Rebate – the sub-program is funded under the Commonwealth Government RRPGP and is administered Northern Territory Government through the Department of Business, Industry and Resource Development. The program provides rebates for new Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) systems or extensions to existing systems to replace or augment diesel based power systems in off-grid areas (DBIRD 2004). Funding is also available for a new RAPS system where it can be demonstrated that a diesel based system would have otherwise been used. A rebate of up to 50% of the capital cost of a renewable energy installation is available and covers renewable energy generating equipment (PV modules, wind turbines etc.), essential enabling equipment (inverters, batteries, etc.) and essential nonequipment expenditure e.g. project design and installation costs. Expenditure on RE equipment must represent a minimum of 30% of the total system cost. The rebate is not applicable for systems using second-hand components. Where a RAPS system is leased, the minimum lease period is five years.

Renewable Energy Rebate Program (RERP) Water Pumping Rebate The sub-program is funded under the Commonwealth Government RRPGP and is administered by the Department of Business, Industry and Resource Development. The program provides rebates to assist with the replacement of an existing diesel powered pump, or an extension to an existing RE system in off-grid areas. Funding is also available for new renewable energy based systems where diesel would have otherwise been used. A rebate of 50% or $10,000 per application (whichever is the lesser) is available for eligible systems to cover the costs of the renewable energy component (PV module, windmill head, etc.), supporting structures, enabling equipment and monitoring equipment, i.e. water flow meter. Expenditure on RE generating equipment must be at least 50% of the total RE system cost. The system must deliver (on an annual average) a minimum of 8,000 L/d at a total static head of 20 m. In general, only one application will be approved per property per year. The rebate covers more than one pumping system, however the same rebate level and value applies as for a single pumping system. The rebate is not applicable for systems using second-hand components. Where a rebate has been obtained, the renewable energy system(s) must remain at the specified site for a minimum of five years.

Queensland The Renewable Energy Diesel Replacements Scheme (REDRS) – the sub-program is funded under the Commonwealth Government RRPGP and is administered by the Queensland State Government through the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA 2004). The REDRS runs until mid 2004; extension after this time is uncertain. The REDRS provides rebates for renewable energy systems that replace or augment existing systems that rely on fossil fuels for power generation in remote off-grid locations in Queensland. New RE systems may also attract financial assistance where it can be demonstrated that a diesel based (or other fossil fuel) power system would have otherwise been used. A rebate of up to 50% of the cost of installing the new RE system or addition to an existing system (using new equipment) is available. The rebate covers the RE generating equipment (PV arrays, wind turbines, etc.), essential enabling equipment (inverters, batteries, etc.) and essential non-equipment expenditure i.e. costs associated with the design and installation of the RE system. Expenditure on renewable energy generating equipment must represent a minimum of 30% of the total system cost. The rebate is applicable to all renewable energy sources. For PV cells (if installed), the minimum output is 450 W. Tourist resorts on off-grid islands are recognised as a priority group for RRPGP funding in Queensland. Under the REDRS there is no set cap on the rebate value for commercial installations, however Commonwealth Government approval is required for projects with a rebate value greater than $500,000. The RRPGP recognises both one-off renewable energy installations (Projects) and groups of projects (Programs).

Working Property Rebate Scheme (WPRS) The sub-program is jointly funded by the Commonwealth Government under the RRPGP and the Queensland State Government. The WPRS is administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA 2004) and runs until mid 2004, with the possibility of extension. The WPRS provides rebates for new Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS) or extensions to existing systems to replace or augment diesel based power systems in off-grid locations in Queensland. Funding is also available for new renewable energy installations where it can be demonstrated that a diesel based system would have otherwise been used. The rebate targets working properties that are family owned and operated, however the rebate may still apply where a family business is involved. At present, the WPRS is applicable only to selected shires in Northern and Western Queensland and those sites on the property where the cost of connection to the main electricity grid exceeds $65,000. A rebate of up to 65% of the capital cost (up to a maximum rebate value of $175,000) of renewable energy components for the new RAPS 37


system, or additions to an existing system is available. The Commonwealth Government funds 50% of the rebate (up to a maximum of $150,000) and the Queensland Government 15% (up to a maximum of $25,000). The WPRS also contains provisions for the Commonwealth Government component of the rebate to be increased for larger systems. The rebate covers renewable energy generating equipment (PV cells, wind turbines, etc.), essential enabling equipment (inverters, batteries, etc.) and essential non-equipment expenditure e.g. project commissioning and management costs. The rebate is applicable to all renewable energy sources. Expenditure on RE generating equipment must represent a minimum of 30% of the total RE system cost. The rebate covers the installation of multiple systems, provided the separate systems are in different locations on the one property. The same rebate levels and value apply as for a single system. Where the RAPS system is leased, the minimum lease period is five years. The Queensland Government (EPA) provides additional funding of up to 5% of the total rebateable expenditure (up to a maximum of $10,000) to be retained for the replacement of batteries at the end of their useful life (expected after seven years).

South Australia Renewable Remote Power Generation Program (RRPGP) The sub-program is funded under the Commonwealth Government RRPGP and is administered by the South Australian State Government through Energy SA (Energy SA 2004). The program provides rebates for renewable energy systems that replace a fossil fuel based power system, i.e. petrol/LPG/diesel generator in regional areas of South Australia not connected to the main electricity grid. A rebate between 30% and 50% of the capital cost for eligible RE power systems is available. This covers the RE generating equipment (PV arrays, wind turbines, etc.), enabling equipment (inverters, batteries, etc.) and non-equipment expenditure, i.e. costs associated with the design and installation of the RE system. The rebate applies only to projects where the cost of connection to the main electricity grid exceeds $80,000, is located at least 2 km away from the main electricity grid and the RE power system incorporates a minimum size RE generator of 500 W (peak output). In addition, expenditure on RE generating equipment and essential enabling equipment must represent a minimum of 30% of the total RE system cost. All major renewable energy equipment must be new. The rebate covers all proven forms of renewable energy. Of the four different RRPGP schemes in South Australia, The Pastoral Properties and Homesteads Scheme, The Remote Area Energy Supply Scheme (RAES), and The Tourist Facilities, Roadhouses and Other Scheme should cover all existing and potential applications for rebates on RE power systems made by tourist operators in remote South Australian locations. The rebate rate and maximum rebate value for The Pastoral Properties and Homesteads Scheme and The Tourist Facilities, Roadhouses and Other Scheme is 30% and $15,000 for sites less than 10 km from the nearest connection point to the main electricity grid. For sites located further than 10 km away, the rate and maximum value are 40% and $40,000 respectively.

Tasmania Major renewable energy projects in Tasmania fall under the RRPGP agreement between the Australian Greenhouse Office and the Tasmanian Government. The primary target of the agreement is to reduce reliance on diesel for power generation on King Island and Flinders Island. This is followed by targets to achieve the same outcomes for the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service’s operations. Tourist operators in remote areas may receive funding for medium-scale renewable energy projects under the Residential Remote Area Power Supply Program.

Residential Remote Area Power Supply Program (RAPS) The sub-program is funded under the Commonwealth Government RRPGP and is administered by the Tasmanian Government through the Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources (DIER 2004). The Residential RAPS is expected to run until June 2008. The program provides rebates for renewable energy generating systems that replace fully or in part a diesel based power generation system in remote or off-grid areas. Rebates are applicable to both new renewable energy systems and additions using new equipment to existing systems. Rebates also extend to new RAPS systems where it can be demonstrated that a diesel based system would have otherwise been used. The rebate applies to residential dwellings where the cost of connection to the main electricity grid exceeds $30,000 and /or is at least 1 km away from the main grid. Residential dwellings previously connected to the main grid are note eligible for the rebate. A rebate of 50% of the of the capital cost of renewable energy components and services, up to a maximum of $40,000 is available. 38


Applications where the rebate level exceeds this value may be considered on a case by case basis. The rebate may be based on the GST-exclusive cost where the system serves a home based business in addition to a private residence. The rebate covers renewable energy generating equipment (PV arrays, wind turbines, etc.), enabling equipment (inverters, batteries, etc.) and essential non-equipment expenditure i.e. project commissioning and management costs. Renewable energy generating equipment may be based on all known technologies and include equipment or systems that may become available. Expenditure on RE generating equipment must be at least 30% of the total system cost. Where this requirement is not met for additions to existing systems, the capacity of the system using renewable energy sources must be increased by 30%. Where a rebate has been obtained, the renewable energy system must remain in operation on the specified site for a minimum of five years.

New South Wales Renewables Investment Program (RIP) – the RIP is administered by the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA 2004a). The program is aimed at promoting electricity generation, or the substitution of fossil fuels by renewable energy resources. Eligible projects are those which commercialise or demonstrate new technology based on RE resources. Projects must have a power output greater than 25 kW electrical or 360 MJ/hr thermal. The program also applies to new applications of current technology based on renewable energy resources. The RIP provides assistance to organisations through low interest loans of up to $1,000,000 or 40% of the project capital cost, whichever is lower. Solar Power Rebates – The Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA 2004b) provides rebates for the installation of power systems based on solar energy. Rebates are based on the installed capacity i.e. number of solar power panels (minimum solar power system size 450 W) and calculated on the rated output of the installed system. Tourist operators may apply for the SEDA ‘business rebate’, which offers a rebate of $2.40/W up to a maximum of $4,800 (2,000 W) for new complete systems. The rebate is not applicable to systems using any second-hand components.

Victoria Renewable Energy Support Fund (RESF) – the RESF is funded by private finance partners and is administered by the Victorian State Government through the Sustainable Energy Authority (SEAV 2004). The fund encourages innovative applications of medium-scale renewable energy technologies in Victoria. Medium-scale renewable energy projects are considered to be 20 kW to 5 MW electrical or 70 MJ/hr - 20 GJ/hr thermal. The RESF supports eligible projects that demonstrate innovative applications of proven RE technologies in Victoria for medium-scale projects, increases the accessibility to best practice RE technologies for medium-scale projects or build capacity to install, service and/or maintain medium-scale RE projects. The RESF may provide up to 20% of the capital cost of RE projects.

39


Chapter 5

SURVEY OF TOURISM OPERATIONS IN REMOTE AREAS OF AUSTRALIA: PENETRATION AND PERCEPTIONS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SPS

Background Lloyd, Lowe and Wilson (2000b) considered indigenous communities, pastoral properties and the tourist sector in a market survey to determine the penetration and type of power supply systems based on renewable energy. The survey examined consumer/community attitudes towards renewable energy and factors influencing system viability and operation in remote areas of Australia. Data was gathered through mail-out surveys, state/federal databases and field visits to physically survey the use of renewable energy and the type of stand-alone power system where installed. The distance to a regional centre for visited sites ranged from 70 km to 1,000 km. Surveyed sites in the tourist sector comprised around 25% of the total surveyed remote sites. These sites were typically roadside inns, tourist destinations and park sites (Lloyd et al. 2000b). Given that data in this sector was collected through field visits only, the penetration of renewable energy systems was not ascertained. Field visits by state and territory are listed in Table 21. Of surveyed sites in the tourist sector, solar/gen-set systems were the dominant renewable energy power supply system (79%). Field survey results of other systems are detailed in Table 22. Data on demand patterns, e.g. average daily electricity consumption was not obtained/determined by Lloyd et al. (2000b) given the high variability in the nature of tourist establishments. The size (kW) of surveyed renewable energy systems was not also reported. While the age of surveyed renewable energy systems in this sector was not specifically reported, surveyed systems in general ranged been new installations and those in operation for around 10 years (Lowe & Lloyd 2001). In terms of the present study, the lack of knowledge informing the most appropriate power source based on renewable energy for a location and its availability was originally recognised by Lloyd et al. (2000b) as one of many anticipated reasons hindering the uptake of renewable energy in remote areas. Unfortunately, consumer/community feedback and perceptions on this issue were not fully explored. Table 21: Field visits by state and territory for the tourist sector (after Lloyd et al. 2000b) State/Territory

Visits

Percentage*

Queensland

9

13

South Australia

2

10

Western Australia

9

35

Northern Territory

12

57

TOTAL

32

24

*refers to total number of field visits by State and Territory, i.e. inclusive of indigenous communities and pastoral properties

While renewable energy systems in the tourist sector displayed the highest level of operational status (84%), half of the sites surveyed reported recent problems with the renewable energy component of the system at the time of survey. In terms of enabling equipment, 34% of systems reported recent problems with inverters, 22% with control systems and 19% with batteries (Lloyd, Lowe and Wilson 2000a). Across all surveyed sectors, battery failure was in general the most common problem leading to final failure of the system (Lowe & Lloyd 2001). In general, smaller renewable energy systems (< 5kW) were more favourably received and demonstrated greater reliability (Lloyd et al. 2000a). Warranties for renewable energy systems were not reported to be consistently honoured (Lloyd et al. 2000a), a common response across all sectors.

40


Table 22: Tourist sites – field survey results of system type and operational status (after Lloyd et al. 2000b) System Type Solar Standalone Solar/Genset Solar/Hydro Wind/Genset Solar/Wind/Genset Totals Diesel Standalone Genset/Battery

No. Surveyed

No. Working

% Working

1 15 1 1 1 19 6 3

1 13 1 0 1 16 6 3

100 87 100 0 100 84 100 100

Note: surveyed sites with renewable energy systems comprised 60 % of all sites in this sector.

Of surveyed sites in the tourist sector, 72% considered that an effective maintenance regime was in place at the site with 50% of sites having staff capable of caring for the system (Lloyd et al. 2000a). While specifics of the maintenance situation for the tourist sector were not detailed, around 30% of all surveyed sites operated under a maintenance contract (Lowe & Lloyd 2001). The high component count generally observed in electric control/inverter systems and the high number of different systems complicated the maintenance situation; for the case of larger systems the regional supplier or manufacturer was required for system maintenance and correction of system faults. In certain cases, diagnoses of system faults were hindered where access to control boxes or battery packs was not physically possible. Lloyd et al. (2000b) suggested the need for standardised designs to assist the operator and/or system technician. Lowe & Lloyd (2001) also noted that the maintenance situation and in turn the success of the renewable energy system would benefit from improved education and training of installers. While a similar sentiment was shared by Spencer & Hollis (2004) in a study of battery failure and residential renewable energy (solar) systems in the Daintree Lowlands, education of system users was also suggested to improve performance where the maintenance tended to be reactive rather than preventative in nature. Systems whose owners took an active interest in energy conservation, energy demand management and maintenance tended to be more successful. This was demonstrated by surveyed ranger stations in the tourist sector (Lloyd et al. 2000b) and was similarly attributed to committed nature of the system users. The institutionalised nature of the backup service was also noted. As discussed by Lowe & Lloyd (2001), it was common to find that users did not have a full appreciation of maintenance costs and other recurrent expenses to keep the system operational. Lowe & Lloyd (2001) suggested that is was incumbent on the renewable energy industry to provide a more realistic picture of operational costs. Feedback gathered from persons responsible for system maintenance across all sectors also highlighted the greater importance placed on system reliability over efficiency, given that transport costs associated with maintenance calls from regional centres greatly added to the repair cost. These costs tended to be the principal cost associated with the system (Lloyd et al. 2000b). Although concerned with a specific region, system type and user, Spencer & Hollis (2004) suggested funding to enable local preventative maintenance and system fault diagnoses capability. Government support was suggested for partial funding of this capability. Attitudes towards renewable energy in terms of energy conservation and environmental issues in the tourist sector were favourable, with around two thirds of surveyed sites considering these issues important (Lloyd et al. 2000a). As a measure, the general level of importance placed on these issues when choosing a system across all sectors was 10% (Lowe & Lloyd 2001). Lloyd et al. (2000a) observed distinct regions where attitudes towards renewable energy were favourable; users tended to place more importance on energy conservation in areas close to a major centre, on the coastal edge and areas considered peri-urban. User expectations were typically driven by the desire to run the same modern appliances as urban gridconnected households. In terms of economics, this trend towards higher electrical loads makes it difficult for renewable based power systems to compete with diesel based systems (Lowe & Lloyd 2001). Both Lowe & Lloyd (2001) and Spencer & Hollis (2004) suggested providing system owners with appropriate information on the energy use of certain appliances and management of energy demand. While the load demand may be less of an issue in niche tourist markets, e.g. eco-tourism, tourist operators must ultimately satisfy tourist expectations, i.e. uninterrupted and unlimited power supply (Lloyd et al. 2000b). With the possible exception of the ecotourism market, large renewable energy installations for the high-end tourist market were not considered to be cost effective unless substantial subsidies were in place (Lloyd et al. 2000b). Opportunities for cost effective operation of renewable energy systems were typically in the low-end market, e.g. remote camping areas, parks and wildlife sites.

41


Survey Format and Results Survey Details The present study considered tourism resorts in a survey of energy supply infrastructure. The survey (Appendices G and H) was intended to identify consumer perceptions towards renewable energy technology that may be considered or installed at the tourist establishment, together with the collection of more specific detail of stand alone power systems where installed. Information was collected from all states, with around 20% of the contacted tourist operators replying to the survey. A similar survey with a more detailed coverage of the Queensland tourism industry achieved reply rates of 60% after persistent follow up (Dalton 2005 pers. comm.). Full results are reported by Dalton et al. (2006). Other mail-out surveys in the tourist sector where energy use/efficiency featured, usually in terms of environmental management and initiatives, report a wide range of survey response rates. In a survey of hotels, Kirk (1998) achieved a response rate of 37% before follow up correspondence, and Knowles, Macmillan, Palmer, Grabowski and Hashimoto (1999) reported a return rate of 28% and Lawson (1983) a rate of 3.8%. For a wider coverage of accommodation type, Becken, Frampton and Simmons (2001) reported a response rate of 13%. The response rate in the present study is reasonable given that follow up correspondence was limited and personal contact with tourist operators to attain high levels of survey return (e.g. Becken et al. 2001) was not possible. Respondents to the survey by state/territory are listed in Table 23 with the distribution by tourism region presented in Appendix G. The geographic distributions of tourist establishments are listed in Table 24. Information was analysed in the context of geographic location, accommodation type and remoteness, i.e. distance to nearest grid connection (> 5 km) or station for fuel supply (> 40 km). While the survey was specifically targeted at remote geographic locations, by the latter severe definition around 27% of respondents were considered to be very remote. Tree coverage was fairly evenly divided between establishments situated in open land and those with a coverage of trees limited to the surrounds. Only one tourist establishment reported operating under a tree canopy. Table 23: Response to renewable energy mail-out/email survey by state and territory State/Territory Queensland New South Wales Victoria South Australia Western Australia Northern Territory Tasmania * TOTAL

Sent

Received

Percentage

24 59 21 20 46 25 17

4 9 2 6 8 5 5 1 40

17 15 10 30 17 20 29

213

19

* refers to a survey response where the location was withheld.

Table 24: Geographic location of respondents to renewable energy survey Geographic location Absolute coastal (water front) Island Ranges/Downs/Tablelands Coastal/Coastal Hinterland Mountain Outback

Percentage 15 5 10 22.5 22.5 25

Where information on the nature of the tourist operation was provided, motels and lodges were the most common accommodation type. Survey results of other types of accommodation are listed in Table 25. Survey respondents covered the low-end to high-end market with the number of rooms ranging from three to around 470. Of those respondents who provided information on whether the operation was benchmarked or certified (58%), around 17% reported certification with Ecotourism Australia. No respondents reported benchmarking/ 42


certification with Green Globe 21. Most of the remote tourist establishments reported a daily energy use greater than 100 kWh. Table 25: Accommodation type Accommodation type

Percentage

Hotel Motel Apartment/Suite Villas/Cabins Lodge (incl. villas/cabins) Station Self-catering units Bed & Breakfast Caravan/Camping Other*

13.5 21.6 2.7 5.4 27 10.8 8.1 10.8

* refers to a survey response where two or more types of accommodation operate at the tourist establishment

Of survey respondents, around 37% reported the use of some form of stand-alone power system (SPS) with 60% in remote locations. Around 46% of these power systems involved a component based on renewable energy. The use of SPS by accommodation type is listed in Table 26. Survey results of SPS type are listed in Table 27 (where information was supplied by the tourist establishment) with diesel systems being the dominant power supply system. While the operational status of installed renewable energy SPS was not ascertained, responses by system users, albeit limited, indicated a high level of system reliability. Of respondents who provided information on the primary use of the SPS, around 54% were used for the main power source, around 31% for back-up in the event of grid failure and around 15% as a supplement to another power source. Feedback on the use of system batteries was also limited; storage as opposed to load levelling was reported as the most common use. Table 26: Use of stand-alone power systems (SPS) – survey response by accommodation type Accommodation type Hotel Motel Apartment/Suite Villas/Cabins Lodge (incl. villas/cabins) Station Self-catering units Bed & Breakfast Caravan/Camping Other † TOTAL

No SPS

SPS Installed

Total

2 7 1 1 8 1 4 2 26

3 1 1 2 4 2 1 14

5 8 1 2 10 4 3 4 3 40

† refers to a survey response where the nature of the tourist establishment was withheld

43


Table 27: Survey results of stand-alone power system (SPS) type SPS Type

No.

Wind Stand-alone Hydro Stand-alone Solar/Diesel Genset Passive Solar/Diesel Genset Mini Hydro/Diesel Genset Solar/Wind/Diesel Genset Passive Solar Diesel Stand-alone

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 7

A number of individual operators for each state/territory have been identified who expressed interest in a detailed case study of their tourist operation. These can form the basis of future more detailed projects.

Attitudes to Renewable Energy Technology Attitudes towards renewable energy were positive, with 60% of respondents interested in installing a renewable energy stand-alone power system. Around 60% of these respondents were considered to be remote. Motels, stations and tourist establishments where several types of accommodation may be in operation demonstrated the most interest in installing renewable energy systems. By geographic location, establishments in Ranges/Downs/Tablelands locations expressed the most interest. Full survey results of interest in renewable energy are listed by accommodation type and geographic location in Table 28 and Table 29, respectively. Table 28: Installation of renewable energy power supply – survey response by accommodation type Accommodation type

Not Interested

Interested

Total

Hotel Motel Apartment/Suite Villas/Cabins Lodge (incl. villas/cabins) Station Self-catering units Bed & Breakfast Caravan/Camping Other † TOTAL

3 2 5 1 2 1 2 16

2 6 1 2 5 3 1 3 1 24

5 8 1 2 10 4 3 4 3 40

† refers to a survey response where the nature of the tourist establishment was withheld

Table 29: Installation of renewable energy power supply – survey response by geographic location Geographic location

Not Interested

Interested

Total

Absolute coastal (water front) Island Ranges/Downs/Tablelands Coastal/Coastal Hinterland Mountain Outback † TOTAL

3 2 2 1 2 16

2 6 1 3 1 24

5 8 3 4 3 40

† refers to a survey response where the geographic location of the tourist establishment was withheld

Reasons why respondents expressed no interest in the installation of renewable energy systems were typically cost related; high purchase price and/or installation cost was the main reason, followed by a lack of 44


suitable financing and no interest in the potential for long term savings in energy costs if renewable energy systems were to be installed. Interestingly where feedback was favourable, renewable energy systems had been installed and/or were being considered largely by the eventual cost saving. Interest based on ethical reasons, i.e. renewable energy being environmentally and socially responsible also featured strongly, more so than interest based on renewable energy for marketing, benchmarking/certification or as a potentially more reliable energy source. Unlike Lloyd et al. (2000a), there was no preponderance towards a geographic location in terms of the interest expressed by respondents. Although gathered feedback was limited, most renewable energy stand-alone power systems were considered to be value for money. The awareness of State and /or Federal rebate schemes to assist the uptake of renewable energy technology was low; of the 85% of respondents who replied to the query, around 60% were not aware of the rebates and around 24% were unsure of the rebates available in their State/Territory. Where feedback was gathered on the use of renewable energy as a tourism selling point, around 65% of those who responded considered the use of renewable energy to have negligible impact. Around 26% of these particular respondents were considered to be remote.

45


Chapter 6

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Renewable Energy Sources are available throughout Australia, with solar and wind as expected the most geographically widespread. While the data are best illustrated in map form as given in the Appendices to the report, a summary is as follows: • Annual average daily solar intensity peaks across a broad band of northern Western Australia, and South Australia, western Queensland and almost the whole of Northern Territory. Solar intensity drops to less than half this across southern Victoria and in Tasmania. • Annual average daily sunshine hours follows a similar pattern, ranging from 10 hours in the Gascoyne and Pilbara regions of Western Australia to four to five hours along the south coast of Victoria and Tasmania. • Average wind speeds vary geographically and seasonally but can be grouped across broad regions to aid assessment as a potential resource. • Average wind speeds are highest across much of western Western Australia, the south coast of the South Australia, the north coast of Northern Territory, southeast Queensland and Tasmania. Wind speeds are lower across the heavily populated regions of New South Wales and Victoria. • Wave heights are greatest in northwest Tasmania, but consistently high around the full exposed coastline of Tasmania. Southwest Western Australia, the Eyre peninsular, western Victoria and the central coast New South Wales also experience an energetic wave climate. • The minimum wave energy occurs across along most of the Queensland, Northern Territory and northern Western Australia coasts. • Tidal range variation is almost the reverse of that for the wave climate. Maximum tidal range occurs along the central Queensland coast, the northwest coast of Western Australia, and the northeast coast of Northern Territory. • On a broad scale, tidal energy is minimum for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and southern Western Australia. • Geothermal energy is high across the Arnhem region of Northern Territory, across Gascoyne Western Australia, outback South Australia and Queensland and the Flinders ranges of South Australia. • Pockets of hot dry rock resource exist in basins scattered geographically, with the highest resources in south west Queensland. In terms of SPS use the survey results are summarised as follows: • Return rate was 19%, consistent with typical return rates for this form of survey format. • Return rate was highest in South Australia and Tasmania at 30%. • Data analysis was based on all 40 returns, encompassing all geographic locations. • Responses were received from all accommodation types except Bed and Breakfast; number of rooms ranged from three to over 450. • 17% of respondents reported certification with Ecotourism Australia, none with Green Globe 21. • 37% of respondents reported some form of SPS, 60% of those considered themselves to be in very remote locations. • 46% of those operations with SPS involved a component based on renewable energy. • 54% of SPS were primarily used as the main power source, with 31% of SPS used as backup in case of grid-failure. • Diesel stand-alone SPS was the most common system, followed by RES hybrid-diesel systems. In terms of tourism operator perceptions of RES and SPS the survey results can be summarised as follows: • Tourism operator attitudes were generally positive to renewable energy SPS, with 60% interested in installing a renewable energy stand-alone system. • Operators of motels and lodges appeared most interested in installing a renewable energy SPS. • The principal barrier to uptake appears cost and uncertainty over long term benefits, although the data suggests this view changes once SPS is installed. • A large number of operators were identified as willing to participate in more detailed case studies. Interest in Renewable Energy Technology is high within the tourism sector; primarily for cost savings, ethical reasons and social responsibility as opposed to benchmarking, marketing or as a potentially more reliable energy source. Renewable Energy resources are widespread across Australia, with different resources optimal in different locations and appropriate to different scales of tourism operation. Advances in technology will provide 46


further choice of systems. However, awareness of State and Federal rebate schemes is low. This, together with uncertainties in specialist technology and its application, remains a barrier to improved sustainability and expansion of Renewable Energy SPS schemes.

Recommendations for Future Action •

State and federal government rebate schemes should be promoted more widely or effectively to the tourism industry. This could be through tourism agencies or via the STCRC.

•

Production of a user-friendly guide outlining the first steps required to investigate the cost-effectiveness and application of different of Renewable Energy Technologies and/or Renewable Energy Sources should be considered by the STCRC. This could be combined with software or a web-based ‘calculator’ to enable individual operators to explore likely outcomes from different single source and hybrid power systems. A number of example templates for common tourism operations could be included to ensure ease of use. The guide or software could make use of data from the present study, with additional ground-truthing for specific local conditions and selected tourism operations.

•

Future research projects with potential commercial applications should be explored. Opportunities exist to develop small scale technology for exploitation of tidal and wave energy resources. Similarly, further advances in storage technology focused on applications within the tourism industry can promote reliability and lower costs.

•

The STCRC should consider enabling further research through setting up a number of demonstration projects in partnership with tourism operators. These would promote technology and best practice to the broader tourism Industry and also act as ‘test-bed’ sites for emerging technology under development within Australia. The ‘test-bed’ sites would provide a firm link between academic research and industrial applications. These projects would provide hard data on the cost savings and environmental benefits that are required to demonstrate sustainability. The present study has identified a large number of operators likely to be interested in participating in such projects.

47


APPENDIX A – WAVE ENERGY RESOURCE Figure 19: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia

48


Figure 20: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia

Figure 21: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in New South Wales, Australia

49


Figure 22: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Victoria, Australia

50


Figure 23: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in South Australia, Australia

51


Figure 24: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Western Australia, Australia

52


Figure 25: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in the Northern Territory, Australia

53


Figure 26: Significant wave height for coastal tourism regions in Tasmania, Australia

54


APPENDIX B – TIDAL ENERGY RESOURCE Figure 27: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia

55


Figure 28: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Queensland, Australia

56


Figure 29: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in New South Wales, Australia

Figure 30: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Victoria, Australia

57


Figure 31: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in South Australia, Australia

58


Figure 32: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Western Australia, Australia

59


Figure 33: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in the Northern Territory, Australia

60


Figure 34: Maximum tidal range for coastal tourism regions in Tasmania, Australia

61


APPENDIX C – GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE Figure 35: Estimated temperature at a depth of 5 km across Australia [after Somerville et al. 1994]

62


APPENDIX D – HOT DRY ROCK GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE Table 30: HDR energy resources in Australia* Locality Eromanga Basin

McArthur Basin Otway Basin Murray Basin Perth Basin Sydney Basin East Queensland

Sub-locality Cooper Basin Galilee Basin Cacoory Mulkarra West Denbight Downs Brookwood Ayrshire Banmirra Yanbee Chandos

Hunter Valley

Estimated Heat Energy Available (x 1000 PJ) 7821 6237 2079 1089 990 297 178 119 69 70 2871 495 119 49 15 8

* after Somerville et al. (1994)

Figure 36: Distribution of hot dry rock resources. Areas shaded red illustrate regions where the estimated temperature at a depth of 5 km exceeds 225 oC [after Geodynamics Ltd 2003]

63


Table 31: Estimated energy resources in granite bodies* Estimated area of granite (km2)

Estimated temperature at 5 km depth (oC)

Thickness of granite above basement and above 165 oC (km)

Estimated volume of resource in granite and above 5 km (km3)

PJ

Multiple of Australia’s annual energy usage

Nockatunga (1)

3,000

250

2.0

6,000

462,000

154.0

Longreach (2)

1,500

275

2.25

3,375

408,375

136.1

Kyabra (3)

2,200

250

2.0

4,400

338,800

112.9

Innaminka (4)

900

300

1.5

1,350

282,150

94.1

Betoota (5)

750

300

2.5

1,875

268,125

89.4

Mungeranie (6)

1,400

250

2.0

2,800

215,600

71.9

Windorah (7)

1,500

225

1.75

2,625

115,500

38.5

Quilpie (8)

500

250

2.0

1,000

77,000

25.7

Orientos (9)

850

225

1.75

1,487.5

65,450

21.8

Ambathella (10)

400

225

1.75

700

30,800

10.3

Adavale (11)

1,100

200

1.25

1,375

30,250

10.1

Kahduwarry (12)

1,000

200

1.25

1,250

27,500

9.2

Cowarie (13)

850

200

1.25

1,062.5

23,375

7.8

Simpson Desert (14)

850

200

1.25

1,062.5

23,375

7.8

Charleville north (15)

800

200

1.25

1,000

22,000

7.3

Charleville south (16)

750

200

1.25

937.5

20,625

6.9

Callabonna (17)

750

200

1.25

937.5

20,625

6.9

Wanaaring (18)

700

200

1.25

875

19,250

6.5

Charleville west (19)

600

200

1.25

750

16,500

5.5

Hungerford (20)

500

200

1.25

625

13,750

4.6

Lake Eyre (21)

350

225

1.75

612.5

26,950

9.0

Cooladdi (22)

200

200

1.25

250

5,500

1 .8

Muswellbrook (23)

50

275

1.5

75

14,025

4.5

Location

* after Somerville et al. (1994)

64


Figure 37: Eromanga Basin geothermal area – location where granite has been found or inferred from gravity lows*

*Gravity low defined by granite and where granite has been intersected by drilling (◊); gravity low where granite is likely to be the main cause (◊); gravity lows caused by sandstone sub basins but where some granite is present (◊).

Figure 38: Energy resources in granite bodies for tourism regions in Queensland, Australia*

*Resource information for numbered locations listed in Table D2 [after Somerville et al. 1994]; Locations are indicative only.

65


Figure 39: Energy resources in granite bodies for tourism regions in New South Wales, Australia*

*Resource information for numbered locations listed in Table D2 [after Somerville et al. 1994]. Locations are indicative only.

Figure 40: Energy resources in granite bodies for tourism regions in South Australia, Australia*

66


APPENDIX E – WIND ENERGY RESOURCE Figure 41: Approximate average wind speeds in autumn - data from the Bureau of Meteorology

Figure 42: Approximate average wind speeds in spring - data from the Bureau of Meteorology

67


Figure 43: Approximate average wind speeds in winter - data from the Bureau of Meteorology

Figure 44: Approximate average wind speeds in summer - data from the Bureau of Meteorology

68


APPENDIX F – SOLAR ENERGY RESOURCE Figure 45: Approximate annual average daily solar intensity in megajoules per square metre - data from the Bureau of Meteorology

Figure 46: Approximate annual average daily sunshine in hours - data from the Bureau of Meteorology

69


APPENDIX G – DISTRIBUTION OF SURVEY RESPONDENTS BY STATE/TERRITORY Figure 47: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Queensland*

* The response rate in Queensland was 17% and comprised 10% of the total number of received surveys.

Figure 48: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in New South Wales*

* The response rate in New South Wales was 15% and comprised 22.5% of the total number of received surveys

70


Figure 49: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Victoria*

* The response rate in Victoria was 10% and comprised 5% of the total number of received surveys

Figure 50: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in South Australia*

* The response rate in South Australia was 30% and comprised 15% of the total number of received surveys

71


Figure 51: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Western Australia*

* The response rate in Western Australia was 17% and comprised 20% of the total number of received surveys

Figure 52: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in the Northern Territory*

*The response rate in the Northern Territory was 20% and comprised 12.5% of the total number of received surveys.

72


Figure 53: Renewable energy survey response locations by tourism region in Tasmania*

* The response rate in Tasmania was 29% and comprised 12.5% of the total number of received surveys.

73


APPENDIX H – SURVEY FORMS

74


75


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78


AUTHORS Dr Tom Baldock Dr Baldock has been a lecturer in Civil Engineering at the University of Queensland since 2002. Prior to that he was a lecturer in Civil Engineering at Imperial College, London, UK from 2000 to 2002. Tom teaches Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulic Engineering and Coastal Engineering at UQ. His research focuses on wave mechanics and the coastal and offshore environment, with a long interest in the potential for wave energy devices. Email: [email protected]

Matt Tomkins Matt Tomkins is a PhD scholar in the Division of Civil Engineering at UQ and holds a B.Eng (Hons) from UQ. His research encompasses sedimentation processes in the coastal environment. Email: [email protected]

Gordon Dalton Gordon Dalton is an Masters Scholar in the Division of Environmental Engineering at UQ. His research work forms part of a broader CRC study into tourism Infrastructure, Renewable Energy Applications and system processes. Email: [email protected]

Prof Maria Skyllas-Kazacos Prof Skyllas-Kazacos is Director of the Centre for Electrochemical and Minerals Processing and Professor of Chemical Engineering & Industrial Chemistry at the University of New South Wales. Email: [email protected]

Nicholas Kazacos Nicholas Kazacos holds a BSc from UNSW and a Graduate Certificate in Business and Technology (UNSW). He has three years experience and training with Magnam Technologies Pty Ltd which has led to expertise in VRB and V/Br redox cell development, plastic electrode fabrication, stack assembly, business development and project management. Email: [email protected]

79


80

The Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre (STCRC) is established under the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Program. STCRC is the world’s leading scientific institution delivering research to support the sustainability of travel and tourism - one of the world’s largest and fastest growing industries.

Research Programs Tourism is a dynamic industry comprising many sectors from accommodation to hospitality, transportation to retail and many more. STCRC’s research program addresses the challenges faced by small and large operators, tourism destinations and natural resource managers. Areas of Research Expertise: Research teams in five discipline areas - modelling, environmental science, engineering & architecture, information & communication technology and tourism management, focus on three research programs: Sustainable Resources: Natural and cultural heritage sites serve as a foundation for tourism in Australia. These sites exist in rural and remote Australia and are environmentally sensitive requiring specialist infrastructure, technologies and management. Sustainable Enterprises: Enterprises that adhere to best practices, innovate, and harness the latest technologies will be more likely to prosper. Sustainable Destinations: Infrastructural, economic, social and environmental aspects of tourism development are examined simultaneously.

Education Postgraduate Students: STCRC’s Education Program recruits high quality postgraduate students and provides scholarships, capacity building, research training and professional development opportunities. THE-ICE: Promotes excellence in Australian Tourism and Hospitality Education and facilitates its export to international markets.

Extension & Commercialisation STCRC uses its research network, spin-off companies and partnerships to extend knowledge and deliver innovation to the tourism industry. STCRC endeavours to secure investment in the development of its research into new services, technologies and commercial operations.

Australia’s CRC Program The Cooperative Research Centres (CRC) Program brings together researchers and research users. The program maximises the benefits of research through an enhanced process of utilisation, commercialisation and technology transfer. It also has a strong education component producing graduates with skills relevant to industry needs.

Website: www.crctourism.com.au I Bookshop: www.crctourism.com.au/bookshop I Email: [email protected]

Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre CAIRNS NQ Coordinator Prof Bruce Prideaux Tel: +61 7 4042 1039 [email protected]

DARWIN NT Coordinator Ms Alicia Boyle Tel: + 61 8 8946 7267 [email protected]

BRISBANE Managing Director - STS Mr Stewart Moore Tel: +61 7 3321 4726 [email protected]

PERTH WA Coordinator Dr Diane Lee Tel: + 61 8 9360 2616 [email protected]

BRISBANE QLD Coordinator Mr Noel Scott Tel: +61 7 3381 1024 [email protected]

NATIONAL NETWORK

LISMORE ADELAIDE

MELBOURNE

SA Coordinator Prof Graham Brown Tel: +61 8 8302 0313 [email protected]

VIC Coordinator A/Prof Sue Beeton Tel: +61 3 9479 3500 [email protected]

NSW Coordinator Regional Tourism Research Dr Jeremy Buultjens Tel: +61 2 6620 3382 [email protected]

SYDNEY

PARTNERS

HOBART

CANBERRA

TAS Coordinator Adjunct Prof Malcolm Wells Tel: + 61 3 6226 7686 [email protected]

ACT Coordinator Dr Brent Ritchie Tel: +61 2 6201 5016 [email protected]

UNIVERSITY

PARTNERS

SPIN-OFF

COMPANIES

CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd ABN 53 077 407 286 PMB 50 Gold Coast MC Queensland 9726 Australia Telephone: +61 7 5552 8172 Facsimile: +61 7 5552 8171 Chairman: Sir Frank Moore AO Chief Executive: Prof Terry De Lacy Director of Research: Prof Leo Jago Website: www.crctourism.com.au Bookshop: www.crctourism.com.au/bookshop Email: [email protected]

*9552

INDUSTRY

Sustainable Destinations Mr Ray Spurr Tel: +61 2 9385 1600 [email protected]

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