Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema

Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015

Embodied Cognition and Cinema EDITED BY MAARTEN COËGNARTS AND PETER KRAVANJA WITH A FOREWORD BY MARK JOHNSON

Leuven University Press

Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 3

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© 2015 by Leuven University Press / Universitaire Pers Leuven / Presses Universitaires de Louvain. Minderbroedersstraat 4, B-3000 Leuven (Belgium) All rights reserved. Except in those cases expressly determined by law, no part of this publication may be multiplied, saved in an automated datafile or made public in any way whatsoever without the express prior written consent of the publishers. ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 D/2015/1869/22 NUR: 670 Cover illustration: “The Go-Between” © 1971, Renewed 1999 Columbia Pictures, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Courtesy of Columbia Pictures © 1970 STUDIOCANAL Films Ltd. Cover design en lay-out: Frederik Danko


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We had the experience but missed the meaning, And approach to the meaning restores the experience In a different form, beyond any meaning We can assign to happiness. T.S. Eliot, Four Quartets


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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S FOREWORD

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Mark Johnson ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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FILM AS AN EXEMPLAR OF BODILY MEANING-MAKING

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Maarten Coëgnarts and Peter Kravanja

PART I

FILM FORM AND EMBODIED COGNITION

FILM NARRATIVE AND EMBODIED COGNITION: THE IMPACT OF IMAGE SCHEMAS ON NARRATIVE FORM

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Miklós Kiss EMBODIED VISUAL MEANING IN FILM

63

Maarten Coëgnarts and Peter Kravanja FILM MUSIC AS EMBODIMENT

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Juan Chattah

PART II

CINEMATIC EMPATHY: ON EMBODIED SIMULATION MECHANISMS AND THE VIEWER

THE FLOATING WORLD: FILM NARRATIVE AND VIEWER DIAKRISIS

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Hannah Chapelle Wojciehowski MODES OF ACTION AT THE MOVIES, OR RE-THINKING FILM STYLE FROM THE EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE

139

Michele Guerra ART IN NOISE: AN EMBODIED SIMULATION ACCOUNT OF CINEMATIC SOUND DESIGN

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Mark S. Ward 6 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 6

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THE CHARACTER’S BODY AND THE VIEWER: CINEMATIC EMPATHY AND EMBODIED SIMULATION IN THE FILM EXPERIENCE

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Adriano D’Aloia

PART III

FROM EMBODIED MEANING TO ABSTRACT THOUGHT

FILMS AND EMBODIED METAPHORS OF EMOTION

203

María J. Ortiz EMBODIED CINEMATIC SUBJECTIVITY: METAPHORICAL AND METONYMICAL MODES OF CHARACTER PERCEPTION IN FILM

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Maarten Coëgnarts and Peter Kravanja ON THE EMBODIMENT OF TEMPORAL MEANING IN CINEMA: PERCEIVING TIME THROUGH THE CHARACTER’S EYES

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Maarten Coëgnarts and Peter Kravanja EMBODIED ETHICS AND CINEMA: MORAL ATTITUDES FACILITATED BY CHARACTER PERCEPTION

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Maarten Coëgnarts and Peter Kravanja COGNITIVE SEMIOTICS REVISITED: REFRAMING THE FRAME

295

Warren Buckland NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY FILMOGRAPHY LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ILLUSTRATION CREDITS INDEX

309 325 357 359 363 365

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Film Music as Embodiment JUAN CHATTAH

INTRODUCTION Music is a multi-parametric construct that operates at an almost subliminal level to support, highlight, complement, or even negate any other aspect of the cinematic experience. Current trends of film scoring reflect a fading interest in the associative dimensions of music; rather, composers now strive to contribute with a phenomenological score. It is primarily through embodiment, a hardwired process grounded in our physiology and cognition, that music functions phenomenologically within film. Embodiment mediates signification, enabling the music to guide the audience’s attention toward particular visual events, to shape the perception of segmentation at micro- and macro-levels, to trigger a myriad of bodily states, and ultimately to present a unique perspective on the discourse of characters and cinematic narrative. Although most film-scoring techniques have gradually emerged through the intuitive use of music, interdisciplinary strands of scholarship from embodied cognition can be instrumental to examine these techniques from empirical and theoretical perspectives, and thus shed light on the logic that motivates the interaction between music and other facets of the cinematic experience.1 1. MUSIC AND METAPHORIC THOUGHT Music’s potential to engender affective experiences stems from our inhabiting comparable environments, from our innate capacity for embodiment, and most importantly, from our proclivity toward metaphoric reasoning. We resort to metaphors to understand abstract phenomena in terms of concrete embodied experiences. Conceptualizing music is no exception.2 Because music seldom denotes referential content, metaphors are the most suitable vehicle for musical interpretation. As way of example, observe a few phrases drawn from random analytical descriptions of music (see Example 1). These illustrate very common rhetorical constructions used to address musical events, experiences, 81 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 81

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or phenomena; below the italicized words, I specify the concrete notions that enable metaphorical correlations.

Example 1. Metaphorical constructions in music.

Such prose is characteristic in discourse about music, and arguably necessary in the absence of a sonic rendition; as Saslaw notes, “language about music is a significant indicator of conceptual and perceptual structures” (236). In the phrases presented in Example 1, concrete phenomena provide mental structures (verticality, container, path, landscape) mapped onto the music. These mental structures emerge from recurrent experiences of embodiment (e.g., traversing a landscape through a path, or experiencing motion of our body in time) and in turn facilitate our understanding of abstract musical phenomena.3 To reveal the fundamental similarity that enables this mapping, Johnson formulated the notion of ‘image schema’ as “a dynamic cognitive construct that functions somewhat like an abstract structure of an image and thereby connects together a vast range of different experiences that manifest this same recurring experience” (The Body 2). In other words, schemas are abstract-level mental structures that emerge from our perception of objects, events, or concepts.4 While exploring the notion of schemas for the analysis of music, Zbikowski observes that metaphorical mappings “are not about the imposition [of structures], but are instead about the establishment of correspondences between the two domains” (70).5 82 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 82

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A metaphorical correlation based on the linearity image schema, for instance, highlights a continuous one-dimensional quality in two domains.6 Examples of concepts that share a linearity image schema are age (young to old), height (low to high), or speed (slow to fast); analogously, examples of musical parameters that share a linearity image schema are loudness (soft to loud), pitch frequency (low to high), or tempo (slow to fast). By foregrounding analogous gestalts across cinematic domains, composers construct film scores that induce cross-modal metaphors rooted in image schemas, embodied schemas, or expectation schemas. In what follows, I explore the most common schemas in film music while touching upon complementary cognitive mechanisms. As point of departure, I single out film music metaphors that rely upon the linearity image schema, as these are most pervasive in film scoring. 2. THE LINEARITY SCHEMA

2.1. Structural congruence Our body is regulated by numerous cyclic processes, some subconscious (heartbeat, breathing) and some goal directed (walking, manual labor);7 these processes aid in temporal encoding by integrating multisensory perceptions.8 For instance, when listening to music we perceive the ‘beat’ as the most salient periodic pulse; this generally coincides with the rate at which we tap to the music. In turn, ‘tempo’ is the speed of cyclical recurrent pulses as measured in beats per minute. Action movies frequently use the tempo is speed of physical movement conceptual metaphor, in which slow movement in the visuals correlate with slow tempo, and fast movement with fast tempo.9 This device creates momentum leading to the end of action sequences (car chase, fight scene, escape).10 In a scene from Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, the increasing speed of drumming and resulting temporal compression of rhythmic ideas in Tan Dun’s score pairs with the visuals to create a climactic point toward the end of the fight between Jiao Long (Ziyi Zhang) and Yu Shu Lien (Michelle Yeoh).11 The notation in Example 2 shows the first two measures and last two measures of the music. Beginning with a beat that equals 112 impulses per second, the tempo gradually accelerates (accel.) reaching 186 impulses per second at the end of the scene. As a result, the music (along camera movement, editing, and other visual parameters) activates sensory-motor simulations triggered at the reflexive level; the viewers not only perceive, but also physically simulate the increasing velocity and aggressiveness of the fighters’ movements.12 83 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 83

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Example 2. Choreographed fight accompanied with drumming. Source: Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000). [1:34:10 - 1:34:45]

Pitch is a psychoacoustical attribute of sound quantifiable in Hertz (or rate of vibrations per second).13 Pitches are commonly described as ‘high’ or ‘low,’ and sequences of pitches as ‘ascending’ or ‘descending.’14 Film music often elicits the pitch frequency is motion in vertical space conceptual metaphor, where upward motion correlates with increasing pitch frequency, and downward motion with decreasing pitch frequency. A scene from a Tom and Jerry cartoon shows Jerry falling from an airplane, stopping temporarily in the middle of his descent (thanks to a brassiere-parachute). Scott Bradley’s music in Example 3 outlines Jerry’s fall through a descending chromatic figure with a brief pause when the parachute opens.

Example 3. Musical mapping of Jerry’s descent. Source: “Yankee Doodle Mouse” - Tom and Jerry’s Greatest Chases (2000).15

In a different scene from Tom and Jerry, the (imaginary) camera, rather than an object or character, ascends rapidly to show a pile of plates Tom is carrying. The music in Example 4, an ascending chromatic scale, portrays this ascent via the pitch frequency is motion in vertical space conceptual metaphor.16 84 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 84

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Example 4. Musical mapping of the upward motion of the camera. Source: “Puss Gets the Boot” - Tom and Jerry’s Greatest Chases (2000).17

In film music discourse, ‘Mickey Mousing’ denotes synchronized visual and aural information, achieved by mapping physical movements onto sonic space. Many composers adopted the Mickey Mousing technique, originally used for cartoons, to score nonanimated films. In King Kong, Max Steiner mimics the downward and upward motion of the characters using descending and ascending chromatic scales and shifts of musical motifs. Example 5 presents a few measures of the music, which illustrates the musical mapping of downward motion of the characters.

Example 5. Musical mapping of initial downward movements of the characters. Source: King Kong (1933). [1:15:30 - 1:16:55]

The reader may wonder why we associate visual with musical movement.18 Based on the tenet that attention is limited, Marshall and Cohen propose that viewers direct their attention to information coordinated across modalities, and develop the Congruence-Association Model (CAM) to support this claim.19 In addressing temporal correspondences across cinematic domains, Cohen mentions that “congruence and association apply to all the channels of information. (…) Speech, music, and sound effects, can all have rhythm, but so too 85 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 85

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can visual motion and text (e.g., letters moving across the screen, or the patterning of font). The sequence of changes in each of the five modalities has specific durational pattern and intensity or accent patterns. Hence, a structural analysis can lead to congruencies across the various channels (…) these congruencies can contribute to the direction of attention” (31). Additionally, statistical studies employing similar models indicate strong associations between speed of movement and musical tempo (Eitan and Granot), and show evidence that perceived congruence between auditory and visual domains in film is most pronounced when linking changes in vertical motion with changes in pitch frequency, visual size of objects with dynamic level (loudness), and visual shape with timbre (Lipscomb and Kim). Although the CAM model is flexible in considering formal congruency across multiple cinematic domains, Cohen notes “the model assumes a structural analysis independent of that of meaning” (32) thus leaving aside matters of semantic congruency.20

2.2. Semantic congruence The function of music in film is not limited to enhancing visual events. Often, film music composers seek to portray a character’s mood, state of mind, or other (non-visual) parameters. Extensive research has shown that muscle groups responsible for heartbeat and breathing would synchronize to a dominant sound; as a result, the soundtrack may subliminally increase a feeling of tension in the audience by increasing the tempo of a simulated heart-rate.21 Midnight Express (1978) and more recently Gravity (2013) illustrate this sound-design technique. Analogous to highlighting a character’s heart-rate through a sonic rendition that draws on tempo, film music composers and sound designers may seek to portray a character’s mood or state of mind through other musical (sonic) parameters. In a scene from The Godfather (1972) [1:28:10 - 1:29:00], sound designer Walter Murch opted for a subjective realization of sound. As Michael Corleone (Al Pacino) anticipates shooting someone face-to-face, the abnormal intensification of the sound of an unseen train does not correspond to a realistic representation of diegetic sounds; instead, this sonic outburst reflects Michael’s increasing psychological tension up to the moment he shoots. This correlation prompts the psychological tension is loudness conceptual metaphor, in which soft sounds correspond to a relaxed state and loud sounds correspond to a tense state.22 Turning to an example more clearly defined in the music domain, in a 86 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 86

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scene from Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, a crescendo (increase in loudness) in the string instruments represents the mounting tension as Charlie opens the chocolate (see Example 6). He, of course, is hopeful to find the golden ticket to visit Willy Wonka’s chocolate factory. Danny Elfman’s musical underscoring thus enables the psychological tension is loudness conceptual metaphor.

Example 6. Musical mapping of Charlie’s psychological tension. Source: Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). [0:21:00 - 0:21:10]

Film composers often draw on the notion of consonance and dissonance to portray relative degrees of psychological tension (or relaxation) in the characters. Musical consonance and dissonance are evaluative notions contingent upon compositional styles and musical vocabulary. Sensory consonance and dissonance, instead, is quantifiable by measuring the physiological phenomenon of ‘beating’ manifested in the cochlea.23 The presence of beating (or roughness) when hearing two dissonant pitches triggers spectral masking, hinders our ability to discern individual stimuli, and in turn creates a feeling of irritation (Huron 312). Naturally, the more pitches simultaneously sounding, the increasing probability for dissonant relations among the various pitches. When used harmonically (i.e., simultaneous sounding of pitches), the chromatic scale creates a stinging dissonance. In a scene from The Verdict, attorney Frank Galvin (Paul Newman) reveals to Laura (Charlotte Rampling) they are at risk of losing a most important legal case. Example 7 shows a reduction of Johnny Mandel’s intense score for this scene, which starts with a single pitch (middle C) performed with little vibrato on muted strings. The music gradually expands onto a higher register, adding all twelve notes of a chromatic scale, mapping the increasing tension that unfolds from the conversation. This leads to a powerfully stressful and dissonant climax as all possible notes of the chromatic scale are simultaneously sounding. The score reduction shows the order of pitches introduced 87 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 87

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(repetition of notes at a different register noted in parenthesis); the ties (long curved lines) indicate that these pitches are sustained throughout. We can thus observe the psychological tension is consonance/dissonance conceptual metaphor, in which no tension is consonance and tension is dissonance. In addition, note the psychological tension is pitch frequency conceptual metaphor evident in the gradual inclusion of higher frequencies.

Example 7. Musical mapping of increasing tension in the characters and the dialogue. Source: The Verdict (1982). [1:12:50 - 1:15:10]

Our psychological or physiological state greatly affects the timbre of our voice (Scherer and Oshinsky): when relaxed we produce mellow sounds, using little pneumatic energy, resulting in absence of upper partials; in contrast, when angry or tense, our vocal cords resort to increased pneumatic energy, resulting in loud and harsh sounds rich in upper partials. A scene from The Stepford Wives nicely illustrates this notion. As Nicole Kidman, a successful president of a TV Network, realizes she is laid off, an expansive vocal gesture in the music (performed by a choir) portrays her short but intense psychological turmoil: the increase in loudness corresponds to (and heightens) an equivalent increase in pitch frequency. David Arnolds musical score thus helps establish the psychological tension is loudness and the psychological tension is pitch frequency conceptual metaphors (see Example 8).

Example 8. Gestural/Musical mapping of the protagonist’s psychological turmoil. Source: The Stepford Wives (2004). [0:09:40 - 0:10:30] 88 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 88

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Metaphorical correlations between music and other facets of a film are not constrained to single scenes. In The Conversation, for instance, composer David Shire and director Francis Ford Coppola established a metaphorical correlation that frames the entire film. Harry Caul (Gene Hackman) is a surveillance expert whose job is listening into other people’s private lives. Throughout the film, the nondiegetic piano score captures Harry’s private reality through changes in timbre. The audience thus recognizes Harry’s psychological state via the psychological state is timbre conceptual metaphor. The linearity image schema inherent in both parameters enables a parallelism whereby no timbral distortion represents a calm psychological state, and timbral distortion represents a distressed psychological state. In Example 9, the main theme underscores an early scene in which Harry calmly walks home after successfully recording the conversation of a young couple in a park. The smooth and undistorted sound of the piano indicates Harry’s tranquil state.

Example 9. Harry walks home. Source: The Conversation (1974). [0:09:20 - 0:10:20]

The conversation Harry recorded hints at a murder. He begins to worry about becoming involved in a labyrinth of secrecy and murder. Halfway through the film, these tormenting thoughts haunt Harry’s dreams; gradually, the smooth piano sound becomes increasingly distorted (see Example 10).


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Example 10. Harry’s unsettling dreams. Source: The Conversation. [1:19:40 - 1:20:30]

Toward the film’s end, Harry realizes his apartment has been tapped. Infuriated, he searches for the recording device. The music presents two short musical ideas superimposed and obsessively repeated, evoking Harry’s frantic search. Once more, the distorted piano timbre signals his nervous tension. As he gives up hope for finding the recording device, the music briefly stops, and returns to the undistorted piano sound, reflecting his surrender (see Example 11). The Conversation thus illustrates how the music helps frame the narrative of an entire film via the psychological state is timbre conceptual metaphor.

Example 11. Harry’s search for a recording device [1:50:30 - 1:51:00] and his surrender to the situation [1:51:00 - 1:51:30]. Source: The Conversation. [1:50:30 - 1:51:30] 90 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 90

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3. THE PATH AND EXPECTATION SCHEMAS – SYNTACTICAL CONGRUENCE The path schema is analogous to the linearity schema in its one-dimensional structure, yet features additional components such as a ‘source’ and a ‘goal’ (Johnson The Body), as well as associated experiential responses. Cox stresses the importance of phenomenological responses to the path schema, and extends these to a more generalized schema of expectation, noting that

“our experience of actual motion along paths includes the experiences of anticipation, presence, and memory in relation to specific points along the path (. . .) The meaning of the ‘goal’ of a path thus includes not only its spatial location ‘ahead’, and our ‘approach’ and eventual ‘arrival’ at that location, but also the experience of ‘anticipation’, ‘desire’, and eventual ‘achievement’ and ‘satisfaction’ for the moving observer” (“Metaphoric Logic” 215). Our experience of anticipation, presence, and memory relate to syntax rather than semantics. Expectation schemas therefore enable parallelisms that highlight the syntagmatic organization of domains.24 Musicians address the notion of musical ‘cadence’ invoking the path and expectation schemas. Fleshing out this fact requires a brief music-theoretical explanation. A scale is the ordered (ascending or descending) representation of the pitch content of a musical work; the resulting disposition of intervals (distance between adjacent pitches) defines the kind of scale.25 Pitches within a scale are organized around the tonic, which gives the name to a scale (e.g., ‘F’ Minor, ‘D#’ Lydian) and, most importantly, acts as a phenomenological gravitational center. As a result, different scale degrees evoke different psychological qualities (or qualia), and induce significantly different phenomenological experiences of stability and tendency with reference to the tonic. Based on extensive empirical and statistical studies, Huron concludes that “it is the capacity of scale degrees to evoke consistent and reliable qualia that allows them to be musically functional” (174) whereby ‘functional’ Huron means the capacity of individual pitches to evoke various degrees of relative stability and melodic tendency within the context of a key. For instance, the tonic is generally addressed as ‘stable,’ ‘foundational,’ ‘solid,’ ‘home,’ or ‘final.’ In contrast, the leading-tone is generally described as ‘unstable,’ ‘pointing,’ ‘yearning,’ ‘restless,’ or ‘longing’ (see Example 12). 26 91 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 91

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Example 12. Qualia of selected pitches in the C Major scale.27

Listeners are most sensitive to pitches at points of repose or closure in a melody (Aarden); these are ‘cadential’ points.28 Cadences reflect a relative degree of arrival and stability mediated by the path and expectation schemas. Because the tonic provides the strongest sense of stability, and because most music exhibits rhetorical archetypes of stability-instability-stability at micro- and macro-levels (excerpts and entire pieces), the tonic pitch commonly appears at the end of a phrase, melody, or composition. Tonic thus becomes a ‘location’ that provides resolution, finality, and stability. In fact, the organization of musical materials around pitch qualia has become so deeply rooted in Western musical practice, that the need for a tonic sonority at the end of a piece conforms to our seemingly instinctive expectations; the absence of a final tonic sonority would undeniably project a lack of closure.29 Many Hollywood films draw upon the phenomenological effect of cadences to shape narrative units.30 The closure in narrative is closure in music conceptual metaphor is mediated by the notion of musical cadence, where appearance of tonic reflects closure, while avoidance of the tonic reflects lack of closure. In a scene from 15 Minutes, Oleg (Oleg Taktarov), an aspiring film director, is accidentally murdered while recording his own movie. Composers Anthony Marinelly and Peter Robinson score Oleg’s final words with a mournful violin melody. The visuals depict his death by abruptly halting all physical motion. The music, however, hints at a lack of closure, by interrupting the violin melody at the subdominant, instead of the tonic pitch (see Example 13).


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Example 13. Oleg simulates his death. Source: 15 Minutes (2001). [1:50:00 - 1:50:35]

Oleg is merely simulating his death to secure a dramatic (characteristically Hollywood-like) ending for his film. Having successfully accomplished a melodramatic shot of his death, he resumes the dialogue and the music proceeds. Naturally, a few seconds later Oleg truly dies; correspondingly, as shown in Example 14, the music arrives at tonic, providing a sense of closure.

Example 14. Oleg dies. Source: 15 Minutes. [1:50:35 - 1:51:00]

In another scene from The Conversation, the music helps frame a lengthy film sequence via the narrative closure is musical closure conceptual metaphor. The music acts as a unifying fabric that extends through several cuts and locations. It begins with Harry traveling to meet his fiancée; after a few moments, the music halts at the subdominant as he hesitates to enter his fiancée’s apartment. The absence of musical closure subliminally impinges on the narrative (see Example 15.)


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Example 15. Harry arrives at his fiancée’s apartment. Source: The Conversation. [0:20:10 - 0:21:00]

Approximately seven minutes later, as Harry departs from his fiancée’s apartment, the nondiegetic music resumes. This time however, the music reaches a final tonic, evoking a strong sense of conclusion. As a result, the music delineates a lengthy narrative unit spanning several scenes (see Example 16).

Example 16. Harry leaves his fiancée’s apartment. Source: The Conversation. [0:27:25 - 0:28:25] 94 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 94

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In the last two examples, halting at the subdominant denotes a lack of closure. A closer look at the example from The Conversation illustrates the notion of chords as simultaneous (harmonically) sounding pitches. Chords are named according to their root note (e.g., ‘tonic’ chord, ‘subdominant’ chord), and evoke phenomenological responses in the listener analogous to those of pitch qualia. For instance, we generally perceive the tonic chord as stable or conclusive, and the dominant chord as ‘unstable’ or ‘inconclusive.’ The film Amadeus portrays the life of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart as narrated by his colleague, admirer, and antagonist Antonio Salieri. The film opens visually with the nightly streets of Vienna, and sonically by Salieri (Murray Abraham) screaming “Mozart…Mozart.” The music in Example 17 punctuates this opening by providing a musical gesture that halts at a dominant chord, and stresses its unstable quality by briefly prolonging the leading-tone beyond the duration of the other notes. Avoiding a sense of finality, the orchestral music grandiosely opens the narrative space with a gesture that announces the beginning of an extraordinary story.

Example 17. Music to the opening scene of the film. Source: Amadeus (1984). [0:00:15 - 0:00:40]

By the end of the film, as Salieri concludes his narration with an account of Mozart’s funeral, the music closes a large-scale narrative unit (an entire film in this case) providing the much-desired tonic chord (see Example 18). 31


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Example 18. Music that marks the end of Salieri’s narration. Source: Amadeus. [2:52:25 - 2:53:00]

August Rush presents a similar example to Amadeus. Evan (Freddie Highmore), the protagonist of the film, becomes captivated by every sound that surrounds him, and in his mind, these sounds become music. As he arrives in New York searching for his parents, he drifts into a world wherein everything is controlled by the sounds that overwhelm his senses; in the scene, car honking and other street sounds become music, materializing as an expanding musical texture, climaxing with an inconclusive dominant chord that opens the narrative space (see Example 19).

Example 19. The music opens the narrative space. Source: August Rush (2007). [0:28:40 - 0:29:00]

In the last moments of the film, Evan is conducting at the Hollywood Bowl. Mark Mancina’s score turns from diegetic to nondiegetic, and provides the much-expected conclusive arrival at tonic (see Example 20). 96 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 96

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Example 20. The music closes the narrative. Source: August Rush. [1:46:40 - 1:47:30]

Perceiving closure in music is not solely contingent upon tonality. Because music happens in time, metric structure and rhythmic profile influence perceptual closure. Huron maintains that both parameters (pitch and temporality) share mental structures of expectation assimilated as “schemas that are related to a statistical hierarchy of events. They differ in that tonality relates to an aspect of the what of expectation, whereas meter relates to an aspect of the when of expectation” (185). Accordingly, placement of rhythmic figures within specific metrical positions would provide a relative sense of resolution (or lack thereof ) mapped onto the narrative via the narrative closure is musical closure conceptual metaphor. Musical events that happen on downbeats (i.e., accented part of a measure) accrue in qualia of closure and stability, while the absence of a musical event on a downbeat would evoke a lack of closure. In 15-Minutes, the final moments of a chase illustrate the interplay between rhythm and meter that shapes the audience’s experience of the scene. As detective Eddie Flemming (Robert De Niro) lowers his gun, seemingly forfeiting his chance to shoot at the criminal, the drumming vanishes without reaching a rhythmic cadence on the downbeat; the rhythmic gesture thus thwarts the arrival at the downbeat by swiftly fading (a decrescendo in musical terminology, notated with a hairpin-like symbol) (see Example 21).


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Example 21. Final moments of a chase. Source: 15 Minutes. [0:48:15 - 0:48:30]

Only seconds after, Eddie resumes a shooting position and takes the shot; simultaneously, the drumming resumes, culminating in the much-expected hit on the downbeat, bringing the narrative segment to a close. Note in Example 22 the interesting interplay between the diegetic sound of gunshots and the nondiegetic music.

Example 22. Eddie takes the shot. Source: 15 Minutes. [0:48:30 - 0:48:40]

4. THE CONTAINER SCHEMA – FORMAL (STRUCTURAL) CONGRUENCE This discussion of tonal and metric cadences is saturated with metaphorical correlations that evoke the container schema: “music opens the narrative space,” “the music closes a large-scale narrative unit.”32 The container schema, 98 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 98

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however, does not address the phenomenological experience of cadences, but rather the ‘effect’ a cadence has on shaping a musical or narrative structure. A cadence opens or closes, outlining the boundaries of a container defined by music-syntactical structures. In contrast to the various schemas that apply to the notion of cadences, musical ‘form’ is almost exclusively grounded in phenomenological experiences related to the container schema. Musical form addresses the large-scale structure of a composition in terms of similarity and contrast among its sections. A diagrammatic labeling of formal structure can be expressed by letters representing similar or contrasting musical units. ‘A’ denotes a piece which consists of a relatively homogeneous section; ‘AB’ denotes a piece that contains two sections delineated by a significant change in any musical parameter; ‘ABA’ denotes a piece that contains three sections, and in which the middle section presents a significant contrast to the outer sections; and so forth. By retaining a single mood throughout (i.e., avoiding significant changes in any parameter), Thomas Newman’s score for The Shawshank Redemption helps unify lengthy narrative units that might otherwise be perceived as segmented or scattered. After spending 40 years in prison, Brooks (James Whitmore) is released. The film montage describes a transitional period in Brook’s life; this film segment is nearly five minutes in length, yet encapsulates an even longer passage of time, perhaps weeks, perhaps months. Dialogue alternates between off-screen narration (Brooks himself ) and diegetic dialogue. The montage begins with Brooks leaving prison, taking a bus ride to the city, and settling in the city by finding an apartment and a job. Subsequently, we see glimpses of his nightly sleep, his time at a park feeding birds, and ultimately his planning and committing suicide. The montage ends with prison mates reading a letter of the late Brooks. The music for the scene features a sustained texture of strings and gentle electronics that blend with homorhythmic solo-piano musical phrases ending in long-sustained sonorities. The contemplative character is emphasized by an avoidance of clearly demarcated beats and metric structure in the music. Example 23 illustrates the first three piano phrases.33 The piece navigates a single scale throughout, and avoids a significant change in any parameter.34 Based on these features, our perception of the formal design of the piece is best expressed as a single unit ‘A’. Exploring a single musical mood to unify a lengthy scene has become a trademark of composer Thomas Newman; this approach is also prominent in his score for American Beauty. 99 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 99

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Example 23. Brooks is released from prison. Source: The Shawshank Redemption (1994). [1:01:00 - 1:05:40]

In numerous science fiction films, introducing music aesthetically grounded in experimentation and technological progress serves to delineate a semantic opposition between human and machine.35 In a scene from The Fifth Element, intergalactic quasi-human Diva Plavalaguna (Maïwenn Le Besco) performs a vocal number at a concert hall, while female cyborg Leeloo (Milla Jovovich) fights an army of Mondoshawan aliens at a remote location. Cued by the line “It’s show-time” in the dialogue, the music connects the simultaneous (yet spatially disconnected) events, and furthers the semantic dichotomy of human and non-human embodied by both, Diva and Leeloo. The ‘A’ section denotes humanity. Diva begins with a flawless performance of Il Dolce Suono (The Sweet Sound), a vocally challenging aria from Gaetano Donizetti’s opera ‘Lucia di Lammermoor.’36 The piece forces the performer to the limits of her vocal range. This wide range, however, is traversed mostly with conjunct motion (i.e., using nearby tones) and arch-shaped melodic contours. These features are characteristic of vocal writing, grounding the music in the affordances of a human (well-trained) soprano.37 Additionally, as customary in operatic passages, prosody (i.e., setting of text to a vocal melody) allows for a flexible rhythmic profile in the solo voice.38 Example 24 shows the first and last phrases of the piece as written in Donizetti’s original score. 100 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 100

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Example 24. Diva performs Il Dolce Suono. Source: The Fifth Element (1997). [1:23:40 - 1:27:00]

As Donizetti’s aria concludes, the sonic environment changes radically, setting off a contrasting ‘B’ section. Eric Serra’s music for the ‘B’ section (the Diva Dance) marks a departure from human vocal affordances to denote alien dexterity and power. An electronica accompaniment becomes the backdrop to a wordless (digitally processed) voice.39 The range of the vocal line more than doubles the range of the preceding ‘A’ section; this range exceeds that of a (human) soprano. Additionally, the voice traverses this wide range not with arch-shaped melodic contours, but with unpredictable, extreme shifts of register. And lastly, Diva vocalizes complex rhythmic gestures with utmost precision, while accompanied by a machine-steady backbeat. Example 25 shows three short phrases in the middle of the piece.

Example 25. Diva performs Diva Dance. Source: The Fifth Element. [1:27:00 - 1:28:20] 101 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 101

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Framed by the binary ‘AB’ formal design, the music grounds a semantic dichotomy by highlighting musical parameters (range, timbre, rhythm, contour) strongly rooted in the affordances of our body as musical instrument. In her account of the scene, Schmidt notes that Diva’s “vocal performance is comprised of an operatic aria from the Earth repertoire, which then transforms itself into a rather eerie melody that leaps and soars over monstrous intervals in a virtuoso display (…) not recognizable as melody in the traditional sense” (35). Through direct embodiment of the vocal line, the audience recognizes the human qualities of the ‘A’ section and extra-human qualities of the ‘B’ section. Not surprisingly, it is during the ‘B’ section, as Diva engages in a sonic spectacle of vocal dexterity, that Leeloo acquires super-human powers to fight the Mondoshawan army. Reinforcing the connection between the two characters, Leeloo’s powerful movements synchronize with the beats of the nondiegetic music (performed by Diva at a different location), producing an unequivocal Mickey-Mousing effect. Toward the end of the scene, this parallelism is realized even more explicitly in the visual domain, as both characters finalize their successful ‘performance’ by simultaneously opening their arms in victory. 5. BODILY AFFORDANCES In the forgoing example, both the music and the narrative are structured in terms of the container schema, while the affordances of our body as musical instrument defined the ‘content’ of each container. Clarke proposes an ecological approach to the analysis of musical signification that stems from Gibson’s notion of ‘affordance’ and focuses on the “relationship between environmentally available information and the capacities, sensitivities, and interests of a perceiver” (134).40 He further notes that

“the fundamental principle in the ecological approach (…) is that perception is a reciprocal relationship between perceivers and their environments, co-specified by the attributes of both (…) Rather than focusing on the inferred presence of internal representations, an ecological approach within the framework of autonomy has the advantage of paying careful attention to the specific attributes of musical sound understood in relation to the capacities of listeners” (134). 102 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 102

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Bodily affordances are central to the cognitive processing of temporal patterns; our symmetrical body mediates in the recognition of meter in music (organization of beats in cyclical groups of 2, 3, 4, or more unusual groups of 5, 7, 11, or 13).41 In turn, cultural associations emerge that relate particular physical activities with particular meters.42Meyer-Kalkus calls attention to Bücher’s ethnomusicological investigations on work and rhythm, and point us to the origin of folk songs as acoustic backdrop for the temporal structuring of physical labor. Because our body is symmetrical, most movements related to physical labor will result in cycles of duple organization (e.g., lifting and lowering, pushing and pulling), subsequently rendered as onomatopoeic musical renditions (in duple meter) in folk and work songs. Meter in music that accompanies labor “necessarily results from our inner bodily constitution and from the technical preconditions of the work” (qtd. in Meyer-Kalkus 172). When workers sing (or listen to) these songs, the repeated impulses alleviate the physical effort by ensuring greater efficiency and coordination in communal tasks. To the duple organization of sound events during physical labor (one-two, one-two, etc.), cycles of three (one-two-three, one-two-three, etc.) present a stark opposition. Coincidentally (or perhaps not), music associated with activities not related to labor (dancing a waltz, singing a lullaby) is characterized by a triple metric pattern. As a result, bodily engagement with music, for work or dancing, results in a cultural construct that serves to delineate social boundaries.43 Even when asserting that associations triggered by physiological responses are ‘learned,’ the learning process is a biological (not a disembodied) phenomenon based on motor-neurological mechanisms that stem (in this case) from temporal patterns of rhythmically coordinated experience. As Clarke so eloquently expresses, “the construction of musical meaning through language and other forms of representation is undeniable, but it does not proceed independently of the affordances of musical materials. Ideologies and discourses, however powerful or persuasive they may seem to be, cannot simply impose themselves arbitrarily on the perceptual sensitivities of human beings, which are rooted in (though not defined by) the common ground of immediate experience” (43). A scene from An Education illustrates how metric structures in the music permeate our understanding of the narrative. In this scene, David (Peter Sarsgaard) attempts to convince teenage Jenny (Carey Mulligan) to accept his (and 103 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 103

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his friend’s) extravagant lifestyle of wealth and refinement, even when this entails questionable moral deeds. Paul Englishby’s evocative underscoring of David’s monologue, shown in Example 26, is deliberately vague in its metric organization. The slow unfolding music emphasizes Jenny’s hesitation, while sporadic 3-note melodic gestures suggest a triple meter, as David hints at a lavish lifestyle.

Example 26. David’s monologue. Source: An Education (2009). [0:47:50 - 0:48:40]

As Jenny is persuaded, and consents to David’s charming offer, the music swiftly changes to a clear, cyclical temporal organization in triple meter. Both engage in dancing a (nondiegetic) waltz (see Example 27). By association, the triple meter in the music signals access to a higher social status, and such projection is interpreted as commentary on the narrative discourse. The temporal structuring of the music thus triggers kinesthetic perceptions that generate a semantic understanding of the scene.

Example 27. David convinces Jenny to join his elitist lifestyle. Source: An Education. [0:48:40 - 0:49:05] 104 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 104

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Asymmetrical meters are complex temporal structures that defy organization into cyclical groups of two or three. Quintuple meter (five beats to a bar), for instance, could be understood as 3+2 or 2+3, or in more intricate arrangements of beats of unequal length. Naturally, these metrical structures are not impossible to perform, but certainly more challenging. It seems only intentional that Lalo Schifrin’s main theme for the Mission Impossible TV Series (and later used for the films) is solely based on quintuple meter. During the TV series and the films, the main theme enters at key moments, in which the protagonists are about to complete their (seemingly) impossible mission. The complex rhythmic structure of the music, arranged in two long beats plus two short beats,44 impinges on the kinesthetic dimension of film; the intricate quintuple meter, along its physiological associations, becomes a bodily reality to the audience (see Example 28).

Example 28. Main Theme to Mission Impossible TV Series (1966 - 1973). 105 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 105

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6. THE MIRROR NEURON SYSTEM (MNS) In the last few examples, conceiving our body as an instrument, and attending to the sounds of bodily transitive actions (walking, working, dancing), defined our understanding of the music. In addition, transitive moods, emotions, and more generally psychological states, affect our body language and bodily affordances. As previously mentioned, our voice is a unique instrument that alters its sound depending on our emotional state. We speak quickly and with ascending inflections when in state of arousal (happy, excited, agitated); contrastingly, we speak slower and with descending inflections when experiencing low arousal (unhappy, depressed, tired). Current research on the Mirror Neuron System (found in Macaques) suggests potential mechanism whereby listeners infer the emotional state of others by the sound of their voice.45 Gallese’s pioneering work on Mirror Neurons confirms the hypothesis that “embodied simulation mediates our capacity to share the meaning of actions, intentions, feelings, and emotions with others” (“Mirror Neurons” 519). Through embodied simulation we

“empathize with the suffering or happiness of others, we read the emotional states of another from the smallest gesture, we simulate their physical actions as well as the intentions behind these actions (…) Mirror Neurons, in this sense, connect us with our environment” (Mallgrave 14). In other words, our understating of others might result in part from reflexive bodily responses initiated in the Mirror Neuron System.46 Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard created a score for Gladiator in which the human voice plays a pivotal role. The film weaves through the various dualities in the protagonist’s identity: the intimate versus the communal, the emotional versus the emotionless, the pursuit of peace versus the inevitability of war. The music maps this duality through timbre, establishing a dichotomy between female solo voice and a male choir, each connoting a distinct focal environment of the protagonist. Although the structural opposition in the music could be mapped onto the narrative domain via metaphorical correspondences, the phenomenological and semantic grounding of this correlation demands an expressive rather than structural competence only possible through a mechanism akin to that afforded by the Mirror Neuron System. The piece labeled ‘Sorrow’ featuring the solo vocal lament by Lisa Gerrard, is the sonic backdrop to a 106 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 106

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scene in which Maximus (Russell Crowe) returns to his home village to find that everyone (including his wife and family) has been atrociously murdered. The music penetratingly depicts Maximus’s mourning and feeling of loneliness. The solo voice reflects the intimacy of an inner-psychologically space: the timbre of closed-mouth vocalizations conveys a suppressed emotion, and the melodic contour suggests the visceral representation of an animal lament (see Example 29).47

Example 29. Maximus mourns the dead of his family. Source: Gladiator (2009). [0:42:55 - 0:43:55]

The piece labeled ‘The Battle,’ on the other hand, features the intense sound of male choir in unison with the orchestra (with an arrangement that foregrounds the muscular sound of double basses and brass instruments). The music underscores Maximus leading untrained gladiators to a decisive victory in a brutal fight. As the gladiators descend from the arena led by Maximus, a crowd of thousands cheers “Maximus, Maximus…” In a related context, Overy and Molnar-Szakacs mention that “when group music-making reaches a certain level of cooperation and coordination, the sense of shared purpose and togetherness can be extraordinarily powerful and even threatening (…) Whether making entirely different musical contributions to weave a musical texture, or all producing exactly the same sounds, the whole is much greater than the individual parts, from a choir to a drum circle to the stadium bleachers. The emerging sound is a group sound, almost ‘larger than life,’ created by a sense of shared purpose” (495). Featuring a great number of voices results in constructing a large virtual space the (unseen) performers occupy, while the homorhythmic movement of all voices (moving synchronously) ensures an intensified effect of coalition (see Example 30). 107 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 107

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Example 30. Maximus leads untrained gladiators to a victory. Source: Gladiator. [1:28:10 - 1:29:15]

7. A HOLISTIC ANALYSIS OF FILM MUSIC Film music is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that defies explanation via a single cognitive mechanism. In the next (and last) example, I attempt to flesh out the intricacies of musical signification by attending to the various cognitive processes outlined in this chapter: mapping abstract structures such as image or expectation schemas through metaphoric logic, observing patterns of synchronicity across domains, recognizing embodiment as bound by corporeal affordances, and at a more primal level, speculating about mechanisms akin to those bestowed by the Mirror Neuron System. György Ligeti’s second movement of his piano cycle Musica Ricercata underscores a nightly-ruled, film noir scene in Eyes Wide Shut.48 Dr. William Hartford (Tom Cruise) walks a wet, murky, dimly-lit street of New York. A duple beat subdivision frames the 2-note melodic idea, resulting in the (deliberately imprecise) synchronization of William’s walking movement to the music; hence, my labeling this musical figure the ‘walk’ motif (see Example 31).

Example 31. William walks the streets of NY. Source: Eyes Wide Shut (1999). [1:55:35 - 1:56:30] 108 Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - © Leuven University Press, 2015 Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 108

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William notices someone following him. Although he keeps a steady walking pace, the music vividly depicts the escalating tension by sudden yet consistent timbral and registral change; namely, one of the notes is transposed by an octave and played sforzando (with sudden emphasis) (see Example 32).

Example 32. William becomes aware of a suspicious follower. Source: Eyes Wide Shut. [1:56:30 - 1:57:20]

After an unsuccessful attempt to escape the scene, William and the mysterious follower halt their walk and sharply stare at each other from a distance. The music stops. As William and the follower remain fixed in their gaze, the music resumes with a different pitch, a static single pitch, which in the context of the prior two pitches results in a stark dissonance. Performed obsessively with an aggressive attack (marked fortissimo and tutta la forza in the original score), the sound of this incisive pitch produces in the listener a neuronal discharge almost equivalent to that of aggressively hitting a piano key. The high register of this pitch and the increasing speed of repetition reflect the protagonist’s high state of arousal, while infusing the scene with subliminal escalating anxiety.49 I refer to this as the ‘stare’ motif (see Example 33).


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Example 33. William and the suspicious follower stare at each other. Source: Eyes Wide Shut. [1:57:20 - 1:57:55]

The follower resumes walking, yet their gaze remains fixed in each other. The ‘walk’ motif returns, overlapping with the incisive ‘stare’ motif, as William remains vigilant (see Example 34).

Example 34. While fixed in their gaze, the follower resumes walking. Source: Eyes Wide Shut. [1:57:55 - 1:58:25]


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After a few moments, the follower walks past William and vanishes from the scene. As William senses the threat is over, he resumes walking. The ‘stare’ motif disappears from the music, which now fully resumes the initial ‘walk’ motif (see Example 35).

Example 35. William resumes walking. Source: Eyes Wide Shut. [1:58:25 - 1:58:40]

As a result, the music shapes the scene at multiple levels. Degrees of relaxation and tension are rendered musically via the psychological tension is register and psychological tension is timbre conceptual metaphors, both enabled by the linearity image schema. The ‘walk’ motif, based on two alternating notes, evokes motion. Contrastingly, the ‘stare’ motif, based on a single repeated pitch, denotes stasis and obsessiveness. These stark changes in the music result in a quasi-‘ABA’ formal structure, unifying the entire scene, yet delineating the various segments that frame the narrative arch via the container schema (see Example 36).

Example 36. Quasi-‘ABA’ structure of the scene. Source: Eyes Wide Shut. [1:55:35 - 1:58:40]


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CONCLUSION The film scoring tradition of the Hollywood Golden Age gave birth to memorable themes, drew on the Wagnerian leitmotif technique, and established meaning through musical archetypes and cultural associations.50 Without dismissing or neglecting the music’s potential for bearing symbolic meaning, contemporary film composers aim to create a phenomenological score, employing a wide range of techniques to elicit embodied meanings. By navigating theoretical and empirical research, this chapter drew attention to kinesthetic correlations between visual and aural domains, brought to focus the role of bodily affordances in our perception of music, highlighted commonly established correlations between music and meaning through conceptual metaphor and schema theories, and suggested the potential a human Mirror Neuron System may have for a deeper understanding of film music and embodiment.


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NOTES F I L M A S A N E X E M P L A R O F B O D I LY M E A N I N G -M A K I N G 1 For a good overview of these studies see Davis et al. 2 Lakoff and Johnson originally speak of ‘levels’ instead of ‘dimensions’. However, because the word ‘level’ might assume a hierarchical order, a positioning of one level above the other, we prefer to use the more neutral word ‘dimension’ instead. 3 Following Barsalou and Wiemer-Hastings we will define abstract concepts as “entities that are neither physical nor spatially constrained” (129). 4 In Conceptual Metaphor Theory it is common to use small capital letters to indicate that these particular wordings are not a matter of language, but of concepts, belonging to the realm of human thought. These concepts underlie the very nature of our daily metaphorical expressions (linguistic or otherwise). 5 As the author stresses, the order of both stages (first, body and second, culture) is at this point still a proposal. Future experimental research will have to address to what extent this order is empirically legitimate (“The Relationship” 323). 6 We thank Ibarretxe-Antuñano for giving us permission to use this image. 7 As we shall demonstrate in our own contribution about time metaphors in film, evidence from various films seem to suggest a spatial model of time, very similar to the one reported in the Aymara language, in which the past appears to be in front of the character or Ego on-screen. 8 Although the discipline of cognitive science began to acquire an institutional identity in the 1970s, as the term was first coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins, it roots can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s, to Gestalt psychology and the work of such scholars as Jean Piaget and Frederick Bartlett, among others. For a good historical overview see Bechtel and Herschbach. 9 For a good overview of some of the current views and issues within cognitive media theory see recent volumes such as The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Film (Livingston and Plantinga), Psychocinematics: Exploring Cognition at the Movies (Shimamura), and Cognitive Media Theory (Nannicelli and Taberham). 10 Within the phenomenological dimension one should further distinguish between those film studies that are primarily inspired by the embodied phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty, and those studies that are centred on the Henri Bergson-inspired work of Gilles Deleuze. Although the work of the latter is usually considered as a phenomenological study of cinema in its emphasis on the felt and sensuous qualities of film, Deleuze himself rejected this characterization for the reason that phenomenology, in contrast to cinema, is based on “natural perception” and the “anchoring of the subject” (Cinema 1 57) (for a discussion see also Sobchack The Address 30-31). F I L M N A R R AT I V E A N D E M B O D I E D C O G N I T I O N : T H E I M PA C T O F I M A G E S C H E M A S O N N A R R AT I V E F O R M 1 In its relation to neuroscience, embodied cognitive theory operates at the level of abstract generalisation without the need for a neural mapping of the brain’s hardware. Still, the theory’s claims about psychological processes, stemming from cognitive psychology’s empirical investigations, certainly outdo armchair speculations. 2 Being consistent with Johnson’s guideline (The Body 23), I use the terms schema, embodied schema, image schema, and kinesthetic image schema interchangeably.


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3 See Bordwell’s skepticism about the encompassing precision of identifying only 7 plots (Booker), and about the usefulness of discriminating as many as 36 ‘basic’ structures (Polti). 4 The same canonical neuron that fires when we see an object is the one that would fire (and activate our motor system) when we actually grasp that object. The same mirror neuron that fires when we see (or hear) somebody is doing (or feeling) something is the one that would fire (and activate our own motor system) when we actually perform the same action ourselves. 5 It is not easy to define the pleasure one feels while encountering pictorial, or, for that matter also, textually represented symmetry. From an embodied cognitive angle, symmetry and balance are pleasing to the eye or the mind as they imitate the symmetry and balance of the perceiver’s physiological makeup (which is projected to the visual or textual information). 6 These latter, higher order schemas are literary and cinematic equivalents of real-world segmentations’ habitual scenarios, described by mental models (Johnson-Laird) or situation models (Dijk and Kintsch) 7 As for how this cognitively impenetrable bodily resonance works through our Mirror Mechanism, that is best left to neuroscientific explanations and evidences, and even a brief case study exemplifying the theory’s applicability to narrative analysis – see Rizzolatti et al., Gallese (“The Manifold”), Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, and Wojciehowski and Gallese, respectively. 8 Through their cognitive development, children acquire their first narrative schemas from about the age of seven (Branigan Narrative 18-19). 9 Although it seems that the part-whole schema functions as a prerequisite for apprehending a hierarchic centre-periphery structure, their primary gestalts appear on the same category-level both in Lakoff’s and in Johnson’s standard inventory. The same applies to the link schema, which is also part of the core set in Lakoff and Johnson’s list, even though it is clear that a collection of parts can only constitute a whole if the parts are somehow linked with each other in advance. 10 About the degrees of narrativity, from non-narrative to minimally narrative and to fully narrative, see Monika Fludernik’s sub-chapter (243-248). 11 Taking the same visual approach in their study on virtual reality, Alison McMahan and Buckland contemplate upon our changing reliance on the container schema. When it comes to new media’s immersive 3D experiences, they claim that “VR environments (…) eliminate one level of container projection demanded by the viewer of the film.” 12 For a detailed overview of extended and embedded cognitive theories see Shapiro (Embodied 193-197). 13 Bordwell sees narrative complexification (in forking-path stories) as a ‘cognitively manageable,’ ‘pretty limited affair (“Film Futures” 90, 89). In their reactions Edward Branigan (“Nearly True”) and Kay Young (“That Fabric of Times”) both argue that Bordwell has this mostly right (hence the title of Branigan’s article, “Nearly True”), however his examples are restricted to classical Hollywood narratives and thus neglecting “other types of plotting not dependent on the ‘river of time’ metaphor” (Branigan “Nearly True” 107). 14 Naturally, Grodal does not mean that the experience of art cinema is fully detached from embodied cognition. Although he talks about ‘disembodiedness’ (Embodied 208-211), what he describes is the detachment of our comprehension from an actual and concrete bodily immersion (see how mainstream narrative films offer ‘concrete embodiment’ [208]), where the experience finds outlets in more abstract, somewhat ‘disembodied’ meaning making strategies (see how art cinema gives rise to feelings of ‘deep significance’ [149-150]). 15 See Johnson’s argument for the flexibility of image schemas (The Body 30).


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NOTES

EMBODIED VISUAL MEANING IN FILM 1 For a detailed discussion and critique of the conceptual/propositional view of meaning see Johnson (The Body, The Meaning). 2 For this reason the linguistic fallacy has also been related to anti-intentionalism, i.e., the view according to which the artist’s actual intention is irrelevant to the interpretations of artworks (e.g., Wimsatt and Beardsley “The Intentional”). 3 In this way one might argue that CMT is closely related to other theories of meaning that are primarily psychological rather than linguistic or semiotic. This recalls, for example, Paul Grice’s inferential model of communication, John Searle’s theory of speech acts or, more recently, Wilson and Sperber’s relevance theory. In the same derivative sense, Searle, for example, speaks of the distinction between ‘sentence meaning’ or ‘word meaning,’ on the one hand, and ‘speaker meaning’ or ‘utterance meaning,’ on the other (140). For Searle utterance meaning is a form of derived intentionality, in that it is defined by the mental content of the speaker, namely, his original intentions. When a speaker performs a speech act, he inflicts meaning by transferring the original or intrinsic intentionality of his or her thoughts (the conceptual) to the sounds emanating from his or her mouth or the marks made on paper (the form of expression). It differs from sentence meaning or word meaning in that it is related to the speaker’s mental stock, whereas the meaning of a sentence is entirely determined by linguistic and literary conventions. If uttered meaningfully, Searle writes, those sounds and marks “have not just conventional linguistic meaning but intended speaker meaning as well” (141). For an application of these insights to art see also Carroll (“Art Interpretation”). 4 Arnheim was obviously influenced by Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787). 5 For a discussion of the containment schema in other Westerns of John Ford see Coëgnarts and Kravanja (“On the Embodiment”). FILM MUSIC AS EMBODIMENT 1 In describing the music, I avoid delving into complex music-theoretical explanations. The reader might benefit from knowledge of musical notation, yet this is not indispensable to an understanding of the annotated scores. These scores, however, are by no means intended to replace experiencing the music in the context of the film; I strongly encourage the reader to consult the various films. Timings for the scenes under discussion are supplied after the title of the film. These timings are not time-code based; they provide the hour, minutes, and seconds, as read by a DVD player. For example “0:03:35 - 1:20:20” should be read: “the scene starts at 0 hour, 3 minutes, and 35 seconds, and ends at 1 hour, 20 minutes, and 20 seconds.” 2 The ‘abstract’ nature of music has been frequently discussed as stemming from: 1) the temporal and almost intangible nature of sound, which makes the perception of music an ephemeral phenomenon, and 2) the lack of specificity of representational and propositional content in music (see e.g., Kivy; Pratt; Walton). 3 Saslaw investigates various mental structures (or schemas) in the context of musical analysis, in particular when applying analytical methodologies put forth by Hugo Riemann. 4 Johnson (The Body) uses the terms ‘schema,’ ‘embodied schema,’ and ‘image schema’ interchangeably. His notion of schema has been expanded to include ‘expectation schemas’ (Cox and Huron). 5 Kövecses account for unidirectionality in metaphors stems from the concrete/abstract duality: “our experiences with the physical world serve as natural and logical foundations for the comprehension of more abstract domains. This explains why in most cases of everyday metaphors the source and target are not reversible” (A Practical Introduction 6). A few scholars, however, have challenged the notion of unidirectionality in the conceptual metaphor


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binary structure. Ortony, for instance, addresses the subject of unidirectionality based on the recognition of the features projected from source to target. He claims that, in general, these features are highly salient for the source domain but not for the target. In the metaphor “This man is a monkey,” the salient characteristics of “monkey” (noisy, physically flexible, or other) are projected onto “man.” Reversing the order of source and target (as “This monkey is a man”) would produce different and arguably less clearly delineated projections. 6 Most scholars address one-dimensional abstract structures via the verticality or path schemas. Instead, I prefer the more abstract linearity schema, which does not imply physical orientation (as in verticality) or goal-directed motion (as in path). A possible argument for the widespread use of verticality is that “locating objects along vertical axis of the body is easiest because of the body’s perceived asymmetry with respect to the ground” (Barsalou “Grounded” 625). For a discussion about one-dimensional schemas please see Chattah (“Semiotics”). 7 The cyclic goal-directed motions mentioned here are broadly defined by their characteristic patterns of repetition. No taxonomy of movement involving complex motions of the whole body, however, seems to be available; naturally, any objective and formalized categorization of wholebody motion should consider (and possibly disregard) a range of variability in human motion. 8 Sherrington’s notion of ‘proprioception’ as sensory information provided by internal organs is addressed only tangentially in this chapter. For further insights on proprioception and music please see Peñalba Acitores. 9 Similarity correlations between conceptual domains are expressed in the form of a conceptual metaphor ‘A IS B’ as established by Lakoff and Johnson (Metaphors). 10 Juslin (“Perceived”) identified tempo as the most significant parameter in a modulating effect, triggering a wide range of emotional responses. For an in-depth exploration on the psychophysiological responses to musical tempo see Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Broek. 11 In the Mandarin version of the film, the character performed by Ziyi Zhang is named Jen Yu. 12 Empirical studies by Husain, Thomson, and Schellenberg show that exposure to fast tempi result in increased arousal and tension. See also Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Broek. 13 The reader might have encountered three words that seem equivalent: pitch, note, and tone. Although these words are often used interchangeably, pitch indicates the frequency of a sound, note is the conventionalized name for a particular pitch frequency (for instance, middle ‘C’ is 261.6 Hz), and tone addresses the timbre or ‘color’ of a sound. 14 Zbikowski observes that this conceptual metaphor varies among cultures. For instance, pitch relationships are relationships of physical size is used in Java and Bali, while pitch relationships are age relationships is used in Suya of the Amazon. This further emphasizes the notion that conceptual metaphors rely on abstract structures (in these cases the linearity schema). 15 Direct world-wide-web link: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/Videos/tjnc.mov. Also available at: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/videos.cfm. 16 Apart from glissandi, the chromatic scale provides the most continuous rendition in the pitch domain, as it includes all (twelve) pitch classes in the Western system of tuning; pitches repeat in different registers by way of multiples of their frequency. Alternative tuning systems (e.g., the Middle Eastern gadwall, or some traditional Indian systems) allow for microtonal pitch inflections. 17 Direct world-wide-web link: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/Videos/tjpb1.mov. Also available at: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/videos.cfm. 18 Johnson and Larson explore the notion of motion in music as reflected in the lyrics George Harrison’s song “Something in the Way She Moves.” From a psycho-perceptual focus, Gjerdingen gives an account of motion in music with an analogy to the ‘phi effect’ in vision:


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NOTES

a succession of musical events (successive pitches for instance) when placed at appropriate distance of each other (both in terms of frequency and temporality) will trigger a sense of movement. 19 Employing the CAM model, Lipscomb found that perceived congruence is higher when accent structures between sounds and visual images synchronize. 20 Bolivar, Cohen, and Fentress attempt to apply the CAM model to observe semantic and formal (audiovisual) congruency. 21 Studies on Heart Rate Variability (HRV) shows that the heart-beat follows more constant patterns during tensed states, hence resulting in low HRV. Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Brook explored the influence of music in HRV, finding that “HRV was higher during slow tempo music than during fast tempo music” (261). In a related study on brain stem reflex (which controls changes in pulse, respiration, heart rate, skin conductance, motor patterns, etc.) Juslin and Västfjäll explored the processes whereby emotions are induced by music. See also Levitin. By extending these results to film music, I speculate that music during a film may induce emotions through physiological mechanisms including heart-beat, respiration, skin conductance, blood pressure, motor patterns, and even brain waves or neurochemical levels. 22 Note that when establishing semantic correlations, the music appears as the concrete domain within the A IS B binary structure. This shift, from music acting as ‘target’ domain to music acting as ‘source’ domain, defines the boundary of the Mickey Mousing technique. 23 Attempts to quantify degrees of dissonance date back to Pythagoras, who observed frequency ratios in strings of various lengths. 24 Syntagmatic analysis attends to the temporal organization and placement of semiotic units within a structure; paradigmatic analysis, on the other hand, attends to relations of a semiotic unit to potential replacing units not present in the structure. 25 The major and minor scales have been the primary archetypes of Western music since the seventeenth century. Many film composers, however, avoid the ‘happy’ or ‘sad’ coloring typical of the major and minor scales by employing alternative pitch configurations, including the Greek modes. These configurations expand the composer’s tonal-color palette while providing new means for music-narrative interaction. 26 Qualifiers drawn from Cooke and Huron. 27 Qualia drawn from Huron (145). 28 Final cadences mark the ending point of musical phrases, and generally exhibit a descending melodic contour (Huron). In fact, the term ‘cadence’ derives etymologically from the Italian cadenza, which means ‘to fall’ or ‘declination.’ 29 Other pitches (the mediant, for instance) provide a relatively high degree of closure. 30 Thompson, Russo, and Sinclair conducted three experiments to examine the influence of musical underscoring on the judgment of closure in film. In order to provide a general understanding of the concept of closure in music he draws on general music theoretical concepts and on the theories of expectation by Leonard Meyer. 31 The music features a plagal cadence, commonly referred to as the ‘Amen’ cadence, outlining a harmonic movement from subdominant to tonic. It is not coincidental that the film’s opening musical gesture and its concluding cadence are in the same key. 32 While a linearity schema is defined by locations along a one-dimensional structure, a container schema is defined by content and boundaries. Lakoff and Johnson regards our body as the primary ‘container,’ as we are “bounded and set off from the rest of the world by the surface of our skins (…) We project our own in-out orientation onto other physical objects that are bounded by surfaces” (Metaphors 29).


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33 The notion of homorhythmic denotes a single rhythm for all melodic lines. 34 Thomas Newman’s musical language brings to mind Aaron Copland’s open voicings featuring a profusion of fourths, fifths, and ninths. Although the ‘A Dorian’ scale is most prominent, Newman’s use of chromaticism results in tonal ambiguity in regards with the mode at a precise moment in the piece. 35 Hayward defines this tradition as “expressing futurist/alien themes through use of dissonance and/or electronic sounds” (24). 36 Donizetti intended this aria to be accompanied with a glass harmonica; instead the soundtrack features a flute. The eerie sound of a glass harmonica would have worked against the desire to ground his aria in human, rather than alien sonic environment. 37 As Huron notes, most melodies exhibit stereotypic patterns, the most common being the arch shape. Over time and with frequent exposure, listeners form expectations that reflect such patterns. 38 Sessions addresses musical phrases figuratively as performed “in a single breath” thus pointing to the vocal origin of musical phrasing. 39 The wordless vocals create associations with the sound of a Theremin. The use of a Theremin (and more broadly, of electronically generated timbres) has permeated in sci-fi films as a convention to represent alien beings since the 1950’s. In her survey of soundtracks to sci-fi films, Schmidt notes “there is some suggestion that our brains physically interpret electronic sounds as in some way profoundly artificial in relation to the sounds produced by other instruments (…) Thus, no matter how pleasing it may be to the ear, the electronic may always signify both itself and an anxiety about authenticity, and might have always been pre-destined to be alien” (36). 40 De Souza draws on Gibson’s notion of affordance to investigate the impact of instrumental interfaces in music production. 41 Research has shown that individuals with restricted mobility (paraplegics) experience difficulty in rhythm production in comparison with non-paraplegics (Huron). 42 Scholars have noted that sound is a direct result of objects moving; hence it can be argued that any sound (musical or otherwise) denotes a moving object. Cox maintains that most musical sounds are evidence of human behavior (“Metaphoric Logic”). 43 In outlining the associations triggered in instrumental music by Beethoven, for instance, Hatten asserts that styles “are themselves defined by certain structural oppositions” and with “clear associations with levels of society (…) A composer could exploit high, middle, or low styles the way a speaker exploits what sociolinguists call ‘social register’ in language” (77). 44 In this case the 5/4 meter is arranged in ten subdivisions organized as 3+3+2+2. 45 Cox is hesitant about extending the finding of Mirror Neurons in Macaques to the human brain; he instead proposes the ‘Mimetic Hypothesis,’ grounded on metaphorical and embodied representation (“Embodying Music”). 46 Drawing on Gallese’s notion of Mirror Neuron System, Pulvermüller seeks to obtain empirical evidence of neuronal discharge triggered by hearing (rather than seeing): “hearing a word seems to be associated with activation of its articulatory motor program, and understanding an action word seems to lead to the immediate and automatic thought of the action to which it refers” (1). 47 Sachs speculates that particular contours derive from animal instinctive howls or wails; he identifies examples in Western classical music as well as Russian, Australian aboriginal, and Lakota (Sioux) music. 48 Kubrick is known for using pre-composed classical music in his films. See for instance his use of Penderecki and Bartok (in The Shining) or Strauss and Khachaturian (in 2001). 49 Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Broek survey the effect of percussiveness in music percep-


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NOTES

tion and further speculate “the amount of percussiveness in music indicates the power of the music’s impact” (253). Their empirical studies confirm this hypothesis by showing that skin conductance level (an indicator of emotion) “increases with higher percussiveness, as skin conductance is a direct reflection of the sympathetic nervous system, which is positively related to energetic as well as tensed arousal” (262). 50 A leitmotif is a short recurring musical idea associated with a character, place, or object, established by the concurrent and consistent appearance of a particular melodic idea and its counterpart in the film’s story-world. Film music archetypes exist outside of a single film; these develop via frequent exposure to music, becoming cultural units the listener identifies via the music’s stylistic characteristics. Arguably, accompaniment to silent film sought to trigger phenomenological responses; yet a close inspection of (at the time available) compilations for pianists, organists, and conductors (e.g., Ernö Rapée’s Encyclopedia of Music for Pictures of 1925) illustrate that pieces were arranged according to categories akin to archetypes, such as ‘Bridal Scenes,’ ‘Oriental,’ ‘Religious Music,’ etc. As a result, the purpose of performing these pieces during a silent film was to set locale, set time period, as genre identifiers, and as indicators of the ethnicity or socio-cultural background of characters. Leitmotifs and archetypes may rely on analogy or resemblance; but it is largely agreed that leitmotifs and archetypes draw on arbitrarily established relations, and thus become conventional within culturally defined repertoires. For an in-depth investigation on the relationships between the music’s connotations and a film’s narrative, please see Chattah (“Conceptual”). T H E F L O AT I N G W O R L D : F I L M N A R R AT I V E A N D V I E W E R D I A K R I S I S 1 See Plato, Republic III, and Aristotle, Poetics III, discussed below. Bordwell, Narration in the Fiction Film (16). 2 Although the term diakrisis is not a concept in classical poetics, I introduce the term in this chapter to name a set of phenomena that take place in the mind of the spectator, as well as the creators of a film (director, actors, editors, etc.). 3 I use the term ‘superstructure’ in a non-marxian sense here. 4 In literary studies, the ‘fallacy’ of relying on the author’s stated or inferred intentions in order to determine what a works means was a credo for more than half a century, starting with T.S. Eliot’s 1921 essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” and articulated most fully in Wimsatt and Beardsley’s article “The Intentional Fallacy,” and republished in expanded form in The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry (3-18). This insistence on bracketing out authorial intent from the finished work seems not to have been a strong principle within film studies. 5 Seymour Chatman explains: “The difference between narration proper, the recounting of an event (…), and enactment, its unmediated presentation (…), corresponds to the classical distinction between diegesis and mimesis (in Plato’s sense of the word), or, in modern terms, between telling and showing. Dialogue, of course, is the preeminent enactment” (32). 6 Ibid., 9-10. Gaut goes to some lengths to dismantle the notion that the viewer can share the position of this implied filmic narrator. The viewer doesn’t get to tell the story, and thus cannot be the narrator. We may pretend that we are having the same perceptual experiences that the implied narrator/observer does, but that illusion is not really sustainable (Gaut 203-206). 7 For an excellent recap of these debates see Gaut (197-243). 8 Bordwell notes that diegetic theories of narrative came into their own during the era of French structuralism and poststructuralism (Narration 17-18). 9 Paradoxically, visual elements such as film edits are often considered through a diegetic framework, as well, because they become a vehicle of narration that is ‘language-like.’


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10 Still more confusingly, diegesis is applied by some to non-fictional storyworlds, as, for example, in documentary films. However, it is more typically applied to fiction. 11 Jason Mittell explains the distinction between diegetic and non-diegetic elements of narrative with examples from The Wizard of Oz: “The diegesis refers to the storyworld which the characters experience, whether we witness it or not–even though we do not see Dorothy’s house land on the Witch of the East, it is a diegetic element of the film’s narrative, later recounted by the Witch of the North. (…) By contrast, non-diegetic elements are used to tell the story, but do not actually appear within the film’s internal storyworld. Typically, films employ non-diegetic techniques such as camera movements, edits, and soundtrack music to represent aspects of the storyworld and guide our reactions to onscreen events” (“Film” 160). There is some slippage in the term “diegetic,” defined earlier in this chapter as the “telling” of a narrative. In Mittell’s description, diegesis occurs within the storyworld, while the non-diegetic elements of narrative remain outside of it, yet still help tell the story. 12 Carroll’s concept of the erotetic assumes that films actually have a narrator, which, as we have seen, is a complicated assumption, especially in the case of implied narrators. 13 Bordwell calls these templates schemata. Schemata are broad categories of information we carry inside our head that we use to make rapid judgments about specific information presented in a film (Narration 31-39 et passim). 14 Dehaene and his colleagues theorize consciousness as a ‘global neuronal workspace.’ “We propose that consciousness is global information broadcasting within the cortex: it arises from a neuronal network whose raison d’être is the massive sharing of pertinent information throughout the brain” (13). 15 On the phenomenon of embodied simulation, our innate capacity to understand the actions, basic motor intentions, feelings, and emotions of others, and thereby to ground our identification with and connectedness to narrated characters, see Wojciehowski and Gallese. 16 Viewer X is loosely based on my own recent screening of Titanic as I was writing this article. It is a highly approximate reconstruction of my thoughts as I was watching, which I wrote down a day later. Viewer Y is loosely based on the thoughts of my partner Eric Chapelle, a composer and connoisseur of film scores, who generously contributed his own reconstructed internal narrative in response to my invitation. 17 Imaginary stream-of-consciousness narrative was pioneered by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, and many others in the meantime. 18 Dehaene notes that subjective responses were looked down on by scientists, particularly in the wake of mid-twentieth century behaviorism. “The correct perspective,” Dehaene argues, “is to think of subjective reports as raw data” (12). If subjective reports are one half of the equation, experimental data is the other, he asserts. 19 See also the previous note, which discussed Wimsatt and Beardsley’s companion essay “The Intentional Fallacy.” 20 For a summary of some of these experiments, see Chapters 1 and 2 of Dehaene’s book Consciousness and the Brain (17-88). Scientists can track the progress of visual information in the brain, determining how far it must progress in order to register consciously. Interestingly, such information may be processed and even acted upon, whether or not it reaches an individual’s conscious awareness. 21 Interestingly, Donald’s example of intermediate-term memory in action is a conversation between eight people about a film that they have recently viewed (Donald 46-91). 22 The ‘movie’ they used in their experiment was a 27-minute episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm (Season 1, Chapter 7).


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NOTES

M O D E S O F A C T I O N AT T H E M O V I E S , O R R E-T H I N K I N G 1 ‘Measurement Theory.’ Cinemetrics. Cinemetrics, n.d. Web. 08 March 2014. 2 See at least Cutting, Brunick, and Candan; Smith T.; Smith, Levin, and Cutting. 3 I borrow the term from David Bordwell (Poetics 46). 4 See, e.g., Ihde (iii). 5 On the relationship between the cinematic illusion and the viewer’s body see Voss. 6 I think of two American books like The Photoplay (1916) by Hugo Münsterberg and The Art of Photoplay Making (1918) by Victor Oscar Freeburg. 7 See, e.g., Grodal (Embodied). 8 See at least Chateau; Barker; Stadler. 9 Among others, Bochet et al.; Furman et al.; Iwase et al.; Nishimoto et al.; Rothstein et al. 10 For a recent publication, which allows one better to grasp Merleau-Ponty’s ideas on cinema, see the 2011 edition of Merleau-Ponty’s 1953 Cours au Collège de France Le Monde sensible et le Monde de l’expression. 11 Beyond the already mentioned Sobchack and Barker, see also Marks and Rutherford. 12 See, e.g., Smith, Murray. 13 This is the approach of some analysis by the already mentioned Barker, and by D’Aloia (La Vertigine). 14 Bordwell put forward the idea that low-level, modular processes play a key role in eliciting suspense – the so-called ‘firewall hypothesis’ – and this would be one of the reasons why we experience the same feeling when we see a movie for the second or third time. He attributes such an effect to a kind of resonance in which mirror neurons would also play a role (Bordwell and Thompson Minding Movies 100). 15 Gallese et al.; Gallese, Keysers and Rizzolatti. 16 See Michotte van den Berck (“La Participation”); Wallon. See also the parts on cinema in Merleau-Ponty (Le Monde). 17 Canonical neurons – in the premotor and posterior parietal cortex – selectively activate both when the agent grasps an object and when he merely perceives it. For evidence on canonical neurons in monkeys see Murata et al. For evidence in humans see Grèzes et al. 18 On film metaphors and camera movements see also Coëgnarts and Kravanja (“The Visual”). 19 See also Heimann et al.; Gallese and Guerra (“The Feeling”). 20 For more details see references in previous note. 21 This is the proposal by MacDougall. 22 Daves’ “Observations on the Camera Acting as a Person” are mentioned and commented by Vivian Sobchack (“The Man” 72-74). 23 See at least Magliano and Zacks. ART IN NOISE 1 Lawrence Shapiro describes embodied cognition as less a theory than a research programme unified by its commitment to “elevate the importance of the body in the explanation of various cognitive abilities” (“The Embodied” 340). 2 Embodied simulation theory has been recently applied to cinema by Gallese and Guerra, but their focus has been unimodally limited to visual imagery. Fahlenbrach, however, has written


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extensively upon cinematic sound and affect from the perspective of embodied metaphor (“Feeling Sounds”, “The Emotional Design”, “Aesthetics”) and, latterly, embodied simulation (“Embodied Spaces”, “Emotions”). In this chapter, my contribution to the research approach rests in locating a basis for embodied meaning in the sonic induction of affect described by the BRECVEMA framework. 3 But see the individual work of Brian Boyd, Joseph Carroll, and Jonathan Gottschall, for an overview of the recently emerged cognitive and evolutionary approaches to literary theory (see also their edited volume Evolution, Literature, and Film: A Reader). 4 My reference to theories of affect should not be confused with ‘affect theory’ currently in use within humanities discourse. My use of the term affect is not identical to its use by affect theorists such as Brian Massumi, Nigel Thrift, or William Connolly. 5 Thus far my professional career encompasses 30 years in sound design with the last decade also encompassing media education. 6 David Bordwell, in referring to “Grand Theory” as SLAB theory, an acronym formed from “Saussurean semiotics, Lacanian psychoanalysis, Althusserian Marxism, and Barthian textual theory” (“Historical” 385), underscores its doctrine-based nature and limitations. 7 However, Gianluca Sergi (“In Defense”), Barbara Flueckiger, and Birger Langkjær are notable exceptions to this trend. 8 Listed here are some of In the Cut’s sound design personnel: Supervising sound editor: Andrew Plain Dialogue editor: Linda Murdoch Sound designer / SFX and atmospheres editor: Peter Miller SFX and atmospheres editor: Mark Ward Foley supervisor: Blair Slater Foley artist: Mario Vaccaro Sound re-recording mixer: Martin Oswin A more complete listing of the movie’s creative personnel may be found at the International Movie Database. See http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0199626/. 9 Walter Murch and Randy Thom, of course, have consistently presented their ideas about cinematic sound to a wider audience, yet they remain decidedly designers of sound rather than writers of theory. Rare examples of practitioner-theorists might include Michel Chion and Daniel Levitin. Chion is a composer as well as a noted author of film-sound theory, while Levitin is a music producer who turned to a systematic programme of research in the neuropsychology of music cognition. 10 As illustration, consider the role of audition in controlling visual attention in Timecode (Mike Figgis, 2000) where synchronous sound activates the screen sector to which the audience will (mostly) attend. Sound design is also strikingly used to steer visual attention through highly complex or rapidly changing visual displays such as in the genres of action-adventure or thriller. A good example of this is the T-Rex battle in King Kong (Peter Jackson, 2005) where sound guides visual attention through a highly dynamic series of threats and opportunities. However, this steering function also occurs in tranquil movies, such as in the harsh scraping of a boy’s shoes on a doormat in Mon Oncle (Jacques Tati, 1958, at approximately 00:18:30 (hh:mm:ss)), attracting our visual attention even though the boy is in deep background and a highly animated conversation is underway in foreground. See Noesselt et al. for a description of how “sound increases the saliency of visual events.” 11 Many examples of this aesthetic effect may be found in the works of David Lynch, particularly Mulholland Drive (2001), Lost Highway (1997) and Eraserhead (1977).


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NOTES

12 For reviews of the empirical literature on auditory imagery see Timothy Hubbard and the edited work Auditory Imagery (Reisberg). 13 For example, the spatial illusion of the ventriloquism effect (Bertelson; Bertelson and Aschersleben; Thurlow and Jack) whereby visual spatial location captures auditory location, and the speech illusion of the McGurk effect (McGurk and MacDonald) whereby vision modifies speech perception. 14 Mechanisms for multimodal interaction are many and varied, and limitations of this chapter do not permit a full cataloguing of their relevance for cinematic media. However, for a comprehensive review see the edited volumes The Handbook of Multisensory Processes (Calvert, Spence and Stein), and The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes (Murray and Wallace). 15 In this regard, it is interesting to note Joseph Anderson’s prescient assessment of crossmodal confirmation as a fundamental mechanism for the creation of cinematic events (“Sound and Image”). 16 For a discussion of contemporary sound design and the interaction of the soundtrack’s three major components of dialogue, music and sound effects, see Altman, and Altman, Jones and Tatroe. For a comprehensive review of the sound of silent cinema see The Sounds of Early Cinema (Abel and Altman). 17 Van Wassenhove, Grant and Poeppel identify this temporal window as holding for audiovisual speech, but it may be assumed to extend to other ecologically valid audiovisual stimuli. See also Slutsky and Recanzone. 18 A dominant aesthetic within the virtual world of TRON is a form of digital ‘chunkiness’ in which its crystalline nature stands in contrast to the smoothness of the real world. This aesthetic grounds concepts of threat where characters literally risk disintegrating into blocks of digital debris. Such a digital aesthetic also underpins notions of racial and social identity. From an aesthetic perspective, it is worthwhile noting a parallel use of digital granularity within The Matrix where Neo’s voice similarly disintegrates at the point of his first passing from the Matrix into the Real World. In this instance, the disintegration of Neo’s voice is synonymous with the disintegration of his virtual self. 19 Parallel with the increasing significance of timbre in cinematic sound is Rebecca Leydon’s observation that contemporary music is “increasingly focused on timbre as a crucial semantic feature” (1), and argues an urgent need to explain its function. 20 To date, the most sophisticated soundfield technology is Dolby Laboratories’ Atmos, a format which supports the processing of 128 discrete audio channels distributed to up to 64 speaker feeds. 21 Tan goes on to say the “distal cause of entertainment activity is an unconscious need for training useful capabilities, whereas the proximal cause is enjoyment of the activity for its own sake” (“Entertainment” 28). 22 Gallese has written further upon Feeling of Body and ‘liberated’ embodied simulation in relation to narrative and psychoanalysis, noting “the bodily affective self is at the roots of the narrative self ” (“Embodied Simulation Theory” 196). 23 The term narrative design is commonly encountered in the computer game industry where it stands in the stead of screenwriter or author. My use of the term here signals a desire to make commensurate the design processes of narrative and perceptual imagery. Narrative immersion is sometimes also referred to as transportation (Green and Donahue; Holland; Mar and Oatley; Sestir and Green; Tal-Or and Cohen). 24 Cinematic proto-narrative acts as a workspace where bottom-up and top-down processes interact. Hence, my notion that proto-narrative is an interface. However, there are limitations


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to the capacity of top-down processes to act upon the primitive. For example, it is doubtful top-down processes have any influence over the primordial feelings or life-regulation processes controlled at the level of the brainstem. As to what is produced as a consequence of this interface, which grounds cognition in perception, I suggest Barsalou’s concept of perceptual symbols (“Perceptual” 577). 25 For a discussion of the return of the cinema of attractions in post-classical cinema see the edited volume The Cinema of Attractions Reloaded (Strauven) and Ndalianis. 26 Parallel to Wojciehowski and Gallese is Patrick Colm Hogan’s proposal for an affective narratology (Affective Narratology). Hogan considers the structure and purpose of stories as inseparable from our emotion systems (“A Passion” 65). 27 For a survey of emotion concepts and the trends these concepts indicate see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, and Russell and Lemay. For an overview of the abiding problems in defining the field of emotion study and producing satisfactory definitions of emotion concepts see Frijda (“Point of View”). For a history of the development of the scientific study of emotion see Gendron and Barrett. 28 For a current account of the working definitions of ‘emotion’ see Izard, and Gendron. 29 There is a dearth of research which specifically examines the relationship between environmental sound and affect. The current research programme of emoacoustics, a portmanteau of emotional acoustics and represented by the work of Asutay et al., Tajadura-Jiménez, Tajadura-Jiménez et al., Väljamäe and Tajadura-Jiménez, responds in part to this lack. 30 See Russell’s virtual reality hypothesis (“Core Affect” 155-156) for further discussion of the role of core affect in art and entertainment. 31 In this regard, Bartsch and Hübner’s observations echo Mark Johnson’s theory of embodied meaning (“Embodied Meaning”, The Meaning) which argues that even the highest levels of complexity found in human abstract thinking have their basis in the lowest levels of the biological. 32 For a discussion of the design strategy for voice see Macallan and Plain (253-255). Plain is the supervising sound editor of In the Cut. 33 The sound design process for the creation of sound effects (SFX) and atmospheres of In the Cut is somewhat unconventional. Ordinarily, a single individual (or small group) is responsible for either the SFX or atmospheres across the duration of a movie. In the case of In the Cut, Miller and I divided the movie according to scene location so that we were each individually responsible for both the SFX and atmospheres of specific environments. This allowed for an intimate evolution of each locale’s environmental soundscape through which we shaped an emotional landscape. 34 Edward Hall (Hall “Proxemic Behavior”, Hidden) termed the study of a segmentation of human space as proxemics. These spatial zones exist pan-culturally, but are modulated by cultural rules. In this way, proxemics can be understood as both a biological-ecological understanding of inhabited space as well as providing basis for a study of social semiotics. The proxemics of In the Cut arises from the cinematic manipulation of peripersonal space. 35 For example, consider the sequences at approximately 00:11:10-00:14:05 (hh:mm:ss), 01:15:53-01:17:50, and 01:19:25-01:23:02, respectively. 36 Although opportunity does not permit examination of the impact of affect upon subjective temporality, several significant studies should be mentioned in passing, in particular (Bar-Haim et al.; Droit-Volet and Meck; Droit-Volet and Gil; Droit-Volet, Fayolle and Gil; Droit-Volet, et al; Noulhiane et al.; Schirmer; van Wassenhove et al.; Yamada and Kawabe). 37 Hovering in the background of this chapter, of course, is the irony in attempting to explain the embodied meaning of sound through the written word.


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NOTES

38 For recent examples of this kind of cross-fertilisation of artistic and scientific practice see Heimann et al.. See also Guerra (this volume) for a discussion of how cinematic visual movement may be explored for its ecological validity in the activation of the MNS and social cognition, and T.J. Smith, and Smith, Levin and Cutting for an exploration of audience reception of filmmakers’ intentions through the eye-tracking of actual movies. However, as with much theory in Film Studies, these examples reveal a focus upon the visual at the exclusion of the auditory, illustrating the need for yet more innovative experiments to capture the role of multimodality in cinematic experience. THE CHARACTER’S BODY AND THE VIEWER: C I N E M AT I C E M PAT H Y A N D E M B O D I E D S I M U L AT I O N IN THE FILM EXPERIENCE 1 Mental simulation developed within Philosophy of mind in the context of the Simulation-theories debate (Currie and Ravenscroft; Gallagher and Zahavi; Goldman; Gordon). F I L M S A N D E M B O D I E D M E TA P H O R S O F E M O T I O N 1 Conceptual metaphors are conventionally printed in small capitals, and metaphorical expressions in italics. 2 Gibbs (Embodiment 244) reminds us that the word emotion itself stems from the Latin movere. 3 The degree of redundancy may vary from one film to another and within the same film. 4 The following are some of the comments on the film included in http://www.imdb.com/ title/tt0180093/reviews: “One of the most devastating and beautiful experiences I’ve had watching,” “Aronofsky knows how to tell a story in a way that is dazzling in its use of sound, editing, and cinematography,” “It is the essence of independent filmmaking, a daring, engrossing, artful film that stays with you long after you leave the theater,” “(..) this film went straight for the heart, ripped it out and kicked it around the floor for 90 minutes,” “A masterpiece of all the elements of what filmmaking is about, mixed together in some sick soufflé and thrown into your face, burning hot and scalding,” “It had a profound impact on me and I haven’t been able to stop thinking about it since I watched it on opening night.” 5

Available at http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/.

6 See the director’s comments on the DVD. E M B O D I E D C I N E M AT I C S U B J E C T I V I T Y: M E TA P H O R I C A L A N D METONYMICAL MODES OF CHARACTER PERCEPTION IN FILM 1 See also Sweetser and her claim that physical touching and manipulation are common semantic sources for English perception verbs (i.e. visually picking out a stimulus) (32). 2 See in this regard, also the notion of the modularity of mind, i.e., the question regarding the functional and compositional architecture of the mind (e.g., Fodor Modularity 10-11). 3 Note that it is not always necessary for the viewer to actually see the perceptual organ in order to identify the metonymical relationship. Top-down knowledge can help to aid in this identification. For instance, we know enough about the structure of human bodies to know that the eyes are attached to the head, so even if we only see, for example, the backside of a character’s head in the foreground of the frame with the object of his gaze in the background, we are able to infer the perceptual organ, and by extension the metonymy eyes stand for seeing.


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4 For a discussion of the term ‘homospatiality’ in relation to visual metaphor see also Carroll (“A Note”), Forceville (“The Identification”) and Coëgnarts and Kravanja (“From Thought”). 5 A similar categorization of the perception is reception metaphor in film can be construed by reversing source and goal in Table 4. 6 For a detailed discussion of this scene, albeit without yet explicitly referring to the conceptual metaphor perceiving is touching, see also Coëgnarts and Kravanja (“Towards” 9-11). 7 A similar metaphorical application of this type can be discerned in the scene from Barry Lyndon when Lady Lyndon catches her husband cheating on her (for a discussion of this scene see also Coëgnarts and Kravanja “Towards” 8-9). ON THE EMBODIMENT OF TEMPORAL MEANING IN CINEMA: PERCEIVING TIME THROUGH THE CHARACTER’S EYES 1 In ‘sequential scanning’ the different configurations are viewed successively (as in watching a motion picture) (Langacker 145). It differs from what Langacker in his theory of Cognitive Grammar refers to as the process of ‘summary scanning’ where aspects of a scene are scanned simultaneously (as in looking at a photograph) (144-146). Where the former is connected to events that represent time as something dynamic, the latter is linked to static scenes that conceptualize time as a unified whole (see also Evans and Green 535). 2 One might counterargue that the absoluteness of this interpretation is somewhat tempered by the fact that the shot of the past (i.e., the object of her memory) does not represent a subjective shot of Deborah’s POV, but an objective shot of Deborah’s face and body. In other words, the viewer is not literally looking through her eyes as she remembers herself as an external entity. This, however, does not stand in contradiction with human evaluation of past experiences. As the cognitive neuroscientist Shimamura writes: “Our recollections are sometimes viewed as if we are seeing a different person. For example, sometimes we might recollect an episodic memory not from a first-person perspective in which we visualize the event in the same manner as we viewed it originally, but as seen from a third-person point of view, as if we are observing the scene from a distance” (Experiencing Art 137). Nevertheless, as our chapter will show, there exist other examples in cinema where the shot of the past coincides with the POV of the character that remembers. 3 For a similar discussion of Lone Star from the perspective of CMT see Ortiz (“Visual Manifestations” 12-13). 4 This analysis differs from our previous study (Coëgnarts and Kravanja “The Visual”) in which the flashback scene from The Passenger (Michelangelo Antonioni, 1975) was studied as an example of the time-moving metaphor on the grounds that the character is stationary. However, this account did not take into consideration the concept of perception, and the possibility that the perceiver’s sight can be expressed metaphorically by camera movement in which the camera brings the perceiver’s point of view in direct contact with the perceived object (i.e., the time). 5 Falsetto’s comprehensive analysis of the sequence was very useful for describing and structuring the different shot transitions (112-115). 6 The latter can be considered an example of what Edward Branigan, following Noël Burch, calls ‘proximate spatial articulations;’ that is, “the space revealed by shot A is near that of shot B – perhaps within the same room – but at no point does it overlap or coincide with the space of shot B” (“Formal” 54). 7 For a more elaborated discussion of the role of the containment schema in the conceptualization of binary oppositions in film see Coëgnarts and Kravanja (“On the Embodiment”). 8 For this reason one might argue that the third case is closely related to Grady’s notion of resem-


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NOTES

blance metaphor (“A Typology”). In contrast to the group of correlation-based metaphors, which involves a set of correspondences between a concrete source domain and an abstract target domain (e.g., time is space, knowing is seeing), resemblance metaphors are grounded in a single resemblance between target and source. In the expression “Achilles is a lion,” for example, one feature, namely the inner characteristic quality of courage, is mapped from the lion onto Achilles. One kind of resemblance metaphor that has received much scholarly attention is the image metaphor (Deignan; Gibbs and Bogdonovich; Lakoff “Image Metaphors”, “The Contemporary Theory”; Gleason; Lakoff and Turner). Here, the mapping of a single resemblance is based on a shared image structure rather than on a shared inner quality. For instance, in the often cited André Breton example of “My wife…whose waist is an hourglass,” one aspect of an hourglass, namely its shape and more specifically its narrow centre, is mapped onto the form of a woman. According to Lakoff and Turner image structure is characterized by both part-whole structure (e.g., the relation between a roof and a house) and attribute structure (e.g., colour, physical shape, intensity of light, etc.) (90). 9 Exemplary in this regard would be the pub scene from David Lean’s film Ryan’s Daughter (1970) in which Major Randolph Doryan’s (Christopher Jones) aural perception of Michael’s (John Mills) repetitious banging of his leg on the pub bench causes him to recall the dreadful memories of his time in the trenches during World War I. E M B O D I E D E T H I C S A N D C I N E M A : M O R A L AT T I T U D E S FA C I L I TAT E D B Y C H A R A C T E R P E R C E P T I O N 1 For the sake of introducing and situating embodied ethics we are simplifying deontology somewhat here (see also Slingerland 306). 2 As we will point out ourselves in the analysis of our own examples later, assessing what is wrong or not often crucially entails that we contextualize what we are witnessing. This is especially the case when we are evaluating other people (whether real life or fictional) on the basis of a description of their perceptual acts. That is, in order to provide a proper account of the moral weight of the perception of a person or character, one often has to bring in additional a priori information, the kind of knowledge which is often fuelled by a priori cases of perception itself. 3 This broadening and non-dualistic conception of perception also recalls Rudolf Arnheim’s writings on visual thinking. As we have already seen earlier in this volume, perception, according to Arnheim, offers more than just the passive processing of the stimuli arriving at the sensory receptors. For Arnheim, the separate treatment of seeing and thinking is “absurd” because “in order to see we have to think, and we have nothing to think about if we are not seeing” (“A Plea” 492; see also Visual Thinking). 4 For a discussion of the importance of emotions in ethical matters see also Oakley. 5 Carl Plantinga claims something similar when he states: “The ability of narrative films to elicit sympathies, antipathies, allegiances, and other responses to fictional characters is a key element in their aesthetic success, and in their moral and ideological impact” (“I Followed” 34). 6 For a typology of various affective responses to fictional characters see Plantinga (“I Followed” 43). 7

For more on the evaluative nature of emotional responses in film see also Dadlez (“Seeing”) and Carroll (“Movies”).

8 Note the link with the moral perception view according to which perception (i.e., the lower level) always precedes moral judgement (the higher level) (see also Vetlesen 4).


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9 The term ‘dramatic’ is used here in the literary sense of relating to drama or the study of drama. 10 It would be an interesting empirical problem to examine how much additional narrative information the viewer needs in order to make this kind of mapping from the perceptual level of the character onto the intentional/mental level of the character. 11 For a good summary of these studies, see Winter (152-153). 12 For a good discussion of both concepts see also Plantinga (“I Followed” 36). 13 The idea that thought is mirrored in the face goes back to Ancient Greece, and up to modern facial expression research. For a good historical overview of some of this literature see Scherer (141-144). COGNITIVE SEMIOTICS REVISITED: REFRAMING THE FRAME 1 We need to be aware that cognitive science is itself undergoing theoretical reduction via neuroscience. See, for example, Bickle. 2 I wish to thank Edward Branigan for his feedback on an earlier version of this chapter. 3 Furthermore, it is important to note that image schemata are not literal images (for images are always of something specific). Instead, this term refers to mental structures, which are more abstract than an actual image. We begin with images, but abstract structures from them to form schemata. 4 For a more detailed analysis of Inland Empire from a formalist perspective, see Buckland (“The Acousmatic Voice”). 5

Werner Wolf defines metalepsis as “a fictional representation consisting of several distinct worlds and levels, among which unorthodox transgressions occur” (95).


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