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research-article2017
BBXXXX10.1177/1074295617728508Beyond BehaviorMathur et al.
Article
Research-Based Practices for Reintegrating Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders From the Juvenile Justice System
Beyond Behavior 2018, Vol. 27(1) 28–36 © Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2017 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav https://doi.org/10.1177/1074295617728508 DOI: 10.1177/1074295617728508 journals.sagepub.com/home/bbx
Sarup R. Mathur, PhD1, Heather Griller Clark, PhD1, Leslie LaCroix, MAT1, and James Short, MS1
Abstract This article discusses the unique and influential role of school teachers in the rehabilitation and reintegration of students with emotional and behavioral disorders who have been involved with the juvenile justice (JJ) system. By adopting evidencedbased practices, highlighted within this article, teachers can prevent further escalation of students’ negative behaviors and repeated involvement in the JJ system. Keywords juvenile delinquency, interventions, risk factors, transition, reentry, teacher(s)
Juvenile justice (JJ) has become a default system of services for many students with special needs. Quinn, Rutherford, Leone, Osher, and Poirier (2005) found that the average prevalence rate of youth with disabilities in JJ was 34% and that the most common disabilities were specific learning disabilities and emotional disturbance. According to the National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability (2015), youth with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBDs) comprised about 47.4% of students with disabilities in JJ, while in public schools they accounted for only about 8% of students with disabilities. Students with learning disabilities are also overrepresented in the JJ system, accounting for 38.6% (Quinn et al., 2005). Of the remaining youth with disabilities in JJ, almost 5% have intellectual disabilities, 2.9% have Other Health Impairments, and 0.8% have multiple disabilities (Gagnon & Barber, 2014; National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability, 2015). One reason that students with EBDs get involved in the JJ system is due to unresolved academic, behavioral, or mental health issues. They frequently have long histories of referrals for academic deficiencies, behavior problems, truancy, substance use, and mental health and may slip into the JJ system in a relatively subtle way. They then find themselves placed in highly structured and secured settings where they have very limited freedom and decision making. When released many find great difficulty navigating their way out of this physically and mentally restricted setting and need extra help to make the transition back to school, work, and community (Mathur & Griller Clark, 2014).
JJ facilities are different from residential treatment centers in that the individuals have committed a crime and the facility is operated to ensure that all entrances and exits are under the exclusive control of the security staff. Examples of these settings are juvenile detention centers, juvenile corrections, jails, and prisons. In the absence of additional supports, these youth with EBDs are at a much higher risk for continued and deeper involvement in the justice system. This contributes to more missed opportunities in education (Gagnon & Barber, 2014), consistent employment, and problems with family, peer, and adult relationships. While the presence of a disability does not remove culpability in the eyes of the legal system, it does affect how a person thinks, processes information, differentiates between positive and negative choices, or reacts to stressful situations (Mader & Butrymowicz, 2014). Without appropriate interventions and supports, many students with emotional disabilities struggle to make appropriate decisions, placing them at a higher risk for involvement in the JJ system (Mathur & Griller Clark, 2013). In numerous cases, delinquent behavior is a manifestation of social skill deficits and faulty problem-solving processes and can be replaced by 1
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Corresponding Author: Sarup R. Mathur, Division of Educational Leadership and Innovation, Arizona State University, Farmer Building 418 C, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA. Email:
[email protected]
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Mathur et al. adaptive skills and positive behavior. Poor family dynamics, negative school experiences, abuse and neglect, and mental health issues have been associated with JJ involvement. Patterns of disciplinary referrals, chronic truancy and absenteeism, and failing grades have been found to be predictors of negative tendencies such as escape from and avoidance of school learning opportunities (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007). School-related factors leading to expulsion or exclusion from educational opportunities resulting in involvement with the JJ system has been referred to as the “School to Prison Pipeline” (Skiba, 2013). Schools can break this pipeline by providing early identification of students who are at risk for JJ involvement, applying positive behavioral approaches to prevent and respond to problem behavior, and building a caring learning environment (Coggshall, Osher, & Colombi, 2013). Teachers have a unique and influential role in the rehabilitation and reintegration of students with EBDs who have been involved with the JJ system. By adopting evidencedbased practices, highlighted within this article, they can prevent further escalation of negative behaviors and repeated involvement in the JJ system. In addition, when teachers have strong, supportive relationships with their students, they can identify certain indicators, which may serve as warning signs for disengagement and recidivism. This article presents suggestions to assist educators reintegrate youth involved with JJ back into their classrooms and keep them engaged. Ms. Dillon has 15 years of teaching experience in both regular and special education settings. For the past 12 years, she taught in a resource setting at a suburban elementary school. Over the summer, she moved to a large metropolitan area and was hired at an inner-city high school as a self-contained EBD teacher. After 2 months in her new job, she was told by her principal that a new student, Oscar, would be coming to her class the following week. Oscar had just been released from a secure care facility and was on parole. Ms. Dillon had taught classrooms that were kaleidoscopes of cultural heritages, special learning needs, and a variety of socioeconomic levels, but she had never taught a student who was involved in the JJ system. She had no training in her teacher preparation program on how to deal with students who are released from the JJ system. She did not know how to prepare instruction for Oscar or how to support his behavioral and emotional needs. As Monday approached, Ms. Dillion felt anxious and unsure about her abilities to teach this youth. For students involved with the JJ system, the transition back to a regular public or alternative school after release is extremely difficult; they cannot do it alone. Research on reentry says that (a) youth from the JJ system need assistance in returning to school (Bullis, Yovanoff, Mueller, & Havel, 2002) and (b) engagement within the first 30 days after youth are released from the secure care facility is
extremely important for preventing recidivism (Griller Clark, Mathur, & Helding, 2011). Therefore, it is important for Oscar not only to come to school, but to be engaged once he gets there. In the JJ literature, the term engagement refers to participation in school- or employment-related activities and is viewed as a protective factor against recidivism. The term engagement has been used more commonly in school-based research. Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004) reviewed the research on school engagement and described three types of engagement: behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. Behavioral engagement referred to attending school, doing schoolwork, and following rules. Cognitive engagement was viewed as motivation, effort, and strategy use and shows psychological investment in learning and persistence in overcoming challenges. Emotional engagement included interests, values, and emotions that were reflected in attitudes toward peers and teachers, feeling of connectedness with school, and appreciation of success in school. All three components or types of engagement need to be addressed to ensure successful reentry of the youth returning to school after being involved with the JJ system. Teachers, like Ms. Dillon, who do not regularly interact with JJ involved students may benefit from background knowledge about what to expect when students like Oscar join their classrooms. Resources to build capacity and topics for professional development are included in Table 1. In addition, initiating contact with the transition specialist (TS) and/or parole officer (PO) is essential as they serve as a liaison to the student and can assist with this transition process (e.g., facilitating student records).
Transitions Between JJ and School in the First 30 Days Youth with disabilities leaving a JJ facility must be supported in making a seamless and successful transition back to their community schools in the first 30 days of their release. To facilitate transition, there are important steps that Ms. Dillon should follow (see Figure 1).
Develop Awareness and Knowledge About the JJ System It is important to find out how the education system works in the specific JJ facility where the youth had stayed. Federal guiding principles exist to facilitate the special education process in the JJ facilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). States have their own policies and procedures that facilities need to follow. Like school districts, some of the facilities do a better job of educating youth than others. Examples of detention facilities exist where communication between the detention staff and the school
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Beyond Behavior 27(1)
Table 1. Resources for Building Teacher Capacity to Work With JJ Involved Youth. Topics Guiding principles for providing highquality education in JJ settings Overview of education in JJ settings Transition/reentry practices Educational practices
Collaborative practices Family involvement Reflective practice
Professional development resources https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/correctional-education/ guiding-principles.pdf https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/jj1/#content https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/jj2/challenge/#content https://www2.ed.gov/students/prep/juvenile-justice-transition/ transition-toolkit-3.pdf#content https://www.osepideasthatwork.org/sites/default/files/JJ-TIBEducationalPractices-508.pdf http://www.njjn.org/our-work/improving-education-for-youth-injuvenile-justice-snapshot https://www.osepideasthatwork.org/sites/default/files/JJ-TIBCollaboration-Practices-508.pdf http://www.nccdglobal.org/sites/default/files/publication_pdf/ engaging-justice-involved-families.pdf http://www.tolerance.org/sites/default/files/general/TT-Code-ofConduct-2015.pdf
Note. JJ = juvenile justice.
Detention staff were able to assist the youth in completing school requirements, and when the youth returned to high school, he or she was not behind in academic work. In one of the other facilities, the educational leadership of the county detention facility and a high school district established a professional learning community (PLC) that represented members from the school district, detention, and other community agencies. The PLC comes together 4 to 5 times per year to discuss students’ issues. By forming this collaboration, they became more aware of the needs of the students who moved between the settings and were able to develop professional development to increase the capacity of their personnel. It is important for the teacher at the receiving school to be aware of the way the JJ facilities in their area function so that he or she can accommodate the needs of the returning youth.
Meet the Transition Team
Figure 1. Reentry practices for youth returning from juvenile justice facilities in the first 30 days.
personnel is a regular feature. One of the facilities, where the authors have a strong research partnership, created a dashboard that is available to the designated personnel from both the detention facility and the high school. The assigned teachers from both sides could see the homework assignments that were due for the youth who was detained.
A number of individuals take part in the reentry planning process, some of them are specific to JJ settings. It is important to understand who coordinates the transition planning process in the JJ setting from where the youth is released. Youth with disabilities in JJ settings often have educational, social–behavioral, vocational, and treatment-based (e.g., counseling, substance abuse, mental health, and traumainformed treatment) needs. Bringing together a multidisciplinary team of professionals representing both the school system and the JJ system can help facilitate the continuity of care when youth are reintegrating into the school system. The teacher should determine whether the parents are involved in the education of the youth released from JJ. The term parents needs to be broadened to refer to those who
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Mathur et al. have primary responsibility of care for the youth regardless of their nominal relationship to that youth. It could be a natural, adoptive, foster, or extended family member.
Meet the Student In the first meeting with the student, teachers should have the TS from the JJ facility present to discuss their expectations in detail with the student. Both the TS and teacher can collaborate in the early days of transition to ensure that the student is aware of the school expectations and is responding positively to the school culture. Disability is one of the most significant predictors for delinquency and requires greater teacher attention to prevent repeated JJ involvement. All teachers need to be acutely aware of the warning signs and changes in the learning and behavioral patterns of students with disabilities, as they are already more susceptible to recidivism. This cycle can only be broken when the teacher and the youth jointly discuss the expectations about absences, avoidance of schoolwork, poor peer relationships, disinterest in learning, and emergence of new antisocial behaviors. Therefore, it is extremely important that the youth who has arrived at school after involvement with the JJ system continues to stay in school.
Expedite Timely Transfer of Records Students are required to participate in educational activities during their time in JJ facilities. Many JJ facilities offer high school credits, but often the lack of records or paperwork becomes a barrier to timely placement in appropriate classes. Due to poor interagency communication, the transfer of student records is frequently slow and lacks important information (Mathur & Griller Clark, 2013). In addition, it is common for youth who are in the JJ system to have attended multiple schools; contributing to gaps in their educational history, making it extremely difficult to acquire a complete and accurate educational record. Records transfer is an issue when students are released from a JJ facility and want to reenroll in school. TSs and POs from JJ settings are the greatest resource and can assist in streamlining this process.
Check the Credits Earned A lack of knowledge of JJ educational processes, incomplete records, and slow transfer of paperwork can contribute to problematic earning and transfer of credits (Mathur & Griller Clark, 2013). Sometimes JJ facilities may have to place students in classes that they have already taken or are not required to take due to space and length of stay. In addition, while some JJ facilities can issue high school credits, many continue to utilize educational programs that are not widely recognized by traditional schools (Weisman, 2012).
Youth who only spend a short amount of time in JJ or those who frequently move between JJ facilities, treatment centers, and placements may leave with incomplete credits or no credits at all. Teachers need to check the credits earned and communicate with the JJ staff, so they can assist with meeting the credit requirements of the home school. Ms. Dillion can conduct criterion-referenced tests in academic areas to start the instructional process with Oscar to avoid lapses in educational progress.
Review the IEP and ITP Under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), youth with disabilities are entitled to the same special education services in JJ as in their home schools. JJ facilities are required to provide free and appropriate education services, and youth with disabilities who are incarcerated are entitled to an Individualized Education Program (IEP; Gagnon, Read, & Gonsoulin, 2015). Sometimes appropriate accommodations are not being made for each student with a disability due to (a) slow transfer of records, (b) short sentences providing insufficient time to initiate the IEP process, (c) staffing issues, (d) overly generic IEPs, (e) minimal parental involvement, and (f) youth inability to self-advocate due to inadequate knowledge of his or her IEP and the services and accommodations provided therein. Teachers may need to revise or refine the IEPs and Individual Transition Planning (ITP) guides to include additional supports for the youth involved with the JJ system returning to their schools.
Provide Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports General educators and special educators in collaboration with counselors, social workers, school psychologists, and TSs can address various areas of need for youth in their classrooms to keep them engaged in instruction. Researchbased interventions have been identified for teachers to support student needs, particularly in the area of academics and social–emotional/behavior. Academic interventions and supports. The presence of caring teachers, an enjoyable school climate, and positive student–teacher interaction keeps students engaged in learning. Research has shown a direct, positive correlation between the amount of active student participation and school success (Christle et al., 2007). Blue and Cook (2004) suggest that instruction that devalues, negates, or questions students’ identity, alienates students and creates resistance to learning. Effective instruction occurs when teachers (a) present the content well, (b) communicate expectations clearly, (c) use learning time effectively, and (d) attend to student learning needs (Blue & Cook, 2004; Christle et al., 2007). When teachers consistently use a
32 variety of instructional strategies (e.g., cooperative learning groups, independent learning opportunities) and keep students actively involved (e.g., hand on learning, community projects), students are more likely to stay engaged in school (Christle et al., 2007). Direct instruction has been associated with positive effects on youths’ reading rates, fluency, and accuracy (Gagnon & Barber, 2014). Explicit, intensive, and highly structured reading instruction can increase the reading performance of youth involved with JJ (Houchins, Jolivette, Krezmien, & Baltodano, 2008). Advance organizers and technology are important tools for teaching math and problem-solving (Maccini, Gagnon, Mulcahy, & Leone, 2006). Special educators can help students like Oscar identify the problem and engage in activities that assist them in separating critical from noncritical information. They can encourage them to create pictorial representations to help comprehend and solve math problems. Youth in the JJ system often lack basic literacy skills, including technology literacy (O’Cummings, Bardack, & Gonsoulin, 2010). Therefore, many JJ facilities have started providing instruction in basic computer skills. Youth with disabilities benefit from computer-assisted instruction because it allows the teacher to (a) have heterogeneous groups of students work at their individual goals and (b) make data-based decisions (Shippen, Morton, Flynt, Houchins, & Smitherman, 2012). In addition, these skills are critical for college and career readiness. Technology skills combined with individualized transition services focusing on academic and vocational skills are vital for successful reentry and engagement of youth in the current job market. Special educators can include these skills in the youth’s individualized transition plan and assist him or her in receiving the necessary training. Social–emotional/behavioral interventions and supports. Most youth involved with the JJ system have a number of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs; Felitti et al., 1998). The prevalence rates of adversity and trauma are much higher for these youth compared with youth in the general population (Baglivio et al., 2014). Proactive approaches are needed to keep youth who have experienced a high number of ACEs, and those with disabilities, in school while explicitly teaching decision-making, social skills, and appropriate behavior. Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is one example of a proactive approach (Jolivette & Nelson, 2010; Nelson, Scott, Gagnon, Jolivette, & Sprague, 2008). A growing number of JJ facilities have started implementing PBIS as an alternative to traditional disciplinary practices. PBIS, along with cognitive behavior therapy, character education, and social skills training have all been proven to be effective in addressing problem behaviors that have traditionally led youth with disabilities down the path of suspension or expulsion (U.S. Department of Education,
Beyond Behavior 27(1) 2016). When implemented effectively, these practices can potentially increase engagement. Many youth in the JJ system are more focused on adaptation and survival than discerning socially appropriate behavior. As a result, some of these youth have skill deficits because they have not learned necessary social skills, while others may demonstrate performance deficits because they have not determined the benefits of appropriate social skills among peers. In both cases, these youth need to be explicitly taught social skills using a direct instructional approach consisting of modeling, practice, feedback, and transfer of training. According to Gresham (2016), positive, desirable, social behaviors function as academic enablers and problem behaviors as academic disablers. Therefore, lack of basic social skills (e.g., being on time, greeting, asking for help) is associated with limited job success and relationship difficulty as youth transition back in to the community (Eddy, Whaley, & Chamberlain, 2004). In addition, many students in JJ demonstrate deficits in information processing and fail to isolate critical information from irrelevant details. Problem-solving strategies that include identifying the problem, generating possible solutions, and evaluating the correct solution can assist students academically and behaviorally (Cummings et al., 2009). A number of comprehensive life skills curricula such as Merging Two Worlds, that utilize cognitive restructuring and problem-solving strategies, have been effective with this population (Griller Clark & Mathur, 2015). By improving these skills, a youth can enhance his or her social life, perform better in postsecondary studies, and be more successful at finding and maintaining employment (National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability, 2015). Self-regulation procedures allow students to analyze and modify their own behaviors. Many youth in the JJ system struggle with deficits in planning, organization, and task persistence and completion, self-management strategies can assist them in goal setting (Moilanen, 2007). Special education teachers can assist in identifying and modeling the steps involved in the task and verbalize completion of each step before the student performs the steps independently. Examples and nonexamples of the desired behaviors should be identified. Role-play activities can be used to check for understanding. One way to help generalize expectations is to set up a self-monitoring system for increasing students’ prosocial and desirable behavior. After agreeing on the definition of the desirable behavior, the teacher and the student can jointly create a self-monitoring check sheet, establish a goal for the behavior with the student, have the student graph the progress, and provide consistent reinforcement for meeting the behavioral goal or correctly monitoring the behavior. Youth from JJ can also benefit from learning how to reinforce themselves for new learning and accomplishments of their own goals. They can identify their own reinforcement and deliver it to themselves after completing the
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Mathur et al. Table 2. Strategies for Engaging Students Involved With JJ Back Into School. Essential ingredients of engagement Positive and safe learning environment Trusting and caring relationships
Quality instruction
Collaboration
Guidelines for teachers • Provide positive attention and reinforcement • Deliver immediately contingent upon positive behavior and performance • Use a variety of positive reinforcers • Use social reinforcer with edibles, tangible, and token reinforcers • Be positive and nonjudgmental • Offer trustworthiness, sincere interest, and individual attention • Keep a sense of humor • Be flexible and realistic • Practice effective communication • Establish positive and high expectations • Use modeling, group and independent practice strategies • Look for progress in small steps • Create opportunities for meaningful participation • Monitor student progress on a daily basis • Reinforce learning • Team up with other professionals at your school • Become a resource for transition specialists, POs, and staff members from JJ facilities • Know your community resources, opportunities, volunteer activities, and well-organized after-school programs • Develop professional learning communities • Work with parents and involve them in the development of IEPs and ITPs
Note. JJ = juvenile justice; PO = parole officer; IEP = Individualized Education Program; ITP = Individual Transition Planning.
steps in the task. Special education teachers may consider including social skills, problem-solving strategies, selfmanagement and goal setting in the individualized education and transition plans for students with disabilities. When students are receiving special education services, it becomes more important for all teachers to track and monitor their social, emotional, and academic needs, provide targeted support for these needs, and work with school personnel toward creating positive educational opportunities to help prevent their engagement with the JJ system.
Role of the Teacher Youth returning to public school after release from JJ facilities often feel that they will be viewed as disengaged and disruptive, thereby increasing their anxiety and likelihood of poor academic performance (Atkins, Bullis, & Todis, 2005). Intentionally or unintentionally, some schools make it difficult for these youth to reenroll, suggesting instead that they attend an alternative school that can “better meet their needs.” A recent national survey found that while school personnel believe they have the ability to impact positive change for youth returning from the JJ system, they have low expectations of them (Sinclair, Unruh, Griller Clark, & Waintrup, 2017). This problem is compounded when students return to communities outside of their home school district, or are placed in treatment centers, group homes, and foster care. Negative perceptions
can harm the relationship youth have with their teachers, their success in school, and potentially promote further involvement in the JJ system. The presence of a caring and understanding teacher can significantly ease the transition-related barriers experienced by youth involved in the JJ system. High-quality teacher– student relationships have been found to be a predictor of socioemotional, behavioral, and academic achievement (Ang, Chong, Huan, Quek, & Yeo, 2008). Guidelines for assisting youth, along with essential ingredients of student engagement, are included in Table 2. It is extremely important that students released from JJ facilities become engaged in school or employment within the first 30 days (Mathur & Griller Clark, 2014). Some key responsibilities for teachers to facilitate school engagement are described below.
Be Proactive Create an environment of mutual trust and respect where students feel safe and can have honest and appropriate discussions. Model positive behavior and allow students the opportunity to practice life skills in a safe space without the fear of failure and where constructive feedback is seen as helpful rather than critical (Kohl, 2016). Youth involved in the JJ system benefit from “being set up for success.” When youth enroll mid-year, it is helpful to pair the new student with a positive and accepting peer mentor to assist with the integration process.
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Catch Them Being Good Many JJ schools across the country have adopted PBIS and have found the associated positive attention and reinforcement extremely beneficial for transitioning youth (Nelson et al., 2008). Positive reinforcement following a desirable behavior (on task, engaged, listening, following directions) is likely to result in increasing the behavior. It is extremely important that the teacher attends to the positive behavior of the students and facilitates opportunities for positive attention and reinforcement resulting in increased desirable behavior.
Be Actively Involved in Transition Programming Transition planning can be complicated, even for parents, so the assistance of someone versed in the processes of enrollment, record transfers, and scheduling is invaluable. Students involved in JJ who are unfamiliar with the school should receive a tour, a student handbook, and know who to ask or where to go for help. With the proliferation of technology-based learning, teachers need to ensure that the student knows how to log in for resources, how to check grades, how to communicate online with teachers, and how to access tutoring assistance. Having collaborative relationships with TSs and POs from the JJ system can assist in creating reentry supports in the school without causing unnecessary delays. When all of these factors are in place, the likelihood of student success increases dramatically.
Be Resourceful Many people and agencies get involved in working with students with disabilities who transition from a JJ setting, including the youth, family, probation officers, TSs, school administrators and, in some instances, behavioral health counselors and courts. If monthly or quarterly meetings are tenable, the ability to collaborate and have common goals with measurable outcomes can be a powerful tool in keeping the child on track and avoiding a return to JJ. It is possible to strengthen resiliency and protective factors for at-risk students by providing structured, sustainable transition programming between school, employment, and community agencies.
Engage Family Even though many special educators are aware of the value of family engagement, they may lack training in how to achieve it, particularly in dealing with families who have youth with disabilities in the JJ system (Osher, Huff, Colombi, & Amelga, 2012). Teacher preparation programs do not necessarily provide information on how to involve families in the daily instructional or IEP process. To build
Beyond Behavior 27(1) strong working relationships with families of youth from JJ, special educators may request (a) additional training, (b) adequate time and administrative support, and (c) collaboration with JJ staff.
Encourage Positive Choice and Relationships For students involved in JJ, peer choices are the leading factor as to whether or not individuals will reoffend (Osher et al., 2012). Building prosocial peer relationships is central to a positive trajectory for students transitioning from JJ. High school is a time when children transition from viewing family as a source of comfort and seek critical acceptance from friends. Some students require additional supports in learning how to be a friend and how to make a friend, while maintaining appropriate boundaries. Talking with students about prosocial peer groups is a valuable first step toward understanding the complexity of social relationships.
Engage Community Once the student is released, the most important factor for positive engagement becomes ongoing support in the community. Youth with disabilities in the JJ system have a greater likelihood of becoming incarcerated adults. Communities have a responsibility to organize proactive programming critical to rescuing youth from the enticing life of illegal behavior. Principles of successful programmatic actions include preparing student for increased responsibility and freedom, facilitating youth–community interactions, developing new supports and resources where needed, and assisting the youth in utilizing community agencies (Osher et al., 2012). Many probation plans include a community service component, providing vital opportunity for students to gain employment skills while simultaneously fulfilling the service requirement. Teachers should have an understanding of the requirements that a student must fulfill after he or she gets released from a JJ facility. Teachers, along with their school leadership, or professional learning communities should consider both strategies for preventing student entry into the JJ system and for supporting reentry into school when these students return.
Conclusion The power and influence that teachers have in the lives of children is undeniable. In the absence of other positive supports, the teacher is often the person who routinely models and promotes positive behaviors and interactions with peers. Teachers and administrators can work together to detect early warning signs of youth with disabilities who are at risk for JJ involvement and enhance the provision of the strategies outlined in this article to promote resilience and school engagement. By identifying children at risk in a
Mathur et al. timely manner and implementing these evidenced-based intervention strategies, teachers have the potential to dramatically reduce the rate of youth incarceration. Teachers and administrators can also increase the transition success of youth with disabilities returning from JJ settings by working collaboratively with the youth and the TS or PO to promote reentry, enrollment, and engagement. By partnering with community leaders, school administrators and families, the “village” known as “teachers” will continue to have a powerful impact in the lives of at-risk youth. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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