Reviews - University of Calgary

doi:10.1017/S0043933912000268

Reviews Botanicals: an alternative approach for the control of avian coccidiosis R.Z. ABBAS1*, D.D. COLWELL2 and J. GILLEARD3 1

Department of Parasitology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040-Pakistan; Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research Centre, 5403 1st Ave. S., Lethbridge, AB., T1J 4B1, Canada; 3Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Room HSC 2557, 3330, Hospital Drive, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada *Corresponding author: [email protected] 2

Coccidiosis is recognized as the major parasitic disease of poultry and is caused by the apicomplexan protozoan Eimeria. In the past, conventional disease control strategies have depended mainly on anticoccidial drugs and, to a certain extent, live vaccines. Anticoccidial drugs have played a major role in the effective control of avian coccidiosis, but, their extensive use has resulted in the emergence of drug resistant coccidian strains. In such situations, new drugs should be available to replace the older ones against which resistance has developed, however it takes a long time to develop any new compounds. Because of the high cost of developing new drugs and vaccines, development of drug resistance and concerns over drug residues associated with the continuous use of these chemicals, there is a renewed interest in the use of botanicals for safe, effective and cheap control of avian coccidiosis. Several poultry scientists all over the world are now actively engaged in research into the use of plants and plant derived products to fight and reduce the heavy economic losses in poultry industry caused by coccidiosis. This paper reviews the research on botanicals, herbal complexes and commercially available botanical products having anticoccidial properties against avian coccidiosis. Information regarding active compounds, doses and mechanism of action of plants provided in this paper may serve as a guideline for the use of botanical anticoccidial agents as a part of integrated control strategies for the effective control of resistant coccidian parasites. Keywords: botanical anticoccidials; poultry; coccidia (or Eimeria); drug resistance

Introduction Avian coccidiosis is a complex intestinal disease caused by obligatory protozoan parasites belonging to genus Eimeria. One recent estimate is that coccidiosis may cost © World's Poultry Science Association 2012 World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, June 2012 Received for publication December 21, 2011 Accepted for publication January 8, 2012

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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. the US chicken industry about $127 million annually (Chapman, 2009) and proportionally similar losses may occur in other parts of the world. Thus coccidiosis is probably the most expensive and wide spread infectious disease in commercial poultry systems. Thus far, chemoprophylaxis and anticoccidial feed additives have controlled the disease but the situation has been complicated by the emergence of drug resistance (Abbas et al., 2008; Abbas et al., 2011a) and their potentially toxic effects on the animal health (Nogueira et al., 2009). Furthermore, drug or antibiotic residues in poultry products may be potentially hazardous to consumers. Another approach for coccidiosis control is the vaccination of birds with live Eimeria oocysts, but, in cases of poor management, these vaccines can trigger severe reactions that may affect the performance of flocks, mainly in broilers because of their rearing period (Chapman, 2000). As a result of this drawback of live vaccines, attenuated vaccines (with reduced pathogenicity) have been developed, but these are expensive to produce. Cost effective alternative strategies are being sought for more effective and safer control of avian coccidiosis (Abbas et al., 2011b, 2011c). The use of botanicals has played a major role in the control of avian coccidiosis, as they are not only natural products but may comprise new therapeutic molecules to which resistance has not yet developed. The use of botanicals as anticoccidial remedies, therefore, holds promise as an alternate in the control of coccidiosis. A number of botanicals, herbal complexes and commercial herbal anticoccidials with promising anticoccidial effects have been reported in the literature. Some of these are summarized in Tables 1, 2 and 3, and various potential botanical candidates are discussed in the following sections.

Aloe species Aloes are believed to have several medicinal properties and are used to treat various ailments. There are more than 360 known aloe species, but the most recommended type of aloe in controlling coccidiosis is Aloe excelsa (Gadzirayi et al., 2005). Gadzirayi et al. (2005) reported that the anticoccidial effects of A. excelsa were comparable with sulphachlopyrazine sodium monohydrate in terms of improved live weight gains and reducing oocyst output in broiler chickens. Other species of aloe plant such as Aloe vera have also been reported as having anticoccidial activities. A. vera treatments show tonic effects on the intestinal tract by benefiting microflora and reducing bowel putrefaction as well as reducing inflammation (Bland, 1985). An in vitro trial was undertaken to determine the effect of three concentrations (15%, 30%, and 45%) of A. vera and A. spicata on the inhibition of the sporulation of avian coccidia oocysts (Marizvikuru et al., 2006). Both aloe extracts showed a concentration-dependant anticoccidial effect, however, A. spicata inhibited sporulation to a greater extent than A. vera. In another study (Yim et al., 2011) dietary supplementation of A. vera resulted in significantly lower gut lesion scores and reduced faecal oocyst shedding of E. maxima in broiler chickens. These authors (Yim et al., 2011) suggested that reduced faecal oocyst shedding, a protective role against Eimeria infection, in Aloe-based chicken diets could be associated more with cell-mediated responses than antibody responses.

Artemisia species Artemisia is a large, diverse genus of plants with between 200 to 400 species belonging to the daisy family Asteraceae. The most common species is Artemisia annua which has been reported for its antiparasitic activities. A. annua is a common type of wormwood 204

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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. that is native to temperate Asia, but has become common throughout the world. Oh et al. (1995) conducted the first experimental trial to evaluate the anticoccidial activity of A. annua extracts against E. tenella in chickens. A. annua extracts showed the anticoccidial activity in terms of improved weight gain, improved feed conversion ratio and reduced lesion scores. Later, Allen et al. (1997a) reported a significant anticoccidial effect of A. annua against E. tenella, measured as reduced lesion scores, when fed to broiler chickens for three weeks as dried leaves at a dietary concentration of 5% (equivalent to 17 ppm pure artemisinin). The pure form of artemisinin, fed for a period of 4 weeks at levels of 2, 8.5 and 17 ppm, significantly reduced oocyst output from single and dual species infection with E. tenella and E. acervulina. Moreover, artemisinin isolated from A. sieberi was also found to be effective against E. tenella and E. acervulina but not against E. maxima (Arab et al., 2006). So far, a limited amount of work has been carried out to determine the anticoccidial effect of Artemisia spp. in layer chickens. Brisibe et al. (2008) studied the effect of feeding 20% dried pulverized A. annua leaves against E. tenella both in broiler and layer chickens. The anticoccidial effects of diets containing A. annua leaves were almost equal to the commercial anticoccidials both in broiler and layer chickens. The proposed mechanism of action of artemisinin involves cleavage of endoperoxide bridges by iron producing free radicals (hypervalent iron-oxo species, epoxides, aldehydes, and dicarbonyle compounds) which damage biological macromolecules causing oxidative stress in the cells of the parasite (Allen et al., 1998).

Azadirachta indica Azadirachta indica (neem) plant is commonly available in Asian and African countries and is well known in the therapy of a number of infectious diseases including coccidiosis. Neem fruit, at a concentration of 150 g/50 kg feed, has been found to have anticoccidial effects against E. tenella infection by reducing oocyst excretion and mortality in broiler chickens (Tipu et al., 2002). Abbas et al. (2006) reported an anticoccidial effect of neem fruit against mixed Eimeria species in terms of reducing the oocyst per gram of faeces. In addition to the anticoccidial effect of neem fruit, some reports have shown the anticoccidial activity of an aqueous extract of neem leaves against E. tenella alone (Toulah et al., 2010) as well as in a mixed infection (Biu et al., 2006), which was comparable to the commercial anticoccidials Amprolium and Baycox. So far, the exact mechanism of action of neem against coccidian parasites is unknown, but a report by the National Research Council (1992) suggested that aqueous neem leaf extract, when taken orally, produces an increase in red cells, white blood cells and lymphocyte counts thus enhancing the cellular immune response, increasing antibody production and so most pathogens can be eliminated before they cause the symptoms associated with disease. Further research is needed to determine the maximum safe levels of neem supplementation because the higher doses, due to its bitterness, may show adverse effects on feed intake which will influence the performance parameters of birds.

Beta vulgaris The beneficial effects of incorporating sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) solids in animal feeds on livestock growth and overall performance have been known for a long time. One of the active ingredients is betaine which protects cells against osmotic stress by stabilising cell membranes enabling the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the cells and ensuring World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 68, June 2012

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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. normal metabolic activity (Ko et al., 1994). Augustine et al. (1997) reported that betaine, in combination with the ionophore salinomycin, had a significant positive effect on the performance of chickens infected with E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella, the effect being greater than that mediated by betaine or salinomycin alone. Moreover, the combination resulted in a slight decrease in the development and invasion of the epithelium by E. acervulina, while there was an increase in the invasion of E. tenella. Later this effect was elucidated by Klasing et al. (2002) when they found the accumulation of more lymphocytes in the epithelium and lamina propria during E. acervulina infection in chickens supplemented with betaine compared to those not supplemented. This effect of betaine could result in more effective clearance of sporozoites which would explain the decreased numbers of sporozoites in the epithelium as observed by Augustine et al. (1997). Additionally, betaine feeding has been reported (Kettunen et al., 2001) to stabilise the intestinal epithelium structure in chickens against E. maxima infection, and therefore the anticoccidial effect of betaine might be due to inhibition of coccidial invasion as well as by stabilising intestinal structure and function (Augustine et al., 1997).

Camellia sinensis Camellia sinensis is a rich source of natural flavonoides which are known to have anticoccidial effects due to their antioxidant properties (Jang et al., 2007, Chen et al., 2008). Other than flavonoides, C. sinensis also contains alkaloids, carotenoids, minerals, amino acids (especially l-theanine), carbohydrates, lipids, and volatiles/aroma compounds (Engelhardt, 2010). The prophylactic anticoccidial effects (faecal oocyst shedding and weight gain parameters) of C. sinensis (green tea) ground leaves (0.5% and 2.0% in diets) were evaluated against E. maxima infection in chickens (Jang et al., 2007). The anticoccidial effect of these green tea-based diets in chickens infected with E. maxima was limited to a reduction in the numbers of oocysts shed, with no improvement in the body weight. On the basis of these results against E. maxima, authors suggested the need of further investigations for the anticoccidial effects of C. sinensis against other species of chicken coccidia.

Curcuma longa Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae), commonly known as turmeric, is a medicinal plant widely used and cultivated in the tropical regions. In developing countries like Pakistan, poultry farmers provide turmeric powder as a feed additive for the control of coccidiosis in broilers (Abbas et al., 2010). The active compound of turmeric is the phenolic compound curcumin, which has been shown to have antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties (Allen et al., 1998). In an experimental study, the anticoccidial effect of dietary supplementation of 1% curcumin was observed in chickens after infection of E. maxima and E. tenella species. Improved weight gain, reduced lesion scores and oocyst counts were shown only against E. maxima. A significant reduction of plasma NO2¯ and NO3¯ was found only in E. maxima infected and curcumin treated birds, and hence provides a possible explanation for the difference in anticoccidial activity found for both Eimeria species (Allen et al., 1998). Later Abbas et al. (2010) reported that dietary supplementation with 3% C. longa powder was effective against a mild infection of E. tenella. The proposed mechanism of action of C. longa (curcumin) involves the induction of oxidative stress against coccidia. Further studies are required to 206


Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. determine the possible anticoccidial activity of different concentrations of whole C. longa and its active ingredient curcumin against different Eimeria species in poultry.

Echinacea purpure Echinacea and its different preparations contain a variety of active substances such as flavonoids, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, alkamides, cinnamic acids, essential oils and phenolic compounds (Liu et al., 2007; Zhai et al., 2007) which are effective in treatment of various ailments and are proven to be beneficial in promoting immunity (Bauer, 1999). This plant is known to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulating properties that may be linked to its anticoccidial effects (Zhai et al., 2007). In an experimental study (Allen, 2003), ground root preparations of E. purpurea (0.1% 0.5%) were offered to broilers for two weeks which ameliorated weight gain reduction and birds had fewer coccidial lesions after a mixed challenge infection with E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. tenella and E. necatrix. The exact mechanism of action is still unknown, but because of its antioxidant properties Echinacea therapy may induce a state of oxidative stress against Eimeria species.

Origanum vulgare The essential oils of Origanum vulgare are well known for their antiprotozoal activity (Milhau et al., 1997). Giannenas et al. (2003) carried out a study to examine the effect of dietary supplementation of oregano (O. vulgare) essential oil on performance of broiler chickens experimentally infected with E. tenella. It was concluded that oregano essential oils, mainly carvacrol and thymol, had anticoccidial effects against E. tenella. Some studies suggest that vaccination against coccidiosis, in combination with oregano containing compounds, may be an alternative control method for intestinal health in chickens (Waldenstedt, 2003). In addition, some studies suggest the use of dried oregano leaves as a natural herbal growth promoter for early maturing of birds (Bampidis et al., 2005). The dietary supplementation of oregano containing plants like O. vulgare, therefore, seems equally effective for maintaining the performance and pathogenic parameters of birds in case of coccidiosis.

Saccharum officinarum Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) extract (SCE), a well known natural immunostimulant, is reported to have protective effects against E. tenella infection in chickens (El-Abasy et al., 2003). Some studies (Hikosaka et al., 2007) showed a significant increase in the number of IgM- and IgG-plaque forming cell responses of peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL), intestinal leukocytes, splenocytes, and significantly higher phagocytic activity of PBL and antibody responses in chickens that had been orally administered with either sugar cane extract (SCE) or the polyphenol-rich fraction (PRF). Most recently, Awais et al. (2011) reported the immunotherapeutic effects of sugar cane extract against mixed Eimeria species in broiler chickens. The results of these studies suggested that sugar cane extract has an immunostimulating effect in chickens and their administration may augment protective immunity against coccidiosis.


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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al.

Triticum aestivum The supplementation of whole Triticum aestivum (wheat) grains in broiler feeds is common practice in Europe (Forbes and Covasa, 1995) because dietary fibre antioxidants may actually quench the soluble radicals that are continuously formed in the intestinal tract (Bao and Choct, 2010). Some reports (Allen et al., 1998) have noted the protective effects of whole cereal grains against coccidiosis in broiler chickens measured as a reduction of oocyst output. However, Waldenstedt et al. (1998) and Banfield et al. (2002) investigated the effects of whole wheat inclusion in broiler feeds with or without access to grit, and observed no significant differences in oocyst counts of mixed Eimeria species. They concluded that the reduction in output of oocysts by supplementation with whole cereals in the diet was not a result of the crushing of oocysts by an active gizzard or the increase in the viscosity of the digesta. Furthermore, they concluded that the whole wheat supplementation provided no control of coccidiosis in broiler chickens.

Yucca schidigera Plant extracts with high saponin content are a good source of natural antimicrobial compounds. Yucca schidigera is a major source of natural saponins that cause the inhibition of protozoan development by interacting with the cholesterol present on the parasite cell membrane, thus resulting in parasite death (Wang et al., 1998). Some studies have shown a beneficial and synergistic effect between the coccidiosis vaccine and the Y. schidigera extract in improving weight gains, feed conversion ratio and maintaining the integrity of the intestinal villi in chickens (Alfaro et al., 2007). These improvements in the performance parameters of birds may be the result of the potential for saponins (extracted from the Y. schidigera) to improve the absorption of nutrients by the intestinal mucosal surface (McAllister et al., 1998). These saponins are steroidal glycosides with strong surfactant activity, reducing the superficial tension of fluids and allowing better absorption of nutrients by the intestinal epithelium. Table 1 Overview of the anticoccidial effect of botanicals against avian coccidiosis. Botanicals Active (English name) ingredients Agele marmelos Unknown (Bael) Ageratum conyzoides (Ageratum) Carica papaya (Papaw)

Flavonoids Papaine

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Guar)

Glacactomannans and Saponins

Eclipta alba (Bhringaraj)

Coumestans

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Dose Orally @ 2 ml for 5 consecutive days Orally 5001000 mg /kg b.w. Dry leaf powder 15% of feed 5% of feed

Mode of action

Species studied

Affected parameters

References

Unknown

Mixed infection

OC↓, FC↑, WG↑

Khan et al., 2008

Oxidative stress

E.t

OC↓, WG↑, PCV↑, RBC↑ OC↓

Nweze and Obiwulu, 2009 Al-Fifi, 2007

OC↓, BD↓

Hassan et al., 2008

OC↓, FC↑, WG↑

Michels et al., 2011

Sporozoits E.t digestion in the caeca Binding with E.t sterol molecules present on protozoal cell membrane surfaces 120pp in feed Unknown E.t


Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. Table 1 Continued Botanicals Active (English name) ingredients Linum usitatissimum (Flaxseed) Lentinus edodes and Tremella fuciformis (Mushrooms) Musa paradisiacal (Banana)

Dose

Species studied

Affected parameters

LS↓, degree Allen et al., of 1997b parasitization↓ WG↑ Guo et al., 2004; 2005

References

N-3 fatty acids

15% of feed

Oxidative stress

E.t

Polysaccharide extracts

1 g/kg feed

Immune stimulation

E.t

Unknown

Methanolic extract @ 1,000 mg/kg b.w. 90 ppm of maslinic acid in feed

Unknown

E.t

OC↓, CS↓, PCV↑

Anosa and Okoro, 2011

AntiE.t inflammatory & antioxidant properties

OC↓, LS↓, WG↑

De Pablos et al., 2010

Olea europaea (Olive tree)

Maslinic acid (2-α, 3-βdihydroxiolean12-en-28-oic acid) Pinus radiate 35% condensed (Monterey pine) tannins Pasum sativum (Pea plant)

Antibody fragments

Sophora flavescens Aiton (Sophora) Tulbaghia violacea (Society garlic, sweet garlic)

Unknown

Vitis vinifera (Grape seed) Vernonia amygdalina (Vernonia tree)

Mode of action

Oocysts exposed to 500-1000 mg pine bark/ml -

6-30g/l drinking water Antioxidant Aqueous compounds (Sextract 35 (methylthiomethyl) mg/kg feed Cysteine sulphoxide (marasmine), bis[(methylthio) methyl] disulphide and various derivatives) Tannins 10-20mg/kg feed Vernoside Dry leaf powder @ 15% of feed

Damage of cytoplasm (sporont)

E.t; E.m; Sporulation↓ E.a

Inhibition of sporozoites reproduction

E.t

Unknown

E.t

Oxidative stress

Mixed infection

FCR↑, OC↓

Naidoo et al., 2008

Oxidative stress Oxidative stress

E.t

M↓, LS↓, WG↑ OC↓

Wang et al., 2008 Al-Fifi, 2007

E.t

Molan et al., 2009

Sporozoite Khalafalla infectivity and and, reproduction↓ Daugschies 2010 M↓, LS↓, Youn and OC↓, WG↑ Noh, 2001

↑=improvement/increase/higher; ↓=decrease/lower; E.t=Eimeria tenella; E.a=Eimeria acervulina; E.m=Eimeria maxima; E.b=Eimeria brunetti; E.n=Eimeria necatrix; E.miv= Eimeria mivati; WG=body weight gain; FC=feed consumption; FCR=feed conversion ratio; LS =lesion scores; OC=oocyst count; BD=bloody diarrhea; M=mortality; PCV=packed cell volume; RBC=red blood cells; CS=clinical signs.

Miscellaneous A number of other plants and their combinations have been reported to have anticoccidial effects. Their details, including names, active ingredients, mode of actions and species studied are summarised in Tables 1 and 2. Most of these plants are rich in antioxidant


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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. compounds like saponins, flavonoids, papaine, n-3 fatty acids, vernoside and tannins, and therefore may be lethal to the parasites by inducing oxidative stress. Table 2 Overview of the anticoccidial effect of herbal complexes against avian coccidiosis. Herbal complex

Composition

Dose

Mode of action

Species studied

Affected parameters

References

Herbal

Uncariae ramulus cum

2 g/ml

Unknown

E.t

LS↓

Du and Hu, 2004

complex

Uncis, Agrimoniae herba, drinking Sanguisorbae radix, water & Eclipta prostrate Herba, 10 g/kg Pulsatillae radix, Sophorae feed flavescentis Radix, Rehmanniaea radix, Glycyrrhizae radix Muscadine By-product of the 0.5pomace production of wine and 2.0% of juice from Vitis feed rotundifolia Herbal Solanum nigrum (35%), 10% in feed complex Aloe vera (15%), Moringa for 7 days indica (35%) and Mentha continuously arvensis (15%) Herbal Allium sativum 4g, Treated complex Zingiber officinale 6g, water for 14 Azadirachta days indica 3g and Berberis lyceum 10g mixed per liter drinking water. Herbal Azadirachta indica, Orally complex Nicotiana tabacum, (2-6 g once Calotropis procera and A day) for 7 Trachyspermum days ammi

WG↑

Unknown

E.a; E.m; E.t

M↓, LS↓, WG↑

McDougald et al., 2008

Unknown

E.t

LS↓, WG↑, FCR↑

Chandrakesan et al., 2009

Unknown

Mixed OC↓ infection

Unknown

E.t

Nidaullah et al., 2010

M↓, LS↓, Zaman et al., WG↑, FCR↑, 2011 OC↓

↑=improvemed/increase/higher; ↓=decrease/lower; E.t=Eimeria tenella; E.a=Eimeria acervulina; E.m=Eimeria maxima; WG=body weight gain; FCR=feed conversion ratio; LS =lesion scores; OC=oocyst count; M=mortality

Commercially available herbal anticoccidials A number of plant-derived compounds and natural products appear to have anticoccidial activities against the Eimeria species commonly found in poultry (Allen et al., 1998; Alfaro et al., 2007; Naidoo et al., 2008). Therefore, in some countries plant based formulations, such as Apacox, Natustat and Zycox are used for the control of coccidiosis in chickens (Table 3). Most botanicals and plant-derived products are being extensively tested to establish the efficacy of their parasiticidal activity, their mechanism of action and target parasite species (Athanasiadou et al., 2007).

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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. Table 3 Overview of the anticoccidial effect of commercial preparations of botanicals against avian coccidiosis.

Product name

Composition

Dose

Zycox (Indian Hobrhena 0.3% Herbs, antidyseatria, of feed Saharanpur, U.P.) Barberis aristata, Embelia ribes and Acorus calamus IMMU-21 Ocimum sanctum, 0.01% Withania somnifera, in feed Emblica officinalis and Tinospora cordifolia Apacox (Apa-CT, Agrimonia 1 g/kg s.r.l. Italy) eupatoria, feed Echinacea angustifolia, Ribes nigrum and Cinchona succirubra TM Yeast-derived 1.925 Natustat (Alltech Inc., KY, mannanoligokg/tonne USA) saccharide plus feed organic mineral nutrients and plant extracts Coxynil (M/s Allium sativum Linn300 Growell India, 15%, Cinnamomum mg/kg Pune) camphora Nees & feed Eberum 15%, Elephantopus scaber Linn 15%, Valeriana wallichii DC15%, Sulphur dioxide (Gandak) 25% and NaCl 15%. AV/CPP/12 (M/s 0.4% of Dabur Ayurvet, feed Sahibabad) Coxigon®

Berberis aristata, 3g/1kg Holarrhena feed antidyssentrica, Momordica dioica, Melia azedarah and Melia azadirachta

Mode of action

Species studied

Affected parameters

Unknown

E.t and mixed infection (E.n; E.m; E.a)

LS↓, OC↓, M↓, WG↑

References Roy et al., 1990

ImmuneE.t potentiator

LS↓, PI↑, Das et al., 2001 TLC↑, TSP↑, TSG↑

Unknown

E.t

OC↓, WG↑ FC↑

Christaki et al., 2004

Unknown

E.t

WG↑, FC↑, LS↓

Duffy et al., 2005

Unknown

E.t

OC↓, LS↓

Kurkure et al., 2006

Unknown

E.t

OC↓, WG↑ Gametocytic stages↓

Singh et al., 2008

Unknown

Mixed infection

OC↓, M↓

Haq et al., 2011

↑=improvement/increase/higher; ↓=decrease/lower; E.t=Eimeria tenella; E.a=Eimeria acervulina; E.m=Eimeria maxima; E.n=Eimeria necatrix; WG=body weight gain; FC=feed consumption; LS =lesion scores; OC=oocyst count; M=mortality; TLC=total leucocytic counts; TSP=total serum proteins; TSG=total serum globulins; PI=performance index.

Conclusions Use of botanical anticoccidials provide a novel approach for the effective control of


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Botanical anticoccidials: R.Z. Abbas et al. coccidiosis, whilst meeting the urgent need for new solutions due to the widespread emergence of drug-resistant coccidian strains in commercial poultry production. Feeding botanical supplements to birds to enhance their innate defence mechanisms against coccidiosis could effectively reduce or eliminate the need for synthetic drug therapy of these enteric infections. The use of commercially available botanical anticoccidials is an appealing approach that can be used in anticoccidial therapy. However, most of the studies that have been intended to demonstrate the anticoccidial effect of plants and plant derived products have been poorly designed, lack appropriate controls, and have insufficient replication. Further extensive and appropriate experimental studies are needed to establish the efficacy of their anticoccidial activity, their mechanism of action and target parasite species by following standardised bioassays.

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