Sample Dissertation Format

PERSUASION AND TRUST TECHNIQUES IN CAMPAIGNER’S POLITICAL SPEECHES: A MULTIMODAL POLITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF EL- SISI’S NOMINATION SPEECH, 2014

By SAHAR MOUSTAFA HAMEEM ABOELYAZEID EISSA

This dissertation is submitted to the Cardiff School of Journalism, Media & Cultural Studies, Cardiff University, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Political Communication.

26 August 2016

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DECLARATION

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Praise be to God, who guided us to this: had God not guided us, we would never have found the way.” The Holy Quran (Al-A’râf, 43). I would like to thank the University of Cardiff, Wales for the scholarship which affords the opportunity to do my Masters here. I would like to thank my dissertation supervisor Dr. Andrew Williams, who has been an invaluable friend and mentor. His gift for conceptualization, his enduring encouragement, and his practical advice have been an inestimable source of support for me during this process. My deep appreciations and sincerity go to Dr. Stephen Cushion, Dr. Lina Dencik, and Dr. Inaki GarciaBlancol for their support, advice and feedback. I am also thankful and grateful for Dr. Jan Volkel and Dr. Mohamed Motawe who believed in me and encouraged me all the way through this journey. No words can describe the feelings of love and appreciations I have for my family; My dearest mother; my hand holder, my supporter and my heart and soul. My superhero dad; my voice of reason and my best friend, and my two wonderful brothers and their families who looked out for me and cared for me, thank you all. Finally, I would love to thank all my new friends I met here in Cardiff and who are still in Egypt for their encouragement and support and endless love. I am lucky to have all those amazing people in my life. Thank you for being a family to me.

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ABSTRACT The youth of Egypt are still aiming for change. However, it is difficult to arrange any upcoming revolutions, as Abdel Fatah El-Sisi is maintaining his grip on the country and public through persuasive techniques. With the next elections coming in 2018, it will be useful to study his techniques, as this may, help other politicians to use political speech to their advantage. This study aimed to investigate the techniques and rhetorical devices used for persuasion and trust in Abdel Fatah El-Sisi’s nomination speech in addition, what were the strengths and weaknesses of his speech, with regard to persuasion and trust? Using a multimodal political discourse analysis, the study found extensive use of different techniques, with a combination format of puzzle-solution and list-of-three being the most dominant. Other techniques were used for different purposes, such as engaging the audience and campaigning. The second study question was answered using a developed persuasion and trust approach, based on persuasive communication theories, and found that Abdel Fatah El-Sisi’s speech strengths were higher than the weaknesses, making it is a successful political communication speech. At the end, some advices and recommendations for further studies on the persuasion and trust approach for those who are concerned with the effectiveness of the political speeches in campaigns.

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Definitions 1.1

Greek definitions

Table 1 Greek Definitions Black (2014), (Merriam-Webster, 2015) and (Nordquist, 2016)

Definition: Black (2014), (Merriam-Webster, 2015) and (Nordquist, 2016) Ethos

Initially, when an orator is seeking to establish a relationship with an audience, the appeal should be based on the character of the speaker: that is, his or her ethos – practical wisdom, goodwill, and virtue – which together would contribute to his/her overall ethical credibility.

Logos

The appeal to arguments based on practical reasoning. There different ways in building an argument such as; reason,

Pathos

Aristotle emphasized the importance of making appeals based on emotion and described these as the artistic proof of pathos.

Syllogism

A formal argument in logic that is formed by two statements and a conclusion which must be true if the two statements are true.

Enthymeme

In rhetoric, an enthymeme is an informally stated syllogism with an implied major premise and a conclusion. It attracts the audience because it makes them fill the gab caused from missing the minor premise.

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1.2

Rhetoric devices

They are enhancements sprinkled into speech or writing to emphasize a point, often to the extreme. They are divided into Scheme and Troops (Black, 2014).

1.2.1

Schemes

They are figures of speech with modifications to the usual or expected word sequence of words, their effect are generated from the rearrangement of word order (Black, 2014). Table 2 List of Schemes with definitions (Black, 2014)

Definition: A figure in which there is Anaphora

…a repetition of a phrase at the start of a unit (anaphora leads to anticipation which involves an audience cognitively and emotionally)

Antithesis

…a semantic relation of opposition or contrast (time is quite often the basis of comparison in political rhetoric where this is a criticism of past performance and promise of a better future)

Chiasmus

…the word order of the second part is the reverse of the word order of the first part. (the primary appeal is the aesthetic one of balance)

Epiphora

…a repetition of a phrase at the end of a unit (the repetition need not be identical)

Parison

…a comparison between two entities (both entities need not be mentioned as one can be inferred from the other)

Repetition

…. repetition of a word or phrase (repetition always adds emphasis and so identifies meaning)

Tricolon

…. use of three parts of equal length (often signals the closure of a topic)

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1.2.2

Tropes

Words, which are turned away from what is expected, drawing attention to possible meanings. Moreover, they are connected to emotions. (Black, 2014). Table 3 List of Tropes with definitions (Black, 2014)

Definition: A figure in which there is Allusion

…. there is indirect evocation of another well-known textural or cultural reference

Autonomasia

…. a person's name is replaced by an epithet (Similar to periphrasis but referring to a person)

Personification

…. human qualities are ascribed to non-human entities (This is a type of metaphor-anthropomorphisms usually arouse more empathy)

1.3

Techniques

They are strategies or methods speakers or writers apply in order to persuade their target audience. It originally referred to the study of verbal techniques for packaging messages in striking and persuasive ways (Atkinson, 2004). Examples of the main types are listed below: Table 4 List of some techniques with definitions (Atkinson, 2004)

Contrasts That is considered a very effective technique, as the audience finds the concept much easier to grasp when illustrated by its opposite or ‘contrast.' It includes the use of contradictions, comparisons, opposites and phrase reversal. Puzzles and questions That is another way to grab the attention of the audience, by using an open-ended phrase for a topic or with a question. This can be achieved with puzzle solution format or rhetorical questions. Lists of three In this technique, the emphasis is given through the concurrent use of three words; - viii -

three identical words, three phrases, three clauses or three questions to demonstrate the same meaning. Combined formats This is one of the most important techniques. If the use of a single rhetorical technique to package a message has a positive impact on an audience, using more than one might have an even greater impact.

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Table of Contents ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... v Definitions ........................................................................................................................... vi 1.1 Greek definitions .................................................................................................... vi 1.2 Rhetoric devices .................................................................................................... vii 1.2.1 Schemes ............................................................................................................ vii 1.2.2 Tropes .............................................................................................................. viii 1.3 Techniques ............................................................................................................ viii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. x List of Figures.................................................................................................................... xiv 2 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 2.1 Political Speech as a Communication Process ........................................................ 2 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 5 3.1 Context..................................................................................................................... 5 3.2 Noise ........................................................................................................................ 5 3.3 Speaker .................................................................................................................... 6 3.3.1 Ethos ................................................................................................................... 6 3.3.2 Pathos ................................................................................................................. 8 3.3.2.1 Emoter – Relationship ................................................................................ 9 3.3.2.2 Message/Mode of expression: .................................................................... 9 3.3.2.3 Third-Party Audience................................................................................ 12 3.3.2.4 Cultures beliefs and rules .......................................................................... 12 3.4 Audience ................................................................................................................ 12 3.4.1 Storytelling ....................................................................................................... 13 3.4.2 Colloquial Language ........................................................................................ 13 3.4.3 Generating Applause ........................................................................................ 13 3.5 Speech.................................................................................................................... 14 3.5.1 Arrangement ..................................................................................................... 14 3.5.1.1 The prologue ............................................................................................. 14 3.5.1.2 The Narrative ............................................................................................ 14 3.5.1.3 The Proof .................................................................................................. 14 3.5.1.4 The refutation............................................................................................ 15 3.5.1.5 The Epilogue ............................................................................................. 15 3.5.2 Speech Style/Cohesion ..................................................................................... 15 3.5.3 Rhetoric devices (Schemes and Tropes) ........................................................... 16 -x-

3.5.4 Process Circumstance ....................................................................................... 17 3.5.5 Content and Purpose ......................................................................................... 17 4 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 18 4.1 Sample ................................................................................................................... 18 4.2 Historical Background ........................................................................................... 18 4.3 Conceptual Basis ................................................................................................... 18 4.3.1 Discourse Analysis and Communication analysis ............................................ 20 4.3.2 Discourse Analysis (DA) and Conversation Analysis (CA) ............................. 20 4.3.2.1 CA in Atkinson’s (1984) Approach ........................................................... 21 4.3.3 Discourse Analysis and Persuasive Communication ........................................ 21 4.4 Multimodal Critical Political Discourse Analysis ................................................. 22 4.4.1 The analysis of the speech ‘circumstances’ ...................................................... 23 4.4.2 Identification and analysis of features .............................................................. 24 4.4.2.1 Speaker ..................................................................................................... 25 4.4.2.2 Audience ................................................................................................... 25 4.4.2.3 Speech ....................................................................................................... 25 4.4.3 Interpretation and Explanation ......................................................................... 26 5 Findings and Discussion................................................................................................ 29 5.1 Analysis of the Speech Circumstances .................................................................. 29 5.1.1 Situational Circumstances ................................................................................ 29 5.1.1.1 Environment Analysis ............................................................................... 30 5.1.2 Cognitive Circumstances .................................................................................. 30 5.1.3 Political Circumstances .................................................................................... 31 5.2 Identification and Analysis of Features ................................................................. 32 5.2.1 Speaker ............................................................................................................. 32 5.2.1.1 Ethos ......................................................................................................... 32 5.2.1.2 Pathos ........................................................................................................ 35 5.2.2 Audience ........................................................................................................... 47 5.2.2.1 Story telling technique .............................................................................. 47 5.2.2.2 Contrast ..................................................................................................... 47 5.2.2.3 Puzzle-Solution ......................................................................................... 48 5.2.2.4 Colloquial language .................................................................................. 49 5.2.2.5 List-of-three .............................................................................................. 49 5.2.2.6 Combined formats..................................................................................... 50 5.2.2.7 Pronouns and words .................................................................................. 50 5.2.3 Speech .............................................................................................................. 50 5.2.3.1 Arrangement ............................................................................................. 50 - xi -

5.2.3.2 Style and Cohesion ................................................................................... 58 5.2.3.3 Process Circumstance ............................................................................... 61 5.3 Interpretation and Explanation .............................................................................. 62 5.3.1 Content and Purpose ......................................................................................... 62 5.3.1.1 El-Sisi is not the Enemy............................................................................ 63 5.3.1.2 Religion and democracy ........................................................................... 63 5.3.1.3 Power ........................................................................................................ 65 5.3.1.4

Campaigning Standards ............................................................................ 65

5.3.2 Persuasion and Trust Approach ........................................................................ 66 5.3.2.1 Image building and reputation management (ethos) ................................. 66 5.3.2.2 Pathos sincerity and satire......................................................................... 67 5.3.2.3 Political language in use ........................................................................... 68 5.3.2.4 Engaging the audience .............................................................................. 69 5.3.2.5 Consistency with Context/Noise ............................................................... 70 5.3.2.6 Consistency with the Purpose ................................................................... 71 5.3.3 Overall .............................................................................................................. 71 6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 73 6.1 Summary................................................................................................................ 73 6.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 74 6.3 Future Work ........................................................................................................... 74 References .......................................................................................................................... 75 Appendix 1 ......................................................................................................................... 87 6.3.1 Voice Techniques: ............................................................................................. 87 6.3.1.1 Calm-to-Storm: ......................................................................................... 87 6.3.1.2 The hard-stop spacing: .............................................................................. 87 6.3.1.3 Polysyndeton conjunction: ........................................................................ 88 6.3.2 Pathos arguments example: .............................................................................. 88 6.3.3 Storytelling Technique: ..................................................................................... 88 6.3.4 Generating Applause ........................................................................................ 89 6.3.4.1 The power of favourable references to “us” ............................................. 89 6.3.4.2 Negative evaluations of “them” ................................................................ 90 6.3.4.3 List of Three.............................................................................................. 90 6.3.5 The Prologue .................................................................................................... 91 6.3.5.1 Example 1 ................................................................................................. 91 6.3.5.2 Example 2 ................................................................................................. 91 6.3.6 The Narrative .................................................................................................... 91 6.3.7 The Proof .......................................................................................................... 91 - xii -

6.3.8 The Refutation .................................................................................................. 92 6.3.9 The Epilogue .................................................................................................... 92 6.3.9.1 Example 1 ................................................................................................. 92 6.3.9.2 Example 2 ................................................................................................. 92 6.3.10Rhetoric devices ............................................................................................... 93 6.3.10.1 Example 1 ................................................................................................. 93 6.3.10.2 Example 2 ................................................................................................. 93 6.3.11 Speed rate ......................................................................................................... 93 Appendix 2 – El-Sisi Nomination Speech Transcript ......................................................... 94

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List of Figures TABLE 1 LIST OF SCHEMES WITH DEFINITIONS (BLACK, 2014) ............................................................................. VII TABLE 2 LIST OF TROPES WITH DEFINITIONS (BLACK, 2014)............................................................................... VIII TABLE 3 LIST OF SOME TECHNIQUES WITH DEFINITIONS (ATKINSON, 2004) .......................................................... VIII TABLE 4 LOGICAL ARGUMENTS EXAMPLES....................................................................................................... 11 TABLE 5 ALPHA STRATEGIES (KNOWLES AND LINN, 2004) ................................................................................. 22 TABLE 6 OMEGA STRATEGIES (KNOWLES AND LINN, 2004) ............................................................................... 22 TABLE 7 EL-SISI'S SPEECH SITUATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES (SKY NEWS, 2014) ........................................................ 29 TABLE 8 SCHEMES RHETORIC DEVICES IN EL-SISI'S SPEECH ................................................................................. 40 TABLE 9 METAPHOR ANALYSIS TABLE ACCORDING TO MACHIN AND MAYR (2012) ................................................ 42 TABLE 10 EXAMPLES OF TROPES IN EL-SISI'S SPEECH ........................................................................................ 44 TABLE 11 PATHOS ARGUMENTS ................................................................................................................... 44 TABLE 12 SENTENCES REFER TO MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD IN THE SPEECH .............................................................. 45 TABLE 13 TROPES USED TO SUPPORT HINT TECHNIQUE AND TO BUILD A BACKGROUND WITH THE AUDIENCE ................ 45 TABLE 14 CONTRAST EXAMPLES IN EL-SISI'S SPEECH ......................................................................................... 48 TABLE 15 PUZZLE-SOLUTION EXAMPLES IN EL-SISI'S SPEECH .............................................................................. 48 TABLE 16 EXAMPLES FOR LIST-OF-THREE TECHNIQUE IN EL-SISI'S SPEECH ............................................................. 49 TABLE 17 EXAMPLES OF WORDS TARGETING BELONGING SOCIAL NEED ................................................................. 50 TABLE 18 EXAMPLES OF USING LOGOS IN THE NARRATIVE .................................................................................. 51 TABLE 19 PROBLEM-SOLUTION SHOWS THE SIGNIFICANT ISSUES FOR THE INDIVIDUALS. ........................................... 52 TABLE 20 EXAMPLES OF USING COMBINE TECHNIQUE LIKE PUZZLE/SOLUTION WITH RHETORIC DEVICE LIKE LIST OF THREE USED FOR CITIZENS ............................................................................................................................ 53

TABLE 21 EXAMPLES FOR TECHNIQUES USED FOR STATE SYSTEMS........................................................................ 54 TABLE 22 EXAMPLES FOR COMBINED TECHNIQUES LIKE REASON AND REPETITION FOR THE WHOLE STATE PROOFS ......... 55 TABLE 23 NEW TECHNIQUE FOR REFUTING A SITUATION .................................................................................... 56 TABLE 24 EXAMPLE OF USING SIGNPOSTS LOGIC .............................................................................................. 56 TABLE 25 EXAMPLE OF EXAMPLE FOR A COMBINED FORMAT TECHNIQUE USED FOR TERRORISM ................................ 57 TABLE 26 EXAMPLE FOR MOTIVATION / REPETITION TECHNIQUE IN THE EPILOGUE .................................................. 58 TABLE 27 REPEATED WORDS IN EL-SISI'S SPEECH ............................................................................................. 60

IMAGE 1 SCREENSHOT FROM EL-SISI’S SPEECH ................................................................................................ 30 IMAGE 2THE COMPETITIVE/DEFENSIVE POSITION PEASE (2004)........................................................................ 30 IMAGE 3 ON THE LEFT PICTURE, EL-SISI IS WEARING THE BATTLEFIELD UNIFORM WHILE ON THE RIGHT TANTAWY IS WEARING MEETINGS UNIFORM ............................................................................................................ 33

IMAGE 4 ON THE RIGHT EL-SISI'S RING VERSES THE NORMAL RING FOR ENGAGEMENT ............................................. 33 IMAGE 5 SIMILARITY BETWEEN EL-SISI’S AND SALMAN'S RINGS .......................................................................... 34

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IMAGE 6 EL-SISI IS READING FROM A SCREEN ON THE LEFT OF THE CAMERA ........................................................... 36 IMAGE 7 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EL-SISI’S EYE MOVEMENT TO THE LEFT AND THE SOCIAL GAZE TO SHOW INTEREST IN THE AUDIENCE ON THE RIGHT PICTURE (PEASE, 2004) ................................................................................... 37

IMAGE 8 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN EL-SISI'S HAND GESTURES AND PALM-DOWN TECHNIQUE, WHICH REPRESENTS AUTHORITY (PEASE, 2004) ................................................................................................................................. 37 IMAGE 9 EL-SISI'S SHOWING POWER WITH HIS HANDS (PEASE, 2004) ................................................................. 38 IMAGE 10 EL-SISI SOCIETY REPRESENTATIVES AFTER OUSTING MORSI (YOUTUBE, 2013) ........................................ 63

FIGURE 1 ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (EISENBERG AND GAMBLE, 1991 P. 25).................................... 3 FIGURE 2 OUR MODIFICATION OF SHANNON'S INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION......................................... 4 FIGURE 3 SUGGESTED PERSUASION AND TRUST APPROACH ................................................................................ 27

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2 INTRODUCTION After two revolutions, the hope for democracy in Egypt has vanished in exchange for the return of the military to power. Abdel Fatah El-Sisi, a military man, is smashing the Egyptians’ dream for democracy and making it more difficult for them to go into the streets demanding change (Freedom House, 2016). Therefore, the only path to freedom is to call for a fair election, and to win it. However, facing a well-organised military institution in a campaign is not an easy job as they have successfully used persuasive tools for years, while Egyptian political parties continue to fail in communicating their goals to the public (Global Partners Governance, 2014). This was the motivation behind investigating how the military uses political speeches in campaigns to communicate with the public. Exploring this area may inform the political parties about the various persuasion techniques used in speeches, and improve their own campaigns when facing the regime. Therefore, this study will focus on El-Sisi’s presidential nomination speech, given in 2014, after two revolutions, and led to a win, with a 96% turnout (European Union, 2014). The study will answer two main questions; what are the techniques1 and rhetorical devices2 used for persuasion and trust? In addition, what are the strengths and the weaknesses in regard to a persuasion and trust approach? The study uncovered two main problems; firstly, most Eastern and Western scholars focused on the linguistic approach when analysing political speeches, even if other approaches were used in conjunction with the dominant linguistic approach. For example, in 1952, Egyptian official rhetoric arose because of the military coup against King Farouk and the post-colonial era (Kane, 2012). Nevertheless, analysis of political speeches before the revolution has been largely neglected for two reasons; firstly, Arabic linguistics scholars lost interest in studying the political speech because it lost its relation to Arabic literature and become closer to the western literature. Secondly, the government controlled academic research (Latif, 2015). In contrast, in Western countries it is the opposite case. The power of political speeches encouraged old scholars in Greece to analyse them, with a diversity of ap-

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Techniques are strategies or methods speakers or writers apply in order to persuade their target audience.

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proaches by Aristotle, Plato, Isocrates, and Gorgias emerging (Worthington, 2007). During the contemporary period, several approaches were developed to analyse political speeches, however, the systemic-functional-linguistic approach by Fairclough (1989, 2003, and 2010) was the most used when exploring the power of language in society. Moreover, Wodak and Meyer (2009) worked on the ideology and political discourse analysis, and developed the discourse-historical approach, (Dijk, 2008), the racist-discourse, and so forth. Although these approaches were useful in identifying how political speeches are framed, they have three main shortcomings for those interested in the effectiveness of the political discourse. Firstly, they all tackle the political speeches from a specific angle, secondly, none provides an approach for a persuasive public communication, and thirdly, most of them ignore that the political speech is a communication skill that should be evaluated for development and promotion of democracy. With these problems in mind, this study aims to provide a new approach to analysing political campaign speeches to bridge these gaps. The suggested approach has two dimensions; firstly, looking at the political speech as a whole communication process with an active audience, and secondly, suggesting a persuasion and trust approach for delivering a persuasive public communication. This will show that communication is a skill that needs to be broken down into units and evaluated to show the strengths and weaknesses of it. 2.1

Political Speech as a Communication Process

Political speech is defined as “a coherent stream of spoken language that is usually prepared for delivery by a speaker to an audience for a purpose on a political occasion” (Black, 2014 p.8). This definition is similar to the Aristotelian communication model, which uses persuasion as a measure for a successful speech. From this definition, the political speech is a communication process that has different elements; speaker, speech, audience, occasion, and purpose.

2

They are enhancements sprinkled into speech or writing to emphasize a point, often to the extreme. They are divided into Scheme and Troops, for more information Black (2014).

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Figure 1 Aristotle’s model of communication (Eisenberg and Gamble, 1991 p. 25)

This analysis of the political speech is problematic for five reasons. Firstly, the communication process in campaigns is more sophisticated, being a two-way communication, while this model is one-way, which was used in the history of propaganda. Today’s audiences give feedback, indicating how persuasive the speech was. This feedback can be given in two ways; while the speeches are given at rallies, such as in the US, or while discussing the issue in the public sphere, after the speech. Therefore, when analysing the political speeches, the feedback from the audience should be taken into consideration. Secondly, although Aristotle’s model provides analysis for the ethos (verbal–nonverbal) of the speaker, it is hypothetical and lacks guidance for the persuasiveness of the speaker. Therefore, modern techniques used by politicians and public speaking studies should be listed and analysed to help evaluate how effective the speaker was in obtaining trustworthiness and authority. Thirdly, this model is speaker-centred and does not consider the differences between campaign audiences and their different properties, beliefs, and assumptions. Fourthly, this model does not represent any concept of a failed communication process. Finally, it analyses the speech in isolation from its context, such as the political, social, and cultural surroundings, and ignores the meanings impeded in the content of the message, which affects the whole communication process. Therefore, the study suggests the use Shannon's interactive model of communication (Foulger, 2004), which has seven elements; sender/encoder, medium, channel, receiver/decoder, feedback, context, and noise. This model fits the circumstances for the analysis of political speeches with some suggested modifications.

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Figure 2 Our modification of Shannon's interactive model of communication

The model in Figure 2 shows a two-way communication process in which the audience are active. In the upcoming chapter, it will be shown how to use this model for the analysis of the political speeches and what to look for in each element.

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3 LITERATURE REVIEW Here previous studies will be reviewed for each element in the political communication process; (1) context (2) noise, (3) speaker, (4) audience, and (5) speech. Political speech is a communication process so it needs to be studied through its context, which is the campaign. It is also a skill, which needs to be evaluated in order to know exactly what to look for in each element. 3.1

Context

According to Foulger (2004), context is defined as the environment in which your message is delivered. When analysing rhetoric in political campaigns, Black (2014) stated that the context must include situational circumstances, such as occasion, date, location, and the number of speeches within the campaign. Secondly, it must contain the cognitive circumstances, such as the speaker’s and audience's beliefs and assumptions. In order to understand of the political context, it should also include the political circumstance at the time of the campaign, which might include the social and cultural circumstances, if necessary. 3.2

Noise

Noise used to be defined as; anything that obscures the signal, which carries the message. Foulger (2004) mentioned that Shannon’s definition focused on telephone transmission, carriers, and reception. However, this is now a limited definition, especially with new technological equipment, with minimal loss of information. In political communication, the definition of noise should be broadened to include anything that disrupts the speaker while delivering his speech. For instance, US candidate’s speeches, given at rallies, may be interrupted by the listeners. These acts should be analysed because they indicate how the speaker’s response emphasises his ethos and pathos, and whether there was consistency between his response and the speech he gave. For instance, when a “Black Lives Matter” protester interpreted Donald Trump’s speech in 2015, at a campaign rally in Birmingham (YouTube, 2015), Trump’s response “get him the hell out of here” should be analysed, as it will measure

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both the emphasis of Trump’s ethos and pathos, and the audience’s instant feedback on his response.

3.3

Speaker

Here, the relevant tenets of a speaker’s performance in relation to the concepts of (a) ethos (intrinsic and extrinsic) and (b) pathos (emotions and arguments) will be broken down.

3.3.1

Ethos

In campaigns, building a positive image of the candidate is imperative, as the personal image reflects the public personality, visible to all. The public image is contrived to fulfil an agenda (Turney, 2000). This image is a social construction from the speaker’s ethos, and it represents the speaker positively or negatively among the audience. Aristotle’s modes of persuasion were centred on the speaker’s character (Keränen, 2010). Williams (2015) divided the ethos into extrinsic and intrinsic. The extrinsic ethos aims to show the speaker’s credibility and authority. In modern studies, there is much debate among academics regarding how ethos can be determined. This debate stems from whether the charisma or persona (speaker character) is a gift, or can be taught. Scholars who support that charisma is a gift, such as Bettinghaus and Cody (1994), pointed out that credibility is a perception of the audience towards the speaker, and it is determined by two elements; trustworthiness and expertise. That is why political campaigns depend on weekly polls. Their research indicates that audience perception of trustworthiness differs according to the content of the message. For instance, when the topic is personal, trust is imperative. This concept aligns with Vella’s (2013) opinion that persuasion can only be effective when trust has been established. For any other topics, the audience identifies trustworthiness when they get the impression that the speaker is friendly, ethical, and sincere. He also pointed out that people follow leaders who can show off their experienced background (Bettinghaus and Cody, 1994). Black (2014) stated that both goodwill and trust in politics occurs when it is believing by the public that a person of power is mainly concerned with the public’s best interests, not their own.

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Although charisma is essential to attract the audience, there are persuasive techniques that can heighten the speaker’s credibility and increase his/her trust. Supporters for this perspective, such as Atkinson (1984), introduced “Refusing invited applause” which simply means that the speaker carries on, even with mounting applause, and does not acknowledge the applause (Ibid, 1984). There are three physiological impacts for this technique; firstly, the audience will assume that the speaker did not aim for it, so it is spontaneous response. Secondly, that the speaker is modest because he devotes all his attention to the issue, not himself, meaning that he puts the people's interests before his own. Finally, the point discussed is not negotiable, and he is strongly committed to it. The second category in the ethos is the intrinsic ethos concerned with the nonverbal communication. Yaffe (2011) talked about the 7% rule, which was discovered by Mehrabian’s study undertaken in 1971, showing the relative importance of three different elements in the communication process; words, 7%, tone of voice, 38%, and body language, 55% of the overall message. Therefore, when analysing the intrinsic ethos of the speaker, it is important to indicate the proficiency of the message delivery. The body language has two sub-categories, which must be taken into consideration when analysing intrinsic ethos; body appearance and body performance. This study suggests that analysing the intrinsic ethos should focus on the body appearance, while the body language should be analysed with the speaker’s emotions because there is a significant relationship between these two. The body appearance should include; hair style, eyeglasses, dress, jewellery, and makeup. For example, in the 2016 elections, Hillary Clinton delivered a speech on inequality wearing an Armani coat worth above $12,000 (Earle, 2016), which created a buzz in the media, and an unacceptable reaction among the public. That inappropriate choice of clothes presented the absence of harmony between the values she was trying to deliver and her real personality (ethos), affecting her credibility. When analysing body performance, it is important to know exactly what to look for. In the political communication speech, how the speaker keeps the attention of the audience will be focused on, as it is one of the key features for message delivery. Therefore, the eye movements, hand gestures, voice abilities such as speech rate and voice techniques, are studied.

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3.3.2

Pathos

Pathos is usually used to sway the audience. It is an attempt by the speaker to use emotions to persuade the audience. It is commonly used in politics, for example when the candidate starts his speech with “My fellow Americans” or “My friends” (Williams, 2015). In political campaigns, it aims to build a relationship between the candidate and the audience. Averill (2001) draws on Parkinson’s communicative theory, which describes emotions as a communication process, combining both verbal and nonverbal languages. This study considers Averill’s (2001) model, a developed method in analysing pathos emotions. The study also suggests some modifications to fit the characteristics of the political campaign.

Figure 3: Averill’s rhetorical episode and three contextual layers (Averill 2001).

This emotional episode model consists of the emoter, emotee, and the message. For an effective message, the mode of expression should be forceful, creative, and aesthetic. That is why the mode of expression receives great attention among teachers of rhetoric. The context of this rhetoric has three dimensions. Bryant (1953) called the first one the “internal rhetoric”, which builds the relationship between the rhetor and the target, and called the second one the “external rhetoric.” The external rhetoric is an appeal to the third party audience who is not attending the speech. The third dimension represents how the speaker integrate the society’s cultural beliefs and rules in the speech. Campaigns require modifications of Averill’s (2001) model. For instance, the aim of pathos in campaigns is to not only help the message be persuasive, but most

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importantly, to build a relationship with the emotee (potential/swing voters) to persuade them to vote for the candidate and participate in the campaign as volunteers, persuading others. To analyse pathos using this model, we are going to illustrate what to look for in each element.

3.3.2.1 Emoter – Relationship According to Porter (2014), the emoter/candidate should have two characteristics to build a relationship with the audience. The first of which is to “be human”. That is, to break the barriers with the audience and make them feel that you are one of them. For instance, when Trump said on a Fox News debate (Trump, 2016) “I don’t frankly have time for total political correctness.” this gives the impression to the audience that he is one of them, and he is not unreliable, like other politicians. The second is to “be authentic”, which means that the candidate should be cautious when using emotion and not use it with twisted facts because if the audience found that the candidate played with their emotions, it would definitely break their trust in him and affect his ethos. The body language and voice tone technique are another aspect that should be considered. Tone refers to the feeling that the speaker creates. It is determined by the contribution of different elements, such as the voice speed rate. Sometimes the tone is set for the occasion, such as the tone used in a speech about a terrorist attack, which is different from the tone of an election victory speech. It helps to keep the attention of the audience focused on the message. After analysing Barak Obama’s, Margaret Thatcher’s, Bill Clinton’s, and Martin Luther King’s speeches, it was found some similar voice tone techniques were used by each of them in communicating with the audience such as calm-to-storm, hard-stop spacing and polysyndeton conjunction techniques (appendix 1, 6.3.1). For voice techniques to work requires Schemes because they are used for the rhyme, balance, and timing.

3.3.2.2 Message/Mode of expression: The pathos message in a campaign has three dimensions regarding its function; (a) emotion appeals, (b) cognitive metaphor, and (c) pathos argument.

3.3.2.2.1 Emotion appeals -9-

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (McLeod, 2007), needs are essential to human survival and happiness, so appealing to these needs will be more persuasive, whether it is used for a positive or negative issue.

Figure 4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (McLeod, 2007)

Most politicians focus on the three middle needs (self-esteem, social, and safety). For example, in Trump’s speech “Our labour participation rate, it fell to 62.6 [percent] one of the worst in many, many years. We know what we are doing we gonna turn it back again and we are going to make America great again” (David, 2016). The pathos analysis shows it is clear how he appeals to the audience by combining two needs. Firstly, the self-esteem need in his slogan “Make America great again”, Secondly, the social needs in tackling jobs for people. Furthermore, the safety needs are shown in the immigration and the terrorism issues, in his Tampa Florida (YouTube, 2016) rally speech, where he said “we gonna build a wall and Mexico will pay for it”

3.3.2.2.2 Cognitive metaphor

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Metaphors are examples of tropes3 that conceptualise our vision about the world in a positive or negative way, and significantly contribute to human thought. “Lankoff and Johnson in 1980 characterise this process of metaphorical construction in terms of source domain and target domain” quoted in (Machin and Mayr, 2012 pp.165). The target domain is the issue that will be conceptualised through the metaphor, while the source domain is the concept we use to create the metaphor (Ibid, 2012). Metaphors are associated with feelings, for example when the migration (target domain) issue is described as “flood” (source domain: water) gives an impression of a natural disaster and provokes negative feelings towards the issue (Black, 2006).

3.3.2.2.3 Pathos arguments Pathos messages might have arguments (logos) to give the feelings a powerful effect. The pathos arguments -according to the Writing Center at the University of Maryland (2016) - are tied to value-based judgments directed at specific objects. As a result, pathos appeals, and focuses on the relationship between the audience and their values. For instance, democracy and freedom are associated with positive feelings, while tyranny and terrorism are negative Hauser (2002). There are different types of emotional logos as shown below: Table 5 Logical arguments examples

For instance, Obama used the syllogism to express his feelings in his speech for the gun attacks (appendix 1, 6.3.2). On the other hand, the mode of expression should align with the message. That can only happen with the cooperation of the mode, strategies used, and the delivery devices. Normally the mode of expression refers to feelings, such as; change, fear, hope, anxiety, anger, sympathy, and so forth.

3

Tropes are rhetoric devices connected to emotions.

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3.3.2.3 Third-Party Audience The third party audiences are the people who are mentioned in the speech but not attending. Politicians tend to tell stories about people. These types of audiences can be people they met, their rivals, their rivals’ supporters, or all of these.

3.3.2.4 Cultures beliefs and rules Averill (2001) states that the cultural beliefs and rules dimension combines the shared values in the society. That is why politicians use cultural beliefs and rules to build a common background with their audiences. Referring to a symbolic icon from history, for instance, referring to Martin Luther King in Obama’s 2008 election gives the impression that he is the one who will complete the dream of King. Religion also plays a role in building a cultural background with the audience, however, it has an important role in campaigning. Campaigns target human attitude formation and change which have two main routes recognized by the social psychologists; explicit and implicit (Arcuri, et al. 2008). Chartrand (1999, pp. 462) argue that “most of a person’s everyday life is determined not by their conscious intentions and deliberate choices but by mental processes that are put into motion by features of the environment that operate outside of conscious awareness and guidance”. Religious appeals have the influence to shift implicit attitudes even among people who are less religious. When these religious appeals are directed to the voters, it might affect their implicit process in the way they process the information about the politician which might impact their political behaviour, such as attending a political speech or volunteering in the campaign. Although the implicit process is always combined with explicit preferences, it might lead the voter in some cases especially in religious countries (Albertson, 2011). 3.4

Audience

The audience attending the speech, or the emotees, are the main target for the speech. Candidates like Obama tend to have different speeches for different audiences. For example, Obama in a speech for an audience of Wall Street he politely cautioned against credit-default swaps (Huffington Post, 2009) while on 60 minutes he called them, fat cat bankers (Business Insider, 2009). The characteristics of the audience should be considered such as the demography, location, and whether the audience are

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potential, or swing voters. There are many different techniques to engage the audience; contrast, puzzle-solution, and so forth. For instance:

3.4.1

Storytelling

According to Polletta (2006), people engage with the storytelling technique because it is authentic and emotional, everyone has their own story. This technique was used in Obama’s (2008) campaigns, such as the story of hope in his acceptance speech (appendix 1, 6.3.3). Storytelling was also connected to campaigning and mobilising in his campaign, as his camps in Chicago were designed to structure the volunteers into leaders, and train them on techniques such as storytelling (Ganz, 2009).

3.4.2

Colloquial Language

Colloquial language is informal language that is used among the public. The technique attracts the audience because it appears friendly and includes down to earth views (Poggi et al, 2013). It was used by Obama in his campaign in 2008 (O’Connell, 2010) and shown nowadays in Trump talks “we have to get down to the problem” (Digg, 2016) (ThinkProgress, 2015).

3.4.3

Generating Applause

Atkinson (1984) introduced Atkinson analysis for engaging the audience to generate applause through two commonly used techniques; firstly, the power of favourable references to “us”. Secondly, negative evaluations of “them”, criticism, and attacks have the same influence (appendix 1, 6.3.4) (Ibid, 1984). Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) study of rhetoric and response at political party conferences shows that there are seven basic rhetoric techniques that elicited almost 70% of the applause in 476 political speeches held at British party political conferences in 1981.These rhetorical devices are: contrast, list, puzzle-solution, headlinepunchline, combination, position-taking, and pursuit. Heritage and Greatbatch (1986) also supports Atkinson’s argument that verbal design of target messages provides a bridge between rhetoric and audience response to generate applause. One example of a rhetoric device is the “list”, and is shown in Thatcher’s speech at the Conservative

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Party Conference, 1981(appendix 1, 6.3.4.3). In this example the words shield, refuge, and answer were perfectly connected in a set of three, by the word no.

3.5

Speech

In analysing the speech, several elements must be included, such as; arrangement, style and cohesion, rhetoric devices, content and purpose, process circumstance.

3.5.1

Arrangement

There is no canonical order for arranging the speech. Aune (2003) cited that Aristotle mentioned four parts for the speech arrangements; Introduction, statement of the issue, proof, and the conclusion. Black (2014) suggested five main parts that must be included in the speech; the prologue (introduction), the narrative, the proof, the refutation, and the epilogue (conclusion). Therefore, when analysing the arrangement of the speech, the logos, techniques and rhetorical devices should also be included in the analysis of each part.

3.5.1.1 The prologue The prologue’s function, as described by Black (2014), is to engage with the audience and attract their attention to the issue discussed. This can be achieved by sharing feelings and values with the audience, as with the introduction for Obama’s victory speech in 2009 (Obama, 2008) or by beginning with refuting an argument part that replaces the prologue (appendix 1, 6.3.5).

3.5.1.2 The Narrative It is known as the part that outlines the logical arguments (logos) for the content (issue) of the speech. The same table (5) provided above is used for logos (Black 2014). Obama used a syllogism linguistic trap in his speech in front of the Senate’s Foreign Relations Committee (Cary, 2008) (appendix 1, 6.3.6).

3.5.1.3 The Proof Proof is the “part in which the orator identifies whether the argument will draw primarily on the artless or artistic proofs and which of the artistic proofs are most like- 14 -

ly to be persuasive” (Black, 2014 pp.8). This definition is problematic because it limits the proof to the persuasive techniques and rhetorical devices used, while the structure, content, and consistency with the issue are ignored. For instance, when analysing Obama’s (2004) speech (appendix 1, 6.3.7), it is not enough to analyse the proof through the personalisation technique, or the anaphora device, as Black (2014) analysed it. The structure, content and how this emphasises the issue should be included.

3.5.1.4 The refutation It can be included in the prologue, replace it, be in the “proof”, or as a separate part. It includes the rejection for a policy, or is part of the attacks towards rivals and their supporters in the campaign. According to Black (2014), there are three persuasive techniques used by Obama in refuting the arguments (appendix 1, 6.3.8). These techniques and structures are mainly based on ethos and logos, which keeps the attacks towards the issue, and keeps the tone passive area, rather than aggressive.

3.5.1.5 The Epilogue The Epilogue theory gives a summary of the argument at the end of the speech. Some politicians use their relationship with God and religious values to end their speeches, such as Roosevelt, Kennedy (Miller Center University of Virginia, 2000) and King in his remarkable speech “I have a dream” (American Rhetoric, 1963). In modern public speaking, there are different techniques used to end a speech, such as quotation close, repetition, an unexpected action, and so forth (Atkinson, 1984). In campaigns, the motivation technique is commonly used to urge people to vote for the candidate, and to raise the importance of the time. Obama used this during the Pennsylvania Campaign in (2008b) (appendix 1, 6.3.9).

3.5.2

Speech Style/Cohesion

Black (2014) pointed out three style types; Attic (plain style), which uses simple words and implies sincerity, Asianic (grand style), which excites admiration, and the middle style, which incorporates both. Cohesion is an empirical linguistic method that gives the impression of a unified speech (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). It is divided into two categories; grammatical and lexical (Black, 2014 p.59). This study will only focus

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on the analysis of the “reference”4 in the grammatical category because it affects the understanding of the whole meaning of the speech, and helps the audience to follow the speaker and avoid confusion. This study will only focus on the deixis because it conveys meanings beyond the limited functions of linguistics. The study will focus also on the “repetition”5 (Ibid, 2014) in the lexical category because it has a physiological impact on the audience. Repetition is used in campaign ads and speeches because studies have shown that repetition is associated with the creation of high levels of change in attitude to confidence (Berger and Mitchell, 1989) (Petty, et. al 1986). As repetition evokes considerations about the candidates, which are used in evaluation and affect attitude, it is commonly used in communication campaigns. These considerations are the result of repeated connections between highlighted themes and the candidates, and the repeated issues with the candidates, so at the moment of evaluation, the candidate would be brought to the head because of the link with the theme or issues (Claibourn, 2008). The rationale behind choosing these subcategories is their impact on speech comprehension and the purpose of the speech, which is campaigning.

3.5.3

Rhetoric devices (Schemes and Tropes)

While the strategies are the techniques used to be psychologically persuasive, and the rhetoric devices are the way the words of the speech are structured. For instance, transcendence is a technique used to give concrete examples of feelings that are tangible; to be clearer for the people. For example, Obama used this technique in his victory speech (appendix 1, 6.3.10) (Gallo6, 2012). This paragraph shows how Obama used both techniques and rhetoric devices. Firstly, the transcendence technique is shown in the concrete examples for “determination”, in “voice of a young field organizer who’s working his way through college and wants to make sure every child has

4

Reference: refers to words that can only have a meaning because of their relationship with others in the speech such as ‘this’. The concept of reference is concerned with the establishment of connections and relationships. The reference has three categories; exophoric 5, endophoric6, and deixis7. 5 Repetition: exactly the same word repeated. For further information, read; Black. J. 2014. Analysing political speech. 6 He is a keynote speaker and communication coach for most admired brands. He is the author of seven international bestsellers including, "The Storyteller's Secret: From TED Speakers to Business Legends, Why Some Ideas Catch on and Others Don't, the Presentation Secrets of Steve Jobs and The Apple Experience. The Bright Sight Group in Princeton, New Jersey, represents him as a keynote speaker worldwide. He graduated from UCLA and have a master’s degree in journalism from Northwestern.

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that same opportunity” and so forth. Secondly, the anaphora rhetoric device is used to illustrate more in his examples, by starting three sentences with “You’ll hear”. There are two types of rhetoric device used for the construction of words; schemes and tropes, both defined earlier. Both are significantly important, for instance, schemes are used for the rhyme, balance and timing, while troops contribute to the building of the pathos emotions. The anaphora, parallelism, tricolon, and repetition are examples of the schemes, while metaphor, irony, and rhetoric question are examples of the tropes (Blackss, 2014) (appendix 1, 6.3.10.2).

3.5.4

Process Circumstance

I suggest this section lists new techniques used by candidates, as well as comparing older techniques with each other in order to evaluate the production of the writing and the delivery of the techniques.

3.5.5

Content and Purpose

Analysing political speech in campaigns should include analysing the content from a political perspective, to analyse the arguments represented and how the arguments affect the candidate’s ethos or affects the audience’s emotions and perception. The reason is that according to appraisal theory, people’s emotion results from how they perceive the world and what implications are believed, according to that context (Frijda et al., 2000). Political campaigns are the signs for a healthy democracy. There is a need to identify the values that the campaigns should hold and the information environment that is required. According to Lipsitz (2004), there are three political values; competition, equality, and deliberation. Both political competition and deliberation concern with the campaign process such as law and finance or communication facilities available which are not in the focus of our study. Therefore, this study will focus on the political equality which means the information environment of the campaign and whether the candidates have an equal chance to present their cases to the voters. Political equality has two dimensions; firstly, equal political influence, that is, no citizen has more power than other citizens over the political process. Secondly, no one can have more control over the information provided for the voters (Dahl, 1956).

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4 METHODOLOGY Political speech is a complex communication process that combines speaking (text, delivery), thinking, feelings, and engaging with the audience. The analysis of such a process needs a new multidimensional approach, which combines features from persuasive communication analysis, conversation analysis, and discourse analysis. 4.1

Sample

The selected speech is for Abdel Fatah El-Sisi from the last Egyptian election in 2014, between him as a representative of the Egyptian military and Hamdeen Sabahi, who represents the left-wing. The selected speech was recorded and uploaded on to YouTube, and is his nomination speech for presidency. The importance of this speech is generated from the refusal of an authoritarian regime, as it came after two revolutions; one against Mubarak, who was a military man in 2011, and Mohammed Morsi, who was one of Muslim brotherhood’s leaders in 2013. These revolutions aimed for a democratic regime; therefore, there is a significant need to analyse how his speech persuaded the audience to accept a military president again. 4.2

Historical Background

The term “discourse analysis” (DA) developed from a social constructionism epistemology. It stems from the important role of the discourse to construct “ideas, social processes, and phenomena that make up our social world” (Nikander, 2008 pp.2). It has many features in common with conversation analysis and speech act theory, and can be used to analyse both formal and informal spoken interactions. In addition, it can be used for written texts (Bull, 2003). Discourse analysis is especially useful in discursive psychology, and focuses on rhetorical organisation, and the persuasive and morally consequential aspects of language use (Nikander, 2008). 4.3

Conceptual Basis

According to Dijk (1997), political campaign speeches are considered a political discourse that should be analysed through political discourse analysis (PDA). “PDA is both about political discourse, and it is also a critical-political discourse analysis deals - 18 -

especially with the reproduction of political power, power abuse or domination” (Ibid, 1997 pp.11). This concept is so close to Fairclough’s (1989) critical discourse analysis (CDA) perspective, which says that analysis should look at power abuse, and identify how inequalities and conflicts, arising from the capitalist mode of production, are manifest in the political discourse. The difference between the two ideas, is that Dijk’s PDA concerns text and speech in relation to the political context, while CDA is mainly focused on the language in relation to production and social events or practices. Using power abuse as a starting point for the analysis is problematic, with Reisigl (2008) arguing, that it is too subjective, because how would we know when power was used illegitimatly, and who should decide whether it is or not? He tried to answer these questions by giving a specific indication for the abuse of power, which is when text is used to produce negative mental consequences. That is, when a group uses power to produce a text of disinformation, stereotypes, and prejudices. However, it can be argued that it will be in the hands of the researcher to demonstrate whether the language use is illegitimate or not (Black 2014). Therefore, our conceptual basis stems from four connected bases; first Dijk’s (1997) definition that political speeches are political discourse, which are critical and should be analysed in relation to the political context. Secondly, campaigns are like practicing democracy, so political speeches within it should be analysed through both a “descriptive and normative” approach (Fairclough, N.I. 2012 p.25), which means illustrating its techniques, decoding them and evaluating the speech to the same standards if possible. Thirdly, Fairclough’s (1989) critical discourse analysis is important for analysing the techniques and rhetoric devices used in the speech and in comparing writer’s style. Finally, political speeches power comes from persuasion as Black (2014) defined political speeches as “a powerful social group A persuades another social group B to do things that are in A’s best interests, and prevents group B from doing the things that are in B’s best interests.” Therefore, I suggest a new multimodal critical-political-discourse analysis (MCPDA) which is able to analyse political speeches as a communication process and can combine different approaches together as Bull (2003) suggested. The key features of this MCPDA is that, it is concerned with the worthiness of all kinds of interaction for investigation, such as verbal and non-verbal communication, language, politics and persuasive communication. The MCPDA has another two imperative principles for - 19 -

analysing communication is that communication is a skill, and when analysing political speeches, it is important to analyse the speaker’s skills in communicating with the audience. As a result of being a skill it can be taught to other politicians. Therefore, the listing of techniques and detailed analysis can be developed into a comprehensive study for politicians to learn from. The second feature is that communication in campaigns concern about analysing political speeches using persuasive and resistance theories in persuasive communication. I will demonstrate the connection between discourse analysis and the branches suggested, then I will illustrate the multimodal critical political discourse analysis.

4.3.1

Discourse Analysis and Communication analysis

According to Wood and Kroger (2000), discourse analysis has developed into several fields, such as anthropology, communication, education, and psychology. Social semiotic used to be the method for analysing communication features. However, it can be argued that the analyst imposes interpretations without having evidence of the production process or through the interaction between the elements of the communication process. These justifications are subjective and problematic, therefore, the study will depend on the microanalysis approach for analysing visuals like appearance, composition, and colours. Microanalysis is a broad approach, with several studies in several fields. This study will focus on studies of social psychology, on body appearance, and language. Moreover, we are concerned with what happened, what other choices were available to be more effective, and how it affected the situation, more than why they were used.

4.3.2

Discourse Analysis (DA) and Conversation Analysis (CA)

The assumptions and approaches for both conversation analysis and discourse analysis are shared on a broad level. According to Wooffitt (2005), the similarities between them can be summarised into four aspects; talk as topic, meaning that both of them focus on language as a social action. DA and CA give attention to properties of data and how language is used; as a result, their research questions are driven from observation exhibited from these data. Moreover, they reflect the ethnomethodology concerns. Finally, both analysis techniques were criticised for subjectivity and impos-

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ing claims and interpretations on the research. On the other hand, there are two main differences between CA and DA. One of the main differences between DA and CA concerns moment-by moment, talk-in-interaction, and how participants make sense of it. In another words, according to the Nudge unite behaviour insight team, “CA is not interested in ‘why’ it is interested in that ‘is happened’ and how it ‘happens’ and what is the difference in the language that make the difference?” (The Royal Institution channel, 2015) Despite the differences between CA and DA, Atkinson (2004) introduced a new approach that can be combined with DA when analysing certain techniques.

4.3.2.1 CA in Atkinson’s (1984) Approach Atkinson’s (1984) theory of political speeches is based on the concept that the audience’s applause is invited and generated by politicians through the use of some rhetoric devices and techniques. His study was concerned with CA as a window for investigating speaker-audience interactions. He discovered that the use of certain rhetoric devices, with the combination of body language and voice tone of the politician contributes to generating the applause. Analysing applause in the political speech within the campaign provides valuable information about how effective the different techniques and rhetoric devices were for politicians in different situations.

4.3.3

Discourse Analysis and Persuasive Communication

Before 1964, the concept of a passive audience was dominating the minds of the communicators, until McGuire (1964), who developed a technique to increase people’s resistance, by providing them with counterarguments to appeal to persuasive messages. As a result, the audience is no longer considered passive during the communication process. On the contrary, they are active in the consumption of the information that aims to change their attitudes and behaviours. People generate their own arguments during persuasive messages “these self-generated cognitions (thoughts) combine with message content and the persuasive characteristics of the communicator to affect a receiver’s evolution of the message recommendation” (Stiff, 1999 pp. 176). Depending on this, people develop counter-arguments, while processing of the communication. The second point is that, if you can provide the audience with techniques to maximise their resistance, this indicates that the opposite can also be true, - 21 -

that is, providing them with a strong mode of communication process will maximise their persuasion and minimise their resistance. The strength of the mode of communication can be achieved through different models, however, this study adopts the approach-avoidance model in persuasive communication, with both alpha and omega strategies gathered by Knowles and Linn (2004). Alpha increases the motivation to move through the goal, while omega, by reducing resistance as shown below: Table 6 Alpha strategies (Knowles and Linn, 2004)

Table 7 Omega strategies (Knowles and Linn, 2004)

This study will not differentiate between the strategies, as both are included in campaigns. One of the omega techniques, which is; address resistance directly mentioning people’s concerns- was used in Obama’s speech on race in 2008 (Npr, 2008), talking about McCain; “the American people think that I somehow believe or sympathize with his most offensive words.” As provided above, Obama tackled the people’s concern in order to get their attention and drive them out from building their own counterarguments, to go through the speaker’s path for persuasion. 4.4

Multimodal Critical Political Discourse Analysis

Before demonstrating my multimodal political discourse analysis, I will illustrate the differences between this model and other approaches that dealt with the analysis of political discourse, such as; Chiton (2004), Wodak (2009a, 2009b), and Black (2014). All of these approaches are linguistic oriented. Chilton’s (2004) analysis was mainly concerned with cognitive linguistics within an account of deliberation and action, moreover he focused on how politicians draw reality using anchors like metaphor. Wodak (2009a, 2009b) are mainly concerned with arguments of representation, not

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action (Fairclough, N.I. 2012) . Our model is concerned with persuasive communication and the analysis of the political discourse through techniques, rhetoric devices, and persuasive strategies. On the other hand, Black (2014) was very insightful, however, some modifications were added to solve problematic issues in Black’s (2014) model, as well as adding three new dimensions; microanalysis, conversation analysis, and persuasive communication strategies. Black’s 2014 mode has three stages; (a) the analysis of the speech ‘circumstances’, (b) identification and analysis of features, and (c) interpretation and explanation.

4.4.1

The analysis of the speech ‘circumstances’

This stage in Black’s (2014) model has three parts; situational circumstances, cognitive circumstances, and process circumstances. While I borrowed the situational circumstances and cognitive circumstances, I added the analysis of the environment in the situational circumstances, in addition to a third dimension, political circumstances. In the situational circumstances, I focused on analysing the identity of the speech settings, such as speaker, location, date, occasion, duration, audience, and the number of speeches within the campaign. Moreover, when analysing the audience, one should consider the audience who are attending and can be seen in the recorded video. Nevertheless, from the perspective that the language of the speech has a purpose, it is also important to analyse the audience at home, if possible, and some studies can be taken into consideration in the interpretation stage. For instance, if the speech has no audience but was delivered in a certain place for certain people with different demographics, such as states with a high percentage of Latinos, Muslims or, black people in the US, the researcher should consider the audience demographics, characteristics, and according to the available information, whether they are considered swing voters or not. The cognitive circumstances include the state of knowledge of the speaker’s and audience’s beliefs, assumptions, and purpose. In addition, we suggest that analysing the noise should be added at this stage, such as in the cases where there is speech interruption by protesters, and also how his/her beliefs and assumptions interact with the speaker’s and the attending audience. Although, it can be argued that the concept of knowledge is hard to determine and it is not clear enough, some experiences by the audience can give an indication for their beliefs and assumptions. For instance, an au- 23 -

dience in a place that voted for the democratic party in the US several times can be considered as sharing some of the party’s values. The process circumstances in Black (2014) is concerned with the production and delivery of the speech. It is important for the interaction between the speaker and the speech-writer, and how it affects the delivery of the speech. Furthermore, it is concerned with the norms of interaction in political events between the speaker and the audience, such as if cheering is permitted. I agree with Black’s (2014) argument that it is too difficult to gain access to this kind of information, especially during a campaign, maybe a later interview with the writer would reveal some important information about the production of the speech and the writer. Therefore, I suggest to move the process to the speech analysis section and to change its function to help in understanding communication political speeches as a skill. That is, evaluating the techniques used in the speech for persuasion, which can be done through comparison of the techniques and rhetoric devices used in this speech with others of the same writer (if the writer is known), giving an indication of the writer’s style. Alternatively, comparing the techniques and rhetoric devices used in the speech with similar ones in other speeches by different writers (if the writer is not known), which would be helpful in indicating how efficient the use of these techniques and rhetoric devices in similar or different topics are.

4.4.2

Identification and analysis of features

This stage “involves the identification and analysis of language and performance features” (Black, 2014 pp. 89). The analysis of the language is through smaller units, such as lexical choices and larger units, such as techniques and rhetoric devices, body language, tone of voice, and non-verbal language. This stage in Black’s (2014) model focused on the speech and the speaker’s characteristics, and the interaction between them in the delivery. However, it ignored other elements, such as how the speech emphasises the speaker’s ethos, how the speaker built a relationship with the audience, what types of audiences are mentioned, what techniques are used to engage the audience. Therefore, I suggest this stage is divided into three sub-categories; (1) speaker, (2) audience, and (3) the speech.

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4.4.2.1 Speaker We will analyse both the ethos and pathos separately. The speaker’s ethos is divided into intrinsic and extrinsic, with the Intrinsic concerning the physical appearance, such as hairstyle, eyeglasses, dress, jewellery, and make up. In the extrinsic, it is very important to look at how the speech emphasises the speaker’s trustworthiness and background experiences.

The speaker’s pathos will be analysed through Averill’s (2001) rhetoric episode, the three contextual layers described above in the literature, and the microanalysis approach, through the science of body performance will be used. This study will also make use of new technologies, like windows movie maker for frame by frame shots. As for voice speed rate techniques, the study will depend on Bettinghaus and Cody’s (1994) study, and Atkinson’s (1984) approach. As for analysing the emotions appeals, the study will use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to analyse how the speaker targets the audience’s needs. The study will use Black (2014) for analysing the logos for the subject of the speech.

4.4.2.2 Audience The study will analyse the techniques and rhetoric devices used to engage the audience through Atkinson’s (1984) (2004) approach, such as storytelling, colloquial language, generating applause, contrast, and so forth.

4.4.2.3 Speech For the speech analysis, the study will depend on Black (2014), providing logos to analyse the arrangement of the speech, the techniques, and rhetorical devices. Moreover, the study will take into consideration our suggestions of analysing the structure of the proofs within the speech, and the techniques and rhetoric devices included in each part. The lexical analysis for style, cohesion and metaphor meanings is based on both Al-maany’s dictionary for Arabic language, El Baheth’s dictionary for Arabic language, as well as Black (2014), for how to analyse cohesion. The study will also depend on political, social, and campaigning studies, or reports that analyse the speech content and purpose.

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4.4.3

Interpretation and Explanation

This stage is different than in Black (2014). Although I draw on his persuasion and trust approach, I changed it because I disagree with the main concept he builds his approach on. However, this stage is divided into two sections; content and purpose, and the newly suggested, persuasion and trust approach. In analysing the content and purpose, his study depends on political, social, and campaigning studies or reports for analysing the speech argument. The aim from analysing the content is to discover how the speaker used the content to achieve the purpose of the speech in addition, to compare this method to the standards of campaigning. The aim of the persuasion and trust approach is to evaluate the persuasiveness of the political speech by showing its strength and weakness depending on persuasive communication theories and strategies. Before I demonstrate my suggested persuasion and trust approach, I would like to illustrate the differences between Black’s (2014) and mine. Black (2014) developed a persuasion approach for analysing political speech, in which he suggests that the persuasion process starts with the speaker “being right” then the contribution of five primary elements; having the right intentions (establishing integrity –ethos-), thinking right (expressing political arguments –logos-), sounding right (heightening emotional impact –pathos-), telling the right story (mental representations, myths, frames, and schemata), and finally looking right (appearance, hair, dress, and gesture). However, I argue that the persuasion process commences not with the speaker “being right”, but with the mode of communication process being right. That is, the interaction between all the elements of the communication process and the consistency between them, create a mode of communication that is right, which persuades the audience. Therefore, I suggest a persuasion and trust with six dimensions, based on alpha and omega strategies, and build as described below:

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Figure 3 Suggested Persuasion and Trust approach

The first variable, “image building and reputation management (ethos)” manages the speaker’s image by the two types of ethos (extrinsic and intrinsic) in cooperation with persuasive techniques and rhetoric devices as mentioned before. In this aspect the evaluation of the speaker’s ethos, techniques/devices will be through elements that increase the speaker’s trustworthiness and credibility. Secondly, “the political arguments” concern the structure of logical and pathos arguments, and whether they provide reasons for action or belief, and whether resistance or counter arguments is addressed and refuted. Thirdly, the “Pathos sincerity, and satire” is important for the measurement of the positive and negative emotional campaigns. Moreover, the evaluation of Pathos will include; how the speaker raises the interest of listening to the message through body language efficiency, appeals to needs, using metaphor, and whether he uses techniques for avoiding resistance. The speech must be in regard to the target audience and whether the speech is depending more on pathos or logos. Fourthly, “the political language in use” will deal with the following different elements; allowing understanding, the style type, and cohesion. Arguments and other persuasive techniques should be taken into consideration, such as emphasising scarcity timing or providing choices. In this part, these elements should be evaluated regarding the purpose of the speech, the speaker, and the type of audience. The fifth is engaging the audience, which should evaluate the techniques and rhetoric devices, and the per-

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suasive strategies according to the target audience’s characteristics. The sixth perspective, “consistency with the context/noise” evaluates the speaker in relation to the audience and the myths creation in relation to the real political context. In addition to, evaluate other persuasive strategies, such as engaging a norm of reciprocity. Finally, “the consistency with the purpose” evaluates the argument’s persuasive techniques, such as adding incentives, and indicates whether these elements are in harmony with the purpose of the speech and the campaign messages and standards, or not. After the evaluation, and stating the strengths and weaknesses, I will suggest three scenarios. First; if the strength is higher than the weakness, this would mean that this communication process was strong enough to stand up against people’s counter arguments. Secondly, if the weakness is greater than the strength, this would be a failure in the communication process that it can easily be defeated. Finally, if the strengths and weaknesses are equal, this means that this communication process needs more external elements to support it, as it is not strong enough to stand alone.

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5 Findings and Discussion In this chapter, I will apply the multimodal political discourse analysis to El-Sisi’s nomination speech through the three suggested stages; (1) the analysis of the speech circumstances, (2) identification and analysis of features, and (3) interpretation and explanation. 5.1

Analysis of the Speech Circumstances

This contains the analysis of the noise, the context, and its components; (1) the situational, (2) cognitive, and (3) political circumstances. This stage will be analysed using the microanalysis approach and the Dijk (1997) definition of political discourse, concerned with connecting the discourse with the political context. The speech was recorded in good quality and there was no audience, therefore, the study finds that there was no noise and nothing hindered the communication process.

5.1.1

Situational Circumstances

According to Sky News (2014) and the recorded speech of El-Sisi (2014) on YouTube: Table 8 El-Sisi's speech situational circumstances (Sky News, 2014)

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5.1.1.1 Environment Analysis The Environment consists of the flag and nature scenery in the background.

Image 1 Screenshot from El-Sisi’s speech

Image 2The Competitive/Defensive Position Pease (2004)

The Environment consists of the flag and nature scenery in the background. Microanalysis was used for colour psychology to analyse the small amount of red in relation to the green in the background. Red acts to incite action and is induces emotionally determined actions, whereas green creates an environment ideal for meditation, exacting fulfilment of the task (Birren, 1961), and is associated with feelings of calm, happiness, comfort, peace, hope, and excitement (Mustafar and Dzulkifli, 2013). Smith (1991) stresses that symbols emphasies the concepts of national belonging of the citizens. El-Sisi was seated in a competitive/defence position, as shown in image 2. Sitting facing another person can elicit defensiveness in somebody, whereby each person takes a strong stand regarding their opinions and ideas. They feel protected, with a solid barrier, in the form of the table, between them (Pease, 2004). However, it does depend on the people and the situation, for example in business, it may give the impression of competiveness, while in restaurants it gives the impression of conversation. Therefore, the impression will determine by the audience, for instance, those who disagree with the military may see his position as competitive, while other people may get the impression of a leader in a chatty conversation with them.

5.1.2

Cognitive Circumstances

The analysis will start with the speaker’s beliefs, assumptions, and purpose, then the audience. El-Sisi’s beliefs stem from being a military man, thus, it can be said that his beliefs are based on military concepts, such as power and eligibility to rule Egypt. - 30 -

Kingsley (2014) described El-Sisi’s intention to become president as an ‘open secret for months’. El-Sisi’s cognitive mind-set is based on imposing control over economic development and against Western standard values, according to Aly (2014): His final paper when he studied at the U.S. Army War College makes clear; his approach to democratization is sequential: Egypt, like other Islamic countries, must first stabilize and adopt the requisite institutions and values—a process that he assumed would take two decades if Egypt were to attain Western standards. His assumptions and purpose is to persuade the audience to accept a military man again, after two revolutions in Egypt, against Mubarak and Morsi. He assumes public acceptance because he was the one who ousted Morsi, also there was less resistance among activists in the street, especially after the Rabaa crackdown in 2013 (Elmessiry, 2014). On the other hand, it is hard to determine the audience’s beliefs, as the speech targets the public, which was divided into three main groups; military supporters, MB sympathisers, and people in the middle. The key to the audience assumptions is seen through their revolutions against Mubarak and Morsi. Egyptians aimed for: A democratic political system that guaranteed them basic human and civil rights and empowered them to create a more accountable, less corrupt government that served the people. Specifically, Egyptians wanted the freedom to speak, assemble, and participate in public affairs to apply equally to all citizens (Aziz, 2014). 5.1.3

Political Circumstances

The political system in Egypt, at first appears to be that of a democracy, as it is based on presidential and parliamentarian elections. However, in reality it is an authoritarian regime (Blaydes, 2011). After the step down of Mubarak and the success of the January 25th revolution, different political parties were launched in the faith of freedom and democracy, such as the Constitution party, the Free Egyptian party, the Freedom and Justice party (MB), and so forth. After the June 30th revolution in 2013, the MB was assigned as a terrorism organisation, leading to the dissolution of their party. El-Sisi’s speech came eight months after the Rabaa massacre in August 2013 (Elmessiry, 2014) (Egyptian News Centre, 2014). The society was fragile and urging for stability (PewResearchCenter, 2014a). The period had witnessed a drop in EgyptUSA relations, as two senators (McCain and Graham) paid a visit to Cairo (Khalil, 2013). Graham stated that the people who were elected are in jail. USA also decided to suspend its military aid to Egypt (Press, 2013). At the same time, Egypt also had troubles with Turkey. Muslim Brotherhood was an ally to AkP, the governing party in - 31 -

Turkey. Erdogan has described former army chief, turned president Abdel-Fattah ElSisi as a “coup leader”, sparking the ire of the Egyptian leader along with his Gulf allies in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (MEE, 2015). On the regional African level, Egypt suffered from being suspended from the African union in the context of toppling President Morsi (Maasho and Ababa, 2013). 5.2

Identification and Analysis of Features

This section is concerned with answering the first question; what are the techniques and rhetorical devices used for persuasion and trust in El-Sisi’s nomination speech? It is divided into three parts; (1) speaker, (2) audience, and (3) speech. Mixed methods will be used to analyse the elements, such as microanalysis, Atkinson’s approach (1984) and techniques (2004), windows movie maker for frame by frame analysis, Bettinghaus and Cody (1994) for persuasive communication, Machin and Mayer’s (2012) approach for metaphor analysis, Black (2014) for logos, style and cohesion, along with social psychology studies and speeches from different candidates and speakers for comparisons if possible.

5.2.1

Speaker

This part is divided into ethos and pathos.

5.2.1.1 Ethos 5.2.1.1.1 Intrinsic 5.2.1.1.1.1 Analysing the Uniform This part concerns the body’s appearance. In Egypt, there are two types of clothes used in the military; one for the battlefield or operations, and the second is used for meetings or outside the military operations, as shown in the pictures below:

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Image 3 On the left picture, El-Sisi is wearing the battlefield uniform while on the right Tantawy is wearing meetings uniform

El-Sisi gave his speech wearing the military uniform designed for the battlefield. According to Lewis (1948), these kinds of uniforms are a sign of authority and duty. This psychologically aligns with the idea that he is still on duty, even if he changes his military uniform to a suit, which is reflected in his speech; “today, I am taking off this uniform to defend this homeland as well.” A uniform can be seen as a symbol of cohesion and willingness to conform to rules and norms associated with the uniform (Alex and Joseph, 2016).

5.2.1.1.1.2 Analysing the Ring Men in Egypt use the same shaped silver rings when they get married, as in western countries, but El-Sisi wore a different one, which is not commonly used.

Image 4 On the right El-Sisi's ring verses the normal ring for engagement

According to the Egyptian house of Fatwa (2005), the ring in the picture on the right is allowed, while according to the Saudi Arabia general presidency for scientific research and issuing (2010) it is better for men not to wear it and to wear a ring instead because these kinds of are not related to the Islamic culture.

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Image 5 Similarity between El-Sisi’s and Salman's rings

Therefore, it seems that he wants to appear more adherent to the conservative, Saudi Arabian Islamic views, by wearing a ring similar to the Saudi Arabian King’s as shown below:

5.2.1.1.2 Extrinsic The speech emphasised El-Sisi’s extrinsic ethos through trust and experience. Trust was maintained through the appeal of virtue (Black, 2014) in several parts of the speech, such as honesty, transparency, and moderation. This technique is used to imply that he is a better person than the last presidents. For instance, he used a list-of-three technique to demonstrate his honesty with the public, state, himself. I want to be honest7 with you, as I have always been, honest with my country, and honest with myself. Depending on the public as a starting point, then the state and himself, gives an impression of being humble as he puts the peoples’ interests before his own, which aligns with Atkinson (1984). Moreover, his sincerity and transparency shows, in being open about Egypt’s problems and challenges, as in: “We Egyptians have an extremely difficult task and a costly mission. The economic, social, political and security realities in Egypt” and “I want to speak to you with complete openness and in the circumstances you all know about.” Moreover, El-Sisi used the list-of-four to emphasize his morality, as in, “all honesty, all loyalty, all honour and all patriotism”. However, Atkinson (2004) pointed out that people used to perceive the third points as the final one, and start to interrupt the speaker after it, so lists of four may be confusing. This technique may have been used in the speech because there was no attending audience to interrupt. However, the use

7

The italic is made to illustrate the start of the clauses for the list of three.

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of words like honesty and loyalty, with the repeated word all, made it shorter, less confusing and gave it a rhythm. On the other hand, the speech represents his experience in the military through a story telling technique. He tells a story about joining the Air Force at 15 years old and spending 45 years defending the nation, as Polletta (2006) mentioned this implies sincerity while Ganz (2009) cited it is used also for mobilization. The dates and numbers of the year’s show his extended experience as a soldier and gives an impression of being an expert fighter. “The first time I wore the military uniform was in 1970 when I was a 15-year-old cadet at the Air Force High School, almost 45 years ago.”

5.2.1.2 Pathos The study uses Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (McLeod, 2007) and Averill’s (2001) approach to analyse pathos; emoter-relationship with the audience, third-party audience, shared cultural beliefs and rules, and pathos message mode of expression. Moreover, pathos logos will be analysed with practical reasoning examples provided by Black (2014).

5.2.1.2.1 Emoter-Relationship Being human and being authentic are the two main aspects in building a relationship with the audience. El-Sisi managed to appear more human and break the barriers by starting with an introduction about himself, moreover, the use of a very simple formal language, combined with colloquial language, such as “they do not want” made him appear closer to the public. The second concept “being authentic” is doubtful. After ousting Morsi, El-Sisi confirmed that he had no intention in running for presidency. This was confirmed by the military spokesperson and was stressed by El-Baradi (Amr, 2014). Thus, his authenticity is doubtable as he used his emotions to convince people about something, and then he used same emotions to convince them of the opposite.

5.2.1.2.1.1 Body performance A third aspect is body performance, analysis of which, will include; eye movement, hand gestures and symbolic actions, and voice abilities, such as speech rate and voice techniques. As there was no attending audience in this video, it is difficult to determine the audience’s interaction and response. Microanalysis, including the science of body - 35 -

performance will be the source of information about El-Sisi’s performance, as well as Atkinson’s (1984) approach in analysing the voice techniques. We will also use the windows movie maker program to analyse frame by frame shots.

5.2.1.2.1.1.1 Eye contact and movement El-Sisi’s eye contact disrupts the communication process, as shown below, because he stopped more than once to look up, suggesting he was reading from a screen above the camera. What confirmed this idea is that he made mistakes in reading and repeated what he has said. This indicates that the decision to go on live TV could have been made quickly, as he didn’t have chance to read and practice the speech before going on the air.

Image 6 El-Sisi is reading from a screen on the left of the camera

The pictures below show the difference between El-Sisi’s eye movement and the perfect social gaze used to show interest in the audience. Although, it is beneficial not to extend gazing because it creates intimate feelings, it is always a challenge for politicians to move their eyes around or down without losing the audience’s attention, or disrupting their message delivery, as happened here.

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Image 7 Difference between El-Sisi’s eye movement to the left and the social gaze to show interest in the audience on the rightgestures picture (Pease, 2004) 5.2.1.2.1.1.2 Hand

El-Sisi tried hard to keep his hands open while speaking to convey openness according to Pease (2004). However, for the majority of the time, his hands were closed and in the palm-down position, which represents authority and firmness.

Image 8 Similarities between El-Sisi's hand gestures and palm-down technique, which represents authority (Pease, 2004)

Another position for El-Sisi’s hands, which represent warning and anger when he was saying, “Our mission is to restore Egypt and to rebuild it. Our mission is to restore Egypt and to rebuild it” (Pease, 2004) (Richards, 2001). His face expression with the hands give an importance for the moment and implies that Egypt is in danger.

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Image 9 El-Sisi's showing power with his hands (Pease, 2004)

5.2.1.2.1.1.3 Voice speed rate and techniques According to Bettinghaus and Cody (1994), there are several methods to measure speech rates. They focused on the most acceptable rates; “normal speech rates vary from 120 to 195 words per minute (wpm); research has employed rates of 102-111 wpm as slow, 140 wpm as moderate, and 191 wpm as fast” (Ibid 1999 pp 257). In addition, Bauer and Trudgill (1998) added two dimensions in analysing the speed rate; social and personal factors. The social factor is concerned with how the society perceives certain types of rates, for example, in Zulu society; slow speech tempo is a sign of respect and sincerity. Personal factors are the way an individual speaks depending on various factors. For example, the normal speech rate for some individuals is very different to other peoples. In addition, the emotion of the speaker will influence the speech rate, for example, some people speak slowly when sad. Another personal factor that may influence speech speed is the desire to stress certain words in speeches. Moreover, Vaane’s (1982) study results confirmed that both trained and untrained listeners are accurate in determining the speed rate for their own language (Ibid, 1998). After analysing EL-Sisi’s speech, according to this information, El-Sisi’s speed rate average was 83 per mins (appendix 1, 6.3.11) which was lower than the normal. For instance, El-Sisi pauses ranged from (1) to (4) seconds which is extremely long comparing to other politicians’ pauses observed by Atkinson (1984) that only takes less than one second. This can be shown in many parts such as “Only your support will grant me this great honor (4) I stand directly before you…” This observation confirms

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our claim that he was reading from a board and waiting for the next screen. Secondly, it lowered the speech rhythm. Although he might be perceived as a wise man, the long stops he made in the sentences at place of unimportance will have lowered the interest in the feeling he was delivering, and made him appear boring. As a native Arabic speaker, it can be shown that his voice capabilities are also naturally slow, which might be the reason for his lack of ability in doing the crescendo. The speech is full of rhetoric devices, however, there is more than one place that ElSisi used voice techniques to deliver the message with the intended effect. Firstly, he repeated sentences in different places, for example, “Our mission is to restore Egypt and to rebuild it. Our mission is to restore Egypt and to rebuild it8”. El-Sisi used his voice to emphasize the effect of the rhetoric, which was strong and aggressive, giving the impression of power. In comparison to Clinton or Thatcher (appendix 1, 6.3.1.2), who were calm and had more control over their words with a rhythm, the stress he made gave all the words the same weight, which resulted in a strong impression of fear. In the second repeated sentence: “Making the future is a joint effort. Making the future is a joint effort”, he was talking about the future, and he repeated the words with the same tone, with no calm-to-storm or crescendo techniques to give the optimistic inspiration of the future, as in Obama (2008a) (appendix 1, 6.3.1.1). This gave a failed combination between his voice and the rhetoric technique used, as his slow ability hinders his voice, preventing it from flowing in harmony with the words. This was the same problem observed in the third rhetoric- the list of four- at the end of the speech: Hope is the outcome of hard work. Hope is safety. Hope is stability and is the dream, Hope is the dream to usher Egypt into its leading role in the world, to restore its strength Fourthly, El-Sisi has a monotone throughout the speech, which was the reason why, when he tried to raise his voice, it results in a very strong angry voice. Finally, El-Sisi made lots of reading mistakes, like “and usher … usher your country to its rightful place” or in the pronunciation of some words in Arabic which disrupts the attention of

8

Under: Underline fragments indicate speaker emphasis.

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the audience and their engagement. There are lots of schemes used to balance the speech to the rhythm and timing. Table 9 Schemes rhetoric devices in El-Sisi's speech

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However, as mentioned before, El-Sisi’s voice ability was low, which results in a low rhythm and timing. The mistakes he made also contributed in hindering the balance of the speech, as well as his monotone voice, which resulted in a disturbance when his voice went up or down sharply.

5.2.1.2.2 Message /Mode of Expression Three factors to consider in this part are the emotion appeals, cognitive ‘metaphor’, and pathos arguments:

5.2.1.2.2.1 Emotion appeals Politicians appeal to human needs, in order to sway their audience. Depending on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, El-Sisi targeted three human needs in his speech; selfesteem, social, and safety. Firstly, putting emphasis on the country or the nationality is a way to target self-esteem needs among the audience, such as “All of us Egyptians” or “Egypt”. Moreover, he referred to historical memories, for example mentioning the pharaonic civilisation, and hinting at the October 6th victory in 1973, in “The abilities and talents evident in Egyptians for 7,000 years” and “Egyptians know that major victories could be achieved as they had done that before”. Regarding social needs, El-Sisi focused on three of the six main social needs; unemployment, healthcare, and social welfare aid, while only briefly mentioning food insufficiency, education, and housing. Millions of youths, are suffering from unemployment and unable to find job opportunities in Egypt, this cannot be acceptable. Moreover, millions of Egyptians are - 41 -

suffering of illnesses and cannot get proper treatment. This is also unacceptable. Egypt, the rich country with its resources and people, relies on donations and aid. This is not acceptable, either. Egyptians deserve to lead a better life; they deserve to lead a life of dignity, a life of security, a life of freedom. They deserve to have the right to get a job, food, education, medical treatment and homes. Safety was brought up when El-Sisi talked about the terrorism issue, aiming to appeal to safety needs, which implies protection. “We are threatened by terrorists, by parties who seek to destroy our life, to destroy our safety, to destroy our security

5.2.1.2.2.2 Cognitive ‘metaphor’ Metaphor is one of the tropes used to raise emotions. For analysing the metaphor, we applied the target domain and source domain concept (Machin and Mayr, 2012). Table 10 Metaphor analysis table according to Machin and Mayr (2012)

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Obviously, in example 1, El-Sisi wanted to build the image of being a slave who has experienced years of serving society, building its plans, and obeying the public calls for presidency. In examples 2 to 7, three images were associated with Egypt. The first is that of the January 25th revolution and all the events that followed, which caused Egypt a lot of troubles and difficulties, which concealed the need for stability and rest. The second image associated with Egypt is the need to reform the institutions, which convey the image of development and healthy economy. Thirdly, the MB target Egypt and deliberately destroys the lives of Egyptians. Therefore, they need someone to fight for them and provide them with protection. Noticeably, there is no - 43 -

creativity in building these metaphors as most of them are commonly used. The feelings associated with these metaphors are instability, challenges, and fear. Other kinds of tropes were used to ascribe human qualities to non-human entities Table 11 Examples of Tropes in El-Sisi's speech

5.2.1.2.2.3 Pathos arguments The Writing Center in the University of Maryland (2016) cited that pathosarguments are value-based judgments that raise positive or negative feelings. Some examples of El-Sisi’s pathos arguments are shown below: Table 12 Pathos arguments

El-Sisi used three logical fallacies to sway the public emotions; hasty generalization, correlation vs. causation and appeal to ignorance. By using hasty generalization, he linked the reforms which should be done to protection from ambiguous danger without providing evidence to support the correlation between the two things. He also

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tied all the events happened in the last years to the deterioration in the situation in Egypt. Things might correlate but there is no enough evidence for the causation. Finally, he used the appeal to ignorance by claiming that Egypt is surrounded by danger from many parties, which is hard to refute because he represents the authority. Therefore, the initiated feelings from using these logical fallacies are fear.

5.2.1.2.3 Third party audience The speech included audiences who were not in attendence on the macro and micro level, such as those in international countries, or previous presidents and leaders in the society. El-Sisi used a new hint technique in order to keep the speech in the conversation mode. This technique grabs the audience’s attention and presents shared background knowledge between them. Obviously, He intended to keep the reference for some audiences as easy to recognise, such as previous presidents and Muslim Brootherhood (MB). President Mubark and Morsi were referred to in “nobody could become president of this country against the will of the people”. MB was signified in more than place, while other audiences were ambiguous and were the subject of more than one explanation. Table 13 Sentences refer to Muslim Brotherhood in the speech

Table 14 Tropes used to support hint technique and to build a background with the audience

All of these sentences hint to MB, the first hints to Morsi who was an elected president in a fair election, but the people did not want him. The rest of the sentences refer - 45 -

to the situation between El-Sisi and MB, because described the ousting of Morsi as a coup, with clashes between the new regime and MB, which ended with MB being announced as a terrorist organisation in December 2013 (Egyptian News Center, 2014). This led to the majority being captured and imprisoned, with the rest escaping to Turkey and Qatar. Hamdeen Sabahi and other candidates who ran in the 2012 elections were also referred to in the speech, “should not deny others their right and duty to run”. El-Sisi wanted to appear as a tolerant candidate who accepts the democratic values of fair competition. The other audiences such as “answering the demand of a wide range of Egyptians” can include the ‘complete your favour’ movement, which includes Christians (Baker, 2014) and other categories in society who declared their support for El-Sisi. On the macro level, El-Sisi mentioned the regional and international arena because of the tensions mentioned earlier, and to give a message of sovereignty over Egypt’s land.

5.2.1.2.4 Cultural beliefs and rules Culturally, El-Sisi mentioned the pharaonic civilisation and referred to the victory of the October 6th war to build a common background with the audience (Averill, 2001), as shown in, “talents evident in Egyptians for 7,000 years” and “Egyptians know that major victories could be achieved as they had done that before”. Moreover, starting the speech with a verse from the Holy Quran, “In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful”, and mentioning Allah (God) in several places, then ending with the Islamic greeting, “Peace and blessings of Allah be upon you”, builds a religious background with the audience. On the subject of rules, El-Sisi discussed the social contract between the governor and the people in his speech. Setting his vision to this contract, which is based on the concept that the ruler is responsible and accountable before God, and before his people, while the public are responsible for hard work and patience. Success is a matter of cooperation in work between the ruler and the public. It is a contract between the ruler and his people. The ruler is responsible and committed before God and before the people and displays honesty, loyalty, honour and patriotism. However, the people also have a commitment to work hard and show patience. A ruler cannot succeed alone … he rather succeeds with his people and with joint effort with them.

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Moreover, he addressed the people’s right to know about his manifesto. El-Sisi also tackled the point of providing people with a clear vision for how to change Egypt into a democratic state. I am not going to launch a presidential campaign in the traditional sense. However, it is your right to share my vision of the future. The future as I see it. This will be in a clear platform and vision that seek and aim for building a modern and democratic Egyptian state. The last social event is the rule of law; El-Sisi declared in his speech that the rule of law is considered a significant partner in his future vision in, “the law that we all abide by is an active partner in making the future with no limits or restraints”.

5.2.2

Audience

The speech has no attending audience, therefore there was no direct interaction between the audience and El-Sisi to analyse generating applause, and the speech was targeted to the whole public so it was hard to determine the audience’s characteristics, demographics, and location. Depending on Atkinson’s (2004) approach in analysing El-Sisi’s techniques for audience engagement, the following were found:

5.2.2.1 Story telling technique El-Sisi introduced himself to the audience, and grabbed their attention using a detailed story telling technique (Polletta, 2006) in, “The first time I wore the military uniform was in 1970 when I was a 15-year-old cadet at the Air Force High School, almost 45 years ago”. This technique is useful also for campaigning and mobilising people (Ganz, 2009).

5.2.2.2 Contrast Different techniques used by classical writers, such as antithesis, enantiosis, and antitheton were categorised under the broad concept of contrast (Atkinson, 2004). Contradiction and phrase reversal were used to pinpoint an issue, or as a conclusion statement (Ibid, 2004), which has a positive or negative impact upon the audience. In example 1 below, El-Sisi states that he will still be in a fight even though he is running as a civilian president, which is negative because it conceals the idea of a future war under his presidency period.

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Table 15 Contrast examples in El-Sisi's speech

The second example implies following reasons not miracles, such as hard work and self-denial, which is positive. The phrase reversal is memorable and has a harmony sound because of the repetition of the last words in the first sentences. However, the warning in the second sentence combined the phrase with a feeling of fear.

5.2.2.3 Puzzle-Solution The wondering caused by the puzzle-solution technique graspes people’s attention (Atkinson 2004). This technique was used in the speech to keep the audience’s minds thinking and anticipating what the solution was. For instance, in example A and B, people would anticipate what to expect from him under a weak economy, and would be eager to listen to his vision: Table 16 Puzzle-Solution examples in El-Sisi's speech

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5.2.2.4 Colloquial language The colloquial language was smoothly integrated into the speech more than once. The informality of the colloquial language and the use of idioms, as though he wanted “to speak to you from the heart”, builds a friendly relationship with the audience.

5.2.2.5 List-of-three Although the speech was recorded, it used different types of the list-of-three technique, which is used more in generating applause. Different types of this technique were used such, as three phrases, clauses, and sentences, as shown below: Table 17 Examples for List-of-three technique in El-Sisi's speech

This technique is an important tone to use, as it gives the audience an impression of competence. Moreover, making the last part of the list longer, emphasises the conclusion and influences the audience, as in the example below. These systems can recover, cohere, and [..] become unified and act in harmony

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5.2.2.6 Combined formats This technique was used extensively throughout the speech for its importance in attracting the audience’s attention, and its powerful use of rhetoric devices to persuade them. It was used in demonstrating the proofs, and refuting other arguments, as will be shown in the speech/arrangement section.

5.2.2.7 Pronouns and words El-Sisi used different words and pronouns to get closer to the audience, as if he was one of them. This technique initiates the feeling of belonging to one large group. The high total number of these repeated words indicates high rate of bonding with the audience. Table 18 Examples of words targeting belonging social need

5.2.3

Speech

This section deals with the speech arrangement, style and cohesion and process circumstance.

5.2.3.1 Arrangement The speech followed Aristotle’s order, which includes a prologue, narrative, that is, statement of the issue, proof, and epilogue. While Black (2014) added a fifth part, the refutation, El-Sisi included it in the proof. There was an extensive use of logos methods, even in the narrative while presenting the topic.

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5.2.3.1.1 Prologue The function of the prologue is to engage with the audience and build a relationship with them (Black, 2014). The speech started in a traditional way, with a verse from the Holy Quran, followed by a public greeting. El-Sisi subsequently moved to introduce himself as an experienced soldier, and announced taking off his military suit. This small introduction implied respect and formality as it started with a religious verse and then self-introduction.

5.2.3.1.2 Narrative This part is issue oriented, and proposes the topic of the speech. In this speech, logos were used to make El-Sisi’s nomination reasonable to the audience. Table 19 Examples of using logos in the narrative

El-Sisi built his case gradually, starting with the people’s right to choose their president, and then he represented his nomination as a response to these demands. He introduced himself as a slave who would willingly serve his country in any position asked to be in. El-Sisi also moved through time as he started from a past situation, moving to the present, building his argument as a result of the consequences of the situation.

5.2.3.1.3 Proof This section concerns the arguments and how they were built using persuasive techniques. El Sisi depended on economic, social, political and security proofs, which were tackled in the speech in the same order.

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The economic, social, political and security realities in Egypt, whether before January 25th revolution or the accumulations afterwards until June 30th revolution, have reached a limit that requires an honest and brave confrontation of such challenges.

5.2.3.1.3.1 Economic and Social proofs The proofs were organised in chronological order, beginning with the citizens who are the core of any state, then the state systems, and ended with the state as a whole. El-Sisi categorised the economic and social issues into three; issues concerning citizens, state systems, and the whole nation.

5.2.3.1.3.1.1 Citizen El-Sisi used what I call a problem–solution technique to address the citizens, and picked three problematic economic and social issues to focus on, while providing solutions. Table 20 Problem-solution shows the significant issues for the individuals.

He offered five issues to be solved, this has two goals; offering limited options for the types of problems drives the attention of the audience to focus on these issues only, secondly this technique indicates that after electing El-Sisi, the situation will change and more issues will be solved, and the citizen will live in prosperity. Noticeably, El-Sisi excluded the “depending on donations and aids” problem from the solutions. Perhaps because the economic situation in Egypt actually needed aid, or because of the military aid from the US, however, in both cases it suggests he was not serious about stopping the Egyptian economic dependence on aid. Moreover, El-Sisi used combined techniques and rhetoric devices for persuasive proofs.

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Table 21 Examples of using combine technique like puzzle/solution with rhetoric device like list of three used for citizens

El-Sisi used a combined technique to illustrate the challenges facing Egypt. He started with an open puzzle question about the challenges which will grab the attention of the audience; this puzzle continues while illustrating three problems using reason - 53 -

and contradiction logic. After illustrating the puzzle, the solution is also divided into a puzzle-solution, the puzzle is an open phrase about the life in which the Egyptian deserve. The solution is divided into two parts; firstly, a list of three device giving examples for this better life and secondly a conclusion for all the puzzle with concrete examples. El-Sisi started with the word “economy” to describe as weak that is a complicated topic which is hard for normal people to understand. While in the solution, he broke this block into unites to be easy to understand what benefits they will gain after fixing these problems.

5.2.3.1.3.1.2 Proofs for the state system El-Sisi continued to build his case by presenting the reasons that hinder the development of Egypt, that is, the flapping state systems. He draws on this dramatic current situation to show the audience his awareness and his vision for reform. Simple and combined techniques were used, such as puzzle/solution, and reason that included listof-three. Table 22 Examples for techniques used for state systems

5.2.3.1.3.1.3 Proofs for the whole state In this part the argument extends to the whole society to include all the sectors. This part was structured in a simple reason form and ended with a repetition to emphasise

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the meaning, building an image of a fragile state, which should be rescued in order to be productive again. Table 23 Examples for combined techniques like reason and repetition for the whole state proofs

The refutation is considered a part of the proofs in this speech, as it is in the middle, and considered as an anchor to move his talk to the political proofs. In this part, he attacks the two previous regimes. The logic structure starts with blaming what happened in the previous years for the deterioration of the current situation. El-Sisi played the role of a wise man who is blaming the audience for what happened to Egypt in the past years, that is; the revolution. The repetition rhetoric device and the reversal phrase technique are used in his disagreement with the current situation as shown in, “This is a well-respected and well-dignified country. This is a wellrespected and well-dignified country”, and in offering an alternative solution in, “We do not interfere in the affairs of others and we will not allow others to interfere in our affairs”.

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Table 24 New technique for refuting a situation

5.2.3.1.3.2 Political and Security proofs This second argument is based on two issues; firstly, the demands of the National parties after the 3rd of July. The demands were to make a new constitution, then to elect a president and a parliament. El-Sisi used signposts to construct his logos and help the audience to focus; present his reference (the demands of the National parties), present the current situation (what is done), present the future situation (what needs to be done), reject any appeals against others rights to participate in the elections, and ends with declaring his acceptance of the people’s choice. Table 25 Example of using signposts logic

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The second issue is fear from terrorism, and is constructed as a combination of hasty generalization logic with puzzle-solution technique, list-of-three, and anaphora device. Table 26 Example of Example for a combined format technique used for terrorism

As shown above, El-Sisi used hasty generalization logic fallacy with insufficient evidence as there was no information about who are those parties who seek to destroy Egypt? He builds an image of a danger situation in Egypt using a combination of techniques; starting with a puzzle which contain a detailed list-of-three technique in the second part, and ending with solution that has an anaphora rhetoric device in the second part to balance the rhythm of the listof-three. Moreover, the conclusion he offers will have a positive impact on the whole region.

5.2.3.1.4 Epilogue The last section of the speech is divided into two parts; motivation and prayers. He motivated the audience to elect him by portraying a future image of his presidential period, which would maintain stability, safety, and hope. He used repetition devices to emphasise the effects of his words.

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Table 27 Example for motivation / repetition technique in the epilogue

The prayers part drew on his relationship with God through praying for Egypt, the public, and ending with the Islamic greetings as in, “God bless Egypt and her glorious people, Peace and blessings of Allah be upon you”.

5.2.3.2 Style and Cohesion The speech used the plain style, which implies sincerity. The language used was a mixture of colloquial language and simple formal language. The cohesion is divided into two categories; grammatical and lexical.

5.2.3.2.1 Grammatical Cohesion The study focused on the deixis in the reference in the grammatical category. “The speaker views him/herself as being at the deictic centre, and other entities are positioned in relation to who and where he or she is, and when he or she is speaking” (Black, 2014 pp. 60). Deixis are divided into person, place and time deixis.

5.2.3.2.1.1 Person Deixis “This will be the speaker, supporters, opponents and other members of the audience; so person deixis is typically realized through the pronoun system and encodes the identity of participants in the speech” (Black, 2014 pp. 60). El-Sisi was more oriented towards the public in the speech, with pronouns, such as “we” being mentioned 35 times compared to 17 for “I/me”. He seemed to be open to four democratic values; firstly, following people’s will as in, “your support”,” your strong will” and so forth. Secondly, believing that people have the right to know about his program in the election in, “it is your right to share my vision of the future”. Thirdly, accepting competition in, “my nomination for office could not and should not deny others their right and duty to run”, which gives the impression of a fair election. Finally, coopera-

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tion in, “I call upon the partners of this nation”, which conjurs an image of a healthy relationship between the state under his rule and all partners in the society. Moreover, there was another dimension, combining his democratic image, which is that of a soldier in a battlefield who is not afraid to sacrifice his life defending his homeland. This image was shown in “I will fight”, “I take pride in wearing this uniform to defend my homeland” and “I have said before: we would rather die than allow Egyptians to be intimidated”.

5.2.3.2.1.2 Place Deixis Place deixis is realised by demonstrative adjectives and it encodes the spatial relation relative to the location (Black, 2014). El-Sisi used words like “stand before you” and “with you” to give an impression of being in the same place as the audience, and having a closer face-to-face conversation. “I stand before you” includes an activity of standing up and facing an audience. This process does not exist on the screen, as ElSisi is sitting down in front of a table, facing a camera. The mental image stimulated from this sentence is as follows; standing gives the impression of a higher position, which suits the idea of someone in authority. Moreover, he used Egypt as a compass point to pinpoint to other countries in the international arena when hinting to interference in the inner affairs by others, shown in “regional or international parties”. I mentioned before the different interpretations for these dimensions, so here I will focus on the idea of being ambiguous, that is, to build a conspiracy theory, which is Egypt as a target and needing protection.

5.2.3.2.1.3 Time Deixis “Time deixis encodes time relations relative to when an utterance is spoken” (Black, 2014 pp. 62). El-Sisi considered the timing of his nomination as a momentous sign several times during his speech, such as “this is a very significant moment for me/ it is time/ now”. Giving an extensive importance to the present time indicates how serious the current situation in Egypt is, and also hints that things will change in the future, especially when he said “It is time for this disrespect and this intrusion to stop”. Moreover, El-Sisi used the time deixis to make a comparison between the situation in the past, when the previous regimes were against people’s will, and the present in which he is running for presidency in response to the people’s will. Furthermore, he

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made another comparison in time between the present situation, which is full of conspiracy theory and terrorism, and the future as he sees it full of stability, safety, and hope.

5.2.3.2.2 Lexical Cohesion The study focused on repetition in the lexical category because it has a physiological impact on the audience.

5.2.3.2.2.1 Repetition From the analysis of the repeated words, some information can be stated, firstly the religious affiliation was high, the word Allah which means God was repeated 10 times in 13 minutes. Secondly, nationalism and belonging was extremely high, with words like ‘Egypt/nation’ having 33 repetitions. Table 28 Repeated words in El-Sisi's speech

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The use of the word “all” 23 times to justify or identify things, gives the impression of completeness and perfectionism while talking about his morals, and in, “all or extreme danger”, while he was talking about challenges and terrorism. Repeated words evoke considerations about the candidate, and the analysis should consider repeated words connected to the political context as well as issues not repeated. The political context is that, Egypt is on a difficult path between democracy and autocracy. Democracy is about people, while people were mentioned 16 times in different parts, giving an impression of democracy, probably because they were in ElSisi’s mind. The word democracy itself was mentioned only once in comparison to the word uniform, which was mentioned six times and represents the military as an authoritarian party. On the other hand, the words ‘future’ and ‘hope’ were repeated exactly the same number of times, giving the impression of an optimistic future, however, they were also almost always at the same times as the word ‘uniform’, which may imply uncertainty about the upcoming future.

5.2.3.3 Process Circumstance As mentioned before, it would be beneficial if the writer is known because it allows access to information about the production process (speaker/writer relationship), however, in countries like Egypt, ruled by the military, it is extremely difficult to know who wrote El-Sisi’s speech. Therefore, techniques and rhetoric devices should be listed and evaluated if possible. Significantly, there were similarities between some techniques used in this speech and in other speeches, such as puzzle-solution, contrast and storytelling. For instance, El-Sisi started his speech with an introduction about himself as Obama did in his acceptance speech in 2008 (appendix 1, 6.3.3), he also ended his speech with motivation technique as Obama in Pennsylvania speech and with mentioning God as in King speech (appendix 1, 6.3.9). However, two techniques were different, discussed below:

5.2.3.3.1 Transcendence technique El-Sisi used the transcendence technique (Gallo, 2012) with the anaphora device to define hope as shown below:

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Hope is the outcome of hard work. Hope is safety. Hope is stability and is the dream, Hope is the dream to usher Egypt into its leading role in the world The words, hard work, security, dream, and developed Egypt, are all abstract words that may be vague to the audience. If we analyse Obama’s 2012 victory speech, in terms of defining ‘determination’, we find he used technique transcendence with the same rhetoric device anaphora, and his writer used very concrete tangible examples, such as “the voice of a young field organizer who’s working his way through college and wants to make sure…” to deliver the meaning of determination, and to draw a mental image that emphasises emotions. This gives a clear vision and engages the audience with emotions the speaker wants to raise. Thus, there is a lack in El-Sisi’s speechwriter’s knowledge of new techniques used for raising emotions through defining abstract words. This is evident also in other parts of the speech, such as when talking about the ‘Egyptian will’, the writer failed to provide concrete examples of what the Egyptian will is, or how El-Sisi sees it in order to emphasise the emotions of self-esteem.

5.2.3.3.2 Colloquial language The extensive use of colloquial language with simple formal language is a new technique. The colloquial language technique in itself is not new to the Egyptian speeches, it started with Nasser (Versteegh, 2001), Al-Sadat, and Mubarak (Soliman, 2008), but the difference is in the extensive use of it with the lack of any elevated language that was commonly used by all previous presidents. 5.3

Interpretation and Explanation

This stage is divided into two sections; content and purpose, and the newly suggested, persuasion and trust approach.

5.3.1

Content and Purpose

Analysing the content in relation to the purpose of the speech contributes in evaluating the persuasiveness of the communication. The purpose of the speech is to gain the acceptance of the people, so they will vote for El-Sisi, a military man after two - 62 -

revolutions, demanding for a democratic state. The content and the topic discussed, illustrated arguments related to the political context and the nature of the campaigning process.

5.3.1.1 El-Sisi is not the Enemy When El-Sisi recalled the memory of ousting Morsi and the declaration of the transitional road map, he brought up a memory of being a partner, not an enemy. A partner who was surrounded by liberals, youth, and religious men. El-Sisi skipped all the tragic moments that happened in between ousting Morsi and his nomination, such as the Rabaa Massacre. Although the Rabaa Massacre was against MB, leaders were divided by it, for example El-Baradi resigned. Moving through time to this nostalgic memory evoked feelings of admiration and cooperation, as he was the one who rescued the country from MB, and was a partner in the transition. Image 10 El-Sisi society representatives after ousting Morsi (YouTube, 2013)

5.3.1.2 Religion and democracy The relationship between religion and democracy in El-Sisi’s speech was discussed in his vision of social contract, “The ruler is responsible and committed before God and before the people...” and in, “for building a modern and democratic Egyptian state”. El-Sisi’s vision for the social contract includes a declaration for accountability before God, which reflects his religious principles. Secondly, embracing democratic

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values of accountability before people (parliament) empathises with the image of a democratic state. Mass mobilising was the reason that El-Sisi wanted to mobilise both religious and liberal voters, which is a difficult job for a military man who was refused from both, for different reasons. Therefore, he wanted to discuss his vision of ruling the state to appear closer to both sides. The situation in 2013, and two months from El-Sisi’s nomination was that 54% of Egyptians still supported the ousting of Morsi (PewResearch Center, 2014), who represented high integration of religion into politics. However, at that time, 60% of Egyptians still thought that religious leaders had a positive impact on Egypt affairs, compared 56% who thought the military did. However, 59% of Egyptians were demanding democratic governance over any other government. This conflict-divided situation might be the reason for inserting El-Sisi’s vision for the social contract to comfort both sides; firstly, by declaring accountability before God, which will reflect his religious principles, and secondly, by embracing democratic values of accountability before people (parliament) empathises with the image of a democratic state. Four democratic values were inserted into different parts of the speech, and are discussed such as citizenship in showing that he is following people’s will, civilian control over military in taking off his uniform for running for presidency, multiparty and competition in accepting others in the presidential race, and accountability as mentioned before (PewResearchCenter, 2009) (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2016). The religious values were present in the start, middle, and end of the speech, through the extensive repetition of the word Allah, which was repeated 10 times in13 min. The second dimension is that religious appeals have a psychological impact on voters depending on (Arcuri, et al. 2008), (Chartrand, 1999) and (Albertson, 2011) studies. Egypt is a religious country and the religion plays a significant role in the society (PewResearchCenter, 2016) even in politics as was seen in the picture of El-Sisi surrounded by religious men while ousting Morsi to gain supporters at that time. Therefore, it might be said that El-Sisi used the religion also to impact the implicit process for the voters and to influence their rational decision.

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5.3.1.3 Power The ideology of power was represented through two main arguments; Leader with strong hand and stability, and the creation of fear and the need for protection, both discussed below.

5.3.1.3.1 Leader with strong hand and stability Morsi was blamed for being weak, as he could not control government institutions. El-Sisi tackled this issue by inserting words to express being a leader with a strong hand over government institutions, and the whole state in, “Flapping state systems that are unable to perform their duties need rebuilding. This is an issue that requires firm handling” and “The wheel of production has to resume powerfully in all sectors”. Being a military man, wearing uniform supported this image. Although less than half of Egyptian society (49%) at that time preferred a leader with a strong hand (PewResearchCenter, 2014b), there was a strong need for stability among 54% of the Egyptian, even if the government was not fully democratic (PewResearchCenter, 2014a). Therefore, combining a leader with a strong hand with the idea of stability would enhance the persuasiveness of the speech and the acceptance of El-Sisi.

5.3.1.3.2 Creation of Fear and the need for protection One of the main aspects when analysing a speech is to look for what is absent. Through the speech, many words refer to inner and outer threats, destruction, war, and terrorism. Two things were absent in this discourse; what exactly are these threats? and, who are responsible for them? The absence of these two elements made the audience face an abstract danger, which creates fear. Moreover, exaggerating the situation by combining more than one unidentified actor to be responsible generated the need for protection, especially when declaring the existence of outside danger, which implies the need for the military.

5.3.1.4 Campaigning Standards The arguments in the content supported El-Sisi’s ethos in being a partner, religious, democratic, soldier and strong leader. It also supported the purpose of the campaign in increasing the acceptance for El-Sisi as a military president.

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However, El-Sisi violated the two principals for the political equality values in campaigns; no citizen has more power than other citizens over the political process, and no one can have more control over the information provided for the voters (Lipsitz, 2004) (Dahl, 1956). El-Sisi used his position in the military to manipulate people in three ways; giving his speech wearing the uniform which gave him more power than any of his opponent and more credibility. Secondly, creating fear and the need for protection through insufficient information that is hard to counter argue because it was said by an official military man. Finally, using religion to influence voter’s implicit attitude. Therefore, these arguments might have supported his campaign purpose. However, it does not go up to the standard values of political campaigning. This political speech does not contribute to enhancing a healthy democratic atmosphere, in contrast, it manipulates people’s emotions and their perception of the political context.

5.3.2

Persuasion and Trust Approach

The aim of the persuasion and trust approach is to evaluate the persuasiveness of the political speech by showing its strength and weakness depending on the approachavoidance model in persuasive communication, with both alpha and omega strategies gathered by Knowles and Linn (2004) and the study of McGuire (1964) for counterarguments. The persuasion and trust approach is based on the concept that the interaction between all the elements of the communication process and the consistency between them, create a mode of communication that is right, which persuades the audience. It consists of six elements; (1) image building and reputation management (ethos), (2) pathos sincerity and satire, (3) political language in use, (4) engaging the audience, (5) consistency with context/noise, and (6) consistency with the purpose.

5.3.2.1 Image building and reputation management (ethos) Manages the speaker’s image by the two types of ethos (extrinsic and intrinsic) in cooperation with techniques and rhetoric devices used.

5.3.2.1.1 Increase source credibility as an expert The ethos, intrinsic and extrinsic, strongly showed authority and experience as the visual appearance; the uniform raised the experience of El-Sisi. Moreover, the story- 66 -

telling in the language raised his experience through mentioning precise years. ElSisi’s trust was stressed through language, by using appeal to virtue technique in conjunction with the word ‘all’ like ‘all honest…’ which raised the credibility of El-Sisi.

5.3.2.1.2 Cognitive images The speech evoked five images about El-Sisi, which work together to create the image of a strong, moral, experienced soldier, who helped in ousting Morsi, and is willing to defend his state from terrorism. Although a soldier, he is also religious and has adopted democratic values. This image was supported by several elements, such as performing the speech wearing his military uniform. Moreover, as a soldier, his story about his experience and his vision of reform contributed in giving him an advantage on the state institutions. His religious values were supported by his ring and the use of Islamic verse and words throughout the speech. His democratic values were evident from different parts of the speech, such as talking about social contract and accountability, or the manifesto and people’s right to know and choose. Morals were supported by using the word “all” more than once through the list-of-four technique, which gave an image of him as a loyal saint.

5.3.2.2 Pathos sincerity and satire El-Sisi was able to appear closer to the audience by introducing himself though a story, using Arabic idioms and colloquial language. Moreover, appealing to selfesteem, social, and safety needs, made the audience feel that he was one of them, and knows their problems. This knowledge integrates with the image of him being a leader with a strong hand, and knows exactly what to do. The body performance was powerful in relation to power, as his hands showed authority and warning and his voice range showed anger, which contributed to emphasising the image of being a leader with a strong hand. El-Sisi’s experience was also emphasised through the use of metaphor. The cognitive images about Egypt also contributed in raising the importance of El-Sisi as a soldier and protector. The fear emotion also added to this. Using the hint technique while talking about the third party audience opened a shared background between El-Sisi and the audience, increasing his ties with the audience. Moreover, sharing cultural beliefs and rules, such as historical moments - 67 -

(Egyptian civilization/ victory/ transitional road map), and Islamic words, stressed his tie with the audience through culture. Mentioning the transitional road map and the social contract supported the idea of being a strong soldier who is capable of transforming the state to a democratic one. However, there were some set-backs in El-Sisi’s pathos, which affected the attraction of the audience, such as the voice delivery mistakes, useless pauses, speed rate, and eye contact. Moreover, El-Sisi’s voice showed inability to give the crescendo for the anaphora or other rhetoric devices, which lowered their emotional effect on the audience. When talking about hope, the use of a weak linguistic rhetoric structure would have lowered the feelings of engaging in an optimistic future. The contradiction between what he says and what he does caused a feeling of caution and anxiety. For instance, the change in his promise to not run for presidency, and then running, or in killing MB in the Rabaa massacre and declaring them as a terrorist organisation, after which he talked about opening his hand to everyone, hinting specifically at them.

5.3.2.3 Political language in use 5.3.2.3.1 Allow understanding The style of the language used is a mix between simple and colloquial, which is different than the previous Egyptian presidents, who commonly used a mix of elevated and colloquial language. This choice supported the audience’s engagement and changed the mode of the communication to almost a chatty conversation.

5.3.2.3.2 Arguments Logos were supported with more cogent reasons for an action or beliefs as they were built according to practical reasoning themes, such as enthymeme, syllogism, and so forth, which resulted in a powerful structure for the ideas presented and an organised argument. The pathos was supported with tropes and schemes to enhance the engagement, balance, and rhythm of the speech. There were rhetoric devices and techniques used as well to engage the audience The simple arrangement of the speech made up of the introduction to introduce any issues, the proofs and conclusion, supported the impression of a chatty conversation and implied sincerity. There was extensive amount of logos, which enhanced the prac-

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tical reasoning, and tied the arguments together in an ascending order. The repetition analysis gave the image of a religious and professional man, while other repeated words increased the emotion of fear, serving the need for a soldier. However, the unsuccessful technique used for describing hope made it vague, and uncertain. Person dexies raised audience engagement and served the image of El-Sisi as a partner. Stressing on the dexies for place emphasised the social need of belonging as it gives the image of close chat. In addition, place emphasises the threats and dangers surrounding Egypt, which serves El-Sisi’s image as a solider and protector. Furthermore, using words (stand before you) for place help to convey the image of authority. However, the use of fallacy logics such as hasty generalization and so forth, are considered unethical and an indication for unhealthy democratic atmosphere even if it mobilizes the public.

5.3.2.3.3 Emphasise scarcity timing Time dexies, as in the comparison between the past and the current situation, emphasise the importance of the situation, which serves social and safety needs, contributing in mobilising people. and highlights the need for a strong leader. The comparison between the present and future raises hopes about prosperity and reform, which also serves the image of a strong leader.

5.3.2.4 Engaging the audience El-Sisi used seven techniques and rhetoric devices to engage the audience; storytelling, contrast, puzzle-solution, colloquial language, list-of-three, combined formats, and pronouns and words. These techniques kept the audience engaged even with the disturbances caused by the delivery mistakes. The number of time the pronoun “we” was used, supported the idea of the social need belong, and contributed in strengthening the ties with El-Sisi as one of the group. The composition and setting on the table might have increased the feelings of a chatty conversation with those who did not have any hostile attitudes towards the military.

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5.3.2.5 Consistency with Context/Noise The nature background being mainly green in colour enhanced the calmness of the audience and gave El-Sisi the impression of being a peaceful person. This was supported by El-Sisi’s low speech rate with long pauses in the speech. However, this image was contradicted when he raised his voice, or spoke on the subject of terrorism. The presence of the flag raised the feeling of nationalism and supported the social need for belonging and the need for a protector and solider to fight for the country. As mentioned before, emotions are created from how people perceive the world and the consequences (Frijda et al., 2000), therefore, El-Sisi created the world and context that supports his images and case.

5.3.2.5.1 Cognitive Context El-Sisi created an imagined present with certain political circumstance. Moving through time, from the past to present, Egypt in El-Sisi’s speech is facing a lot of troubles and challenges because of the Arab Spring, the worst economy. As this implies the need for a leader, El-Sisi created the consensus it should be him by declaring that people wanted him to run for presidency as they saw him as a leader who could force reform, and create stability. Finally pressing, the idea that Egypt is under threat from different parties served the fear emotions and the need for a military protector. Wearing his uniform while talking about these issues confirmed this need, and the need to reform the future.

5.3.2.5.2 In the Future El-Sisi used the adding incentives strategy in giving an image of economic prosperity, by solving more economic issues in the future, which emphasised the need for imposing reforms with a strong hand.

5.3.2.5.3 The path to the future After describing the two cognitive realities, present and future, El-Sisi illustrated the path to the future through the social contract, which was implied to be democratic and religious, for mobilising all categories in the state. This lower the resistance as he wanted to reassure the public with the idea that the path from situation A to B will be in a democratic way.

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5.3.2.6 Consistency with the Purpose Using historical moments in the past as a compass for his argument supported his case, for example, using the ousting of Morsi supported the ethos of being trusted and the pathos of being a partner not an enemy. Using both democracy and religion supported his purpose, which was increasing the acceptance for his nomination, as it supports the idea of being an open-minded leader. Although El-Sisi stated that he was willing to accept others in the presidential race, he closed the options and made it an argument of either a soldier to defend the state, or face dangers and terrorism. This was an omega strategy, as it minimised the resistance and kept the audience facing only one solution, which was to accept El-Sisi as the candidate. The use of specific campaign issues served the purpose of getting El-Sisi accepted. For instance, the campaign topics of religion and democracy in social contract, democratic values, morals, stability, and future manifesto, all indicated a positive campaign and raised the need for change. However, the calm way in which they were represented did not provide the crescendo needed for a change campaign. The negative campaign was more powerful by raising fear, which was supported by his voice tone, body language and topics, such as challenges, threats, and dangerous situation, and the need for a strong leader. Moreover, there was an obvious violation of the political campaigns equality values as El-Sisi used his uniform to appear more credible for the public which gave him more power than other rivals. On the other hand, he used his authority to talk about threats and danger which gave his cognitive image of the political context more worthiness within the public. However, the arguments built contributed in mobilizing the public and work in harmony with other elements in the communication process.

5.3.3

Overall

After analysing the elements of the political speech communication interact with each other through the persuasion and trust approach, we found that this interaction generates the mode of communication. In this mode of communication, we found that El-Sisi used eight alpha strategies, which are; (1) increase source credibility, (2) provide consensus information, (3) more cogent reasons for actions or beliefs, (4) emphasise scarcity of time, (5) make messages more persuasive through arguments,

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(6) allowing understanding, (7) adding incentives and (8) Raise the interest of listening to the message. Listening to the speech was interesting, as he used techniques and rhetoric devices, such as organised logos to emphasise important issues. However, it was disturbed by his poor abilities in communication skills. Moreover, El-Sisi used the omega strategy by limiting options, which reduced the motivation to move away from the goal of accepting him. Overall, we can say according to the suggested scenarios before, that the strength of this speech was higher than its weakness so it can stand up to counterarguments on its own. Moreover, some techniques and practices which were used to strengthen this political communication process do not correlate with equality value for political campaigns and fails in developing healthy democracy.

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6 Conclusion 6.1

Summary

As for the first question, the analysis of the political speech as a communication process improved the investigation of each element of the communication process and the discovery of the techniques used. The new MCPDA method dealt with this communication as a skill that leaders can learn from. El-Sisi used several techniques, in terms of the situational circumstance and his intrinsic ethos, he prepared the environment composition and his appearance. El-Sisi used Maslow’s hierarchy to target the audience’s needs, and metaphor to evoke cognitive images supported with tropes. Schemes were also present, although his vocal abilities and reading mistakes hindered reaching a high performance. Arguments were based on practical reasoning using different methods, such as enthymeme, syllogism, and reason. Several techniques were used for different purposes, such as engaging the audience, stating proofs, and campaigning. Combined techniques with puzzle-solution and list-of-three were dominantly used for engaging the audience, along with stating proofs. Other techniques were also used such as contrast, colloquial language, storytelling, and pronouns and words. The style and language cohesion; dexies and repetition contributed in evoking images about El-Sisi and Egypt. El-Sisi used new techniques in refuting a situation and in reshaping a cognitive context. Storytelling and motivation techniques with religious appeals were also used for mobilising and served the purpose of the campaign. The arguments in the content can be used as techniques to emphasise the case presented and the purpose of the campaign. When comparing the techniques, the effectiveness of using the transcendence technique was apparent, as it was used in Obama’s 2008 speech, rather than in El-Sisi’s speech and the effectiveness of using colloquial language with very simple formal language as a new technique for engaging the audience was noticed. In addition, it was noticed that the body language was important in both appearance and performance for the effectiveness of these techniques. As for the second question, it was important to build a persuasion and trust approach, which could evaluate the political speech communication and deals with this communication as a skill that leaders can learn from. The different elements of the persuasion and trust approach interact with each other to create a mode of communica- 73 -

tion. Through the analysis of these elements, the researcher can indicate the strengths and weaknesses of this mode of communication and position the result among three scenarios; successful, balanced, or weak communication process, which indicates a theoretical scenario of how this communication mode would interact with people’s counterarguments. After this analysis, we found that El-Sisi had a successful high interaction between the elements of the persuasion and trust approach, as well as using nine alpha and omega strategies. However, El-Sisi’s nomination speech violates the principles of the equality value for the political campaigns and indicate an unhealthy democratic atmosphere. 6.2

Limitations

One of the limitations of the analysis was that the recorded video does not have an audience, so their interaction with El-Sisi’s delivery and his ability at calling applause cannot be studied using Atkinson’s (1984) approach. The second limitation is that the analysis was done on a recorded video, which might have been edited, however, nowadays it will be known if it was edited because of the use of social media. The last limitation is that the persuasion and trust approach only highlights the strengths and weaknesses and proposes scenarios for how strong the mode of the communication process is. However, it does not ensure the success of the campaign, as the researcher believes that there are other factors that contribute to the success of the campaign, such as money and media public sphere. 6.3

Future Work

The researcher suggests more studies on this persuasion and trust approach should be carried out, especially on the cognitive dimension and the creation of myths. As ElSisi’s speeches might be a good source for investigating propaganda theory. The researcher also suggests a comparison between El-Sisi speeches and other opponents.

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http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/2050000/2043156/a1yaffe.pdf?ip=131.251.254.18&id=2043156&acc=OPEN&key=BF07A2EE685417C5 %2E8AEC776A404BE5B3%2E4D4702B0C3E38B35%2E6D218144511F3437&CFI D=826497806&CFTOKEN=34215406&__acm__=1471389263_cfec8d90ecb5b2eec0 3edc83aa9eeebd [Accessed: 20 June 2016]. YouTube, 2013. El-Sisi statement on 3 June 2013 [Online]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vuxaXaQQy6I [Accessed: 16 June 2016]. YouTube, 2015. Donald Trump tells Black Lives Matter protester to get the hell out [Online]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4--cG8h52Ps [Accessed: 16 June 2016]. YouTube, 2016. Donald Trump holds rally in Tampa [Online]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFw2qecPrNw [Accessed: 16 August 2016].

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Appendix 1 6.3.1

Voice Techniques:

6.3.1.1 Calm-to-Storm: When the speaker starts slowly, accelerating into a climax, which can create a powerful emotional effect (Black 2014). An example of this technique is Obama’s Iowa Caucus night speech on January 3rd 2008: Obama’s Iowa Caucus night speech 3 January 2008 (Obama, 2008a): “You know, t h e y s a i d this day would never come.(cheers) T h e y s a i d our sights were set too high. (Cheers) T h e y s a i d this country was too divided; too disillusioned to ever come together around a common purpose.” (Cheers)

6.3.1.2 The hard-stop spacing: It is commonly used by politicians to stress the message they want to deliver. It was used by Bill Clinton in the Democratic national convention in 2012. The technique depends on squeezing words in the sentence after giving a short stop before them, as in: Bill Clinton in the Democratic national convention on 2012 (Fast Company, 2012): "We’re going to keep President Obama on. the. job9." "President Obama started with a much. worse. economy." Or it can be used with incomplete sentences like in the above example, or a mixture of complete and incomplete, like in: Bill Clinton in the Democratic national convention on 2012: "Listen to me now. [Pause] No president, [pause], not me, [pause] not any of my predecessors, [pause] no one could have fully repaired all the damage…" Margaret Thatcher also used this technique in Britain, at the Conservative Party Conference on October 10th (Thatcher, 1980): “To those waiting with bated breath for that favourite media catchphrase, the 'Uturn,' I have only one thing to say: 'You turn [U-turn] if you want to. The lady's [pause] not [pause] for turning [pause]”

9

Bold words means that the speaker stressed on these words.

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6.3.1.3 Polysyndeton conjunction: This technique starts with quick sentences followed by a pause to give a conclusion. A good example of this technique is Obama’s speech to the UN in 2014 (The Presenter’s Blog, 2014): “...No matter who you are, or where you come from, or what you look like, or what God you pray to, or who you love, [pause] there is something fundamental that we all share.” 6.3.2

Pathos arguments example:

Obama used the Syllogism to express his feelings in his speech for the gun attacks (The White House, 2013)

Syllogism

6.3.3

Major Premise “we should protect our children”

“We all feel that it’s our first impulse as parents to do everything we can to protect our children from harm”

Minor Premise “Unless there’s a gun law, there’s no protection”

“in January Joe’s leading a task force came up with a serious common sense proposal to reduce the epidemic of gun violence”

Conclusion “we should support the gun law”

To Keep our kids safe. (This has a hidden incomplete part which will be understood by the audience that “we should support the gun law”)

Storytelling Technique:

Obama’s Acceptance Speech at the Democratic Convention (Obama, 2008c): Four years ago, I stood before you and told you my story - of the brief union between a young man from Kenya and a young woman from Kansas who weren't welloff or well-known, but shared a belief that in America, their son could achieve whatever he put his mind to. It is that promise that has always set this country apart - that through hard work and sacrifice, each of us can pursue our individual dreams but still come together as one American family, to ensure that the next generation can pursue their dreams as well.

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6.3.4

Generating Applause

6.3.4.1 The power of favourable references to “us” This technique sends a message of our positive hopes, activities, and achievements, which will often get a huge applause from the listeners. This technique fulfils the selfesteem needs mentioned before, and when used in cooperation with verbal and gesture, it touches the audience as shown in the two examples (Atkinson, 1984): Example 1: (12) [Inaugural address as US president, 1961] Kennedy: We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, Oppose any foe, to assure the survival and success of liberty. xxXXXXXXX10 [TV editor’s cut after 2.0 seconds]

Audience: Example 2:

(13) [Inaugural address as US president, 1979] Reagan:

Those who are potential adversaries, they will be reminded that peace is the highest Aspiration of the American people. We will negotiate for it, sacrifice for it, we will not Surrender for it now or ever. l------------------------------------------ [11.0]11 -------------------------------l

Audience: x-x-x-x-XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX-x-x-x-x-x

10 11

xX refers to the applause and how it starts. [5] The number between brackets indicate a time gap in tenth of seconds.

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6.3.4.2 Negative evaluations of “them” (18) [Conservative Party conference, 1980] Thatcher:

Soviet marxism is ideologically, politically and morally bankru

12

pt

l--------------- [9.0] ------------l Audience: xxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxx

6.3.4.3 List of Three Thatcher’s speech at Conservative Party Conference (Thatcher, 1981) Thatcher: At a ti:me of growing dan ger (0.7) for all:13 Who cher14ish and believe in freedom (0.8) this party of the soft centre is (1)==> no shiel:d (0.2) (2)==> no refu:ge (.) (3)==> and no answer. Audience: Applause (8.2 seconds)

12

Pointed arrows indicate a market falling or rising innotational shift. They are placed immediately before the onset of the shift. For further information about conversation analysis read: Woffitt. R. 2005.Conversation analysis & discourse analysis: a comparative and critical introduction. 8 : Colons indicate prolongation of the immediately-prior sound. The length of the row of colons indicates the length of the prolongation. 9 ___ Underscoring indicates some form of stress via pitch and/or amplitude. For further information on Conversation analysis transcription symbols, visit: http://bit.ly/28ImOB6

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6.3.5

The Prologue

6.3.5.1 Example 1 Obama’s victory speech in 2008 sharing feelings with the audience (Obama, 2008d): If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer.

6.3.5.2 Example 2 Obama in 2002 used refuting an argument in the prologue part (Obama, 2002): I stand before you as someone who is not opposed to war in all circumstances. The Civil War was one of the bloodiest in history, and yet it was only through the crucible of the sword, the sacrifice of multitudes, that we could begin to perfect this union and drive the scourge of slavery from our soil. 6.3.6

The Narrative

Obama used a Syllogism linguistic trap in his speech in front of Senate Foreign Relations Committee (2008) (Cary, 2008): Major Premise

“The stability of two key factors -- Iranian influence on Iraq and the threat from al Qaeda in Iraq -- will determine when U.S. combat troops can be withdrawn from Iraq.”

Minor Premise

“Both factors are now stabilized. (Part of this unstated premise was implied when Crocker characterized the cheek-kissing reception given Iranian President Ahmadinejad by President Maliki in Iraq as "normal relations." And, the premise was completed when Gen. David Petraeus told Sen. Boxer that al Qaeda operatives in Iraq now number about 2,000.”

Conclusion

“The achieved stability of those key factors means that U.S. combat troop levels in Iraq can now be dramatically decreased.”

Syllogism

6.3.7

The Proof

Obama (2004) speech: A belief that we are all connected as one people. If there's a child on the Southside of Chicago who can't read, that matters to me, even if it's not my child. If there's a senior citizen somewhere who can't pay for their prescription and having to choose - 91 -

between medicine and the rent that makes my life poorer, even if it's not my grandparent. If there's an Arab-American family being rounded up without the benefit of an attorney or due process that threatens my civil liberties. It is that fundamental belief -it is that fundamental belief -- I am my brother's keeper; I am my sister's' keeper -- that makes this country work. It's what allows us to pursue our individual dreams, yet still come together as a single American family: "E pluribus Unum," out of many, one. 6.3.8

The Refutation

Three persuasive techniques used by Obama in refuting the arguments (Black, 2014 p.20) First

Second

Third

Present a CounterPosition

Present a Counter-Position

Rejecting appeal that attacks his rival

Refute the CounterPosition

Refute the Counter-Position

Present counter-argument

Offer an alternative position

Offer an alternative position

Proof (reasons for his argument with the technique of three)

Proof from symbolic icons in the History

Linking his rivals’ policies with the policies of hated symbols

6.3.9

The Epilogue

6.3.9.1 Example 1 King in his remarkable speech “I have a dream” (American Rhetoric, 1963): when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: Free at last! Free at last Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!

6.3.9.2 Example 2 Obama used motivation technique in Pennsylvania Campaign (2008b): It is now our turn to follow in the footsteps of all those generations who sacrificed and struggled and faced down the greatest odds to perfect our improbable union. And if we're willing to do what they did; if we're willing to shed our cynicism and our doubts and our fears; if we're willing to believe in what's possible again; then I believe that we won't just win this primary election, we won't just win this election in November, we will change this country, and keep this country's promise alive in the twentyfirst century. Thank you, and may God Bless the United States of America.

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6.3.10

Rhetoric devices

6.3.10.1

Example 1

Obama used Transcendence technique in his victory speech on the November 7th, 2012 (Gallo, 2012): You’ll hear the determination in the voice of a young field organizer who’s working his way through college and wants to make sure every child has that same opportunity. You’ll hear the pride in the voice of a volunteer who’s going door to door because her brother was finally hired when the local auto plant added another shift. You’ll hear the deep patriotism in the voice of a military spouse who’s working the phones late at night to make sure that no one who fights for this country ever has to fight for a job or a roof over their head when they come home.

6.3.10.2

Example 2

In Obama’s Iowa Caucus Speech (Obama, 2008a): “Because we are not a collection of Red States and Blue States, we are the United States of America”, the combination between schemes in the repetition of words (we are), and tropes in the metaphor (Red, Blue), results in a rich speech (Black, 2014).

6.3.11

Speed rate Normal 120-195 wpm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Average

Slow 102-111 wpm 82 76 74 89 83 101 74 89 93 84 77 84 74 83per min

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Moderate 140 wpm

Fast 191 wpm

Appendix 2 – El-Sisi Nomination Speech Transcript ‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم شعب مصر العظيم أيها الشعب األبى الكريم‬ In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. Great people of Egypt, proud and honorable people of Egypt. ‫أن قررت انهاء خدمتى كقائد عام للقوات المسلحة وزيرا للدفاع و بعد بزى العسكرى اليوم أقف أمامكم للمرة األخيرة‬ ‫الحربى االنتاج‬. ‫أنا قضيت عمري كله جندى فى خدمة الوطن وفى خدمة تطلعاته وآماله وسأستمر ان شاء هللا اللحظة دى‬ ‫لحظة مهمة جدا بالنسبالى‬ Today I stand before you in my military uniform for the last time after I decided to retire as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the minister of defense and military production. I have spent my entire life as a soldier serving his homeland, and serving its hopes and aspirations and so I shall continue. This is a very significant moment for me. ‫ سنة يعنيى من حوالى‬15 ‫ كنت طالب فى الثانوية الجوية عمره‬1970 ‫اول مرة لبست فيها الزى العسكرى كان سنة‬ 45 ‫( و انا بتشرف بارتداء هذا الزى للدفاع عن الوطن و انهردة انا بترك هذا الزى ايضا من أجل الدفاع عن الوطن‬2) ‫سنة‬ ‫السنوات األخيرة من عمر الوطن أكدت ان مافيش حد يستطيع أن يصبح رئيسا لهذه البالد دون ارادة الشعب و تأييده ال‬ ‫( لذلك أنا و‬3) ‫يمكن على االطالق أن يجبر أحد المصريين على انتخاب رئيس مش عايزينه الموضوع ده انتهى خالص‬ ‫( بكل تواضع‬2) The first time I wore the military uniform was in 1970 when I was a 15-year-old cadet at the Air Force High School, almost 45 years ago. I take pride in wearing this uniform to defend my homeland, and today, I am taking off this uniform to defend this homeland as well. The recent years of our nation's history have proven that nobody could become president of this country against the will of the people or short of their support. Never can anyone force Egyptians to vote for a president they do not want. This is beyond question. Therefore, I, in all humility, ‫( لكم اتقدم‬1) ‫( تأييدكم هو الى هيمنحنى هذا الشرف‬3) ‫العظيم معلنا اعتزامى الترشح لرئاسة جمهورية مصر العربية‬ (0.4) ‫( لكى أتحدث معكم حديث من القلب‬3) ‫) أنا أقف أمامكم مباشرة‬2) ‫( عشان أقول اننى أمتثل لنداء زى‬3) ‫ما اتعودنا‬ ‫( أنا بعتبر نفسى كما كنت دائما جنديا مكلفا واسعة من جماهير‬2) ‫الشعب المصرى طلبت منى التقدم لنيل هذا الشرف‬ ‫( موقع تأمر بيه جماهير الشعب هكون موجود فيه الوطن أى بخدمة‬3) I come before you to announce my intention to run for the presidency of the Arab Republic of Egypt. Only your support will grant me this great honor. I stand directly before you to speak to you from the heart, as usual, to say to you that I am answering the demand of a wide range of Egyptians who have called on me to attain this honor. I consider myself to be what I have always been, a soldier who is charged with serving the homeland. I will always be in any post desired by Egyptians. - 94 -

‫( من اللحظة األولى‬1) ‫( أمينا مع نفسى الوطن و أكون أمين معاكم كما كنت دائما و أمينا مع عايز‬1) ‫ الحقائق االقتصادية واالجتماعية والسياسية واألمنية فى‬.‫نحن المصرييـن لدينا مهمة شديـدةالصعوبة ثقيـلة التكاليف‬ ‫ يونيو وصل الى حد انه البد انه يكون فيه مواجهه‬30 ‫ يناير أو الى تفاقم بعدها حتى ثورة‬25 ‫مصرسواء الى كان قبل ثورة‬ ‫( أمينة وشجاعة لهذه التحديات‬3) From the first moment, I want to be honest with you, as I've always been honest with my country and honest with myself. We Egyptians have an extremely difficult task and a costly mission. The economic, social, political and security realities in Egypt, whether before January 25th revolution or the accumulations afterwards until June 30th revolution, have reached a limit that requires an honest and brave confrontation of such challenges.

‫( عايزين نكون صادقين مع أنفسنا بلدنا مصربتواجه تحديات كبيرة و ضخمة‬1)15 ‫و اقتصادنا ضعيف فى ماليين من‬ ‫(كمااان فى ماليين من المصريين بيعانوا من‬1)‫الشباب بيعانوا من البطالة و مافيش ليهم عمل فى مصر ده أمر غير مقبول‬ ‫(بتعتمد على االعانات‬1)‫( و بشعبها‬1) ‫المرض و ال يجدوا عالجا مناسبا ده أمر آاخرغير مقبولمصر البلد الغنية فى مواردها‬ ‫و المساعدات ده امر غير مقبول المصريين يستحقوا حياة أفضل من كدة يستحقوا انهم يعيشوا بكرامة و يعيشوا بأمن و‬ ‫يعيشوا بحرية و يكون ليهم الحق فى الحصول على العمل و الغذاء و التعليم و العالج و المسكن كل ده الزم يكون فى‬ ‫ احنا أمامنا كلنا كمصريينمهام عسيرة‬. ‫( متناول ايد كل المصريين‬3) ‫من اعادة بناء جهاز الدولة الى بيعانى من حالة من البد‬ ‫( بواجباته الترهل بتمنعه من النهوض‬2) ‫قدرته يسترد دى البد ان احنا نواجهها بكل الحزم عشان هذا الجهاز يستعيد القضية‬ ‫( بلغة واحدة واحدة تتحدث تماسكه يصبح او يصبح وحدة‬2) ‫أن تعود إلى الدوران فى كاافة قطاعات االنتاج يجب عجلة كمان‬ ‫بيها الوطن من مخاطر حقيقية بيمر النقاذ قوة ده االدولة بكل‬. ‫( هيبيتها البد من اعادة مالمح الدولة و‬1)

‫اصابها الكتير خالل‬

‫الفترة الماضية‬ We need to be honest with ourselves. Our country Egypt is facing huge and immense challenges and our economy is weak. Millions of youths are suffering from unemployment, and are unable to find job opportunities in Egypt, this is unacceptable. Moreover, millions of Egyptians are suffering of illnesses and cannot get proper treatment. This is also unacceptable. Egypt, the rich country with its resources and people, relies on donations and aid. This is unacceptable, either. Egyptians deserve to lead a better life; they deserve to lead a life of dignity, a life of security, a life of freedom. They deserve to have the right to get a job, food, education, medical treatment and homes. This should be available to all Egyptians. All of us Egyptians face tough challenges. Flapping state systems that are unable to perform their duties need rebuilding. This is an issue that requires firm handling so that these systems can recover,

15

() the number between brackets indicate the number of El-Sisi’s pauses in seconds.

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cohere, and become unified and act in harmony. The wheel of production has to resume powerfully in all sectors. This is to save our country from real dangers. The country needs to regain its posture and might, which has suffered much in recent times.

‫مصر و بنائها مهمتنا استعادة مهمتنا استعادة مصر و بنائها‬ Our mission is to restore Egypt and to rebuild it. Our mission is to restore Egypt and to rebuild it. (4) ‫( االعالمية السياسـية أو ما شاهدناه خالل السنوات األخيرة سواء على الساحة‬1) ‫من هذا خارجيا جعلت او داخليا‬ ‫له هيبته احترامه و هذا العبثهذا بلدله االستهتار و يتوقف هاذا األوان أن مستباحة للبعض آان األحيان أرض الوطن فى بعض‬ ‫( الجميع هذا بلد له احترامه و له هيبتهو يجب ان يعلم‬2) ‫ان دى لحظة فارقة االستهتار فى حق مصر مغاامرة لها عواقبو‬ ‫لها حساب مصر ليست ملعبا لطرف داخلى أو اقليمى أو دولى و لن تكون نحن ال نتدخل فى شئون اآلخرين و لن نسمح‬ ‫( لآلخرين بالتدخل فى شئونا‬1) What we have witnessed over the last few years, politically or through the media, internally or externally, has occasionally made this country trespassed. It is time for this disrespect and this intrusion to stop. This is a well-respected and well-dignified country. This is a wellrespected and well-dignified country and everyone must know that this is a decisive moment, and that disrespecting Egypt has its consequences. Egypt is not a playground for any internal, regional or international parties and will never be. We do not interfere in the affairs of others and we will not allow others to interfere in our affairs.

‫أنا بعتقد ان انجاز برنامج خريطة المستقبل الى وضعتها القوة الوطنية األصيلة كان المهمة العاجلة أمامنا و على‬ ‫طريق تنفيذ هذه المهمة نجحنا بحمد اللهفى وضع الدستور و نحن اآلن نتخذ الخطوة الثانية باجراء االنتخابات الرئاسية‬ ‫( ال يصح و ال يجوز أن يحجب حق‬2) ‫( عايز أأكد ان اعتزاامى الترشح‬3) ‫التى يعقبها االنتخابات البرلمانية باذن هللا‬ ‫(هيسعدنى ان ينجح اين من يختااره الشعب و يحوز ثقة‬1) ‫الغير وواجبه اذا رأى لديه األهلية أهلية التقدم للمسئولية‬ ‫( أنا بدعوا شركاء الوطن أن يدركوا أننا جميعا أبناء مصر نمضى فى قارب واحد نرجو له أن يرسوا على‬7) ‫الناخبين‬ ‫( لن يكون لنا حسابات شخصية نصفيها أو صراعات مرحلية نمضى ورائها نحن نريد الوطن لكل أبنائه‬2) ‫شاطئ النجاة‬ ‫دون اقصاء أو استثناء و تفرقة‬. I believe the implementation of the future roadmap program formulated by truly patriotic forces was the urgent task for us. On the path of this task, we successfully drafted the constitution with God's will, and here we are, taking our second step to hold presidential elections, to be followed by legislative elections. I want to affirm that my nomination for office could not and should not deny others their right and duty to run if they regard themselves as compe-

- 96 -

tent… competent to undertake the responsibility. I will certainly be pleased with the success of the choice of people and the winner of the voters' confidence. I call upon the partners of this nation to realize that all of us, the sons of Egypt, are in the same boat navigating to safety with no scores to settle or temporary disputes to pursue. We want the nation to be there for all its children with no alienation, exclusion or discrimination.

‫نمد أيدينا للجميع فى الداااخل و فى الخارج معلنين ان أى مصرى أو مصرية لم تتم ادانته بالقانون القانون الذى نخضع‬ ‫له جميعا هو شريك فااعل فى المستقبلبال حدود و بال قيود رغم كل الصعاب التى يمر بها الوطن أنا بقف أمامكم و ليس‬ ‫بى ذرة يأس أو شك بل كلى أمل فى هللا و فى ارادتكم القوية لتغيير مصر الى األفضل و الدفع بها الى ال و الدفع بها الى‬ ‫مكانها الذى تستحقه بين األمم المتقدمة حققتم بارادتكم الكتير لم يكن الساسة أو الجيش ال القوة السياسية و ال القوات‬ ‫المسلحة هما اللذان ازاحا النظامين السابقين و لكن أنتم الشعب ارادة الشعب هى التى نجحت فى ذلك االرادة المصرية‬ ‫عظيمة نحن نعرفها و شاهدناها و لكن يجب علينا أن ندرك أنه سوف يكون محتما علينا أن نبذل جميعا أقصى الجهد‬ ‫لتجاوز الصعوبات التى تواجهنا فى المستقبل‬ We have open arms for everybody, here or abroad, declaring that any Egyptian, man or woman, not indicted by the law… the law that we all abide by is an active partner in making the future with no limits or restraints. Despite all the hardships that our country is going through, I stand before you without the slightest feeling of despair or doubt. I rather stand with absolute faith in God and in your strong will to change Egypt to the better and usher … usher your country to its rightful place among advanced nations. It was your will that made the change. It was not the politicians or the military or the political forces or the armed forces who removed the last two regimes. It was you, the people, the will of the people that realized this. The Egyptian will be great and we have known and witnessed that. However, we need to recognize that we are destined to do our utmost to overcome future difficulties.

‫صناعة المستقبل هى عمل مشترك صناعة المستقبل هى عمل مشترك‬ Making the future is a joint effort. Making the future is a joint effort. ‫هى عقد بين الحاكم و بين شعبه‬ ‫الحاكم مسئول عن دوره و ملتزم به أمام هللا و أمام شعبه كل األمانة كل االخالص كل الشرف كل الوطنية لكن كمان‬ ‫الشعب أيضا عليه التزامات من العمل و الجهد و الصبر لن ينجح حاكم بمفرده بل سينجح بشعبه و بالعمل المشترك معه‬ ‫الشعب المصرى كله يعلم انهه من الممكن تحقيق انتصارات كبيرة ألنه حققها من قبل و لكن ارادتنا و رغبتنا فى االنتصار‬ ‫ سنة يجب أن تتحالف مع العمل‬7000 ‫البد أن تقترن بالعمل الجاد القدرات و الموهبة التى يتمتع بها الشعب المصرى منذ‬

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‫الجاد العمل الجاد و المخلص من أجل الوطن هو السمة المميزة للدول الناجحة للدول المتقدمة و سوف يكون العمل الشاق‬ ‫مطلوبا من كل مصرى و من كل مصرية مطلوب من كل مصرى و من كل مصرية بذل كل الجهد فى العمل أنا هكون‬ ‫أول من يقدم الجهد و العرق دون حدود من أجل مستقبل مصر تستحقه الوقت ده وقت االصطفاف عشان خاطر بلدنا‬ ‫عشان خاطر مصر‬ It is a contract between the ruler and his people. The ruler is responsible and committed before God and before the people and displays all honesty, all loyalty, all honor and all patriotism. But the people also have a commitment to work hard and show patience. A ruler cannot succeed alone … he rather succeeds with his people and with joint effort with them. Egyptians know that major victories could be achieved as they had done that before. Yet, our will and desire to achieve victory has to be accompanied by hard work. The abilities and talents evident in Egyptians for 7,000 years have to go hand in hand with hard work. It is hard and devoted work for the homeland that makes successful countries…advanced countries. Hard work will be required from every Egyptian, man and from every Egyptian, woman. Every Egyptian, man and every Egyptian, woman has to exert great effort in work. I will be the first to spare no effort whatsoever for a future well-earned by Egypt. Now is the time to rally for the sake of our country… for the sake of Egypt.

‫أنا عايز اصارحكم والظروف كما ترون وتقدرون‬ I want to speak to you with complete openness and in the circumstances you all know about

‫أنا لن يكون لديا حملة انتخابية بالصورة التقليدية لكن بالتأكيد و ده من حقكم ان ااه تعرفوا شكل المستقبل كما اتصوره‬ ‫شكل المستقبل زى ما انا شايفه و ده هيكون من خالل برنامج انتخابى و رؤية واضحة تسعى و تهدف لقيام دولة مصرية‬ ‫ديموقراطية حديثة الرؤية و البرنامج هيتم طرحهم بمجرد بمجرد سماح اللجنة العليا لالنتخابات بذلك لكن اسمحوا لى‬ ‫ان ده يتم بدون اسراف‬ ‫انفاق بدون اسراف فى االنفاق ويتم بدون‬ ‫فى الممارسات وبدون اسراف‬

‫انا شايف ان ده مش مالئم للظروف الحالية‬ ‫نحن مهددون من االرهابيين من قبل أطراف تسعى‬ ‫لتدمير حياتنا‬ ‫تدمير سالمنا‬ ‫تدمير أمننا‬

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‫ انهردة اخر يوم ليا بالزى‬...‫سأظل أحارب كل يوم العسكرى لكننى صحيح‬ ‫من أجل مصر الخالية من الخوف‬ ‫من أجل مصر الخالية من الفزع واالرهاب مش مصر بس بل المنطقة المنطقة بأكلمها ان شاء هللا‬ ‫أنا قلت قبل كدة و بكررها نموت أحسن و ال يروع المصريين‬ I am not going to launch a presidential campaign in the traditional sense. However, it is your right to share my vision of the future... the future as I see it. This will be in a clear platform and vision that seek and aim for building a modern and democratic Egyptian state. The platform and vision will be announced once the High Electoral Commission permits that. Yet, if you may, This shall be done with no extravagance With no extravagance in funds And with no extravagance in practices I believe it is not suitable at present for the circumstances are not in our favor.

We are threatened by terrorists, by parties who seek to destroy our life, to destroy our peace, to destroy our safety. It is true… this is my last day in uniform, but I will fight every day for an Egypt that is free from fear, For an Egypt free from panic and terror… not only Egypt but the entire region, by God’s will. I repeat what I have said before: we would rather die than allow Egyptians to be intimidated.

‫اسمحولى انى اتحدث معاكم عن األمل‬ ‫واألمل هو نتاج العمل الجاد‬ ‫األمل هو األمان هو االستقرار الحلم‬ ‫األمل هو الحلم بأن نقود مصر لتكون فى مقدمة الدول وتعود لعهدها قوية‬ ‫قادرة‬ - 99 -

‫مؤثرة‬ ‫تعلم العالم كما علمته من قبل‬ Finally, allow me to speak about hope. Hope is the outcome of hard work. Hope is safety. Hope is stability and is the dream, Hope is the dream to usher Egypt into its leading role in the world, to restore its strength, Power, Influence, and to teach the world as it had done before.

‫أنا ال أستطيع أن أقدم المعجزات بل أقدم العمل الشاق والجهد وانكار الذات وبال حدود‬ I cannot perform miracles. Rather, I propose hard work, effort and self-denial to the utmost. ‫إذا ما أتيح لى شرف القيادة أنا أعدكم بأننا نستطيع معا شعبا وقيادة أن نحقق لمصر االستقرار واألمان واألمل‬ ‫نستطيع معا شعبا وقيادة أن نحقق لمصر االستقرار واألمان واألمل باذن هللا‬ ‫حفظ هللا مصر وحفظ شعبها العظيم والسالم عليكم ورحمة هللا وبركاته‬

If I am granted the honor of leadership, I promise you that together, the leadership and the people, we could achieve stability, safety and hope for Egypt, by God’s will. We could achieve together, the leadership and the people, stability, safety and hope for Egypt, by God’s will.

God bless Egypt and her glorious people! Peace and blessings of Allah be upon you!

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