All the passages from Lenormand's plays quoted in this thesis have been taken
..... own, my j o b i s n o t t o impose on them, n o t t o s u b j e c t them to a false ...
Durham E-Theses
The expressed and the inexpressible in the theatre of Jean-Jacques Bernard and Henry Rene Lenormand between 1919 and 1945 Winnett, Prudence J.
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2
THE EXPRESSED AND THE INEXPRESSIBLE I N THE THEATRE OF JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD AND HENRY-RENE LENORMAND BETWEEN 1919 AND 1945 '
PRUDENCE J . WINNETT, M.A.
T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d f o r t h e degree Department o f French,
o f Doctor o f Philosophy
S c h o o l o f Modern E u r o p e a n Languages,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author and information derived from it should be acknowledged.
December 1996
2
9 MAY 199?
PRUDENCE J . WINNETT THE EXPRESSED AND THE INEXPRESSIBLE I N THE THEATRE OF JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD AND HENRY-RENE LENORMAND BETWEEN 1919 AND 1945 Abstract
Ph.D. 1996
This
study
theatre
i s concerned w i t h
o f Jean-Jacques Bernard
t h e ways and
the
Inter-War
Henry-Rene Lenormand
illustrates
t h e paradox o f t h e r e l a t i v e
instruments
o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n o n t h e one h a n d a s compared
their
potency
devoted
i m p o t e n c e o f words
i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s . The f i r s t
two chapters
t o Bernard's e x p l o i t a t i o n and d e m o n s t r a t i o n
inadequacy
factors
which g e n e r a l l y aggravate
the
failing
o f verbal
metaphysically other by
symbols
oriented
as
illustrated
i n
drama, a n d C h a p t e r 5
t h e fundamental
the
and personal r e l a t i o n s .
plays o f Bernard
extraordinary have,
notably
process.
Lenormand's
treats
inefficiency
o fthe Bernard's
o f words
communication t o o l s and c e r t a i n f a c t o r s which f u r t h e r dialogue
and
o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t
ways i n w h i c h Lenormand's t h e a t r e c o m p l e m e n t s
highlighting
are
miscellaneous
communication
Chapter 4 i s g i v e n over t o an examination
with
o fthe
o f w o r d s as v e h i c l e s o f m e a n i n g , t h e complex
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y c o n f u s i n g n a t u r e o f d i a l o g u e and
as
Chapters 3 and 6
undermine
review
discusses
a n d s o m e t i m e s d a n g e r o u s e f f e c t i v e n e s s words c a n as
provocative
triggers
study's 1945.
perspective,
and
explains the choice
t h e way t h e i r w o r k h a s been
classified
how
a n d Lenormand a l s o b r i n g i n t o r e l i e f t h e
psychological
c a t a l y s t s . A s u b s t a n t i a l I n t r o d u c t i o n p u t s C h a p t e r s 1-6 i n t o historical
as
and analysed
particular
a
o f playwrights,
critically
evaluated,
i n t h e p a s t and accounts
f o r this
a p p r o a c h t o t h e i r drama b e t w e e n
1919 a n d
-
I l l -
CONTENTS Page
INTRODUCTION
1
1.
The c h o i c e o f p l a y w r i g h t s
2
2.
Critical
3.
Categorization
4.
The e l u s i v e n a t u r e
5.
C r i t i c a l assessment o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t s ' h e r i t a g e and l e g a c y TT^ 77'. 77'.
6.
7.
reaction t o the playwrights' o f theplaywrights'
theatre
...
work
o f the playwrights'
13 28
drama dramatic 77~. TTT
...
46
...
61
The p l a y w r i g h t s ' ' c r i du c o e u r ' : 'Je s u i s u n a u t e u r d r a m a t i q u e e t c' e s t t o u t ! ' TT^ TT! 77'. 77'. T..
69'
T h i s s t u d y ' s approach t o t h e expressed and t h e inexpressible i nthe playwrights' theatre T
76
PART I - JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD
87
CHAPTER 1 - THE PARALINGUISTIC AND NON-VERBAL PACKAGING OF TWO-TIER DIALOGUE
89
1.
The e n f o r c e d s i l e n c e
90
2.
The l i m i t a t i o n s a n d a d v a n t a g e s o f n o n - v e r b a l a n d p a r a l i n g u i s t i c expression
94
3.
P a r a l i n g u i s t i c a n d n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s as p o t e n t i a l l i e d e t e c t o r s and t h e interdependence o f t h e various instruments o f communication
106
4.
The p a r a d o x o f s i l e n c e
116
5.
Contrived
121
6.
Automatically
7.
The c o n v e n t i o n o f s m a l l - t a l k
128
8.
The c a t h a r t i c r o l e o f t a l k i n g
132
9.
The m u t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e ' d i a l o g u e e n t e n d u ' and t h e ' d i a l o g u e s o u s - j a c e n t ' 77'. 77'. TTT
s o c i a l masks erected
p e r s o n a l fagades o f dialogue
123
...
139
-
IV -
Page
CHAPTER 2 - MISTAKES, MISUNDERSTANDINGS AND MISINTERPRETATIONS
145
1.
The l u b r i c i t y
146
2.
The t u n n e l v i s i o n o f t h e i n t r i n s i c a l l y e g o i s t i c interlocutor TT. 771 TTT TT^ TT! TTi TT.
and f i c k l e n e s s
o f words
...
3.
The p o l t e r g e i s t
4.
The meddlesome c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a c o m p l e x a n d u n r u l y psyche
171
5.
Deux Hommes a n d La L o u i s e
...
188
6.
The u n k n o w a b l e s e l f , t h e u n k n o w a b l e i n t e r l o c u t o r
...
193
7.
Socio-economic and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e communication process TTT" . . .
198
The r e a l i s t - r o m a n t i c i s t
205
8.
e f f e c t o f unconscious motivations
151 162
divide
CHAPTER 3 - THE POWER OF WORDS
213
1.
The power o f r h e t o r i c
214
2.
The e v o c a t i v e power o f w o r d s a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n f l i c t mental pain 77~. 77"^ 77'. TT! TTT" . . .
219
3.
The d a n g e r o u s l y p r o v o c a t i v e power o f w o r d s
228
4.
The p o w e r o f w o r d s t o t r i g g e r o f f d y n a m i c a n d tenacious psychological processes
234
5.
The c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f v e r b a l l y
245
6.
The p r e c o n d i t i o n e d r e c e p t i v i t y o f t h e h e a r e r as t h e key t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c a t a l y t i c power o f word's
252
7.
The power o f t h e s p o k e n v e r s u s t h e u n s p o k e n w o r d a n d i t s negative versus i t s p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l 77'. TT.
258
stimulated reactions
- V -
Page
PART I I - HENRY-RENE
263
LENORMAND
CHAPTER 4 - THE SEARCH FOR THE
265
'INEXPRESSIBLE'
1.
The m i s s i n g 'mot' a n d t h e n e e d t o s e a r c h f o r i t
266
2.
- through the pursuit
271
3.
- i n religious
faith
4.
- i nChristian
v e r s u s pagan, b e l i e f s
5.
- i ndeath
6.
- i n l o v e o f v a r y i n g degrees
7.
The i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e
o f knowledge
274
generally
284 293 297
o f purity 'inexpressible'
313
CHAPTER 5 - THE RELATIVE INEFFICIENCY OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION
323
1.
2.
The unknown a n d u n k n o w a b l e s e l f a n d i t s a b i l i t y t o undermine communication
324
The d i s r u p t i v e r o l e i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s p l i t and u n r u l y psyche
328
process o f a
3.
Oases o f communion
334
4.
The f u n d a m e n t a l h o l l o w n e s s , u n r e l i a b i l i t y a n d i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f words
337
5.
General f a c t o r s
348
6.
P a r a l i n g u i s t i c , n o n - v e r b a l and i n d i r e c t communication s i g n a l s : t h e i r advantages and l i m i t a t i o n s
351
The d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f a b s o l u t e h o n e s t y
361
CHAPTER 6 - THE POTENTIAL TYRANNY OF WORDS
366
1,
2.
contributing
The c r e a t i v e a n d d e s t r u c t i v e their therapeutic potential
t o poor
communication
a s p e c t s o f words and
Words as i n s t r u m e n t s o f m e n t a l t o r m e n t w i t h to k i l l
367 t h e power 378
-
VI -
Page
3.
The p o t e n t i a l l y l e t h a l power o f w o r d s as psychological catalysts
385
The power o f s p o k e n v e r s u s u n s p o k e n w o r d s a s psychological catalysts 77'. 777, TTi T T T "
394
5.
The n e e d f o r a n d p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f e n s i v e r e s i s t a n c e
406
6.
Defeatism versus defiance
412
7.
Knowledge o f s e l f and o t h e r s :
4.
and
limitations
TT!
i t s importance,
77~. 77'.
77'.
dangers
77~. 77'.
TTT 4 2 1
CONCLUSION
434
APPENDIXES
450
Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C
Detailed analysis o f the misunderstanding i n A c t I o f Le P r i n t e m p s d e s A u t r e s Detailed analysis o ft h emisunderstanding i n Act I I I o f Nationale 6 Exchange o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n B e r n a r d and Lenormand a t t h e e n d o f t h e Second W o r l d War
451 455
458
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
462
B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l NOTE
463
I. II.
WORKS BY JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD
464
CRITICAL WORKS MAKING SIGNIFICANT REFERENCE TO JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD BUT NOT TO HENRY-RENE LENORMAND 469
III. IV. V.
WORKS BY HENRY-RENE LENORMAND
474
CRITICAL WORKS MAKING SIGNIFICANT REFERENCE TO HENRY-RENE LENORMAND BUT NOT TO JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD 4 8 1 CRITICAL WORKS MAKING REFERENCE TO JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD AND HENRY-RENE LENORMAND, AND OTHER SECONDARY SOURCES 495
-
Vll -
REFERENCES
In o r d e r t o r e s t r i c t the m a t e r i a l i n v e s t i g a t e d i n depth to a manageable q u a n t i t y , o n l y t h e s t a g e p l a y s w h i c h were written, published o r p e r f o r m e d b e t w e e n 1919 a n d 1945 a n d w h i c h a r e contained i n t h e Theatre o f Jean-Jacques Bernard and t h e Theatre complet o f Henry-Rene Lenormand a r e a n a l y s e d i n this thesis•
PART I
All t h e passages f r o m Bernard's p l a y s quoted i n t h i s thesis have been t a k e n from h i s Theatre, Paris, Albin Michel, 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 5 2 , 8 v o l u m e s - a b b r e v i a t e d h e n c e f o r t h t o 'T I ' , 'T I I ' , etc. Q u o t a t i o n s from o t h e r works o f Bernard following editions: T e m o i g n a g e s i n Masques. C a h i e r s 25® c a h i e r , P a r i s , 1 9 3 3 .
have been c i t e d
d'Art
from t h e
Dramatique,
Mon
Pere T r i s t a n B e r n a r d ,
P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1955.
Mon
Ami l e T h e a t r e , P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1 9 5 8 .
'Le s i l e n c e a u T h e a t r e ' , La C h i m e r e . B u l l e t i n d ' A r t D r a m a t i q u e , n o . 5, m a i 1922, p p . 66-68. ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e t h e a t r e . De l a s u g g e s t i o n e t de 1 ' a r t i f i c e ' , Le T h e a t r e C o n t e m p o r a i n ( R e c h e r c h e s e t Debats du Centre C a t h o l i q u e des I n t e l l e c t u e l s F r a n g a i s ) , n o u v e l l e s e r i e n o . 2, o c t o b r e 1952, p p . 43-54. ( T i t l e abbreviated, after thei n i t i a l reference, t o 'Reflexions sur l e theatre'.) 'Georges e t L u d m i l l a P i t o e f f ' , no. 2 7 , 1954, p p . 7-16.
La Revue T h e a t r a l e ,
-
Vlll
-
PART I I
All t h e p a s s a g e s f r o m Lenormand's p l a y s q u o t e d i n t h i s thesis have been taken from h i s . Theatre complet, 10 v o l u m e s a b b r e v i a t e d h e n c e f o r t h t o 'T I ' , 'T I I ' , e t c . Volumes I t o V I I published P a r i s , G. C r e s e t C i e , 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 3 1 , Volumes V I I I t o X p u b l i s h e d P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1935-1942. Quotations f r o m o t h e r w o r k s o f Lenormand h a v e been c i t e d the f o l l o w i n g e d i t i o n s : Les P i t o e f f ,
P a r i s , 0. L i e u t i e r ,
from
1943.
Les C o n f e s s i o n s d'un a u t e u r d r a m a t i q u e , 2 v o l s . , P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1949, 1953. ( T i t l e abbreviated, after the i n i t i a l reference, to Les C o n f e s s i o n s . ) 'Comment j ' e c r i s une p i e c e ' , Choses de t h e a t r e , no. 8, mai 1922, pp. 4 4 9 - 4 5 3 . ' L ' I n c o n s c i e n t dans l a l i t t e r a t u r e d r a m a t i q u e ' . La C h i m e r e . B u l l e t i n d ' A r t D r a m a t i q u e , no. 5, mai 1922, p p . 74-80. 'Sur l e s e u i l ' , La C h i m e r e . B u l l e t i n d ' A r t no. 9, a v r i l 1923, p p . 138-139.
Dramatique,
' A i d e z - m o i a d e t r u i r e une l e g e n d e ' , i n t e r v i e w de Raymond C o g n i a t , Comoedia, 16 o c t o b r e 1924, p. 1 . 'Chronique
d r a m a t i q u e ' , C h a n t e c l e r , 12 j u i n
'Mon T h e a t r e ' , Revue B l e u e , no. 8, 2 1 a v r i l p p . 234-235. ~~
1926, p. 1 . 1928,
• ' S o u v e n i r s s u r G i r a u d o u x , s u i v i s de p r o p o s n o t e s p a r Georges de W i s s a n t ' , La Revue T h e a t r a l e , n o . 16, a v r i l - j u i n 1 9 5 1 , pp. 15-23. ' S h a k e s p e a r e e t l e M y s t e r e ' , La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 30, 1955, p p . 5-10,
-
IX -
STATEMENT OF COPYRIGHT
The
copyright
of
this
thesis
rests
with
t h e author.
q u o t a t i o n f r o m i t s h o u l d be p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t h e r p r i o r
No
written
c o n s e n t a n d i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m i t s h o u l d be a c k n o w l e d g e d .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The
author
wishes t o express a p p r e c i a t i o n t o
D r . B.G. Garnham,
f o r h i s helpful
criticism
and
unfailing
preparation
o fthis
thesis.
her
advice,
encouragement
supervisor, constructive
throughout
the
-
XI
-
For my f a t h e r , my m o t h e r and Geoffrey
- 1 -
INTRODUCTION
- 2 -
1.
The
choice o f playwrights
'Le petite
Theatre salle
moderne
en b o i s ,
e s t ne
passage
l e 30 mars 1887, de
dans
une
1'Elysee-des-Beaux-Arts',
d e c l a r e s Simone Balazard."*" C e r t a i n l y
Antoine's e f f o r t s a t
the
T h e a t r e L i b r e , f o l l o w e d by t h o s e o f P a u l F o r t and Lugne-Poe the
Theatre d'Art
were
as s i g n i f i c a n t
and
t h e T h e a t r e de I ' O e u v r e i n
as t h e t h e a t r i c a l
by J a c q u e s Copeau's famous m a n i f e s t o
reformation
Georges P i t o e f f
c e n t u r y . As a r e s u l t could of
refer
in
the f i r s t
quarter
of
1890s,
inaugurated
i n p a v i n g t h e way
r e v i t a l i z i n g work o f Gaston Baty, Charles D u l l i n , and
the
at
f o r the
Louis Jouvet the
o f a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y , by 1927
twentieth John Palmer
t o P a r i s ' s r e c o v e r y o f 'an a s c e n d a n c y i n t h e
arts
t h e t h e a t r e f o r w h i c h a p a r a l l e l w o u l d have t o be s o u g h t
as
3 far
back
similar
as
the seventeenth century'.
Twenty
years
later
c l a i m s a r e b e i n g made:
The Second W o r l d War b r o u g h t t o an u n t i m e l y and tragic close t h i s brilliant era i n the French theatre. There are no names i n i t c o m p a r a b l e to C o r n e i l l e , M o l i e r e , o r R a c i n e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e general level of i t s excellence . . . places i t historically o n l y second t o i t s forebear, the s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y French c l a s s i c a l era.
1.
Simone B a l a z a r d , Le G u i d e du T h e a t r e f r a n g a i s ( P a r i s , S y r o s , 1989) p. 8.
contemporain
2.
J a c q u e s Copeau, 'Un e s s a i de r e n o v a t i o n d r a m a t i q u e : l e T h e a t r e du V i e u x C o l o m b i e r ' , La N o u v e l l e Revue Frangaise, 1 s e p t e m b r e 1913, pp. 337-353.
3.
John Palmer, S t u d i e s i n t h e Contemporary Theatre M a r t i n S e e k e r , 1 9 2 7 ) p. 37.
4. ^
B a r r e t t H. C l a r k and George F r e e d l e y ( e d s . ) , A H i s t o r y o f Modern Drama (New Y o r k - L o n d o n , D. A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y Company, I n c . , 1947) p. 309.
(London,
-
The who
3
-
quasi-impossibility of categorizing
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s g o l d e n age
Paul-Louis n'aura
M i g n o n when he p o i n t s o u t t h a t eu
seulement a a p p o r t e r
de
sa
sensibilite,
inventer
la
scenique,
forme
soit
par
q u i en
playwrights
of theatre^ i s explained
pas
pensee,
the
de son
la
la
de ce
personnalite
temperament;
donnera
un r e t o u r aux
'1'auteur
temps de
sa
i l aura
du
meilleure
sources,
by
soit
expression en
tentant
d'innover':
Cette recherche constamment renouvelee d'une i n d i v i d u a l i t e m a r q u a n t e a 1 ' a u t r e , r e n d d i f f i c i l e s ou contestables l e s c l a s s e m e n t s p a r e c o l e ou l e s vues s y n t h e t i q u e s . Sans d o u t e , on r e l e v e des a | " f i n i t e s ; l a diversite est pourtant l e t r a i t frappant.
The
engines
undoubtedly which
of this
'recherche
d ' o r i g i n a l i t e a t o u t p r i x ' " ^ were
f u e l l e d by t h e F i r s t W o r l d
a l l that civilization
had
War,
i n the aftermath of
h i t h e r t o taken f o r granted
c h a l l e n g e d . A c r y f o r change r e v e r b e r a t e d t h r o u g h e v e r y of
French
society,
including
the
theatre.
The
was
sector
resultant
Q 'flight
from n a t u r a l i s m '
d e g r e e and
was
ubiquitous, although i t varied i n
form.
Some d r a m a t i s t s d i d n o t r e j e c t o u t r i g h t t h e f r a m e w o r k t h e y inherited
pp.
which,
a l t h o u g h f u n d a m e n t a l l y n a t u r a l i s t i c , had
5.
See
28-46, e s p e c i a l l y pp.
40-46.
6.
P a u l - L o u i s M i g n o n , Panorama du t h e a t r e au XX— ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , ' 1978) p. 127. '
7.
P a u l W e r r i e , T h e a t r e de l a F u i t e Les E c r i t s , 1943) p. 228.
8.
J o s e p h C h i a r i , The C o n t e m p o r a r y F r e n c h T h e a t r e , The F l i g h t f r o m N a t u r a l i s m (New Y o r k , M a c m i l l a n ,
siecle
(Bruxelles-Paris,
1959)
been
- 4 -
m o d i f i e d by t h e S y m b o l i s t and excesses o f t h e Theatre b r o u g h t t h e i r own not
i d e o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n s against the
L i b r e . To t h i s f r a m e w o r k ,
changes. D i s t i n c t though these were, t h e y
a p p e a r t o t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r o f t h e 1990s t o
revolutionary, greater
partly
because
t h e y w e r e made
have
in
recourse
in
a s i d e s and
their
been
Not
of only
9 n a t u r a l i s m ' r e f u s e t o have
dialogue to stylized
'inhumanly
do
favour
s i m p l i c i t y and w e r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y s u b t l e .
d i d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f ' t h e new
to
however, t h e y
speeches,
artificial
coherent' s o l i l o q u i e s , ' ^ ^ they a l s o tended
s t r i v e f o r o r i g i n a l i t y by s u c c e s s f u l l y m a k i n g drama o f
a p p a r e n t l y u n d r a m a t i c , u s i n g a minimum o f a c t i o n and Typical
o f them w e r e t h e I n t i m i s t s
Bernard,
Paul Geraldy
and
Charles
Benjamin Cremieux d e s c r i b e s French vie"
du
Theatre
Libre
Denys A m i e l ,
artifice.
Jean-Jacques
Vildrac.Interestingly,
I n t i m i s m as
prolongee
the
et
' l a "tranche
renouvelee
par
de des
12 dramaturges At find
a
Dorothy its
9.
e n n e m i s du n a t u r a l i s m e ' .
t h e o t h e r extreme f r o m t h e work o f such d r a m a t i s t s very
d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f enemy o f
K n o w l e s s p e l l s as
origin
in
naturalism
in
on 13
1890.
30.
10.
Una E l l i s - F e r m o r , The F r o n t i e r s o f Drama ( L o n d o n , 1 9 4 6 ) p. 108 ( F o o t n o t e 2 ) .
11.
See
12.
B e n j a m i n C r e m i e u x , ' Le T h e a t r e ' , La N o u v e l l e Revue F r a n g a i s e , 1®^ decembre 1925, p. 746
Pi
what
' l e s u r - r e a l i s m e ' when s h e . t o u c h e s
La R e a c t i o n i d e a l i s t e au t h e a t r e d e p u i s
P a l m e r , S t u d i e s , p.
we
Methuen,
35.
13. „ D o r o t h y K n o w l e s , La R e a c t i o n i d e a l i s t e au t h e a t r e d e p u i s 1890 ( P a r i s , L i b r a i r i e E. D r o z , 1934) p. 489.
- 5 -
Implausibility
i n their
a c t i o n and d i a l o g u e , a p r o p e n s i t y f o r
esoteric
symbolism and t h e d e s i r e t o shock a r e
features
of,the strongly surrealistic
by
Artaud,
Salacrou
of of
playwrights
and V i t r a c , the
n o t t o mention t h e Dadaist
span
surrealistic
extending
from
types
outer
Tristan
t h e most
Tzara.
bizarre
drama t o t h e s i m p l e s t , most c l a s s i c a l
'new n a t u r a l i s m ' , i n c l u d i n g w o r k b y c e r t a i n the
exemplified
some C o c t e a u , Yvan G o l l , Georges Neveux, t h e e a r l y
Across radical
characteristic
' p o l e s ' , one f i n d s a v e r y w i d e
and form
representatives mix
of
genres,
and s t y l e s o f t h e a t r e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s u s u a l l y e i t h e r a
lyrical
o r an i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s t o some d e g r e e : t r a g e d y
Raynal),
light
(Anouilh,
comedy
Crommelynck),
'ubuesque''^^
(Vitrac,
Ghelderode),
literary
(Cocteau,
unanimism
Bernard,
farce
(Benjamin,
plays
(Giraudoux,
Salacrou),
comic
of
with
fantasy
dreams/ideals
cruelty
Crommelynck), Romanticism Savoir),
existentialism
personage
(Camus, G i d e ) ,
the
(Artaud,
Obey), t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l social
drama
o r , fairy
tale
and d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t
Sarment), s p i r i t u a l
tragic
Ghelderode),
(Remains), t h e f a n t a s t i c w i t h t h e
Salacrou),
Supervielle),
Guitry),
Zimmer), t h e a t r e
( H e n r y - R e n e Lenormand,'''^ Pagnol),
(Deval,
(Demasy,
(Bourdet, everyday (Achard.,
(Jean-Jacques
a s p i r a t i o n a n d decadence ( A n o u i l h ,
(Achard, (Marcel,
Sarment), cynicism Sartre),
the
(Passeur, historical
C h r i s t i a n t h e a t r e ( C l a u d e l , Gheon),
14.
See p. 4 2 .
15.
A l t h o u g h t h e f i r s t name i s o f t e n s p e l t w i t h an ' i ' , Lenormand h a v i n g s i g n e d h i s w o r k s u s i n g t h e a b b r e v i a t e d 'H.-R. Lenormand', i t i s now g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h a t 'Henry-Rene' i s t h e more a c c u r a t e .
6 -
people's
theatre
comprehensive,
even
classifications purposely
(Bloch,
Holland).
This l i s t
i f one t a k e s i n t o
d e a l t w i t h elsewhere
omitted from i t .
i s f a r from
account
that
i n t h i s study
Moreover,
although a
have
have
been
several one
cited.
could frequently cases
m i x t u r e s a r e t o be f o u n d n o t o n l y a c r o s s t h e work
From
Wars, J e a n - J a c q u e s B e r n a r d a n d
reasons.
between
Henry-Rene Lenormand
were
i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h i s t h e s i s f o r a number o f
Firstly,
particular
of
play.
t h e phalanx o f d r a m a t i s t s w r i t i n g i n French
selected f o r j o i n t
of
mentioned,
I t s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d t h a t i n many
playwright but within a single
the
been
maximum
two examples have been g i v e n f o r each a s p e c t o f work several others from w i t h i n o r outside t h e l i s t
certain
they shared a g u i d i n g precept which
importance
given
the
fact
that
this
is of study's
c o n c l u s i o n s a r e b a s e d on e v i d e n c e t h a t was a n a t u r a l outcome o f its
implications:
not
say i n everyday
of
comment i s s u r p r i s i n g t o c o n t e m p l a t e i n t h e 1990s,
the
t h e i r stage c h a r a c t e r s say n o t h i n g t h e y might life.
That t h i s
s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d w o r t h y but i n
e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e c e n t u r y t h e a t r e o f t h i s k i n d was a
new
phenomenon i n F r a n c e . 'French word,
drama
h a d been above a l l t h e a r t o f
o f t h e e x p l a i n e d emotion', observes
the
Edward Marsh,
spoken then
'M. B e r n a r d a n d h i s f r i e n d s came a l o n g a f t e r t h e G r e a t War w i t h the
c o n f e s s e d a i m o f c o n v e y i n g i n a d r a m a t i c way e m o t i o n s
in
normal
16.
life
n e v e r come
See, n o t a b l y , p p . 28-46.
t o the point
of
that
b e i n g expressed,
- 7 -
17 o f t e n indeed are hardly r e a l i z e d ' . The m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d a i m i s p i n p o i n t e d as f o l l o w s b y R o b e r t de B e a u p l a n :
this
M. J e a n - J a c q u e s B e r n a r d s'est justement avise que l e theatre e t a i t , l e p l u s souvent, gate par I ' a b o n d a n c e v e r b a l e . Les p e r s o n n a g e s n'y s o n t point des etres q u i v i v e n t , mais des psychologues q u i s'analysent, des b a y a r d s q u i se repandent en confidences improbables. l i s ne p a j ^ e n t pas p o u r eux-memes, m a i s p o u r l e s s p e c t a t e u r s .
Products o f a r e a c t i o n against t h i s , voice
their
i n w h i c h t h e y u n d e r s t a n d them
ways w h i c h a r e i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e i r
to
to
only
and i n
temperament.
was n o t l o n g b e f o r e , t o u s e S.A.
was a n a t u r a l t r a i t
only
f o r them
c i r c u m s t a n c e s and p e r s o n a l i t y , and t h e y
them i n t h e t e r m s
It
characters
f e e l i n g s i n so f a r as i t i s ' n a t u r a l '
do so g i v e n t h e i r voice
Bernard's
Rhodes' w o r d s ,
o f Jean-Jacques Bernard's
genius
'what
. . . came
be l o o k e d u p o n b y many o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s as a
literary
19 principle'. and
W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o M a r t i n e , L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voy.
Le P r i n t e m p s
des A u t r e s G e r a r d
de C a t a l o g n e
writes:
Sur c e s t r o i s p i e c e s e s t basee l a t h e o r i e du s i l e n c e . Le p r i n c i p e e s t de ne f a i r e d i r e aux a c t e u r s que c e q u ' i l s d i r a i e n t en r e a l i t e , ou s i I ' o n "^^^^f^ de r e d u i r e l a p a r o l e a u r o l e q u ' e l l e a dans l a v i e .
17.
'Edward Owen M a r s h , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o 'Le Drame e t l e T h e a t r e R a d i o p h o n i q u e ' , J e a n - J a c q u e s B e r n a r d , The L i s t e n e r , no. 9 8 5 , 1 1 December 1947, p. 1013.
18.
R o b e r t de B e a u p l a n , ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Le T h e a t r e e t Comoedia I l l u s t r e , n o u v e l l e s e r i e n o . 3 0 , 15 mars 1924, page n o t n u m b e r e d .
19.
S.A. Rhodes,'The C o n t e m p o r a r y F r e n c h F.S. C r o f t s & Co., 1 9 4 2 ) p. 2 4 5 .
20.
E m p h a s i s h e r e a n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n i s my own.
Theater
(New Y o r k ,
- 8 -
Ceci e s t a s o i s e u l une r e v o l u t i o n . Le t h e a t r e du dix-neuvieme s i e c l e a e t e t o u t e n t i e r fonde s u r ce postulat que l e s p e r s o n n a g e s a v a i e n t des ames de verre; non seulement l e p u b l i c v o y a i t distinctement ce que p e n s a i e n t l e s a c t e u r s en s c e n e , i ^ ^ i s c e u x - c i ne p e n s a i e n t q u ' a u t a n t - q u ' i l s p a r l a i e n t .
Although
Lenormand's r e j e c t i o n o f t h e a t r i c a l r h e t o r i c was n o t
radical,
t h e fundamental premises o f t h e two p l a y w r i g h t s
similar.
Accordingly,
we
find
A s h l e y Dukes
Lenormand's e x p l o r a t i o n o f ' t h e d r a m a t i c f i e l d beyond
the borderland
o f verbal
were
referring
to
t h a t l i e s on
or
expression - the f i e l d
pregnant silences r a t h e r than eloquent tirades'
of
and a d d i n g :
He f e e l s w i t h G a s t o n B a t y t h a t ' t h e p a r t p l a y e d by t h e t e x t i n a p l g ^ c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p a r t p l a y e d by w o r d s 2_^n l i f e ' - a part always less than the whole. "
'You
create characters',
H a r o l d P i n t e r once
said,
'then
24 you
give
them words t o speak'.
dialogue, authenticity
Bernard prime
and
I n giving
Lenormand
considerations,
made and
their
characters
plausibility the
and
grammatical
21.
G e r a r d de C a t a l o g n e , 'Jean-Jacques B e r n a r d o u l a p s y c h a r i a l y s e a u t h e a t r e ' . La Pensee l a t i n e , n o . 53, j a n v i e r 1925, p. 8.
22.
'Le r o l e d u t e x t e au t h e a t r e , c ' e s t l e r o l e du mot dans l a v i e ' . G a s t o n B a t y , 'La P l a c e d u T e x t e ' , Choses de t h e a t r e , n o . 1 1 , novembre 1922, p. 7.
23.
A s h l e y Dukes, F o r e w o r d t o D.L. Orna's E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f T h r e e P l a y s b y H.R..Lenormand (The Dream D o c t o r , Man a n d H i s Phantoms, The Coward) ( L o n d o n , V i c t o r G o l l a n c z L t d . , 1 9 2 8 ) p p . 5-6.
24.
' I n a n Empty B a n d s t a n d - H a r o l d P i n t e r i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h J o a n B a k e w e l l ' , The L i s t e n e r , n o . 2 1 1 9 , 6 November 1 9 6 9 , p. GST.
- 9 -
accuracy,
lexical
characters' personal, time
r e g i s t e r and i n t o n a t i o n a n d r h y t h m
of
their
speech f l u c t u a t e a p p r o p r i a t e l y a c c o r d i n g
to
their
the
same
meet
the
geographical
Bernard
requirements ones
of
and c u l t u r a l background. A t
a n d Lenormand w o r k e d p a i n s t a k i n g l y t o of their
t h e stage.
anything
which
tension
of
s p e c i f i c dramatic
ends a n d
T h e i r c h a r a c t e r s do
would adversely
the play
by
the
n o t , t h e r e f o r e , say
a f f e c t t h e pace
being
general
and
irritatingly
dramatic
complicated,
25 repetitive, made,
irrelevant or e l l i p t i c a l .
adjustments
however, t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s say n o t h i n g w h i c h i t would
u n n a t u r a l f o r them t o s a y . A g a i n H a r o l d his
The f i n a l
be
Pinter's explanation o f
relationship w i t h h i scharacters i s pertinent: G i v e n c h a r a c t e r s who p o s s e s s a momentum o f t h e i r own, my j o b i s n o t t o impose o n them, n o t t o s u b j e c t t h e m t o a f a l s e a r t i c u l a t i o n , b y w h i c h I mean f o r c i n g a c h a r a c t e r t o s p e a k where he c o u l d n o t s p e a k , m a k i n g him speak i n a way he c o u l d n o t s^gak, m a k i n g h i m s p e a k o f w h a t he c o u l d n e v e r s p e a k .
Related on
the
dramatic
appreciation dramatist
t o t h e s i m i l a r p o l i c i e s o f Bernard
that,
dialogue
they
wrote
i n t h e words o f P e t e r
b r i n g s h i s own l i f e
i n t o h i s w o r k - t h e empty s t a g e
is Brook,
and their
common
'although
n u r t u r e d by t h e l i f e i s no i v o r y t o w e r
Lenormand
around
the him
- t h e choices
25.
H e r e ' e l l i p t i c a l ' does n o t r e f e r t o t h e e l l i p s e s c a l c u l a t e d t o p e r p l e x f o r t h e s p e c i f i c purpose o f making t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r more a c t i v e l y r e c e p t i v e t o t h e drama.
26.
'Between t h e L i n e s ' , a n a c c o u n t o f a s p e e c h made by H a r o l d P i n t e r t o t h e S e v e n t h N a t i o n a l S t u d e n t Drama F e s t i v a l i n B r i s t o l p u b l i s h e d i n The Sunday T i m e s , no. 7242, 4 March 1962, p. 25.
- 10
he
makes
and
the values
-
he o b s e r v e s
are
only
powerful
in 27
p r o p o r t i o n t o what t h e y c r e a t e i n t h e language o f t h e a t r e ' . Whilst
considering
each t e x t t h e y w r o t e
as
'la
partie
28 essentielle such,
du
Bernard
intrinsically the
drame'
final
and
and
e x p e c t i n g i t t o be
respected
Lenormand knew t h a t drama p e r
se
d e p e n d e n t on a p l a y w r i g h t ' s p r o d u c t and
is
not
that
in
i n s t a n c e o n l y a c t o r s / a c t r e s s e s o r p u p p e t s and
their
animators
are e s s e n t i a l t o t h e a t r e . Accordingly, although
believed
'une
necessary lecteur le
to
pp.
They
vivante'
should
t r i g g e r an a r m c h a i r
. . . etant
Theatre,
play.
piece
did
not
reader's
i c i son p r o p r e
71-72),
they wrote
have
the
provide
metteur
a l l
as
they
that
is
imagination, en s c e n e '
'le
(Mon
Ami
t h e i r plays f o r players
advantage
of
being
to
players
29 themselves, 'oeuvre
la
b u t e a c h knew t h a t a g o o d a c t o r c o u l d ou i l ne
(Les P i t o e f f , p. of
s a v a i t pas
lui-meme
1 2 5 ) . They w e r e no
qu'elle
l e s s conscious
take put
of the
a l l the o t h e r s i n v o l v e d i n c r e a t i n g a performance o f 30
their
t e x t was
as g i v e n
only the kernel
i n h i s 1922
preface
- a view a l l i e d
t o Les
M a r i e s de
to
his
aller' value which
Cocteau's,
l a Tour E i f f e l :
27.
Peter Ltd.,
B r o o k , The Empty Space ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , P e n g u i n Books 1976, F i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1968) pp. 42-43.
28.
G a s t o n B a t y , T h e a t r e Nouveau. N o t e s e t Documents i n Masques. C a h i e r s d ' A r t D r a m a t i q u e , 4 cahier, Paris,
1928,
29.
U n l i k e s u c h d r a m a t i c g e n i u s e s as A e s c h y l u s , S o p h o c l e s , S h a k e s p e a r e and M o l i e r e .
30.
The m e t a p h o r i s G a s t o n B a t y ' s : 'Le t e x t e . . . e s t au drame ce que l e n o y a u e s t au f r u i t , l e c e n t r e s o l i d e a u t o u r duquel v i e n n e n t s'ordonner l e s a u t r e s elements'. T h e a t r e Nouveau. N o t e s e t Documents, p.. 15.
11
-
Une piece de theatre devrait etre ecrite, decoree, costumee, accompagnee de musique, jouee, dansee p a r un s e u l homme. Get athlete complet n ' e x i s t e p a s . I I i m p o r t e done de r e m p l a c e r 1 ' i n d i v i d u p a r ce r e s s e m b l e l e p l u s a un i n d i v i d u : un g r o u p e amical.
Typical
o f s u c h a g r o u p was
Chimere', t o which
Bernard
Gaston Baty's
and
'Compagnons
de
la
Lenormand b e l o n g e d as members o f
'32 its
r e a d i n g committee.
that
each
through
the
built-up through
script
any
designers, s o u n d and
they wrote
full
accompanying stage
for
suggest
appropriately
interrelationship
d i r e c t i o n s areas
architects
and
painters,
of
l i g h t i n g e x p e r t s and
musicians,
Le S i m o u n :
'M.
by
creative by
set
costumiers,
technicians - a l l
The
of the l a t t e r
Frangois
Gaston Baty,
and
various other importance
r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e work o f Bernard tellingly
and
lines
c o m p l e t i o n n o t o n l y by a c t o r s , b u t a l s o
suggested
de M.
to
t h r o u g h t h e s i l e n c e s between t h e
o r c h e s t r a t e d by t h e d i r e c t o r . the
had
'repliques', through t h e i r
effect,
activity
I n t h i s c a p a c i t y t h e y w e r e v e r y aware
Mauriac
and in
a
in
Lenormand
is
review
of
q u i a mis
en s c e n e l e c r u e l 33 Lenormand, a u r a i t pu l e s i g n e r avec l u i ' .
drame
31.
J e a n C o c t e a u , T h e a t r e I ( A n t i g o n e - Les M a r i e s de l a T o u r E i f f e l - Les C h e v a l i e r s de l a T a b l e Ronde Les P a r e n t s T e r r i b l e s ) ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , 1948) p. 48.
32.
A l o n g s i d e Denys A m i e l , L u c i e n B e s n a r d , S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r , Edmond F l e g , G a b r i e l M a r c e l , E m i l e Mazaud, A d o l p h e Orna, J e a n - V i c t o r P e l l e r i n , J e a n Sarment and Auguste V i l l e r o y - n o t f o r g e t t i n g H e n r i Cremieux, t h e ' S e c r e t a i r e du C o m i t e de l e c t u r e ' , and Simon G a n t i l l o n , the ' S e c r e t a i r e General'.
33.
F r a n g o i s M a u r i a c , 'Le Simoun', La Revue H e b d o m a d a i r e , 8 J a n v i e r 1 9 2 1 , p. 225.
- 12 -
Other
s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n B e r n a r d a n d Lenormand w i l l
touched
on
between
t h e p l a y w r i g h t s a r e no l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t .
third
i n t h e course o f t h i s
study, but
the
disparities Indeed,
r e a s o n f o r c o n s i d e r i n g B e r n a r d and Lenormand
subjects f o r j o i n t complementary
be
the
interesting
examination i n t h i s thesis relates t o
their
' d i f f e r e n c e s de t e m p e r a m e n t q u i s o n t p r e s q u e
des
34 oppositions'. 'Avec Amiel
une b e a u t e
with
de c o n v i c t i o n a d m i r a b l e ' ,
reference
t o B e r n a r d and t h e
subject
Martine,
'il
j'allais
d i r e l e p l u s c o n v e n t i o n n e l q u i se p u i s s e
Whilst
I ' a voulu l e plus simple,
writes
Bernard
le
Denys
matter
plus
of
quotidien, 35 trouver'.
was happy t o e x p l o i t t h e drama w i t h
which
he
proves
'the a s p i r a t i o n s and d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t s of ordinary 36 p e o p l e ' t o be p r e g n a n t , Lenormand a p p e a r s t o h a v e been i n h i s element exposing t h e mental processes of 'abnormal or 37 pathological types'.
No c r i t i c i s m o f Lenormand i s i m p l i c i t i n
38 this
comparison.
'ont c h o i s i
surtout
As D a n i e l M o r n e t p o i n t s o u t , some l e s e t r e s ou l e s choses
writers
q u i representent
34.
G a b r i e l M a r c e l , 'Le T h e a t r e f r a n g a i s e n t r e l e s deux g u e r r e s ' , Les N o u v e l l e s L i t t e r a i r e s , 3 o c t o b r e 1946, p. 12. ~
35.
Denys A m i e l , 'Le T h e a t r e q u i v i e n t ' , G a z e t t e des S e p t A r t s , n o . 1 , 15 decembre 1922, p . 6.
36.
Thomas B i s h o p , P i r a n d e l l o a n d t h e F r e n c h T h e a t e r (New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , , 1960) p. 72.
37.
R o b e r t McHenry ( e d . ) . The New E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , v o l . 7 o f M i c r o p a e d i a , F i f t e e n t h E d i t i o n (London, E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , I n c . , 1993) p. 2 6 7 .
38.
F o r d e t a i l s o f c r i t i c s who h a v e a t t a c k e d Lenormand on t h e s e a n d r e l a t e d g r o u n d s , see p p . 21-22 a n d 302.
- 13 -
les
aspects
de
v i o l e n t s , f e r o c e s , corrompus e t bas. L i b r e a
c r o i r e q u ' i l y e n a d ' a u t r e s e t que l a r e a l i t e
nous
n'est
pas,
39 tout
entiere, ainsi
toll
faite'.
I n Bernard's work t h e
i s l o w . I n Lenormand's t h e r e i s a t l e a s t one d e a t h ,
a deliberately
i n f l i c t e d one, i n e v e r y p l a y except
where
a murder i s planned,
and Crepuscule
other
hand, t h e r e l a t i v e l y
subdued t o n e s o f
contrast with t h e p i c t u r e s q u e and c o l o u r o f Lenormand's. Last chosen
two
b u t n o t l e a s t , Bernard
for scrutiny
forgotten
of
mortality
i n this
L'Innocente,
du Theatre.
On
Bernard's
frequently
a n d Lenormand
were
t h e y have been
the
dramas
exotic
s t u d y because, a l t h o u g h
by c r i t i c s and p u b l i c ,
often
local
jointly currently
acclaimed
o f t h e b e s t and most i n n o v a t i v e o f t h e French t h e 1920s a n d 1 9 3 0 s . D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l
as
playwrights reaction
to
the
p l a y w r i g h t s f r o m t h e 1920s t o t h e p r e s e n t day c o n t i n u e s
in
the
following
2.
C r i t i c a l reaction t o the playwrights' theatre Every
views
section.
e f f o r t h a s b e e n made n o t t o l i m i t t h i s
expressed
emphasis
on
section t o
d u r i n g t h e Inter-War period b u t t o place the
contemporary
evaluations o f the past f i f t y
critical
landscape.
39.
i n number, a p o i n t w h i c h
p. 136. 40.
i s e l a b o r a t e d below.
D a n i e l M o r n e t , I n t r o d u c t i o n a 1 ' e t u d e des e c r i v a i n s frangais d'aujourd'hui
See p p . 23-27.
The
y e a r s , however, a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y 40
few
some
( P a r i s , B o i v i n e t C i e , 1939)
-
In
G a b r i e l Marcel's
14 -
o p i n i o n Lenormand was
unquestionably
t h e man who c o n t r i b u t e d most t o t h e F r e n c h t h e a t r e b e t w e e n t h e
41 Wars.
'The
1919-1930',
most i m p o r t a n t p l a y w r i g h t o f t h e y e a r s
42 writes
Jacques Guicharnaud,
Kenneth White
points
w i d e l y performed
and i n h i s d o c t o r a l
o u t t h a t Lenormand's
plays
'were
o f a n y o t h e r F r e n c h a u t h o r d u r i n g t h e decade
first
World
Bernard
more
i n t h e a t e r s t h r o u g h o u t Europe and America t h a n
those
dramatic
thesis
War'.'^"^
Although,
from the
point
s t a t u r e a l o n e , Lenormand was t h e g r e a t e r also enjoyed
after the o f view
of
playwright,
a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n due n o t a b l y t o
44 Martine, One Bernard
'qui connut
un succes
mondial'.
o f t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y made p o s i t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d Lenormand c o n c e r n s t h e i r
importance
on
as i n n o v a t o r s .
B e r n a r d ' s p a r t i c u l a r c l a i m t o fame i n t h i s r e s p e c t has
already
45 been h i g h l i g h t e d . was
As f o r Lenormand, Serge R a d i n e m a i n t a i n s he
' i n c o n t e s t a b l e m e n t u n des dramaturges l e s p l u s o r i g i n a u x e t
41.
G a b r i e l M a r c e l , 'Le t h e a t r e de H.-R. Lenormand', Opera, 21 f e v r i e r 1 9 5 1 , p . 1 .
42.
Jacques G u i c h a r n a u d ( i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h June B e c k e l m a n ) , Modern F r e n c h T h e a t r e f r o m G i r a u d o u x t o B e c k e t t (New~Haven, Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961) p. 13.
43.
K e n n e t h S. W h i t e , 'The D e v e l o p m e n t o f Lenormand's P r i n c i p l e s a n d Purposes as a D r a m a t i s t ' ( d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1958. Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , 1993) pp. i x - x .
44.
A n d r e L a g a r d e e t L a u r e n t M i c h a r d , XX— S i e c l e B o r d a s , 1988, F i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1962T~p. 417.
45.
See pp.
6-8.
(Paris,
-
15 -
l e s p l u s c a r a e t e r i s t i q u e s de 1 ' e n t r e - d e u x - g u e r r e s ' . of a century l a t e r Maurice Brueziere states t h a t
ecrivains
de
theatre
de I ' i m m e d i a t
46
A quarter 'parmi l e s
apres-guerre',
Lenormand
47 'est
sans
doute
commentators
le
plus
original'.
Although
a
c o n s i d e r t h a t he s h o u l d s h a r e some o f t h e
few honour
48 with his
S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r , novelty
tableaux, labilite
i n d i v i d i n g his plays i n t o
de
petits
breves scenes q u i t r a d u i s e n t l a m u l t i p l i c i t e
et l a
out
premiere element',
'des s e r i e s
des e t a t s d'ame de p e r s o n n a g e s d o n t l e s p a s s i o n s 49
l e s pensees s o n t t o u j o u r s point
many commend Lenormand f o r
that
fois'
en mouvement'.
A number o f
' l a p s y c h a n a l y s e monte with
writes
Lenormand's a t t e m p t ,
Le
Mangeur
de
Dorothy Knowles, i n the great
sur
scene
Reves.^*^ 'is to
majority
be
et
critics pour
la
'Another
new
found
in
o f his plays,
to
46.
S e r g e R a d i n e , A n o u i l h . , Lenormand, S a l a c r o u E d i t i o n des T r o i s C o l l i n e s , 1 9 5 1 ) p. 55.
(Geneve,
47.
M a u r i c e B r u e z i e r e , H i s t o i r e D e s c r i p t i v e de l a L i t t e r a t u r e C o n t e m p o r a i n e , v o l . I I ( P a r i s , B e r g e r - L e v r a u l t , 1976) p. 107.
48.
H e n r i C l o u a r d , H i s t o i r e ' de l a l i t t e r a t u f e f r a n g a i s e du symbolisme a nos j o u r s , v o l . 2 ( P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1949). p. 4 3 0 ; Thomas H. D i c k i n s o n ( a n d o t h e r s ) . The T h e a t r e i n a C h a n g i n g E u r o p e ( L o n d o n , Putnam, 1938) p. 2 0 2 .
49.
J a c q u e s Demougin ( e d . ) , D i c t i o n n a i r e de l a l i t t e r a t u r e f r a n g a i s e e t f r a n c o p h o n e " ! v o l s . 1-3 ( P a r i s , L a r o u s s e , 1987) p. 8 1 5 .
50.
J a c q u e l i n e de J o m a r o n ( e d . ) , Le T h e a t r e en F r a n c e , v o l . 2, de l a R e v o l u t i o n a n o s j o u r s ( P a r i s , Armand C o l i n , 1989) p. 2 9 2 .
- 16
integrate
human
beings
-
i n t o the material world,
the
natural
^ , 51 order' . 'Marquees d ' a b o r d p a r l a d e c o u v e r t e
de l a p s y c h a n a l y s e
et
52 des
f o r c e s i n c o n s c i e n t e s ' , remarks Michel Vais,
d'Henri-Rene Lenormand, prevoient
pour
pouvoirs
la
Jean-Jacques Bernard,
premiere
sceniques'.
'les
Denys A m i e l
fois explicitement
un
role
53 . C e r t a i n c r i t i c s have s t r e s s e d
lack of l i t e r a r y
pieces
t a l e n t on t h e i r p a r t w h i c h
aux
that
was
no
led
and
Lenormand t o l e a v e t h e d i r e c t o r s o f t h e i r p l a y s t h i s
i t
Bernard scope
54 for
creativity,
high praise With
b o t h won reference
characters and
and
illustrate
the
and
the
f o r t h e i r d r a m a t i c a r t and
craftsmanship.
to
claims,
Martine,
S.A.
Rhodes
i n i t are t r a n s p a r e n t ; the passion i s both
diaphanous'
characterize
t h e n e x t two p a r a g r a p h s
g o e s on t o add
rest
of
that
Bernard's
'the
same
delicately
'The intense
qualities intimate
55 dramas'.
Bernard's
'singular
delicacy
of
sentiment
51.
D o r o t h y K n o w l e s , F r e n c h Drama o f t h e I n t e r - W a r 1918-39 ( L o n d o n , H a r r a p , 1967) p. 90.
52.
M i c h e l Va'is, L ' E c r i v a i n S c e n i q u e ( M o n t r e a l , Les I ' U n i v e r s i t e du Quebec, 1978) p. 3 1 .
53.
See
54.
Anon., 'M. Lenormand's P l a y s ' , The Times L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t , no. 1390, 20 S e p t e m b e r ~ 1 9 2 8 , p. 662; Anon., 'X'World o f E l u s i v e T h i n g s ' ( R e v i e w o f The S u l k y F i r e , J o h n L e s l i e F r i t h ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d m a l , M a r t i n e , Le P r i n t e m p s des A u t r e s , L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage and L'Ame en p e i n e ) , The Times L i t e r a r y S u p p l e m e n t , no. 1982, 27 J a n u a r y 1940, p. 41.'
55.
S.A. Rhodes i n C o l u m b i a D i c t i o n a r y o f Modern E u r o p e a n L i t e r a t u r e , J e a n - A l b e r t Bede and W i l l i a m B. E d g e r t o n ( e d s . ) . Second E d i t i o n (New Y o r k , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1980) p. 82.
pp.
and
Years
Presses
9-11.
de
- 17 -
style'^^
is
highlighted
Jean-Jacques Bernard
by a number o f
est,
dans
sa
critics.
discretion,
'L'art
de
delicat
et
57 subtil',
comments P a u l S u r e r ,
a n d R o n a l d Peacock s t a t e s
that
Bernard
' i s p a r t i c u l a r l y good a t t h e e x q u i s i t e s u g g e s t i o n ,
at
58 s u b t l e and d e l i c a t e i n d i r e c t n e s s ' . Bernard's
solution
conventionally they
to
...
exquisitely faithful
entendons fort,
with
'Nous
tres d i f f i c i l e
the
i n terms
a t once t e c h n i c a l l y 59
une
suggeree.
a faire,
minds of
of what
brilliant
and
R e v i e w i n g N a t i o n a l e 6,
ecoutons
une a u t r e , pas e e r i t e ,
et
piece,
nous
C'est s o b r e ,
la
en c'est
difficulte
n'est
sensible'.
W h i l s t May but
is
to i t smaterial'.
writes,
c'est
nulle part
'the task o f conveying
i n a r t i c u l a t e beings s t r i c t l y
articulated
P i e r r e Seize
I n Una E l l i s - F e r m o r ' s v i e w
a
Daniels maintains t h a t Bernard,
totally
rendering
the
bewildered
souls'.
different
pathos
of
Chekhov,
technique, . . . excels
humble
everyday
Serge Radine c l a i m s
D o s t o i e v s k y and Lenormand
'like
existence
comparison
in and
between
i s not outlandish:
56.
Anon., ' O b i t u a r y . . M. J . - J . B e r n a r d . I n t i m a t e The T i m e s , 19 September 1972, p. 15.
57.
P a u l S u r e r , C i n q u a n t e ans de t h e a t r e ( P a r i s , S o c i e t e d ' E d i t i o n d ' E n s e i g n e m e n t S u p e r i e u r , 1969) p. 1 2 1 .
58.
R o n a l d P e a c o c k , The P o e t i n t h e T h e a t r e R o u t l e d g e , 1946) p. 8.
59.
F r o n t i e r s o f Drama, p. 118.
60.
P i e r r e Seize,
' N a t i o n a l e 6',
Comoedia,
theatre'.
(London,
18 o c t o b r e 1935,
p. 2. 61.
May D a n i e l s , The F r e n c h Drama o f t h e Unspoken a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953) p. 237.
(Edinburgh
- 18 -
Lenormand p o s s e d e u n don e x c e p t i o n n e l de p s y c h o l o g u e , qui l u i permet de p r e s s e n t i r e t d ' e x p l o r e r l e s recoins secrets de n o t r e e t r e , tous l e s dessous troubles de I'ame h u m a i n e . N u l n'a s e n t i , a v e c plus de f o r c e e t de l u c i d i t e , 1 ' i r r e m e d i a b l e c o m p l e x i t e de l'homme,g2 s t plus particulierement de I'homme moderne.
C r i t i c u s r e f e r s t o Lenormand as 'un homme . . . q u i ne nullement
meprise
l e m e t i e r , q u i pose l e s j a l o n s de s o n drame avec
la
63 surete
d'un
tragique
R o b e r t Emmet J o n e s genius,
to
character
L'Amour
magicien,
comments o n Lenormand's ' a b i l i t y ,
nay h i s
create
i n and
grec'.
Discussing
a c o n v i n c i n g atmosphere which the setting of 64
the play
i s both
. . . The
a
scenic
effects are masterful'. Kenneth White Lenormand's indignant
dramatic
points
o u t how
during
his
'works w e r e i n c e s s a n t l y a t t a c k e d and writers
ethos
deplored
p r o c e e d i n g on f a l s e a s s u m p t i o n s 65
and
aims'.
Some o f
lifetime
about h i s
the negative
comments
d i r e c t e d a t B e r n a r d as w e l l as Lenormand b e t r a y a j a u n d i c e d distorted
understanding
of
following
cynical observation
their by
dramatic
principles.
Pierre Brisson
by
or The
illustrates
62.
Serge Radine, E s s a i s s u r l e t h e a t r e (1919-1939) (Geneve-Annemasse, E d i t i o n s du M o n t - B l a n c S.A., 1 9 4 4 ) p. 8 9 .
63.
C r i t i c u s ( M a r c e l B e r g e r ) , Le s t y l e a u m i c r o s c o p e . D r a m a t u r g e s ( P a r i s , Calmann-Levy, 1 9 5 2 ) p . 2 5 9 .
64.
R o b e r t Emmet J o n e s , H.-R. Lenormand, Twayne's W o r l d A u t h o r s S e r i e s n o . 730 ( B o s t o n , Twayne P u b l i s h e r s , 1984) p. 9 5 .
65.
K e n n e t h S. W h i t e , 'Toward a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Lenormand's t h e a t r i c a l e t h o s ' . Modern Drama, 2, F e b r u a r y 1960, p . 3 3 4 .
III,
-
this, although Vildrac/Bernard
19 -
he i s i n f a c t as f a i r t o t h e Lenormand/ camp as he i s t o G i r a u d o u x :
L'ecole du nudisme v e r b a l ou, plus exactement, 1'ecole du mutisme e s p e r a i t des t r i o m p h e s . Les Lenormand, l e s V i l d r a c , l e s J e a n - J a c q u e s B e r n a r d multipliaient l e s joutes o r a t o i r e s en f a v o u r du silence. L'essentiel d'un d i a l o g u e devait etre constitue p a r d e s p o i n t s de s u s p e n s i o n . Apres ces exces naifs, mais en definitive salutaires, Giraudoux, u n b e a u s o i r , a l l a i t p o u v o i r r e t a b l i r en toute a i s a n c e e t p a r f o i s meme avec t r o p d ' a r t , l e s p r e r o g a t i ^ g s e t l a p r e e m i n e n c e de l a l i t t e r a t u r e s u r l a scene.
A c c o r d i n g t o Bamber G a s c o i g n e , B e r n a r d ' s the dramatic
' t h e a t r e was based
on
p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e gaps between b i t s o f
67 dialogue'.
Harold
Hobson
also
misleads
when
he
writes,
' B e r n a r d was t h e d i r e c t a n t i t h e s i s o f G i r a u d o u x . W i t h G i r a u d o u x the
words t o l d
nothing.
Everything
gestures'.^^ Bernard's also
e v e r y t h i n g : w i t h Bernard they t o l d
practically
was i n h i s s i l e n c e s , h i s p a u s e s ,
T h e r e was n o t h i n g u n n a t u r a l
s i l e n c e s , pauses and g e s t u r e s ,
' t o l d everything', since
and
t ohis characters and Bernard's
' l e s i l e n c e meme s e d e f i n i t
his in
words par
rapport des
a u x m o t s , comme l a p a u s e , en m u s i q u e , r e g o i t s o n sens 69 g r o u p e s de n o t e s q u i 1'entourent'.
66.
P i e r r e B r i s s o n , Le T h e a t r e d e s Annees f o l l e s E d i t i o n s du M i l i e u d u Monde, 1943) p. 4 1 .
(Geneve,
67.
Bamber G a s c o i g n e , T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y Drama ( L o n d o n , H u t c h i n s o n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 1963) p . 13.
68.
H a r o l d Hobson, F r e n c h T h e a t r e S i n c e 1830 ( L o n d o n , J o h n C a l d e r , 1978) p . 144.
69.
Jean-Paul S a r t r e , S i t u a t i o n s I I ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , 1948) pp. 74-75.
-
Words s u c h as
' g r i s ' and
20
'grisaille'
used n e g a t i v e l y r e c u r
70 in
criticism
o f Bernard.
sentimental, Paul Surer bleu
ou
and
a l l very t h i n ' ,
maintains
universe
the
rich
shoot
she
field
and
Although
'subdued and
much b e a u t y ' the
conte
that Bernard's 72
vitality.
Bernard's t h e a t r e
o f t h e drama, b e s i d e
very 71
Allardyce Nicoll.
et douceatre',
a r g u e s t h a t i t 'has
all
' v e r s e n t dans l e
l a c k s b r e a d t h and
Daniels also considers
restricted',
claims
that c e r t a i n plays
l a berquinade naive
muted d r a m a t i c May
' I ti s a l l very p r e t t y ,
and
strong
that
plants
up p r o u d l y , t h e r e i s room f o r t h e s m a l l f l o w e r s o f
very 'in that quiet
73 intimate
pieces'.
P i e r r e Seize would c e r t a i n l y agree 74 t h e r e s h o u l d be s u c h room. Whilst l a c k o f i m p a r t i a l i t y may a c c o u n t f o r some o f Blanchart's
very
h i g h p r a i s e o f Lenormand i n
view
of
that
Paul their
75 friendship, leaves
the
one
with
attacks - attacks
subjectivity little
choice
betrayed but to
by
ignore
w h i c h Lenormand d i d more
Andre Rouveyre his
vitriolic
t o exacerbate
than
70.
P i e r r e de B o i s d e f f r e , Une H i s t o i r e V i v a n t e de l a L i t t e r a t u r e d ' A u j o u r d ' h u i (1939-1961) ( P a r i s , L i b r a i r i e Academique P e r r i n , 1961) p. 630; S y l v i a n e B o n n e r o t , Le t h e a t r e de 1920 a 1950 (Paris, Masson e t C i e , 1972") p. 10.
71.
A l l a r d y c e N i c o l l , W o r l d Drama. From A e s c h y l u s t o A n o u i l h ( L o n d o n , H a r r a p , 1949) p. 780. ' '
72.
Cinquante ans,
73.
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, pp.
74.
' N a t i o n a l e 6',
75.
Paul Blanchart,
pp.
pp.
121
and
122. 236
and
237.
1-2.
'H.-R. Lenormand: d r a m a t u r g e
d ' a p o c a l y p s e ' , La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 1947,
p.
14.
4, j a n v i e r - f e v r i e r
- 21 -
abate.
76
A l l a r d y c e N i c o l l ' s d i s p a r a g i n g comments d e s e r v e
attention:
more
'There i s n o t , p e r h a p s , v e r y much o f r e a l w o r t h
Lenormand's
w o r k , and o c c a s i o n a l l y we may
suspect there
in
is
a
77 good
d e a l o f nonsense'.
O t h e r s a v o i d such b l a n k e t
statements
o f d i s a p p r o v a l , t a r g e t i n g t h e i r c r i t i c i s m more p r e c i s e l y . A specific
number
of c r i t i c s
weaknesses,
'"pessimistic",
claim
although,
pessimism as
among
John Styan
Lenormand's
points
out,
more t h a n " o p t i m i s t i c " , s h o u l d n o t be a 78 c r i t i c a l pejorative'. I n Henry B o r d e a u x ' s opinion Lenormand 79 i s 'un p e s s i m i s t e amer e t c r u e l ' , and M a u r i c e M a r t i n du Card writes,
'On
any
ne p e u t p r e n d r e de l a v i e une
idee plus noire
que
80 lui' . Twenty-two
y e a r s l a t e r Serge R a d i n e c o m p l a i n s t h a t h i s 81 w o r k 'ne r e f l e t e que 1'ombre'. ' I t s basic pessimism i s close 82 to being revolting', asserts R o b e r t Emmet J o n e s . Clearly
76.
'Les a u t e u r s d r a m a t i q u e s e t l e s r e v u e s : un a r t i c l e de M. H.-R. L e n o r m a n d ' , M e r c u r e de F r a n c e , 15 mars 1927, p p . 762-764; 'Une l e t t r e de M. H.-R. Lenormand', M e r c u r e de F r a n c e , 15 mai 1927, p. 253; Andre R o u v e y r e , 'M. Lenormand D e f e n s e u r du T h e a t r e ' , M e r c u r e de F r a n c e , 15 a v r i l 1927, p. 510.
77.
W o r l d Drama, p.
78.
J o h n L. S t y a n , The E l e m e n t s o f Drama ( C a m b r i d g e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1960) p. 227.
79.
H e n r y B o r d e a u x , 'Le Temps e s t un Songe', La Revue H e b d o m a d a i r e , 3 j a n v i e r 1920, p. 7 1 .
80.
M a u r i c e M a r t i n du C a r d , 'Une V i e s e c r e t e ' , Les N o u v e l l e s L i t t e r a i r e s , 9 mars 1929, p. 12.
81.
A n o u i l h , Lenormand, S a l a c r o u , p.
82.
R o b e r t Emmet J o n e s , The A l i e n a t e d H e r o i n Modern F r e n c h Drama, U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a Monographs n o . 9 ( A t h e n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a P r e s s , 1962) p. 57.
778.
94.
- 2.2 -
Lenormand's
plays
humanity,
but
a r e concerned w i t h t h e darker claims
o f unremitting
aspects o f
pessimism
can
be
c h a l l e n g e d . Indeed, t h e 'quelques a t t e n u a t i o n s a ce pessimisme' 83 referred
t o by Paul Surer a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .
As
Kenneth White
p o i n t s o u t , ' i n s t r e s s i n g t h e somber and a p p a r e n t l y p e s s i m i s t i c aspects o f Lenormand's p l a y s , most commentators have to
examine
fully
the other
side
neglected
o f h i s thought
as
a
84 dramatist'. Others
having
have
'more
Georges Jamati
c r i t i c i z e d some o f Lenormand's
t h a n a s u s p i c i o n o f t h e o l d piece disagrees:
dramas f o r 85 a
these'.
'M. Lenormand, au c o n t r a i r e ,
vise
moins a demontrer qu'a nous emouvoir e t nous i n t e r e s s e r en nous 86 a s s o c i a n t a des recherches'. the
vast
m a j o r i t y o f cases i s r e f l e c t e d i n one o f Robert de
Beauplan's comments:
action
That he does so s u c c e s s f u l l y i n
scenique
Reminiscing,
'Nul n ' e x c e l l e , comme l u i , a transposer en 87
l e s abstractions
Georges P i t o e f f
tells
l e s plus how
rebarbatives'.
'au moment
de
la
c r e a t i o n du Temps e s t un Songe, on a beaucoup p a r l e de Kantisme et 83.
d'Hindouisme, d'Aristote e t de Shakespeare, Cinquante ans, p. 137 ( F o o t n o t e ) .
de l a
84.
T h e s i s , pp. 320-321.
85.
G e o f f r e y B r e r e t o n , A Short H i s t o r y o f French L i t e r a t u r e (London, C a s s e l l & Company L t d . , 1962, F i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1954) p. 335.
86.
Georges J a m a t i , La Conquete de S o i ( P a r i s , Flammarion, 1961) p. 261.
87.
Robert de Beauplan, 'L'Homme e t ses Fantomes', Le Theatre e t Comoedia I l l u s t r e , n o u v e l l e s e r i e no. 36, 15 j u i n - 1 5 septembre 1924, page n o t numbered.
- 23
" r e l a t i v i t e " , de tous l e s elements philosophiqu'es que r e f l e t a i t la
piece', but the d i r e c t o r i s expressing praise
criticism
here,
immediately
as
i s demonstrated
by
rather
than
t h e remarks
which
f o l l o w . Moreover, P i t o e f f goes on t o e x p l a i n
that
' l a p h i l o s o p h i c n'a s e r v i a Lenormand que comme l i g n e s du cadre dans
lequel
il
a p l a c e ses personnages', whose
'verite'
and
88 'humanite . . . sont l a f o r c e de I'ouvrage'. 'C'est Guignol"'
un
might
D o s t o i e v s k i , gate par l e s precedes be
an
oversimplification,
as
du
"Grand
Serge Radine
89 admits,
relates
b u t one c r i t i c i s m o f Lenormand d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t e s t 90 t o h i s penchant f o r t h e melodramatic.
pinpointed
Another
is
i n Kenneth White's statement t h a t 'Lenormand was
penetrating
analyst
understand
virtue',
o f moral weakness, b u t he d i d n o t 91 and
a
J a c q u e l i n e de Jomaron
who
Lenormand
sublimer 92
failed
'a
probable
claims
that,
ses
a
fully
third
comes
unlike
Strindberg,
propres
aventures
from
pour
atteindre 1'universel'. Adverse c r i t i c i s m would seem t o be l e s s o f a t h r e a t t o t h e work o f Bernard and Lenormand than i n d i f f e r e n c e . The e x t e n t t o which t h e y have been e c l i p s e d i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y 88. Georges P i t o e f f , Notre Theatre ( P a r i s , Messages, 1949) pp. 63, 64 and 65^ 89.
E s s a i s , p. 89.
90.
Robert Posen, 'Aspects o f t h e Work o f Henri-Rene Lenormand, P a r t I I ' , Nottingham v o l . V I I , no. 1, May 1968, pp. 37-38.
91.
Thesis, p. 332.
92.
Le Theatre en France, v o l . 2, p. 292.
French S t u d i e s , ~
- 24 -
can be gauged by a survey o f the p r i n c i p a l encyclopedias/ h i s t o r i e s o f twentieth-century t h e a t r e / l i t e r a t u r e published o v e r , the l a s t t h r e e t o f o u r decades, e s p e c i a l l y t h e FrancoB r i t i s h as opposed t o the American ones. O c c a s i o n a l l y no
93 mention
is
i s made o f e i t h e r o f them. 94
omitted - usually
Bernard.
Sometimes one o f t h e
In
her
opening
chapter,
'Quelques v i v a n t s p i l i e r s ' , Genevieve Serreau m i s t a k e n l y Lenormand
Dullin
w i t h S a l a c r o u and Zimmer as one o f 95
helped t o fame,
Dorothy Knowles
points
the
played
Lenormand's
f r e q u e n t l y than t h a t o f any o t h e r French
lists
playwrights
when i n f a c t i t was P i t o e f f out,
two
who,
work
as more
writer.
That t h e j u s t i f i a b l e o r understandable c r i t i c i s m s made Bernard
and
playwrights oblivion
Lenormand should outweigh the to
the
point
of
qualities
condemning
them
to
of
of the
outright
i s hard t o accept. Indeed, i f one leaves on one
side
Jean-Louis B e n o i t ' s
p r o d u c t i o n o f Les Rates a t t h e Theatre
de
1'Aquarium
Autumn
of
in
the
Lenormand's c a l i b r e ,
of
1995,
that
h a i l e d i n t h e 1920s
as
a
dramatist
'one o f France's
93.
T h i s i s t h e case, f o r i n s t a n c e , w i t h : Frangoise e t Paul Gerbod, I n t r o d u c t i o n a l a v i e l i t t e r a i r e du XX— s i e c l e ( P a r i s , Bordas, 1986).
94.
See, f o r example: M a r t i n Banham ( e d . ) . The Cambridge Guide t o Theatre (Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1995); J.-P. de Beaumarchais, D a n i e l Couty e t A l a i n Rey ( e d s . ) , D i c t i o n n a i r e des L i t t e r a t u r e s de Langue Frangaise, 3 v o l s . ( P a r i s , Bordas, 1984).
95.
Genevieve Serreau, H i s t o i r e du "nouveau t h e a t r e " G a l l i m a r d , C o l l e c t i o n i d e e s , 1966) p. 15.
96.
I n t e r - W a r Years, p. 32.
(Paris,
- 25 -
97 most c e l e b r a t e d d r a m a t i s t s ' , own
country,
as
he has been i n France over
years, i s i n t r i g u i n g . be
a
the
last
Robert Posen
part. believes
Lenormand's
work
discoveries
of
disrepute
fifty
' O v e r a l l , one i s s t r u c k by what seems
c o n s p i r a c y o f s i l e n c e ' , i s n o t an exaggerated 98
P h i l i p Hewitt's
the
s h o u l d have been bypassed i n h i s
claim
A number o f reasons have been that
the
close
on
mooted.
identification
of
' w i t h t h e contemporary i n t e r e s t i n the 99 100 Freud' must be one f a c t o r . 'The c u r r e n t
o f Lenormand's p l a y s may stem, i n some degree,
apparently
to
outmoded moral p e r s p e c t i v e s
they
from
imply',
is
a n o t h e r s u g g e s t i o n from Kenneth W h i t e . L e n o r m a n d ' s a t t i t u d e 102 and a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g t h e Second World War may a l s o have 103 jeopardized
h i s prospects o f s u r v i v a l .
Lamenting t h e
fact
t h a t ' l a jeune g e n e r a t i o n t h e a t r a l e . . . i g n o r e q u ' i l f u t I'un des
dramaturges l e s p l u s
considerables
d'entre
l e s deux
97.
b.L. Orna, 'Henri-Rene Lenormand. One o f France's Most C e l e b r a t e d D r a m a t i s t s . An I n t e r v i e w ' , The Jewish Guardian, 25 June 1926, p. 4 o f Supplement.
98.
P h i l i p H e w i t t , 'L'Homme e t ses Fantomes: A Study o f the Theatre o f Henry-Rene Lenormand' (unpublished d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . Wolfson C o l l e g e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oxford, 1990) p. 8.
99.
See pp. 38-40.
100.
Robert Posen, 'A Freudian i n t h e French Theatre, H.-R. Lenormand', L i t e r a t u r e and Psychology, v o l . no. 4, 1975, p. 137:
XXV,
101.
'Toward a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' , p. 346.
102.
See Appendix C, pp. 458-461.
103.
I n g r i d G a l s t e r , Le t h e a t r e de Jean-Paul S a r t r e devant ses p r e m i e r s c r i t i q u e s ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s Jean-Michel Place, 1986) pp. 230-231 and 283.
- 26 -
g u e r r e s , monte p a r l e s p l u s grands: P i t o e f f , Gemier, Baty, Reinhardt...', Jean-Louis Benoit p o s i t s another reason f o r Lenormand's having been w r i t t e n o f f 'mort e t o u b l i e ' :
Demande-t-on, p a r a i l l e u r s , aux jeunes a c t e u r s , q u i f u r e n t A n t o i n e , Gemier, Lugne-Poe, Baty, s ' i l s ont l u l e u r s e c r i t s ou connaissent 1 ' o r i g i n a l i t e de l e u r demarche, e t l a reponse e s t t o u j o u r s empreinte de l a meme gene: non. Morts e t o u b l i e s . Comment, encore une f o i s , l e u r en v o u l o i r ? Les ouvrages sont i n t r o u v a b l e s . Comment e s t - i l p o s s i b l e que l e s e c r i t s de ces hommes immenses ne s o i e n t pas r e e d i t e s - mis a part Copeau? - Comment e s t - i l p o s s i b l e que l e t h e a t r e f r a n g a i s s i t u e e n t r e 1919 e t 1939, s i riche en decouvertes, en recherehes e t en r e a l i s a t i o n s , nomme des l e s annees 20-21 'Theatre Nouveau', s o i t a ce eme p o i n t o u b l i e ? Le t h e a t r e f r a n g a i s du XX siecle c o m m e n c e r a i t - i l avec C l a u d e l , un peu de V i t r a c . . . e t Copeau? L ' H i s t o i r e - aidee p a r f o i s par l e cynisme de quelques maisons d ' e d i t i o n - fai'^ogreuve i c i d'une injustice cruelle e t intolerable. Whether o r n o t t h e time i s r i g h t f o r a r e v i v a l o f or
Lenormand i s d e b a t a b l e , b u t much more q u e s t i o n a b l e
t o t a l and d e f i n i t i v e d i s m i s s a l o f t h e i r work as Bernard
pour
d ' a v o i r eu
the
old-fashioned. d'une
immeritee', w r i t e s Jean-Marie Besset i n
'La r e p r i s e de M a r t i n e a Londres f a i t
rehabilitation doute
is
' s o u f f r e dans ces annees 80 q u i r e v e r e n t P i n t e r ,
i n d i f f e r e n c e largement 1985,
Bernard
c e t homme dont l e s e u l
raison
t r o p tot'."''^^
done defaut
figure
de
f u t sans
Eleven years
later.
104.
Jean-Louis B e n o i t , 'Un Theatre de 1' Inquietude"', Programme: Les Rates au Theatre de 1'Aquarium C a r t o u c h e r i e , mise en scene de Jean-Louis B e n o i t , du 26 septembre au 19 novembre 1995, page n o t numbered.
105.
Jean-Marie Besset, ' N a t i o n a l Theatre de Londres. Martine de Jean-Jacques Bernard. La redecouverte du t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime', A c t e u r s , numeros 26-27, j u i n - j u i l l e t 1985, p. 86.
- 27 -
scanning
the
successful reads,
exhibition,
'Et
les
concis,
ceux
donnent
a
might
catalogue
the
Bibliotheque Nationale's
'Les P i t o e f f . D e s t i n s de t h e a t r e ' ,
p l u s beaux poemes sont a mes
ou
l e mot j u s t e t i e n t l i e u de
yeux
of
presume,
the
artistic
but,
no,
director
the of
les
phrase,
imaginer p l u t o t qu'a v o i r ' - Bernard's
immediately
preference
of
plus
et
qui
words,
one
simply the
one
stated
Theatre de
1'Aquarium i n 1996.''"'^^ Christophe Deshoulieres
claims t h a t
Lenormand's
theatre
' p o u r r a i t encore s e d u i r e sur l e s scenes contemporaines' , "''^'^ and i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t ' l a p o s t e r i t e e s t mauvaise mere l o r s q u ' e l l e passe a l a t r a p p e des e n f a n t s t e l s que Les Rates', O d i l e Q u i r o t was
undoubtedly
e x p r e s s i n g t h e m a j o r i t y view o f the p u b l i c
who
108 saw
t h e p l a y i n 1995.
objective production
critic,
Although he cannot be
t h e comments o f the d i r e c t o r
o f Les Rates, B e n o i t a g a i n , are a l s o
considered of
the
an 1995
illuminating:
'Lenormand e s t v e r i t a b l e m e n t un cas b o u l e v e r s a n t . J ' a i rarement r e n c o n t r e dans une oeuvre de c e t t e epoque a u t a n t de
poignantes
resonances avec mon
temps, a u t a n t d ' i n t e l l i g e n c e d ' e c r i t u r e , de 109 p r o f o n d e u r e t d'audace f o r m e l l e ' .
106.
Jean-Louis B e n o i t , 'A propos du metteur en scene Georges P i t o e f f ' i n Les P i t o e f f . D e s t i n s de t h e a t r e , Cahiers d'une e x p o s i t i o n , B i b l i o t h e q u e n a t i o n a l e de France, 1996, p. 3.
107.
Christophe D e s h o u l i e r e s , Le Theatre au XX— S i e c l e ( P a r i s , Bordas, 1989) p. 73^
108.
O d i l e Q u i r o t , 'Un reve de comediens. Les Rates', Le Nouvel Observateur, 26 o c t o b r e - l novembre 1995, p. 132.
109.
'Un Theatre de 1 ' I n q u i e t u d e ' , pages not numbered.
- 28 -
3.
C a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t s ' work''""'"*^ One
way i n which Bernard and Lenormand have been
categorized
is
playwrights. in
the
occasionally
'Boulevard'
The v o l a t i l i t y o f these e p i t h e t s i s
demonstrated
three
as 'avant-garde' o r
volumes
of
Georges P i l l e m e n t ' s A n t h o l o g i e du
Theatre F r a n g a i s Contemporain. first
volume concerned w i t h
Bernard
is
broadly
Lenormand i s i n c l u d e d i n Le Theatre d'Avant-Garde,
d e a l t w i t h i n the second
subtitled
the
whilst
Le Theatre du
112 Boulevard.
Although
classification
p e j o r a t i v e l y , h i s statement t h a t
'remplaga
one
Dictionaries later
does
not
ses s i l e n c e s par des p a r o l e s , i l se
naturellement Simon,
Pillement
du of of
b o u l e v a r d ' remains the
few
writers
of,
use
this
when
Bernard
rapprocha 113
unconvincing. or
tout
Alfred
contributors
French t h e a t r e / l i t e r a t u r e who
touch
p l a y s o f Bernard as w e l l as the e a r l i e r ones,
to.
on
the
maintains 114
t h a t h i s ' t h e a t r e e s t t o u t a f a i t independant du Boulevard'. Indeed, t h e m a j o r i t y o f c r i t i c s c l a s s i f y Bernard and
Lenormand
as avant-garde d r a m a t i s t s o f t h e i r day. B e t t i n a Knapp's 110. I t should be noted t h a t t h i s survey does n o t c l a i m t o be e x h a u s t i v e , and t h a t f r e q u e n t l y , where c r i t i c s have grouped t h e p l a y w r i g h t s i n more than one c a t e g o r y , o n l y the p r i n c i p a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s g i v e n . 111.
Georges P i l l e m e n t , A n t h o l o g i e du t h e a t r e f r a n g a i s contemporain, 3 vols', ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s du B e l i e r , 1945, 1946 and 1948).
112.
The t h i r d volume covers Le Theatre des Romanciers e t des Poetes.
113.
V o l . 2, p. 13.
114.
A l f r e d Simon, D i c t i o n n a i r e du t h e a t r e f r a n g a i s contemporain ( P a r i s , Larousse, 1970) p. 95.
- 29 -
i n s i n u a t i o n t h a t they were b o t h s u p p l i e r s o f Boulevard drama i s 115 exceptional, keep
a l t h o u g h E l i a n e Tonnet-Lacroix a l s o appears
t h e term 'avant-garde' f o r the most r a d i c a l wing
e x p e r i m e n t a l t h e a t r e movement between the Wars. the
Whilst
she
still
Jean-Jacques Bernard, Salacrou,
for
chooses t o some
example,
ses a v a t a r s ' ,
and
1'avant-garde'
is
The
discuss
Cocteau,
under
another
the
Achard,
Lenormand,
making
heading
section
entitled
'Du cote de the
could
historians
r a r e l y f a i l t o note t h a t 117
p a r t l y due t o
the
fact
a
Boulevard
that
literary
Jean-Jacques Bernard
Seldom, however, do they
point
t h a t i n s p i t e o f t h e i r b l o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p the l i t e r a r y between
the
early
V i t r a c ^
playwright
'son o f T r i s t a n ' .
and
'Le Boulevard e t
o c c a s i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Bernard as be
a
Anouilh,
Mauriac
r e s e r v e d f o r such d r a m a t i s t s as
Cocteau, Roussel, Tzara and
deux
the
p o i n t t h a t ' l e domaine du Boulevard e s t assez d i f f i c i l e
delimiter',
the
of
to
I f by the
word
out
rapport
two d r a m a t i s t s i s m i n i m a l , ' t a n t l e s - s t y l e s 118
hommes s o n t d i f f e r e n t s ' .
was
des
'Boulevard',
however, one means 'une e n t r e p r i s e de pur d i v e r t i s s e m e n t t e i n t e d'erotisme ou l e mecanisme e l e m e n t a i r e de l a chasse au p l a i s i r 115. B e t t i n a L. Knapp, French Theatre 1918-1939 (New York, Grove Press, I n c . , 1985) pp. 1-3. 116.
E l i a n e T o n n e t - L a c r o i x , La l i t t e r a t u r e f r a n g a i s e de 1'entre-deux-guerres 1919-1939 ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s Nathan, 1993) pp. 175-177 and 179-180.
117.
David S t e e l i n The New Oxford Companion t o L i t e r a t u r e i n French, Peter France (ed.) ( O x f o r d , Clarendon Press, 1995) p. 85.
118.
Besset,
' N a t i o n a l Theatre de Londres. M a r t i n e ' , p. 86.
- 30 -
est
pimente
de
s u r p r i s e s (coups de t h e a t r e ) e t
de
jeux
de
119 langage
(mots d ' a u t e u r ) ' ,
then Bernard and
Lenormand
s c a r c e l y be l a b e l l e d 'Boulevard' p l a y w r i g h t s . Although
can
Bernard
stopped s h o r t o f making a r e l i g i o n o f a r t , he viewed i t as fagon de t r a d u i r e nos a s p i r a t i o n s v e r s l e d i v i n ' p. 3 2 ) ,
(Temoignages,
and i n 'Georges e t L u d m i l l a P i t o e f f ' he suggests
t h e couple t a u g h t us, peut
'une
among o t h e r l e s s o n s , 'qu'un a r t eleve ne
se passer de s p i r i t u a l i t e '
( p . 15). R e f e r r i n g
to
Baty, Maurice M a r t i n du Card w r i t e s 'On devine ce q u i
Gaston 1'attire
chez Lenormand, . . . c ' e s t une c o n c e p t i o n r e l i g i e u s e de 120 dramatique
qu'il
that
approuve
de
tout
son
etre'.
I'art
Alexina
Macpherson c l a i m s t h a t t h e t h e a t r e was a r e l i g i o n t o Lenormand, 'and one o f t h e few t h i n g s (perhaps r e a l l y the o n l y t h i n g ) t h a t 121 c o u l d r a i s e complete s i n c e r i t y and depth o f f e e l i n g i n him'. Bernard and Lenormand p a i d a p r i c e f o r r e f u s i n g t o b e t r a y
such
a t t i t u d e s towards t h e i r a r t . Henry Bidou e x p l a i n s how Le Lache, f o r example, c o u l d have had Paris':
'M.
surveilles
Lenormand
' l e p l u s grand succes au Theatre de
p o u v a i t , de I ' h i s t o i r e
de
ces
e t t r a h i s , composer une piece d'aventures.
agents Par 122
un
c h o i x h o n o r a b l e , i l a p r e f e r e p e i n d r e un homme au v r a i ' . The 119. M i c h e l C o r v i n i n D i c t i o n n a i r e Encyclopedique du Theatre, M i c h e l C o r v i n (ed..), v o l . A-K ( P a r i s , Bordas, 1995) ' p. 125. 120.
Maurice M a r t i n du Gard, Carte rouge, Le Theatre e t l a Vie 1929-1930 ( P a r i s , Flammarion, 1930) p. 223.
121.. A l e x i n a L. Macpherson, 'H.-R. Lenormand' ( u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . U n i v e r s i t y o f London, 1955) p. 133. 122.
Henry Bidou, 'L'Armee s e c r e t e ' . La Revue de P a r i s , 1®^ f e v r i e r 1926, p. 689.
- 31
'mepris
absolu
du
succes f a c i l e ' ,
which
Marcel Doisy
also
123 highlights
as one o f Lenormand's q u a l i t i e s ,
Bernard,
whose
p r o f e s s i o n a l - and
was
shared
personal - i n t e g r i t y
by is
- 124 f r e q u e n t l y touched on by c r i t i c s . 'Les
pieces de Lenormand sont de
veritables
tragedies',
125 claims
Georges P i l l e m e n t .
The m a j o r i t y
opinion,
however,
would seem t o be t h a t Lenormand i s a w r i t e r o f 'drames' d e a l i n g w i t h t r a g i c s u b j e c t m a t t e r , r a t h e r than a t r a g e d i a n . Edmond See r e f e r s t o Lenormand as a master o f t h e
theatre
126 of
ideas.
A
s e r i e s o f Lenormand's p l a y s
have
also
been 127 viewed as e x o t i c t h e a t r e o r examples o f ' l e drame c o l o n i a l ' , and t h e work o f b o t h Bernard and Lenormand has been c l a s s i f i e d , 128 though f o r d i f f e r e n t reasons, as ' t h e a t r e d'evasion'. A number o f c r i t i c s have c a t e g o r i z e d Lenormand's drama 'theatre
de
129 1'inquietude'.
Gerard L i e b e r
maintains
as that
123.
Marcel Doisy, Le Theatre Frangais Contemporain ( B r u x e l l e s , E d i t i o n s "La B o e t i e " , 1947) p. 200.
124.
Anon., ' O b i t u a r y ' , p. 15; L u c i e n Dubech, 'Le Theatre: I'Ecole du s i l e n c e ' , er La Revue U n i v e r s e l l e , 1 mai 1924, pp. 381-382.
125.
A n t h o l o g i e , v o l . 1, p. 138.
126.
Edmond See, Le Theatre F r a n g a i s Contemporain ( P a r i s , Armand C o l i n , 1928) p. 96.
127.
C r i t i c u s , Le s t y l e , pp. 258-259.
128.
W e r r i e , Theatre de l a F u i t e , pp. 226-230.
129.
B e n o i t , 'Un Theatre de 1 ' I n q u i e t u d e ' , pages n o t numbered; Jean-Jacques Preau, 'Un Theatre de " 1 ' I n t r a n q u i l l i t e " ' , Programme: Les Rates au Theatre de 1'Aquarium C a r t o u c h e r i e , mise en scene de Jean-Louis B e n o i t , du 26 septembre au 19 novembre 1995, pages n o t numbered.
- 32 -
'plus
que par son s o u c i de l a forme ou I'audace de ses
sujets
c'est
par sa c a p a c i t e a t r a d u i r e l e s i n q u i e t u d e s d'une
epoque
que ce t h e a t r e peut encore i n t e r e s s e r ' . "''^'^ Georges V e r s i n i
groups Lenormand w i t h B e r n s t e i n ,
Passeur 131
and
Raynal under t h e heading
'Le t h e a t r e de l a v i o l e n c e ' .
Somewhat s i m i l a r l y , Paul Surer discusses Lenormand's work Passeur's
and
Raynal's
in a
section
headed
with
'Le t h e a t r e
132 violent'.
Andre Lagarde and Laurent Michard cover Lenormand,
Passeur and Raynal i n a s h o r t s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d i,u • , .133 1' humam' According
t o John Gassner,
Lenormand
'A l a l i m i t e de is
'the
French
134 apostle
o f expressionism',
associated Whilst
with
arguing
i n which c o n t e x t he tends t o be
Simon G a n t i l l o n a
case
and
f o r viewing
Jean-Victor P e l l e r i n . Lenormand
as
an
' e x p r e s s i o n n i s t e ' , Maurice G r a v i e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e term was 135 n o t used between t h e Wars i n France's t h e a t r i c a l ' m i l i e u x ' .
130.
Gerard L i e b e r i n D i c t i o n n a i r e Encyclopedique du T h e a t r e , ' M i c h e l C o r v i n ( e d . ) , v o l . L-Z ( P a r i s , Bordas, 1995) p. 533.
131.
Georges V e r s i n i , Le Theatre f r a n g a i s depuis 1900 ( P a r i s , Presses U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France, Que s a i s - j e ? , 1970) pp. 18-20.
132.
Cinquante ans, pp. 127-147, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 129-137.
133.
XX- S i e c l e , pp. 409-410.
134.
John Gassner, Masters o f t h e Drama (New York, Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s , I n c . , 1954) p. 418.
135.
Maurice G r a v i e r , 'L'Expressionnisme dramatique en France e n t r e l e s deux g u e r r e s ' i n L'Expressionnisme dans l e Theatre Europeen ( P a r i s , C.N.R.S., 1971) pp. 285-298, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 288 and 293.
- 33
Lenormand's work i s f r e q u e n t l y discussed under the heading 136 'Le Theatre de 1 ' I n c o n s c i e n t ' - Bernard's,
too,
although
t h i s i s r a r e l y the f i r s t c a t e g o r y i n t o which Bernard i s placed. 'II
e s t l e dramaturge de 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t ' , c l a i m s
Gaston Rageot
137 of
Lenormand.
critics Thus
use
Depending on t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n o f terms,
' l e subconscient' instead
Dorothy Knowles
groups Lenormand
of
some 138
' 1'inconscient'.
with
Simon G a n t i l l o n ,
FranQois Mauriac,
Roger M a r t i n du Card and Rene Bruyez 139 d r a m a t i s t o f subconscious m o t i v a t i o n .
as
a
136.
Marie-Jose H o u r a n t i e r , 'Les " t h e a t r e s a c o t e " de 1'entre-deux-guerres e t l e u r s t e n t a t i v e s d'"Avant-Garde" ' ( u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , 1974) pp. 298-320.
137.
Gaston Rageot, P r i s e de Vues ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s de l a Nouvelle Revue' C r i t i q u e , 1928) p. 144.
138.
Throughout t h i s t h e s i s the terms 'subconscious' and 'unconscious' w i l l be used i n accordance w i t h the f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s g i v e n i n t h e Longman D i c t i o n a r y o f Psychology and P s y c h i a t r y : 'Subconscious' w i l l be used 'as an a d j e c t i v e more than a noun, r e f e r r i n g t o memories or o t h e r events o f which we are not now aware, or only d i m l y aware, b u t which can be brought t o consciousness'. 'Unconscious', used p r i m a r i l y as a noun, w i l l r e f e r t o 'the d i v i s i o n o r r e g i o n o f t h e psyche t h a t c o n t a i n s memories, e m o t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s , wishes, and repressed impulses t h a t are n o t d i r e c t l y a c c e s s i b l e t o awareness, but which have dynamic e f f e c t s on t h o u g h t and behavior'. Robert M. Goldenson (ed.) (New York and London, Longman, 1984) pp. 719 and 771. I t w i l l be noted t h a t the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f a c t o r s are the p o s s i b i l i t y o f dim awareness and a c c e s s i b i l i t y i n the case o f the subconscious, as opposed t o an absence o f awareness and no d i r e c t a c c e s s i b i l i t y i n the case o f t h e unconscious. For a g e n e r i c term c o v e r i n g a combination o f t h e two, 'unconscious' i s used i n t h i s s t u d y , hence the g l o b a l e x p r e s s i o n 'drama o f the unconscious'.
139.
Inter-War Years, pp.
90-111.
- 34 -
Although,
i n t h e words o f May D a n i e l s ,
'Lenormand was n o t 140
regarded
as a member o f t h e " s i l e n t " s c h o o l ' ,
frequently
mentioned
1'inexprime'. a) Lenormand
i n the context
P a u l - L o u i s Mignon, and
o f the
for
b) B e r n a r d / V i l d r a c
h i s name i s 'theatre
example,
in a
de
discusses
section
entitled
'Le Jeu des Paroles e t de 1'Inexprime'. I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o this
for
s e c t i o n Mignon a l s o p o i n t s o u t how t h e use o f Tableaux, 141 which
helped
Lenormand
the spectator
d'incommunicable
paroles was
que
was p a r t i c u l a r l y
famous,
in
' a t t e i n d r e l a p a r t d'inexprime chaque p e r s o n n a l i t e r e c e l e 142
ou au-dela d ' e l l e s ' .
itself
ou meme
dessous
For Louis Cazamian
ses
Lenormand
c e r t a i n l y no l e s s a d r a m a t i s t o f t h e unspoken than Bernard: Le Feu q u i reprend mal . . . and Martine . . . by Jean-Jacques Bernard . . T a r e minute, pitiless s t u d i e s o f f e e l i n g s t o o s e c r e t and p a i n f u l n o t t o fear the l i g h t o f g l i b utterances. Henri-Rene Lenormand . . . devoted h i m s e l f more f u l l y t o the e x p l o r j ^ ^ o n o f unexpressed and l a r g e l y i n e x p r e s s i b l e moods.
140.
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, p. 108.
141.
See p. 15.
142.
Panorama, pp. 116-119, e s p e c i a l l y p. 117.
143.
Louis Cazamian, A H i s t o r y o f French L i t e r a t u r e (Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1960) p. 447.
- 35 -
144 Andre Lagarde group
and Laurent Michard,
Bernard - w i t h
Amiel,
Geraldy
145 and
and
Paul Surer,
V i l d r a c - as
an
146 Intimist.
Georges V e r s i n i 147 e a r l y Sarment as w e l l .
does l i k e w i s e b u t mentions t h e
Notwithstanding the f a c t t h a t the designation 'theatre I'inexprime'
fits
c o m f o r t a b l y on no more than
half
de
of his
plays,
Bernard i s c a t e g o r i z e d p r i m a r i l y as a d r a m a t i s t o f t h e 148 unspoken. K e s t e r B r a n f o r d ' s f u l l - l e n g t h study and t h e two
chapters
May D a n i e l s
devotes
to
Bernard
speak
for
149 themselves. primarily
Dorothy Knowles as
a
also
classifies
d r a m a t i s t o f t h e unspoken
alongside
Bernard Amiel,
V i l d r a c and J e a n - V i c t o r P e l l e r i n . "''^'^ The k i n d o f l a b e l most f r e q u e n t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o Bernard i n Histories
and
'chef
file'
de
theatre
of
Dictionaries o f Theatre/Literature i s that - and
silence,
other or
v a r i a t i o n s - o f t h e school champion
of
the
'theatre
of or de
151 I'inexprime'.
Some
o f those u s i n g
the less
satisfactory
144.
XX- S i e c l e , pp. 414-418.
145.
Cinquante ans, pp. 103-125, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 119-122.
146.
See p. 4.
147.
Le Theatre f r a n g a i s depuis 1900, pp. 20-22.
148.
Kester A. B r a n f o r d , A Study o f Jean-Jacques Bernard's Theatre de 1'Inexprime, Romance Monographs Number 24 ( U n i v e r s i t y , M i s s i s s i p p i , Romance Monographs, I n c . , 1977).
149.
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, pp. 172-237.
150.
I n t e r - W a r Years, pp. 112-128.
151.
B r u e z i e r e , H i s t o i r e D e s c r i p t i v e , p. 104.
- 36 -
' d r a m a / t h e a t r e / s c h o o l / t h e o r y o f s i l e n c e ' , i n French or E n g l i s h , 152 do
so w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n ,
others q u a l i f y t h e i r
expression
153 i n some way.
preferred
Rare are those who e x p l a i n why Bernard h i m s e l f 154 the
phrase
'theatre
de
1'inexprime'.
After
p o i n t i n g out t h a t the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s 'of the dramatic
tendency
which ended by b e i n g b a p t i z e d the "School o f S i l e n c e " . . . are among
the
scene', S.A.
most
the
sententiousness than
summary
interpreters
of
the
contemporary
Rhodes goes on t o e x p l a i n what d i s t i n g u i s h e d them,
highlighting
more
eloquent
"school's"
'careful
avoidance
i n manner and speech' and i t s aim 'to
i t expressed'.''"^^ I t i s
noteworthy
that
o f t h e movement John Lakich makes no more
of suggest
in
mention
' s i l e n c e ' than Rhodes: Using o r d i n a r y d i a l o g u e and g e s t u r e s , r e l a t i v e l y r e a l i s t i c s i t u a t i o n s , and a p l a u s i b l e psychology, the d r a m a t i s t s a t t e m p t t o g i v e an i n s i g h t i n t o the t r u e states of the s o u l and mind, into vjggally incommunicable b u t t r u l y s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s .
152.
153.
See, f o r example: L i e b e r i n D i c t i o n n a i r e Encyclopedique C o r v i n ( e d . ) , v o l . A-K, p. 111.
du Theatre,
See, f o r example: T o n n e t - L a c r o i x , La l i t t e r a t u r e f r a n g a i s e , p.
177.
154.
See p.
78.
155.
The Contemporary French Theater, p. 12.
156.
John J. L a k i c h , 'The I d e a l and R e a l i t y i n t h e French Theater o f t h e 1920's', Modern Language Q u a r t e r l y , v o l . 31, no. 1, March 1970, p. 75.
his of
-
Not
only
did
37
Bernard g a i n h i s
r e p u t a t i o n as
a
'chef
d'ecole' i n v o l u n t a r i l y , he found i t i m p o s s i b l e t o shake o f f and r e g r e t t e d i t s f o s t e r i n g the accusation o f systematization. 'In t r u t h ' , as David W h i t t o n observes, sprang
'Bernard's s t y l e o f
from an i n t u i t i v e tendency r a t h e r than the
writing
application
157 of
any p r e c i s e t h e o r y ' .
Martine
saw
I t should a l s o be
t h e f u l l l i g h t o f day
before
remembered the
that
controversial
158 'theoirie du s i l e n c e '
was o f f i c i a l l y born.
Moreover, few
Bernard's p l a y s are s i m i l a r i n s t y l e and/or theme. His
of
Theatre
i n c l u d e s p l a y s o f symbolism and m y s t i c i s m , a s a t i r e , a humorous sketch,
work
for
t h e r a d i o and
historical
dramas.
Bernard
b e l i e v e d i n d e f y i n g c h a l l e n g e s and s e t h i m s e l f tough ones, b u t , apart
from m a i n t a i n i n g h i s h i g h i d e a l s , the o n l y t h i n g he
systematically formule in
was
experiment.
did
' I I n'y a en d e f i n i t i v e
qu'une
v i a b l e : c e l l e du renouvellement p e r p e t u e l ' , he
writes
t h e f o r e w o r d t o t h e f i r s t volume o f h i s
Theatre
(T I , 7 ) .
R e a l i z i n g the dangers o f a l l o w i n g an i n n o v a t i o n t o t u r n i n t o
a
system, he was p a r t i c u l a r l y determined n o t t o remain a slave t o one c o n v e n t i o n , and i n the 'Avant-propos' o f h i s c o l l e c t e d p l a y s he complains degager,
sous
mysterieuse
I'apparence
des
etres,
t o the second
how
'alors q u ' i l tente
quotidienne,
alors
qu'il
la
vie
cherche,
de
secrete
ou
d'ouvrage
en
ouvrage,
a e l a r g i r son u n i v e r s ' , he a l l t o o o f t e n
efforts
ramenes a ce q u ' i l y a de p l u s s u p e r f i c i e l
finds
157.
David W h i t t o n , Stage D i r e c t o r s i n Modern France (Manchester U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1987) p. 117.
158.
See. p.
77.
volume
'ses
dans c e t t e
- 38 -
" t h e o r i e du s i l e n c e " q u i n'a jamais e t e dans ses preoccupations qu'un
a c c e s s o i r e ou un moyen' (T I I ,
7 ) . Neither
Bernard
nor
Lenormand c o n s i d e r e d h i s type o f drama t h e o n l y genuine or t h e best
k i n d . ' I I ne f a u t r i e n condamner par systeme e t meme pas
l e t h e a t r e verbeux', s t a t e s Bernard i n Temoignages ( p . 3 0 ) , and Lenormand sums up t h e i r shared views when he w r i t e s :
Nous ne fondons pas une Savons que l e s c h a p e l l e s ne e g l i s e s , mais des s a c r i s t i e s . •
«
c h a p e l l e , c a r nous deviennent pas des :
•
Nous ne sommes pas non p l u s une e c o l e , parce que nous ne croyons n i aux e s t h e t i q u e s c o l l e c t i v e s , n i aux r e c e t t e s , n i aux s e c r e t s d'ecole . . . O r , chacun de nous entend p r e s e r v e r e t developper l i b r e m e n t son temperament d ' e c r i v a i n . C S u r l e s e u i l ' , pp. 138 and 139)
In
h i s attempts
t o safeguard
'temperament d ' e c r i v a i n ' , those
of
had above a l l t o
who were determined t o see him as a d i s c i p l e o f
leader. et
Lenormand
the l i b e r t y
'Une c o i n c i d e n c e e n t r e l e s recherches d'un
celles
d'un
psychiatre
suffit-elle
pour
his resist
another
dramaturge ranger
definitivement
I ' u n sous l a banniere de 1'autre?', he asks i n
'Mon T h e a t r e ' ,
' I I m'a semble que non.
proteste, jugements de
C'est
pourquoi j ' a i
dernierement, a p l u s i e u r s r e p r i s e s , c e n t r e
certains
q u i p r e t e n d a i e n t f a i r e de moi l e d i s c i p l e d'un homme
s c i e n c e ' ( p . 2 3 4 ) . A l l a r d y c e N i c o l l t r e a t s o f Bernard i n a 159
section
headed
'The Psychoanalysis o f Love',
unusual f o r him t o be
159.
listed
World Drama, p. 779.
but i t i s
'among t h e psychoanalysts and t h e
- 39 -
F r e u d i a n s ' as he i s by Regis Michaud."^^^ For Lenormand, on
the
o t h e r hand, t h i s i s t h e norm. Although a number o f c r i t i c s have challenged the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the u n q u a l i f i e d l a b e l t o Lenormand,
'Freudian'
many more have been l e s s d i s c r i m i n a t i n g .
Such
162 s t a t e m e n t s as 'He i s e m p h a t i c a l l y Freudian', de
Lenormand . . . e s t
and 'Le t h e a t r e
1 ' a d a p t a t i o n a l a scene
des
theories
163 freudiennes'
a r e t y p i c a l b u t f a r l e s s accurate than
Maurice
B r u e z i e r e ' s more c a r e f u l d e p i c t i o n o f Lenormand as 'ouvert
aux
164 theories Lenormand, une
de Freud'.
For, a l t h o u g h Freud's ideas
as he h i m s e l f acknowledges ('Aidez-moi
legende',
p. 1 ) , a
good number
of
influenced a
detruire
h i s dramas,
where
subconscious o r more deeply r o o t e d d r i v e s and i n s t i n c t s p l a y an important
part,
had
been conceived
or
written
before
the
An anonymous c r i t i c i n s i s t s t h a t i t i s 'roughly t r u e ,
but
d r a m a t i s t read Freud.
much l e s s
than
t h e whole t r u t h ,
t o speak
of
M.
Lenormand's
160.
Regis Michaud, Modern Thought and L i t e r a t u r e i n France (New York and London, Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1934)' p. 249,
161.
Daniel-Rops, Sur l e Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s des'Cahiers L i b r e s , 1926) pp. 107-152; H e w i t t , T h e s i s , pp. 100-114.
162.
Anon., 'The Theatre. Producers i n P a r i s . The Plays o f H e n r i Lenormand', The S p e c t a t o r , no. 5093, 6 February 1926, p. 213.
163.
P i l l e m e n t , A n t h o l o g i e , v o l . 1, p. 18.
164.
H i s t o i r e D e s c r i p t i v e , p. 107.
- 40 -
plays
as
plays o f psycho-analysis',
165
but i n f a c t
the
only
p l a y which t r e a t s e x p l i c i t l y and s u b s t a n t i a l l y o f psychotherapy is
Le Mangeur de Reves.
this
drama
is a
psycho-analysis
and
Care has t o be taken here,
demonstration a
warning
of
the
against
too, f o r
limitations
of
i t s dangers
when
p r a c t i s e d b a d l y , """^^ ' i t i s n o t s i m p l y a scenic t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f 167 Freud's
ideas',
appreciate research
when that
impossible Bernard
to
- was
unconsciously, publications. that
a c r u c i a l p o i n t Frangois Mauriac f a i l e d he reviewed
has
been
i t i n 1922.^^^ I n
done on t h e
say f o r sure e x a c t l y directly
or
influenced The
subject,
how
much
indirectly, by
Freud's
spite
o f the
i t is
still
Lenormand - o r
consciously discoveries
or and/or
most a c c u r a t e c o n c l u s i o n would seem
to
be
' i l y e u t moins l a i n f l u e n c e que r e n c o n t r e heureuse',
to
use Bernard's e x p r e s s i o n i n Mon Ami l e Theatre On
condition
justifications
and
that
the
appropriate
( p . 140). explanations,
e x c l u s i o n clauses are g i v e n , most
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s summarized above can be s a i d t o have Unfortunately, tions
to
and
i f a l l t h e necessary
explanations,
e x c l u s i o n clauses are g i v e n ,
the
o f the validity.
justifica-
resultant
label
proves t o be so d e t a i l e d , complex and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y clumsy as
165.
Anon., 'M. Lenormand's Plays', p. 662.
166.
See pp. 388-390 and 424.
167.
White, Thesis, p. 231.
168.
Frangois Mauriac, 'Le Mangeur de Reves', La Revue ' Hebdomadaire, 25 f e v r i e r 1922, pp. 497-49"8^
-Alto
negate i t s purpose. Even then an anomaly or
boundary
blurred
i s l i k e l y t o have gone u n n o t i c e d , as a
few
group
examples
w i l l serve t o i l l u s t r a t e . That
he
Supervielle du C i e l ,
should or
not f i n d
Cocteau
himself
classified
i s t o be expected,
but
in
f o r which Darius Milhaud wrote the music,
momentarily
alongside La F o l l e 'Lenormand
abandoned . . . h i s c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s t o p i c t u r e
w o r l d o f t a l k i n g b i r d s , bird-women, and t r o l l s ' . ' ' ' ^ ^ Nor it
be
forgotten
t h a t Lenormand
Les Quatre V e r i t e s Bleu
(music
by
wrote
four
Andre J o l i v e t ) ,
(music by Marius-Frangois G a i l l a r d ) ,
(music
short
a
should ballets:
Fumees dans l e
Le Mangeur de Reves
by A r t h u r Honegger) and Le Soupir de Famine
(music
by
170 Georges D a n d e l o t ) . alongside
Anouilh,
C r i t i c s r a r e l y i f ever mention Cocteau,
Gide
and
Giraudoux
Lenormand when
d i s c u s s t h e p l a y w r i g h t s who made modern drama o f a n c i e n t and
myths
legends, u p d a t i n g the m a t e r i a l s t y l i s t i c a l l y and w i t h
h e l p o f anachronisms. list
they
on
the
Yet Lenormand m e r i t s i n c l u s i o n i n such
t h e grounds o f h i s s u c c e s s f u l
transposition
of
a the
Medea legend i n A s i e . 171 S i m i l a r l y , as was noted above, experimenting
Bernard made a p o i n t
w i t h types o f t h e a t r e
of
q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t
169.
Knowles, I n t e r - W a r Years, p.
194.
170.
Paul B l a n c h a r t , ' I n Memoriam. Notes e t Documents sur H.-R. Lenormand', Revue d ' H i s t o i r e du Theatre, I I , 1951, p. 172.
171.
See p. 37.
- 42 -
c o n s i d e r e d t o be h i s s p e c i a l i t y . Of Le Roi de Malousie Deval
Jacques
w r i t e s , 'Le s u j e t en e s t de pure f a n t a i s i e : i l r a p p e l l e 172
Ubu Roi
si
ce
n'est
quelque voyage
de
Gulliver
ou
de
173 Panurge'.
One
might n o t expect
e x i s t e n t i a l i s t drama t o have
much i n common w i t h t h a t o f e i t h e r Bernard or Lenormand, but i n a number o f h i s p l a y s G a b r i e l Marcel's ideas 'seem t o
converge
on those o f ,.. 174 silence"'. Knowing
of
1920s-1930s
Freud o r r e c a l l P i r a n d e l l o that
was
deconcertantes
the
French
'd'une
dramatic
variete,
d'une
and
the
"school o f
movement complexite
e t t e l l e s q u ' e l l e s rendent v a i n t o u t
the
presque essai
de
has been l i t t l e h e l p t o c r i t i c s o b l i g e d
to
175 classification'
a t t e m p t t h e i m p o s s i b l e by the need t o present t h e i r m a t e r i a l i n a
manageable
Lenormand, 'the
form.
John- Palmer
associates
Bernard
and
them,
with
i n t h e separate chapters he devotes t o
theory
of
s i l e n c e " and
'the
play
of
psycho-analysis'
r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n h i s opening, i n t r o d u c t o r y chapter, however, he is
careful
to
revolutionaries', to
be two,
and
i t is
stress
none
of
the
'so-called
o f which he c o n s i d e r s Bernard and
' i s committed only
that
by
a
t o any s p e c i f i c system wilful straining
of
or
Lenormand doctrine,
their texts
172.
A l f r e d J a r r y , Oeuvres completes I ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , B i b l i o t h e q u e de l a P l e i a d e , 1972) pp. 345-398.
173.
Jacques Deval, 'A t r a v e r s l e s t h e a t r e s - Le Roy de Malousie', Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 j u i n 1928, p. 946.
174.
Knowles, Inter-War Years, p.
175.
See,
Le Theatre, p. 151.
250.
and
- 43 -
intentions tendency
that or
we
a r e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y them
with
a
e x h i b i t them as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f any
given
definite
176 school
or
persuasion'.
Subject t o t h i s
reservation,
might
t e n t a t i v e l y accept t h e work o f Bernard and Lenormand
being
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e ' t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime'
one as
and t h e
' t h e a t r e de 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t ' o f t h e 1920s-1930s. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n , however, i n v i t e s o p p o s i t i o n on a t l e a s t f o u r counts. To begin w i t h , t h e a p p a r e n t l y d i s t i n c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
of
' t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime' and ' t h e a t r e de 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t ' o v e r l a p each o t h e r . Gaston Rageot touches on t h e i r i n s e p a r a b i l i t y , when he
'addresses'
Lenormand
Monsieur Lenormand,
as
follows:
suggerer
le
'Vous
voulez,
mystere,
cher
devoiler 177
1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t , exprimer, en un mot, 1'inexprimable...'. means
that
dramatist excellence
t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f Bernard of
as
t h e unspoken and Lenormand as
This
the archetypal a
o f t h e t h e a t r e o f t h e unconscious
champion par i s misleading,
s i n c e much remains unspoken p r e c i s e l y because i t i s c o n f i n e d o r semi-confined concerned,
in
whilst
t h e unconscious much
of
o f the content
the
individual(s)
o f the
unconscious
remains almost by d e f i n i t i o n unspoken. Hence Bernard's argument that
the
meaning o f t h e word 'inexprime' should
be
widened
'jusqu'a y englober t o u t ce q u i r e l e v e de 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t ' : Si l e s hommes n'expriment pas toujours leurs sentiments p r o f o n d s , ce n'est pas uniquement parce q u ' i l s l e s cachent, par honte, par pudeur ou par
176.
S t u d i e s , pp. 94, 65 and 32,
177.
P r i s e de Vues, p. 145.
- 44 -
h y p o c r i s i e . C'est encore p l u s souvent parce qu'ils n'en o n t pas conscience, ou parce que ces sentiments a r r i v e n t a l a conscience c l a i r e sous une forme tenement meconnaissable que l e s mobiles r e e l s n'en sont p l u s p e r c e p t i b l e s . (Temoignages, p. 29)
Secondly,
g i v e n t h e emphasis c r i t i c s have p l a c e d
on t h e
178 originality that
o f Bernard and Lenormand,
they
i t i s easy t o f o r g e t
d i d not invent the kind o f theatre
i n which
they
excelled.
Drama o f t h e unconscious c o u l d be s a i d t o be as o l d
as
i t s e l f , as Paul B l a n c h a r t p o i n t s o u t i n an
drama
where
he
Bernard,
r e v i e w s i t s h i s t o r y i n France
article 179
and abroad.
Lenormand and t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s d i d do, was
What
t o focus
t h e i r own and t h e i r audiences' a t t e n t i o n on the unconscious i n a way i t had n o t been focussed b e f o r e t h e i r common predecessor, Maeterlinck,
who, w r i t e s Bernard, ' f u t l e premier q u i
prit
conscience de 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t ' ( ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e t h e a t r e . De l a s u g g e s t i o n e t de 1 ' a r t i f i c e ' , p. 5 1 ) . The how
a r t i c l e by B l a n c h a r t j u s t r e f e r r e d t o a l s o
much
covers. critic
drama w i t h i n t h e Inter-War p e r i o d
alone
I n t h e course o f h i s b r i e f and s e l e c t i v e discusses
a wide range o f p l a y w r i g h t s
shows
the label survey t h e
including
whose work d i f f e r s v e r y much i n s t y l e and purpose from t h a t Bernard
up
ones of
and Lenormand. Some, f o r example, t a c k l e d t h e s u b j e c t
from
the perspective o f a
religious
faith.
Others
were
178.
See pp. 14-16.
179.
Paul B l a n c h a r t , ' L ' I n c o n s c i e n t au Theatre', Masques, numero s p e c i a l : " A r t e t T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n " , 15 mars 1947, pp. 75-82.
180.
See pp. 61-69.
- 45 -
influenced approach the
t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r degree by t o the e x p l o r a t i o n o f the
Surrealists'
unconscious.
Consequently
o n l y h e l p f u l way o f s t a t i n g t h a t Bernard and Lenormand were
representative is
the
to
add
o f t h e ' t h e a t r e de 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t ' o f t h e i r
t h a t , a few e x c e p t i o n a l p l a y s
non-religious unconscious
and
apart,
fundamentally r a t i o n a l i s t i c
they
drama
where 'the speech and a c t i o n . . .
as
day wrote
of
the
closely
as
181 possible that,
appear t o be those o f everyday l i f e ' .
This
means
u n l i k e t h e S u r r e a l i s t s , Bernard and Lenormand could
creatively
imagine
and . m e t a p h o r i c a l l y
not
dramatize
the
unconscious, they c o u l d o n l y d e p i c t t h e r e v e r b e r a t i o n s o f t h e i r characters' would
unconscious
reveal
and subconscious
themselves
in
impulses
'everyday
as
life',
that
s u p e r f i c i a l l y , i n o u t w a r d l y o b s e r v a b l e behaviour and/or The
'drama o f t h e unspoken'
problematic unspoken' the name
insofar
as
classification
playwrights
have
and demonstrated t h i s knowledge
is
known
these is
speech.
similarly
about
i n t h e i r plays
'the since
Greeks. Passages o f Sophocles, Shakespeare and Racine, but
a
few,
distinguishing
c o u l d be c i t e d
to
prove
the
point.
f a c t o r i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t which can be
to The
applied
when t r y i n g t o d e f i n e t h e t y p e o f e a r l y t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y drama of
the
unconscious w r i t t e n by Bernard
b e f o r e had
181.
the a t t e n t i o n o f
and
Lenormand.
French d r a m a t i s t s
Never
been drawn
Raymond W i l l i a m s , Drama from Ibsen t o Brecht (London, Chatto & Windus, 1971, F i r s t p u b l i s h e d under t h i s t i t l e 1968) p. 13.
so
- 46 -
specifically
to
the
unspoken i n everyday
life
and
to i t s
p o t e n t i a l f o r dramatic e x p l o i t a t i o n on stage. The r e j e c t i o n volubility silent
for
v o l u b i l i t y ' s sake a f t e r the F i r s t
pictures
contributed
and
the
repercussions
of
World
was
work further
c r y s t a l l i z e d as d r a m a t i s t s shook o f f outmoded t h e a t r i c a l and
found
with,
the
themselves f r e e t o d i s c o v e r i n t e r a c t i v e verbal,
War,
Freud's
t o t h i s c o n c e n t r a t e d awareness which
of
rules
anew,
and
experiment
paralinguistic
and
non-verbal
182 facets o f dialogue. Finally dramatists
the of
unsatisfactory fails their
the
unspoken
because
and
the
i t s intellectual
Lenormand
unconscious
and
technical
t o do j u s t i c e t o t h e e m o t i o n a l and p o e t i c a l drama,
Introduction
4.
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Bernard and
with
w i l l now
which
the
concern
following
section
quality of
as is bias of this
itself.
The e l u s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t s ' drama Having d e s c r i b e d Bernard's work as 'un a r t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t
de
182.
sensibilite'
and
as
'exactement
le contraire
d'un
art
Throughout t h i s t h e s i s the term ' v e r b a l ' communication w i l l be used when t h e focus i s on t h e c o n t e n t and meaning o f the spoken words i n q u e s t i o n . ' P a r a l i n g u i s t i c ' communication w i l l be used when t h e emphasis i s on the p i t c h , tone, volume, pace and i n t o n a t i o n o f any spoken words and f o r i n v o l u n t a r y u t t e r a n c e s such as c r i e s , laughs, screams, s i g h s , e t c . 'Non-verbal' communication w i l l be used t o r e f e r t o o v e r a l l appearance, a t t i t u d e , p o s t u r e , g a i t , g e s t u r e s , s m a l l a c t i o n s , body language, f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , glances and gazes. These are personal d e f i n i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h l a r g e l y supported by those i n most standard d i c t i o n a r i e s .
- 47
intellectualiste
ou
cerebral',
Paul B l a n c h a r t
wonders
'en
q u e l l e mesure 1 ' e s p r i t c o l l a b o r e i c i avec l a s e n s i b i l i t e ' :
II faut beaucoup d ' i n t e l l i g e n c e , et une i n t e l l i g e n c e s i n g u l i e r e m e n t souple e t p e n e t r a n t e , pour que I ' a r t a t t e i g n e a c e t t e a c u i t e s e n s i b l e , pour o r c h e s t r e r a i n s i l e s mots e t l e s s i l e n c e s sur l e c l a v i e r de l a s e n s i b i l i t e . Get a r t , non en^g^bre d ' i n t e l l e c t u a l i t e , e s t etonnamment i n t e l l i g e n t .
The
same
critic
finds
a
similar
kind
of
synthesis
in
Lenormand's work. Having h i g h l i g h t e d c e r t a i n scenes 'd'une pure emotion,
d'un p a t h e t i q u e i n t e n s e ' , he subsequently
refers
to
184 Lenormand's intellect 'qui use
'inquietante
though
intelligence'.
Men
of
superior
t h e y were, n e i t h e r c o u l d b e l i e v e i n
n ' a i t pas de r a c i n e s , d'abord, dans l a the words o f Bernard i n
an
sensibilite',
' R e f l e x i o n s sur l e t h e a t r e ' :
art to 'La
v e r i t a b l e seve de 1'emotion a r t i s t i q u e v i e n t de l a s e n s i b i l i t e , non
de 1 ' i n t e l l i g e n c e ' ( p . 5 3 ) . 'A l a base de chacune
pieces
i l y
a
un choc d'ordre e m o t i f ,
1 ' i n t e l l i g e n c e ' , d e c l a r e s Lenormand legende', turned
un
('Aidez-moi
p. l ) . H o l d i n g such views,
naturally
non
Bernard
t o p o e t r y as the l i n c h p i n
of
de
dessein
mes de
a d e t r u i r e une and
Lenormand
their
drama.
'Pour e x p r i m e r d'un mot ma pensee, j e d i r a i qu'un t h e a t r e ne me touche sur
que
s ' i l est poesie', claims
Bernard
l e t h e a t r e ' ( p . 5 4 ) . A c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f what
Lenormand - meant by 'poesie'
in
'Reflexions Bernard - and
i n t h i s sense i s best approached
183.
Paul B l a n c h a r t , Jean-Jacques Bernard i n Masques. Cahiers d ' A r t Dramatique, 11^ c a h i e r , P a r i s , 1928, p. 27.
184.
Paul B l a n c h a r t , Le Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand, apocalypse d'une s o c i e t e ( P a r i s , Masques, 1947) pp. 222 and 233.
- 48 -
obliquely
through t h e ideas on ' l e r e a l i s m e ' which Bernard and
Lenormand
shared
and which a r e i n t i m a t e l y
related
to
their
common views on ' l a poesie' as a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e o f drama. 'Le
realisme
a
fait faillite',
maintains
Bernard
in
Temoignages, 'La copie s e r v i l e de l a r e a l i t e e s t a n t i a r t i s t i q u e par
essence'
realistes qui
(p. 17). Similarly,
Lenormand
writes:
'Les
sont l e s impuissants de l a v e r i t e superieure,'
celle
s i m p l i f i e , q u i transpose, q u i transcende'
d'un a u t e u r dramatique, predictability
given
(Les Confessions
v o l . I , p. 275). N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g i t s the pervasive
'flight
from
naturalism'
185 which the
marked t h e i r t h e a t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n , unequivocal
realism
reaction
o f Bernard
and
the strength o f Lenormand
against
i s s t r i k i n g i n t h e l i g h t o f much o f t h e i r p r a c t i c e
dramatists.
I n most o f t h e i r p l a y s t h e outward
appearance o f
r e a l i t y i s n o t o n l y r e s p e c t e d , i t i s a major f e a t u r e . With exceptions
their
protagonists
plots
are r e a l i s t i c a l l y
credible,
a r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y p l a u s i b l e and t h e i r
few their
dialogue 186
i s as n a t u r a l t o t h e c h a r a c t e r s speaking i t as possible.. a
l a r g e e x t e n t t h i s apparent
confusing
ambiguity
anomaly can be e x p l a i n e d
o f t h e words ' n a t u r a l i s m '
as
and
To
by t h e 'realism'
when they a r e n o t d e f i n e d w i t h p r e c i s i o n . Raymond W i l l i a m s naturalism, truth,
points
o u t t h e need, when
speaking
of
t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e 'passion f o r t h e whole
f o r t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f what can n o t y e t be s a i d or done,
185.
See pp. 3-5.
186.
See pp. 6-9.
- 49 -
and t h e c o n f i d e n t and even complacent r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
things
187 as t h e y a r e , t h a t t h i n g s are what they seem'. of
naturalism
Shakespeare
according
himself,
who
to
the
was no
former mere
Representative
interpretation imitator
of
is
outward
appearances f o r t h e i r own sake and whom Gaston Baty considered 'le
p l u s grand de t o u s l e s a u t e u r s dramatiques parce
cree
plus
qu'il
de v i e que t o u t a u t r e , e t q u ' i l a t o u t aime
v i e , parce q u ' i l e s t descendu p l u s profondement dans l e des
ames
et
q u ' i l a frissonne 188
mystere des d e s t i n e e s ' .
plus
humainement
de
devant
A l t h o u g h Bernard and Lenormand
are their
because
they discovered i n i t a s i m i l a r preoccupation w i t h the
mystery
the
appealed t o Baty, and t o
le
Georges P i t o e f f ,
of
also
la
secret
i n a d i f f e r e n t d r a m a t i c league from t h a t o f Shakespeare, work
a
i n n e r l i f e and an a t t e m p t t o
r e a l i t e des sens, . . . e s s e n t4--i e l-,l->e ' .. 189
grasp,
'au-dela
de
la
l a presence d'une v e r i t e impalpable e t
C e r t a i n comments Bernard makes on t h e dual n a t u r e o f t r u t h b r i n g i n t o r e l i e f t h e two s t r a n d s o f r e a l i t y he weaves i n t o h i s work:
the
factual/material/provable,
emotional/spiritual/intuitable,
on
on t h e
the other.
one In
hand,
the
Mon Ami l e
T h e a t r e , f o r example, he w r i t e s :
187.
Raymond W i l l i a m s , Drama i n Performance (London, C.A. Watts & Co. L t d . , 1968) p. 131.
188.
Gaston Baty, Rideau Baisse ( P a r i s , Bordas, 1949) p. 150.
189.
France Anders, Jacques Copeau e t l e C a r t e l des quatre ( P a r i s , A.G. N i z e t , 1959) p. 166.
- 50 -
Ce q u i , precisement, f a i t l e grand historien, c'est 1 ' i n t u i t i o n j u s t e . Le dramaturge se t r o u v e r a n a t u r e l l e m e n t p l u s l i b r e devant l a v e r i t e des f a i t s . Mais i l ne sera pas moins t e n u , s i n o n davantage, devant l a v e r i t e des coeurs. C'est sur ^ ^ ^ l e - l a q u ' i l i m p o r t e de ne pas se tromper. ( p . 211)
Although
t h e d r a m a t i s t has a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t i n mind
the pertinent transferred
terms l o s e
none
o f t h e i r v a l i d i t y when they are
t o a more g e n e r a l one.
I t i s undoubtedly
b e l i e f i n t h e d u a l i t y o f t r u t h , i n the importance being
maintained
essential
between i t s component elements
only
a
Bernard's
of a and
balance in
the
s u p e r i o r i t y , i n t h e f i n a l i n s t a n c e , o f the emotional/
spiritual/intuitable, of
here,
which e x p l a i n s why
a r e a d i n g or
number o f h i s p l a y s leaves t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r interested
in
the
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y apprehended
viewing who
is
'verite
des f a i t s ' f e e l i n g f r u s t r a t e d , w h i l s t the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r
who
i s more open t o the e m o t i o n a l l y i n t u i t e d ' v e r i t e des coeurs' i s correspondingly s a t i s f i e d . In coeurs' An
Les Soeurs Guedonec
all-important
i s so d i s c r e e t l y hidden as t o be
inattentive
appearances
reader/spectator
emotional
constitute
going
' v e r i t e des
quasi-imperceptible. by
superficial
c o u l d e a s i l y conclude t h a t n o t h i n g happens i n
p l a y . Only those who the
the
are s e n s i t i v e
t o them can a p p r e c i a t e
s t i r r i n g s w i t h i n the
two
lonely
the that
protagonists
l i t t l e l e s s than a dramatic m i r a c l e . I f one looks no
further
than
Coeurs,
t h i s p l a y i s about a p o l i t i c a l l o s e r whose extravagant
190,
the
' v e r i t e des f a i t s '
of
A l a Recherche des
Hermann Bogler argues i n a s i m i l a r v e i n i n Deux Hommes (T V, 229).
- 51 -
gestures his
o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c e achieve n o t h i n g ,
whilst
hastening
premature death by a s s a s s i n a t i o n . According t o i t s
however,
author,
i t i s a l o v e s t o r y i n which 'les deux p a r t e n a i r e s
ne '
sont p l u s un homme e t une femme, mais un homme e t une f o u l e , un homme
e t ses o u v r i e r s '
Nationale 6
from
May
maintains
Daniels
(T I I I , 7 ) .
No
the perspective o f ' l a
doubt
considering
verite
t h a t i t i s a 'fantasy,
des
faits',
reminiscent o f
J.M. B a r r i e ' s l e s s f o r t u n a t e a t t e m p t s ' and 'concerned w i t h t h e vague
whimsies
o f two s i l l y people,
wholly
wrapped
up i n 191
themselves and unequal t o t h e s m a l l e s t demands o f l i f e ' . Lucien Descaves, on the o t h e r hand, i t i s 'une i d y l l e ,
For fraiche
192 et reposante
comme un conte de vacances e t de f e e s ' ,
P i e r r e Audiat mariage finit
de bien.
and f o r
i t i s 'un conte b l e u q u i ne f i n i t p o i n t
par l e
l a bergere e t du p r i n c e charmant e t q u i p o u r t a n t La p l u s
f i n e pointe 193
Jean-Jacques Bernard'.
To
de
I'art,
s i delie,
take one f u r t h e r
de
example, t h e
r e a d e r s / s p e c t a t o r s who are more open t o ' l a v e r i t e des coeurs' of
Bernard's
Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse
overriding
sympathy
primarily
concerned
f o r t h e Queen, with
t h e simple
whilst facts
will
retain
those will
an
who a r e be
more
censorious. In
Lenormand's t h e a t r e f a c t u a l r e a l i t y i s represented
by
t h e u n y i e l d i n g t h r e a d o f r a t i o n a l i t y which runs through each o f
191.
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, pp. 219 and 221.
192. ) and) 193. )
Quoted by Robert de Beauplan, 'Nationale 6 au t h e a t r e de I'Oeuvre', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 376, 23 novembre 1935, pages n o t numbered.
- 52 -
h i s p l a y s , w h i l s t s p i r i t u a l t r u t h i s accommodated by a concurrent preoccupation with the i r r a t i o n a l . I n the f i r s t volume o f h i s Confessions Lenormand acknowledges how he l e a r n e d t o keep h o l d o f these two p o l e s :
Et t o u j o u r s , dans c e t t e chasse aux fantomes, Edgar Poe m ' e n s e i g n a i t l a r i g u e u r a n a l y t i q u e avec l a q u e l l e il i m p o r t e d ' e t u d i e r l e s phenomenes l e s plus t r o u b l e s . C'est a l u i que j e d o i s c e t t e espece de l o g i q u e p p l i c i e r e de I'ame que j e m ' e f f o r c e r a i , v i n g t ans p l u s t a r d , de f a i r e regner dans c e l l e s de mes p i e c e s q u i semblent se detacher l e p l u s du r e e l , (p. 78)
One
can
argue
t h a t , having established f o r
himself
such
a
d i s c i p l i n e i n which t o work, i t was i n Lenormand's p r o f e s s i o n a l interest
'to
interpretation suggestion
conserve,
a t least
of
secret
man's
in
part,
motives,
a
including
poetic the
t h a t an aura o f mystery must always hover over t h e 194
most b a f f l i n g f e a t u r e s o f man's p e r s o n a l i t y ' . psychology
The science o f
was no t h r e a t i n t h i s r e s p e c t . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t
c o u l d n o t have been more h e l p f u l t o Lenormand, because he c o u l d dramatically progress total
exploit
the l i g h t
shed
by
the
with l i t t l e fear that this illumination and
correspondingly destructive
o f the
discipline's might
prove
enigmatic.
Robert Posen c l a i m s t h a t ' f o r Lenormand Freudian psychology and t h e methods o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c o u l d l a y bare f o r o b s e r v a t i o n by t h e r a t i o n a l mind t h e hidden motives and impulses o f a p p a r e n t l y
194.
White, Thesis, p. 207.
- 53 -
195 irrational behaviour'. This i s l a r g e l y t r u e , but d i d n o t b e l i e v e they c o u l d do so e n t i r e l y .
Lenormand
Lenormand's c o n v i c t i o n t h a t modern p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s , however
i l l u m i n a t i n g , are u n l i k e l y t o e r a d i c a t e
the
psyche's
e s s e n t i a l mystery i s h i g h l i g h t e d by the speech which he made a t a
dinner
given
extracts
i n h i s honour
by
o f which were subsequently
de l a Chimere
of
May
time
is
Club du Faubourg
p u b l i s h e d i n the
1922 under t h e t i t l e
dans l a l i t t e r a t u r e dramatique'. that
the
of
and
Bulletin
'L'Inconscient
Lenormand's choice o f words a t
i n f o r m a t i v e . His
appreciation
of
Freud's
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the science o f psychology i s i n d i s p u t a b l e : ' I I nous
t e n d l a c l e q u i ouvre l e s p o r t e s s e c r e t e s de
declares se
u n e q u i v o c a l l y , ' I I nous r e v e l e l e s d e s i r s caches
dissimulent
refers
to
derriere
'ces
Rousseau,
relativement
a
interdites
Baudelaire
souterrains eclaires'.
'relativement', significance
nos reves' (p. 75).
regions
Stendhal,
a u t r e . . . ces
I'ame
I'ame',
and
in
The
de
de
Further
I'ame
ou
penetraient la
all-important
the f o l l o w i n g
les
encore son mystere meme de l a v i e , e l l e et
nombreux
speech
he
asks
s e c r e t s ' ( p . 7 7 ) . At the
whether we should
'resister
here the
a
195.
'A F r e u d i a n ' , p.
e t l a i s s e r voguer
144.
is
'Si de
of
his
courant
qui
cherche a nous e n t r a i n e r vers l e s s o u t e r r a i n s de l a 'ceder a ce c o u r a n t
a
crucial
livre
climax au
he
voici
l i e s i n t h e c o n d i t i o n a l not the main clause:
grands
or
on
temps
word
sentence
qui
Diderot,
de
conscience,
he
conscience'
avec nous
l e drame
- 54 -
jusqu'a ces cavernes d'ou i l ressortira certainement tres different de ce q u ' i l y e s t e n t r e ' ( p . 7 8 ) . H a v i n g considered t h e d a n g e r s o f t h i s l a t t e r c o u r s e he c o n c l u d e s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t o f h i s b e l i e f t h a t ' i l n'y a p a s de v e r i t e d e r n i e r e a laquelle n o u s p u i s s i o n s e t r e a c c u l e s ' , t h a t 'I'ame r e c u l e t o u j o u r s , sous des deguisements s u c c e s s i f s , devant c e l u i q u i cherche a la connaitre':
Si loin que nous a l l i e n s , j e crois que nous t r o u v e r o n s t o u j o u r s en f a c e de nous un f a n t o m e assez incertain, a s s e z e n i g m a t i q u e p o u r nous p e r m e t t r e de r e v e r , de d o u t e r , de c h e r c h e r , d ' a i m e r , de c r a i n d r e c ' e s t - a - d i r e de c r e e r . ( p . 80)
The far
b e l i e f t h a t t h e science o f psychology
b u t no f u r t h e r
dramatist,
c a n t a k e man
i s r e f l e c t e d i n Lenormand's p r a c t i c e
f o r , although
Robert
Posen . a f f i r m s
so
as
that
a
'with
Lenormand n o t h i n g i s m a g i c a l o r a c c i d e n t a l ' , """^^ t h i s c a n n o t p r o v e d beyond doubt. dramas
in
explanations slight,
be
On t h e c o n t r a r y , i n e l e v e n o f t h e e i g h t e e n
Lenormand's
Theatre complet,
whatever
a r e p r o f f e r e d t h e r e i s always
a
chance,
rational however
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g c o u l d be ' m a g i c a l o r a c c i d e n t a l " .
Just
197 as
the
tragedy in
reader/spectator whatever
t h e same
way
of
Macbeth
can
appreciate
a t t i t u d e he t a k e s t o t h e w i t c h e s and i t is
possible
to
read
or
the
ghosts,
v i e w many
of
196.
'A F r e u d i a n ' , p . 144. T h i s i s a s u r p r i s i n g comment on t h e p a r t o f R o b e r t Posen i n t h e l i g h t o f c e r t a i n s t a t e m e n t s he makes i n h i s a r t i c l e o f May. 1968. See p. 440.
197.
W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e , M a c b e t h ( I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d N o t e s by K. D e i g h t o n , L o n d o n , M a c m i l l a n , 1896)
- 55 -
Lenormand's rational
p l a y s , where t h e p l o t s c a n be g i v e n
a n d one i r r a t i o n a l
at
least
one
e x p l a n a t i o n . As t h i s p r i n c i p l e
is
198 d e m o n s t r a t e d i n some d e t a i l the
i n Chapter 4 o f t h i s t h e s i s ,
and
r o l e o f w o r d p o w e r as a r e c u r r i n g r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n
is
199 the
s u b j e c t o f C h a p t e r 6,
here
except
to
reader/spectator Macbeth
has
the
uncompromisingly impact
the
play
say
who
no f u r t h e r comment i s that
Lenormand's
r e m a i n s open t o a l l t h e
most
t o gain from i t .
rational is
in
appropriate
opinion implications
Those
who
approach o b s t r u c t the f u l l
capable
of
themselves t o the p o t e n t i a l r e a l i t y
making
and
risk
of the apparently
take
276-282.
199.
See pp. 396-404 f o r e x a m p l e s .
an
blinding unreal:
Pour c o m p r e n d r e M a c b e t h , p o u r nous trouver d e v a n t M a c b e t h dans 1 ' a t t i t u d e q u i p o u v a i t e t r e c e l l e des c o n t e m p o r a i n s de S h a k e s p e a r e , i l f a u t v o i r dans les p r e d i c t i o n s des s o r c i e r e s , dans 1 ' a p p a r i t i o n du spectre de Banquo, dans l a p r e s s i o n que l e monde invisible exerce a chaque instant sur les p e r s o n n a g e s , non pas des f a n t a s m a g o r i e s , non pas des autosuggestions, non pas l e s h a l l u c i n a t i o n s d'une conscience t r o u b l e e par l e remords. I I f a u t y voir des r e a l i t e s . ( ' S h a k e s p e a r e e t l e M y s t e r e ' , p. 8 )
See pp.
of
dramatic
Psychologiquement, i l e s t a i s e de m o t i v e r par 1'emprise sexuelle q u ' e x e r c e Lady M a c b e t h s u r son m a r i , 1 ' e v o l u t i o n du c a r a c t e r e de M a c b e t h , q u i passe de 1'affectivite normale a 1'endurcissement, a l a d i a b o l i q u e h y p o c r i s i e , a I ' i v r e s s e de l a d e s t r u c t i o n . Ce p r o b l e m e d'une m e n t a l i t e c r i m i n e l l e s u f f i r a i t a faire de M a c b e t h I ' u n des p l u s g r a n d s drames de l a l i t t e r a t u r e . M a i s l e s e n t i m e n t de l a p r e d e s t i n a t i o n , cette c e r t i t u d e qu'en a c c o m p l i s s a n t ses c r i m e s , i l r e a l i s e u n p l a n p r e e t a b l i , un programme f i x e d'avance p a r des p u i s s a n c e s s u p e r i e u r e s a s a v o l o n t e , f o n t de M a c b e t h une t r a g e d i e m y s t i q u e d e p a s s a n t de beaucoup les donnees de l a t r a g e d i e politique, sociale et intime.
198.
the
- 56
However one
-
i n t e r p r e t s M a c b e t h , t h e s e comments c o n t a i n a
vital
k e y t o a g l o b a l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f Lenormand's drama. In that
his
the
t h e s i s on B e r n a r d , L l o y d B i s h o p makes
S y m b o l i s t movement has
been c r i t i c i z e d
the
for
point
being
a
s o u l w i t h o u t a b o d y , w h i l s t n a t u r a l i s m has been c r i t i c i z e d
for
being
said
that
a body w i t h o u t a soul.^*^*^ I n t h e s e t e r m s i t can be i n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t ways B e r n a r d and Lenormand
merge like
the
two i n t o a s i n g l e e n t i t y ,
their
strove
dramatic
concept,
t h a t o f a number o f t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e 1920s,
'its
parallel
maintenance spirit,
in
first
dramatic
world
and
mysterious
finding
principle:
o f e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n body and s o u l ,
natural
expressed
Baty's
matter
forces,
to
the and
symbolically
i n t h e emblem o f h i s t h e a t r i c a l g r o u p - t h e
Chimera,
a bird-woman, s t r a i n i n g upward w i t h i t s f e e t f i r m l y p l a n t e d
on
201 the
ground'.
anticipated
The by
attempted i n t e g r a t i o n o f these
Saint-Georges
de B o u h e l i e r ,
whose
poles
was
'intention 202
fondamentale
f u t de c o m b i n e r
l e realisme et l e
symbolisme'.
Although
' l e c h e f - e t p e u t - e t r e meme l e s e u l r e p r e s e n t a n t -
I'ecole
naturiste',
today,
according to
i s not considered a s i g n i f i c a n t Marcel Doisy,
Le C a r n a v a l des
dramatist 203 Enfants
200.
L l o y d 0. B i s h o p , 'The D r a m a t i c Work o f J e a n - J a c q u e s Bernard' ( d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 1 . Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , 1993) p . 319.
201.
L a k i c h , 'The
202.
B a l a z a r d , Le G u i d e , p.
203.
S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r , Le C a r n a v a l des ( P a r i s , F a s q u e l l e , 1911).
I d e a l and R e a l i t y ' , p.
de
76.
24. Enfants
- 57
'ouvrait
-
l a v o i e a t o u t l e mouvement
du r e a l i s m e p o e t i q u e
n o t r e e p o q u e , v o i r e a 1 ' e c o l e de I ' i n e x p r i m e , dans son a.
•
a.
tout
, 204
^
au moms'.
T
4.4.
,
J a c q u e s L a n o t t e makes a
Interestingly,
present
importance
1
similar
•
205
claim.
Lenormand's o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e a c h i e v e m e n t
o f S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r i n Le C a r n a v a l the
principe
-l
•
des
Enfants
bring
d i s c u s s i o n b a c k t o i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t , namely
Bernard
i n drama and
de
and
the
Lenormand a t t r i b u t e d t o a p o e t i c e l e m e n t
w h a t t h e y meant by
it:^*^^
Accomplir c e t t e a l c h i m i e , a r r a c h e r a I'ephemere l e s f o r m e s e t l e s a p p a r e n c e s p o u r l e s f i x e r dans l a d u r e e par l a p u i s s a n c e des i m a g e s , c ' e s t p e u t - e t r e l a l e p l u s v r a i , l e p l u s i m p o r t a n t de l a m i s s i o n du poete. En t o u t c a s , c ' e s t ce q u i l u i v a u t l a t e n d r e s s e e t l a reconnaissance de c e u x p o u r q u i ce monde e s t un chaos, tant que l a p o e s i e ne I ' a pas clarifie et organise. ( L e s C o n f e s s i o n s , v o l . I , p. 331)
Given the views Bernard their
and
Lenormand s h a r e d
on
'le realisme',
common b e l i e f i n t h e d u a l i t y o f t r u t h and
the s t r e s s they
b o t h p l a c e d on e x p r e s s i n g t h e human e x p e r i e n c e possible
in
their
plays,
Lenormand's
as i n t e g r a l l y appreciation
S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r as a d r a m a t i c p o e t and which
he
complement
expresses to
i t
Bernard's
fall
i n t o place
d e f i n i t i o n of
and 'la
t h e terms
are vraie
a
as of in
fitting
poesie
de
theatre':
204.
Le T h e a t r e ,
205.
J a c q u e s L a n o t t e , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n au " T h e a t r e de I ' i n e x p r i m e " ' , C a h i e r s de L i t t e r a t u r e e t de L i n g u i s t i q u e a p p l i q u e e , no. 1 , j u i n 1970, pp. 12-13.
206.
See
pp.
p.
47-48.
222.
- 58 -
P o e s i e ! V o i l a , a mon s e n s , l e s e c r e t p r o f o n d , l a vertu intime d u t h e a t r e . P o e s i e ne v e u t nullement dire p i e c e en v e r s . I I a r r i v e qu'une p i e c e en v e r s s o i t p o e t i q u e , m a i s , l e p l u s s o u v e n t , c ' e s t dans l e s ouvrages l a b o r i e u s e m e n t o u f a c i l e m e n t v e r s i f i e s que git l e p l u s de p r o s a i s m e . La v e r s i f i c a t i o n a s e s m i r a g e s . La v r a i e p o e s i e de t h e a t r e , c ' e s t t o u t a u t r e c h o s e . . . Le v r a i t h e a t r e e s t p o e s i e dans l a mesure ou l a poesie est suggestion, car l e theatre e s t suggestion. Or l a p o e s i e p e u t a u s s i e t r e a r t i f i c e , e t nous constatons i c i que l e meme v e h i c u l e p e u t a p p o r t e r , selon l e s cas, l asuggestion, qui e s t I ' a r t , e t 1'artifice q u i e s t s o n c o n t r a i r e . . . I I y a des mots . . . t r o m p e u r s ; e t i l y a c e u x q u i p o r t e n t en eux n o n p o i n t l a r e a l i t e t o u t e b e t e , mais l a v e r i t e h u m a i n e q u i e s t b i e n a u t r e c h o s e que l e r e e l . E t sans doute meme l e mot d'humain, p o u r qualifier cette v e r i t e - l a , ne s u f f i t - i l pas? ( ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e t h e a t r e ' , p. 54)
The p o e t r y w i t h w h i c h B e r n a r d a n d Lenormand i n f u s e d drama for
i s n o t c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h a t o f some o f t h e i r
two reasons. F i r s t l y ,
'hommes de t h e a t r e ' of
poets
like
Lenormand
kept
plausible from
making
Supervielle
colleagues
B e r n a r d a n d Lenormand w e r e above a l l
whose t a l e n t d i f f e r e d i n n a t u r e f r o m
Claudel o r Supervielle.
Secondly,
the dialogue o f the majority
and n a t u r a l
their
t o i t s speakers,
characters
who
were
Bernard
of their
deliberately
n o t poets
that and plays
refraining
speak
poetry.
was f r e e t o g i v e h i s p l a y s ' l e charme s u b t i l
d'une
207 poesie
dans
l e s mots
e t hors
des mots'.
Bernard
Lenormand w e r e r e s t r i c t e d as f a r as 'une p o e s i e dans l e s is
concerned
b u t had g r e a t e r , though n o t
with regard t o a poetry
207.
M i g n o n , Panorama, p .
'hors des mots'.
123.
total, They
and mots'
flexibility consequently
- 59
wrote
poetic
work,
created
-
d i a l o g u e as a p p r o p r i a t e , and, 'la
poesie
tout court,
throughout
sans
forme
their
et
sans
208 texte',
the
w i t h w h i c h t h e y were c o n v e r s a n t i n s p i t e o f 209
p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e a t r e A r t a u d condemned.
Cocteau's s u b s t i t u t i o n o f au t h e a t r e " ' , one the
limited
own
m i g h t say t h a t t o t h e
'une
In and
Bernard
'une
n o t , even i n t h e case o f 210
of and
d e n t e l l e en
of
Lenormand,
cordages'. Bernard
of
a team and t h a t e a c h o f t h e i r t e x t s was in itself
t h o u g h t h i s may
be - o f
only
as the
a greater
A n t o n i n . A r t a u d , Le T h e a t r e e t son D o u b l e s u i v i de Le T h e a t r e de S e r a p h i n ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , 1964) p.
121,
A r t a u d ' s s t a t e m e n t 'que l e t h e a t r e e t nous-memes devons en f i n i r a v e c l a p s y c h o l o g i c ' ( I b i d . , p. 119) c a n n o t be t a k e n l i t e r a l l y . P s y c h o l o g y c a n n o t be o u s t e d f r o m t h e a t r e any more t h a n i t can be o u s t e d f r o m human l i f e . A r t a u d no d o u b t e x p r e s s e d h i m s e l f so v e h e m e n t l y on t h e s u b j e c t t o r e d r e s s a l a r g e , entrenched imbalance i n the o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . However, he d i d a d v o c a t e a much more r a d i c a l c o u r s e t h a n t h e new b u t b a s i c a l l y r a t i o n a l i s t i c p a t h t o t h e u n c o n s c i o u s b e a t e n by Lenormand: ' J ' a i v o u l u en f i n i r a v e c I'homme des p e r i o d e s c l a s s i q u e s , 1 ' a r c h e t y p e de l a d r a m a t u r g i c n a t i o n a l e . Je I ' a i l i v r e , ce h e r o s c a r t e s i e n t o t a l e m e n t a n a l y s a b l e , aux p u i s s a n c e s d i s s o l v a n t e s q u i emanent de son i n c o n s c i e n t ' ( L e s C o n f e s s i o n s , v o l . I , p.
210.
they could w r i t e ,
t h i s c o n t e x t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t
b a s i s - complete
209.
'dentelle delicate'
Lenormand c r e a t e d n o t o n l y as s o l i t a r y a r t i s t s b u t a l s o
members
208.
of
g r o s s e d e n t e l l e ' o f ' p o e s i e de t h e a t r e '
b r a n d , w h i c h was
as t h i c k l y woven as
I n t h e terms
" p o e s i e de t h e a t r e " a l a " p o e s i e
' p o e s i e au t h e a t r e '
Lenormand added their
'une
writing
12).
Cocteau,
T h e a t r e I , p.
45.
- 60 -
211 potential
work, a
'drame i n t e g r a l '
i n e v i t a b l y subtle poetry had t o w a i t
i n embryo.
Much
i n t h e drama o f B e r n a r d and
of
the
Lenormand
f o r d i r e c t o r s and c o m p a n i e s t o b r i n g i n t o e v i d e n c e .
Accordingly,
we
find
John Fowles
' a l m o s t l i k e an o p e r a t i c
libretto
claiming
that
Martine
is
. . . a l l t h e m u s i c has t o be
212 created
in
successful poetry, et
the
performance'.
That
i n d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y
the
playwrights
creating
their
i s p r o v e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f c r i t i c s .
poesie:
deux p o l e s de I ' a r t de Lenormand',
were
targeted
'Suggestion
comments
Paul
213 Blanchart.
'The
special
o f Lenormand a r i s e s , writes
S.A.
poetry
i n good m e a s u r e , f r o m i t s p o e t i c
Rhodes,
caught
up
spellbinding q u a l i t y o f the
who with
also maintains realism
and
that
'with
psychology
theater virtues', Bernard, in
the
214 theater'.
'Un
dialogueur-poete',
writes
Edmond See
of
215 Bernard,
whose
'sous-entendus',
'enveloppent 1'humble ^ ^ . 216 profonde'. pp.
drame
d'une
D a n i e l Mornet poesie
tells
insaisissable
211.
See
212.
J o h n F o w l e s , ' T h e a t r e o f t h e u n e x p r e s s e d ' , The 15 A p r i l 1985, p. 9.
Times,
213.
'H.-R. Lenormand: d r a m a t u r g e d ' a p o c a l y p s e ' , p.
10.
214.
The C o n t e m p o r a r y F r e n c h T h e a t e r , p. 276; and C o l u m b i a D i c t i o n a r y , Bede and E d g e r t o n ( e d s . ) , p. 82.
215.
Le T h e a t r e , p.
216.
D a n i e l M o r n e t , H i s t o i r e de l a l i t t e r a t u r e p.
et
9-11.
frangaises 1927)
us,
156.
contemporaines 156.
(1870-1927)
e t de l a pensee
( P a r i s , Larousse,
- 61 -
5.
C r i t i c a l assessment o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t s ' dramatic and l e g a c y Critics
h a v e compared t h e w o r k o f B e r n a r d
w i t h t h a t o f o t h e r w r i t e r s who m i g h t their
predecessors
o r successors.
either direction,
which
would
literary
and
t e n t a t i v e l y be
Lenormand considered
T h i s has been done
much t o e s t a b l i s h t r a c e s o f c o n s c i o u s in
heritage
o r unconscious
n o t so influence
but rather t o explore possible
affinities
attach the dramatists i n question t o
an
ongoing
• 217 chain.
Bernard
has
been
referred
t o , along
with
Sarment
and
218 A c h a r d , as ' c e t t e p r o g e n i t u r e de M u s s e t ' . also
been
Villiers Bataille Norwid, relate
noted
between
218.
and
that
of
have
Marivaux,
de 1 ' I s l e - A d a m ,
M a e t e r l i n c k , J u l e s Renard, t h e Henry 219 220 o f L'Enchantement, S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r ,
Chekhov, to
I b s e n a n d P i r a n d e l l o . Most
Bernard
of
these
as a d r a m a t i s t o f t h e u n s p o k e n .
d i v e r s e reasons a f f i n i t i e s
217.
h i s work
Resemblances
For
links more
h a v e been s p o t t e d b e t w e e n Lenormand
The f o l l o w i n g s u r v e y does n o t c l a i m t o be e x h a u s t i v e . I t s u m m a r i z e s some o f t h e p r i n c i p a l o b s e r v a t i o n s made by c r i t i c s s i n c e t h e 1920s, s t r e s s i n g t h o s e w h i c h have a p a r t i c u l a r relevance t o the subject o f t h i s thesis. References a r e g i v e n o n l y t o works which a r e quoted. I t s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h i s s e c t i o n f u r t h e r l i m i t s i t s e l f t o t h e d r a m a t i c h e r i t a g e and l e g a c y o f B e r n a r d a n d Lenormand, some o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e s on Lenormand w e r e n o t d r a m a t i s t s , e.g. N i e t z s c h e , Poe. e H e n r i P e y r e , Hommes e t O e u v r e s d u XX— S i e c l e C o r r e a , 1938) p. 224.
(Paris,
219.
H e n r y B a t a i l l e , T h e a t r e c o m p l e t I I ( L e Masque, L ' E n c h a n t e m e n t ) ( P a r i s , F l a m m a r i o n , no d a t e ) .
220.
See p p . 56-57.
- 62
and
the
M a r q u i s de Sade,
-
Becque,
de C u r e l ,
1'Isle-Adam, M a e t e r l i n c k , t h e d r a m a t i s t s o f the S a i n t - G e o r g e s de B o u h e l i e r , Ibsen, here
S t r i n d b e r g and
P i r a n d e l l o . Mention
the
question
of
p l a y w r i g h t s coming l a t e r 1970
that
encore
' b i e n des
the
legacy
de
Grand-Guignol,
Elizabethan
o f Lenormand's A m e r i c a n c o n t e m p o r a r y , On
in
certain
Villiers
playwrights,
s h o u l d a l s o be
made
O'Neill. left
by
Bernard
to
i n t h e c e n t u r y , A l f r e d Simon m a i n t a i n s
auteurs debutants.retrouvent aujourd'hui
l a t e c h n i q u e de M a r t i n e q u i ne l e d i s e n t pas
et
ne
le
221 savent
p e u t - e t r e meme p a s ' .
'helped French
c l e a r the ground
John Fowles c l a i m s t h a t
f o r the- t r i u m p h s o f
t h e a t r e , f r o m G i r a u d o u x on:
B e c k e t t and
a l l the r e s t ' ,
enthusiasm
on
mid-century
Sartre,
lonesco,
and he a l s o p o i n t s o u t t h a t P i n t e r ' s
the occasion of the r e v i v a l of Martine
N a t i o n a l Theatre important,
Anouilh,
the
i f
was
Martine
fitting,
Bernard
having
nowadays g e n e r a l l y f o r g o t t e n ,
at
been
pioneer
of
the 'an the 222
theatre o f which H a r o l d h i m s e l f i s our l e a d i n g exponent'. Georges V e r s i n i comments on t h e s i m i l a r i t y between Bernard's 'point
de
vue'
and
that
of
M a r g u e r i t e Duras
and
Nathalie
223 Sarraute. and
his
' B e r n a r d ' s use focus
a n t i c i p a t e and
upon
o f t h e u n s p o k e n arid t h e u n s p e a k a b l e
withdrawal,
lay the foundation
221.
D i c t i o n n a i r e , p.
222.
'Theatre
223.
Le T h e a t r e
isolation,
f o r post-World
95.
o f t h e u n e x p r e s s e d ' , p. f r a n g a i s depuis
and
1900,
9. p.
21.
War
alienation I I silent
- 63
-
224 drama', some
a s s e r t s L e s l i e Kane.
Kester Branford
l e n g t h t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n
'theatre
de
I'inexprime'
and
later
makes
some
particularly
interesting
comments
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s a n g u i n i t y w i t h A r t a u d , and insufficiently the
finding
P i n t e r . He on
to
which
Le
Theatre
also
Bernard's
points out that
explored question r e l a t i n g t o Artaud's
extent
et
son
at
Bernard's
developments
e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e p l a y s o f B e c k e t t , l o n e s c o and
is
discusses
thought
Double
r e s t a t e m e n t o f some o f t h e l e a d i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f B a t y ,
'one
is
a
Bernard,
225 and
o t h e r Compagnons de l a C h i m e r e ' . With
regard
discusses, his
to
Lenormand's
legacy,
Philip
Hewitt
among o t h e r s , a L e n o r m a n d - M o n t h e r l a n t l i n k , and
summary
comments on Lenormand's s i t u a t i o n
vis-a-vis
in the
Absurdists:
Like Camus and S a r t r e , Lenormand d e s c r i b e s the Absurd, while Beckett and lonesco present i t . Nonetheless, t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e s t r o n g , and while it must n o t be exaggerated, t h e way in which Lenormand parallels Giraudoux, throws light on Anouilh and S a l a c r o u , a n t i c i p a t e s S a r t r e and Camus, and f o r e s h a d o w s G e n e t , B e c k e t t and l o n e s c o suggests that h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e F r e n c h thea^^g of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s f a r from n e g l i g i b l e .
It
i s c l e a r from the preceding survey o f those
f r o m whom
Bernard
and
Lenormand
inherited
and
dramatists
those
t o whom
224.
L e s l i e Kane, The Language o f S i l e n c e , On t h e Unspoken t h e U n s p e a k a b l e i n Modern Drama ( L o n d o n , A s s o c i a t e d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s e s , 1984) pp. 99-100.
225.
A Study,
226.
T h e s i s , pp.
pp.
205-218 and
202-205, e s p e c i a l l y p.
295-300, e s p e c i a l l y p.
300.
203.
and
- 64 -
t h e y l e f t a l e g a c y t h a t one o f t h e i r p r i n c i p a l common a n c e s t o r s is Maurice Maeterlinck a n d t h a t one o f t h e i r m a i n common descendants i s Samuel B e c k e t t . T h i s statement suggests t h e viability o f a Maeterlinck-Bernard/Lenormand-Beckett chain which w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n some d e t a i l h e r e as i t i s l a r g e l y dependent on t h e f o u r p l a y w r i g h t s ' shared concern w i t h t h e u n s p o k e n a n d i n e x p r e s s i b l e . I t m u s t be s t r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , that the connections which c a n be made b e t w e e n t h e work of Maeterlinck, Bernard/Lenormand and B e c k e t t should not be e x a g g e r a t e d o r c o n s i d e r e d i n a n y way a s e x c l u s i v e .
The and
Lenormand
differs from
d i f f e r e n c e s between B e c k e t t ' s are manifest.
Similarly,
i n many r e s p e c t s n o t o n l y f r o m
h i s more i m m e d i a t e mysticism,
f o r example,
linguistic
symbolism
are not typical
Maeterlinck's
Maeterlinck's and
his
features
marked,
systematized of
Bernard's
p l a y s . Two v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n Lenormand's drama
Maeterlinck's Maeterlinck,
are
given
by
work
that o f Beckett b u t also
successors'.
pervasive
Inter-War
work and t h a t o f Bernard
Marcel Doisy.
Firstly,
l e s personnages p r i n c i p a u x sont p l u s souvent
and 'chez des
f o r c e s o b s c u r e s que d e s e t r e s h u m a i n s ' :
227 De p l u s , l a ou I ' a u t e u r de L ' I n t r u s e plonge l e s p e c t a t e u r d a n s une a t m o s p h e r e d e l i b e r e e de terreur, lui i n f u s e , de f o r c e e t p a r l e s v o i e s l e s plus i n s t i n c t i v e s , l a p i t i e o u l a d e t r e s s e , Lenormand f a i t appel au c o n t r a i r e a 1'intelligence lucide et envisage l e s problemes psychologiques l e s plus
227.
Maurice M a e t e r l i n c k , Theatre I (La Princesse Maleine L ' I n t r u s e - Les A v e u g l e s ) ( B r u x e l l e s , Lacomblez, 1903).
- 65 -
troubles sous 1 ' a n g l e de l a raison ^^galytique meme p a r f o i s de I'examen s c i e n t i f i q u e .
Differences and
notwithstanding, the kinship
Bernard
a n d / o r M a e t e r l i n c k and Lenormand has
l i g h t e d by numerous c r i t i c s . Chandler, carries
between
ou
Maeterlinck been
high-
' B e r n a r d ' s drama', o b s e r v e s
Frank
' i s one o f n u a n c e s and i n t e n t i o n s . I n t h i s r e g a r d forward
t h e purposes o f M a e t e r l i n c k i n a
world
i t more
229 real'.
to
M a e t e r l i n c k i s Bernard's s p i r i t u a l 230
Jacques
theatre the
Lanotte.
David Whitton
claims
father
that
according
'Bernard's
i s not u n l i k e Maeterlinck's i n content, consisting
in
evocation
o f "states of soul", but i n a style closer to 231 expressionism than symbolism'. ' M a e t e r l i n c k e t Lenormand, s i 232 f r a t e r n e l s en l e u r s f i n s ' , w r i t e s H e n r y - M a r x . Paul Blanchart 233 remarks
on
a
direct
line
from
Pelleas e t Melisande
to
A g a i n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o Lenormand,
Louis
234 La F o l l e du C i e l . Cazamian
states
that
melodies
h i s power
' o v e r and above an
lies
i n creating
appeal
to
unheard
t h e a n g u i s h e d sense
of
228.
Le T h e a t r e ,
p. i 9 8 .
229.
F r a n k W. C h a n d l e r , Modern C o n t i n e n t a l P l a y w r i g h t s (New Y o r k - L o n d o n , H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1931) p. 252.
230.
' I n t r o d u c t i o n au " T h e a t r e de I ' i n e x p r i m e ' " , p.
231.
S t a g e D i r e c t o r s , p.
232.
H e n r y - M a r x , 'La P s y c h a n a l y s e e t Le Mangeur de Choses de t h e a t r e , n o . 6, mars 1922, p. 365.
233.
Maurice M a e t e r l i n c k , Theatre I I (Pelleas e t Melisande A l l a d i n e e t P a l o m i d e s - I n t e r i e u r - La M o r t de T i n t a g i l e s ) ( B r u x e l l e s , Lacomblez, 1904).
234.
Le T h e a t r e de H.-R.
13.
117.
Lenormand. p.
247.
Reves',
- 66 -
235 tragedy that Maeterlinck b e f o r e h i m h a d made h i s own'. R o b e r t Emmet J o n e s m a i n t a i n s ' t h e r e a r e a f f i n i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e w o r k s o f M a e t e r l i n c k a n d c e r t a i n p l a y s o f Lenormand, e s p e c i a l l y those s e t i n foggy, damp c l i m a t e s where t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o p p r e s s e d b o t h o u t w a r d l y and i n w a r d l y , can o n l y s u g g e s t their e m o t i o n s t o each o t h e r '
In
the
four
chapters
she
shares
between
Bernard
M a e t e r l i n c k May D a n i e l s h i g h l i g h t s t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
and
features 237
of
t h e ' t h e a t r e de 1 ' i n e x p r i m e '
she
o f t h e two p l a y w r i g h t s ,
does n o t l o o k f o r w a r d t o B e c k e t t . K a t h a r i n e Worth, on t h e
o t h e r hand, would appear t o bypass Bernard makes t h e M a e t e r l i n c k - B e c k e t t
a l t o g e t h e r when
L e s l i e Kane, h o w e v e r , e s t a b l i s h e s a
the
'school by o r modern o r the
Maeterlinck-Bernard-Beckett
u n e q u i v o c a l l y i n The Language o f S i l e n c e . She r e f e r s Belgian
'as a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y
Jean-Jacques Bernard's the absurd';
innovative precursor o f
t h e a t r e o f s i l e n c e and t h e t h e a t r e
she d i s c u s s e s
she
connection:
'Drama o f t h e i n t e r i o r ' , ' s t a t i c drama', of s i l e n c e ' a r e a l l p h r a s e s t h a t were used a b o u t M a e t e r l i n c k i n h i s own t i m e a n d y e t how they seem, as i f t h e y h a d bee^^g^wly c o i n e d f t h e a t r e o f B e c k e t t and P i n t e r .
chain
but
to both of
s i l e n c e as 'a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l mode
235.
A H i s t o r y , p. 447.
236.
H.-R.
237.
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, p p . 46-99 a n d 172-237.
238.
K a t h a r i n e W o r t h , The I r i s h Drama o f E u r o p e f r o m Y e a t s t o B e c k e t t ( A t l a n t i c H i g h l a n d s , New J e r s e y , H u m a n i t i e s Press I n c . , 1978) p. 72.
Lenormand, p. 13.
- 67
of
expression
i n t e n t i o n a l l y chosen by
Jean-Jacques Bernard, structure
and
Maeterlinck,
B e c k e t t , P i n t e r , a n d A l b e e t o convey b o t h
statement';
a n d she i s o l a t e s
as
t y p i f y i n g elements o f . . . methodology' shared Bernard
and B e c k e t t : d i s j u n c t i v e speech,
conveying characters,
Chekhov,
more t h a n i t e x p l i c i t l y repetition,
f o l l o w s 'the by M a e t e r l i n c k ,
dialogue
communicates,
silence
as a
implicitly
pauses,
metaphor
mute
f o r absence
( M a e t e r l i n c k a n d B e c k e t t ) , s i l e n c e as a m e t a p h o r f o r
isolation
239 ( B e r n a r d and B e c k e t t ) , and t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t . 240 As w e l l as c l a i m i n g t h a t
'Acte
sans p a r o l e s I
s t a n d s as
a monument t o B e c k e t t ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h s i l e n c e , and c a n
be
d e s c r i b e d a s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e t h e a t r e de 1 ' i n e x p r i m e
to
its
f u r t h e s t p o s s i b l e p o i n t ' , Kester Branford demonstrates
Bernard's halfway
how
drama
o f t h e u n s p o k e n c a n be p l a c e d approximately 241 242 b e t w e e n Les A v e u g l e s a n d En a t t e n d a n t Godot which 243
the B e l g i a n p l a y foreshadowed. the
taken
same
position
complementary
Lenormand c a n be s i t u a t e d
f o r some s i m i l a r a n d
some
different
in but
reasons.
239.
The Language o f S i l e n c e , p p . 4 7 , " 1 5 " ( I n t r o d u c t i o n n o t p a g i n a t e d ) T 2 9 - 3 0 , 84-85 a n d 113.
240.
Samuel B e c k e t t , F i n de p a r t i e s u i v i de A c t e ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s de M i n u i t , 1 9 5 7 ) .
241.
M a e t e r l i n c k , Theatre I .
242.
Samuel B e c k e t t , En a t t e n d a n t Godot ( P a r i s , E d i t i o n s de M i n u i t , 1952)";
243.
A S t u d y , p p . 1 1 - 7 1 a n d 193-227, e s p e c i a l l y p p . 2 0 8 , 45 and 2 0 6 .
sans p a r o l e s
- 68
D o r o t h y Knowles s t a t e s t h a t qui
semblent
partir
'deux l i g n e s de
deux
aspects
de
I'oeuvre
Maeterlinck,
M.
Lenormand e s t p e u t - e t r e l a m e i l l e u r e e x p r e s s i o n
M.
Jean-Jacques Bernard goes
on
to
s u b - h e a d i n g s a ) Le
dessinent
developpement,
M.
then
se
de
-
fait
discuss
nettement.
L'oeuvre
S u b c o n s c i e n t and
de
de I ' u n e ,
c h e f d ' e e o l e de I ' a u t r e ' . Lenormand
de
and
Bernard
b ) Le
"Theatre
et
Knowles
under
the
de
Silence"
certain
extent
244 respectively. unnecessary, terms
This i f one
division
accepts
to
Bernard
and
to
a
t h e a r g u m e n t made above
'drama o f t h e u n s p o k e n ' and
applied
is
that
the
'drama o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s '
Lenormand
inevitably
as
overlap
each
between
the
245 other.
However,
affinities
l i n k i n g M a e t e r l i n c k , Bernard
linking do
other
differences
M a e t e r l i n c k , Lenormand and
exist and
B e c k e t t and
B e c k e t t . Lenormand's
not r e f l e c t Bernard's penchant f o r M a e t e r l i n c k ' s
Beckett's,
enforced feature
b u t n o t o f Lenormand's.
t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p l a y s o f M a e t e r l i n c k , Lenormand and convey a pronounced metaphysical
preoccupation
La R e a c t i o n ,
245.
See
246.
M a u r i c e M a e t e r l i n c k , Le T r e s o r des h u m b l e s ( P a r i s , F a s q u e l l e - M e r c u r e de F r a n c e , 1949, F i r s t p u b l i s h e d p. 129.
247.
On
Beckett
which i s absent
244.
pp.
pp.
plays
'tragique
246 quotidien' or static drama, f o r e x a m p l e . 'The a b s e n c e f r o m t h e s t a g e o f an i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r ' i s a 247 o f B e r n a r d ' s p l a y s and
those
492-493.
43-44.
B r a n f o r d , A S t u d y , p.
206.
1896)
- 69
-
248 from the majority o f Bernard's Inter-War dramas. This Maeterlinck-Bernard/Lenormand-Beckett c h a i n can therefore be s a i d t o be o f d o u b l e s t r e n g t h on a c c o u n t o f t h e common element of 'theatre de I'inexprime' - particularly strong in the Bernardian h a l f o f t h e c e n t r a l l i n k - a n d a l s o on account of t h e common m e t a p h y s i c a l s t r a i n - more marked i n Lenormand than i n Bernard.
6.
The p l a y w r i g h t s ' ' c r i du CQ^r': dramatique e t c'est t o u t ! ' The
on
the
their
naturalness of their
'Je s u i s un
d i a l o g u e , where t h e emphasis
u n s p o k e n as w e l l as t h e s p o k e n , and psychological
workings
of
conscious
man's
mind,
auteur
the
accuracy
o b s e r v a t i o n s , where t h e f o c u s i s unconscious
as w e l l as
together with the
on'
those
specifically
a l l others,
Lenormand
c o m b i n e t o make t h e t h e a t r e
particularly
investigation
into
appropriate
the expressed
and
of
on
the
of
his
Lenormandian
s e a r c h , n o t so much f o r w o r d s , as f o r t h e Word t o g i v e to
is
of
Bernard
and
for
an
I t must
be
material
inexpressible.
meaning
s t r e s s e d , however, t h a t t h i s t h e s i s d i s c u s s e s what are i n
fact
by-products
they
exploited
of
t o w r i t e good
Neither primarily
their
of as
the a
work, by-products
of
the
means
theatre. playwrights
medium
for
believed
conveying
in
using
principles
drama of
any
248.
A f t e r t h e War and h i s B a p t i s m a s t r o n g m y s t i c a l becomes a f e a t u r e o f B e r n a r d ' s t h e a t r e .
element
249.
L e n o r m a n d , ' S o u v e n i r s s u r G i r a u d o u x , s u i v i s de p r o p o s n o t e s p a r G e o r g e s de W i s s a n t ' , p. 23. B e r n a r d s h a r e d t h e sentiment behind t h i s statement.
- 70 -
d e s c r i p t i o n , a p o i n t on which Lenormand expressed himself categorically. 'On a v o u l u v o i r • . . dans mes ouvrages 1'expression d'une philosophie, d'une morale, d'une metaphysique', we read i n 'Mon Theatre', 'La v e r i t e me p a r a i t p l u s simple e t p l u s ambitieuse en meme temps. Je ne s u i s n i un p s y c h i a t r e , n i un p h i l o s o p h e , n i un m o r a l i s t e , j e ne s u i s qu'un homme de t h e a t r e ' ( p . 234). On t h e o t h e r hand, i f Bernard and Lenormand are d r a m a t i s t s worthy o f d e t a i l e d s t u d y , worthy o f r e v i v a l and worthy o f a permanent p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f French t h e a t r e , i t i s p r e c i s e l y because t h e i r p l a y s are l a y e r e d w i t h meaning and go t o depths even the second- o r t h i r d - t i m e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r may n o t fathom. 'Les pieces de M. H.-R. Lenormand ressemblent a ces r i v i e r e s q u i o n t une nappe s o u t e r r a i n e ' , w r i t e s Robert de Beauplan:
En apparence, r i e n ne l e s d i f f e r e n c i e des a u t r e s : c'est p o u r t a n t dans l a profondeur du s o l que se cache l e u r eours v e r i t a b l e . A i n s i peut-on entendre L'Homme e t ses Fantomes en prenant un agrement l i t t e r a i r e a c e t t e t r a g i - c o m e d i e moderne. On n'en a^^^ pas, t o u t e f o i s , epuise de l a s o r t e l a substance.
The
depth
o f Bernard's p l a y s
i s pinpointed
succinctly i n
Jean-Marie Besset's r e f e r e n c e t o M a r t i n e as 'une i d y l l e q u i n'a 251 d'elementaire in
que 1'apparence',
t h e f i n a l sentence
which Bernard's
and Kester B r a n f o r d
o f h i s study t h a t ' a l l t h e
t h e a t r e o f the unexpressed
merits
claims with
i s so economically
250.
'L'Homme e t ses Fantomes', page not numbered.
251.
' N a t i o n a l Theatre de Londres. M a r t i n e ' , p. 86.
- 71 -
252 packed . . . combine t o g i v e i t i t s a b i d i n g f a s c i n a t i o n ' . Being m u l t i f a c e t e d , t h e work o f Bernard and Lenormand can be viewed and reviewed on d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s and from a v a r i e t y o f p e r s p e c t i v e s . This study focusses on o n l y one o f these, and i t s f i n d i n g s l i e beneath t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e drama. Indeed t h e e x t e n t and c e r t a i n d e t a i l s o f some o f them might w e l l have s u r p r i s e d Bernard and Lenormand, so l i t t l e d i d they consciously set o u t t o make t h e p o i n t s uncovered.
In plays with
this
t h e s i s c o n s i d e r a b l e emphasis i s placed
themselves. P o i n t s a r e discussed and arguments are made c l o s e r e f e r e n c e t o them. There a r e two reasons
concentration to
on t h e
f o r this
on t h e t e x t s . The f i r s t i s e s p e c i a l l y p e r t i n e n t
P a r t I I . An a p p r a i s a l o f a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f c r i t i c a l
devoted plays
t o , o r t o u c h i n g on, Lenormand makes i t c l e a r t h a t h i s p e r se
particularly Bernard
works
been
unfortunate
- since
impregnated
have
their
relatively
neglected.
i n t h e case
of
drama by i t s very, n a t u r e
This
is
Lenormand - and i s unusually
w i t h r e v e a l i n g b u t e a s i l y missed d e t a i l s , i m p o r t a n t
s u b t l e t i e s and e n r i c h i n g h a l f - t o n e s , none o f which can be f u l l y appreciated
w i t h o u t an i n - d e p t h a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t s .
i s , t h e mistakes
As i t
t h a t mar t h e a r t i c l e s o f newspaper and j o u r n a l
c r i t i c s and even t h e major s t u d i e s o f s p e c i a l i s t s i n Lenormand suggest t h a t i n some cases t h e p l a y s were read h a s t i l y . are
misquoted,
c h a r a c t e r s ' names a r e m i s s p e l t
v a r y i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e are recorded
252.
A Study, p. 227.
and
Titles
facts
of
i n a c c u r a t e l y . With r e f e r e n c e
-
to
Les Rates,
P h i l i p Hewitt
12. -
tells
us
that
Lui
strangles
253 Elle.
There
i s no evidence i n Volume I
o f t h e Theatre
complet t o support t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n , as E l l e i s k i l l e d Tableaux X I I I and XIV. are shown L u i s i t t i n g body la
between
Moreover, as t h e f i n a l Tableau opens 'un r e v o l v e r
a l a main', and when
Kile's
i s uncovered we a r e t o l d t h a t 'un f i l e t de sang coule peltrine'
(T I , 130, 133). Helmut H a t z f e l d
we
de
makes
several 254 f a c t u a l mistakes i n t h e pages he devotes t o Lenormand. Frank Chandler m a i n t a i n s t h a t P i e r r e T a i r r a z 'breaks h i s vow' t o C l a i r e t o s t a y o f f t h e Dent Rouge, b u t she a c t u a l l y releases him
from
discrepancy
i t (La Dent Rouge, T I I I ,
125) - a
quite
important
g i v e n t h e c o n t e x t o f the p l a y . Chandler a l s o r e f e r s 255
t o t h e 'death by b u r n i n g ' o f 1'Homme's 'unwanted c h i l d ' . fact
Laure burns h e r baby when i t i s almost c e r t a i n l y
dead.
P h i l i p Hewitt,
f o r h i s part,
' m i s c a r r i a g e ' and i n s i s t s t h a t she
refers
Laure's
'does n o t murder her c h i l d :
i sstillborn'.
be
s a i d t o obscure t h e d e l i b e r a t e nature o f Laure's I'avorteuse
already
to
it
'C'est
In
D.L. Orna's E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n can
also
abortion.
que j e h a i s s a i s '
(L'Homme e t ses Fantomes, 257 T IV, 29) i s t r a n s l a t e d as ' I t was the woman I hated'. This 253.
Thesis, p. 88.
254.
Helmut H a t z f e l d , Trends and S t y l e s i n T w e n t i e t h Century French L i t e r a t u r e (Washington, The C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y o f America Press, 1966) pp. 102-105.
255.
Modern C o n t i n e n t a l P l a y w r i g h t s , pp. 259 and 258.
256.
Thesis, pp. 133 and 306 (Note 10).
257.
Three Plays by H.R. Lenormand (The Dream Doctor, Man and H i s Phantoms, The Coward) ( T r a n s l a t e d by D.L. Orna, London, V i c t o r Gollancz L t d . , 1928) p. 132.
- 73 -
p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r o v e r s y i s s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e , i n t h e 1925 Georges Ores and A l b i n M i c h e l d e f i n i t i v e e d i t i o n s o f Volume IV o f t h e Theatre complet, t h e evidence i s i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t Laure went t o a b a c k s t r e e t a b o r t i o n i s t and cremated ' c e t t e chose, a m o i t i e d e c a p i t e e par l e s sondes' o f which she was f i n a l l y delivered (T I V , 28-30). A t t e n t i o n i s drawn t o these examples o f e r r o r s or anomalies i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h e s t r e s s t h a t i s placed i n t h i s s t u d y on t h e p r i m a r y m a t e r i a l as p u b l i s h e d i n t h e standard editions of Lenormand's Theatre complet and Bernard's Theatre.
The second reason why t h e a c t u a l t e x t s o f t h e p l a y s investigation this the
a r e h i g h l i g h t e d as much as
possible
under
throughout
t h e s i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e f i r s t . I n t h e case o f
Lenormand
aim was t o o f f s e t t h e tendency t o c o n s i d e r h i s drama
much i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s p r i v a t e l i f e . Since t h e p u b l i c a t i o n his
Confessions i n 1949 and 1953, a number o f s t u d i e s
very of
devoted
t o Lenormand's work have e i t h e r been c o l o u r e d by t h e knowledge contained desire
i n these memoirs o r d e l i b e r a t e l y
t o make
Lenormand
oriented
c o n n e c t i o n s between Lenormand
the playwright.
One
obvious
by t h e
t h e man,
and
i n point
is
case
H e n r i e t t e d ' A r l i n Lubart's doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n :
'Lenormand's
259 Drama i n t h e L i g h t o f h i s Confessions'.
This
interest i n
258.
See pp. v i i - v i i ' i .
259.
H e n r i e t t e d ' A r l i n L u b a r t , 'Lenormand's Drama i n t h e L i g h t o f h i s Confessions' ( d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , 1953. Ann Arbor, Michigan, U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , 1993).
- 74 -
Lenormand's l i f e so f r a n k l y exposed i n h i s memoirs, i s w h o l l y comprehensible, as Yves Florenne e x p l a i n s :
Si l e s Confessions o n t e t e t o u t de s u i t e mises au p r e m i e r r a n g , c'est q u ' e l l e s temoignent, avec une s i n c e r i t e , une v e r a c i t e poignantes, non seulement sur la c r e a t i o n dramatique e t s u r l e c r e a t e u r , mais s u r 1'homme meme. Jamais p e u t - e t r e confessions ne m e r i t e r e n t s i loyalement l e u r nom. On n'y sent pas, Chez c e l u i q u i se r a c o n t e e t s'examine, l e s o u c i de se. p r e s e n t e r en p o s t u r e avantageuse, que ce s o i t d ' a i l l e u r s dans l e 'mal' ou dans l e 'bien'. Cet homme de t h e a t r e e s t lui-meme, non son personnage. Par l a , il I'emporte s u r Jean-Jacques e t s u r Gide. Plongees dans l e s t r o u b l e s p r o f o n d e u r s , e x p l o r a t i o n s des r e g i o n s malades, b r o u i l l a r d s , exotisme fievreux, voyage p a t h e t i q u e a u t o u r du p l a i s i r , magie des mauvais l i e u x e t des f i l l e s - on ne peut se detacher, longtemps meme apres qu'on a q u i t t e son l i v r e , ce 'mangeur de r e v e s ' en quete de ses personnages.
Such
p r a i s e i s n o t exaggerated. Over t h i r t y
years
later
Robert Emmet Jones c l a i m s :
This work i s one and a r t i n t h e West, France, i n the f i r s t Lenormand's i n s i g h t s around him make impres^^ynistic y e t epoch.
Although
the
Les Confessions
o f t h e major documents on l i f e a l t h o u g h most s p e c i f i c a l l y i n h a l f o f the twentieth century. i n t o h i m s e l f and t h e w o r l d him one o f the important a n a l y t i c a l observers o f h i s
autobiographical
and h i s t o r i c a l
value
of
i s c o n s i d e r a b l e , t h i s study endorses t h e move
made
by P h i l i p H e w i t t ,
and examines
Lenormand's p l a y s as
260.
Yves Florenne, 'Confessions e t correspondance dramatiques', La Table Ronde, aout 1953, pp. 141-142.
261.
H.-R. Lenormand, p. 173.
262.
T h e s i s , pp. 13-15.
- 75 -
independent c r e a t i o n s i n t h e i r own the
r i g h t . During the lead-up t o
f i f t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f h i s death t h i s would seem t o be
fitting
approach
to
a
writer
claiming
to
be
'un
a
auteur
263 dramatique e t c'est t o u t ' ,
e s p e c i a l l y when one considers
o n l y t h a t the u m b i l i c a l cord connecting has
been
cut
the author t o h i s
b u t a l s o t h a t the o f f s p r i n g
mature - a p p r o p r i a t e
images,
since,
in
has
had
not work
time
to
Robert Emmet Jones'
words, Lenormand ' c o n s t a n t l y compares a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n t o 264 process
o f conception,
j'ecris
une
piece'
raisonnement
qui
pregnancy, and b i r t h ' . Lenormand
consiste
warns
against
a identifier
In
the
'Comment
'le
vice
du
I'ouvrier
avec
son
ouvrage': Ce n ' e s t pas en superposant e t r o i t e m e n t I'un a 1'autre que 1'on c o n n a i t r a l a v e r i t e sur I'un n i sur 1'autre, mais b i e n p l u t o t en cherchant a opposer I'un a 1'autre. Car s ' i l y a, entre les deux, d ' i n d i s c u t a b l e s a f f i n i t e s organiques, i l y a a u s s i des c o n t r a s t e s , une d i s j o n c t i o n profonde. L'ouvrage se dresse p a r f o i s c o n t r e I ' o u v r i e r comme 1'enfant r e b e l l e c o n t r e son pere. (p. 452)
Besides,
the
unconscious Lenormand perhaps
Inter-War
provides included,
drama
of
the
unspoken
ample evidence i n i t s e l f
that
and
the
no
one,
i s f u l l y known by anyone,
not
even,
l e a s t o f a l l , h i m s e l f . However Bernard
and
Lenormand
c r e a t e d t h e i r p l a y s , however much or l i t t l e they put i n t o o f themselves, however secure
263.
See
264.
H.-R.
p.
69. Lenormand, p.
148.
or insecure
or
them
they f e l t as men
or
- 76 -
as
a r t i s t s , t h e d e f i n i t i v e t e x t s are t h e o n l y t h i n g
o f which
t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r can be w h o l l y sure. Bernard's
work, t o o , can b e n e f i t from a f o r e g r o u n d i n g
h i s p l a y s i n an e f f o r t t o c o r r e c t c e r t a i n misconceptions arose,
of
which
i r o n i c a l l y , from some c a r e l e s s t a l k on t h e p a r t o f t h e
dramatist
himself
who
d i d not realize
what
a
source
of
c o n t r o v e r s y i t was t o become. I n Temoignages he quotes a number o f statements as
"Aussi
he made i n t h e f i f t h B u l l e t i n de l a Chimere, such l e theatre
n'a
pas de
pire
ennemi
litterature".
He goes on t o concede t h a t ' i l y
imprudence
j e t e r a l a c r i t i q u e de t e l l e s idees
a
(pp. 25 and 2 6 ) . Bernard may
que
avait en
la
quelque pature'
have made such a faux pas i n h i s 265
unwilling
capacity
plays
proved t o be a c l o s e t o f l a w l e s s
he
as a t h e o r i s t ,
b u t i n a number
of his
practitioner
and
s h o u l d be remembered and a p p r e c i a t e d as such. 7.
This study's approach t o t h e expressed and t h e inexpressible i n the playwrights' theatre This
Bernard words
thesis and
as
i s concerned w i t h t h e ways
the theatre o f
Lenormand i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e l a t i v e
instruments
o f communication on
t h e one hand
compared w i t h t h e i r potency i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s . I t this
paradox
expressed
and
the inexpressible
See pp. 37-38.
as
demonstrates
t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i o u s aspects
between 1919 and 1945.
265.
impotence o f
o f the
i n the playwrights'
work
- 77 -
Both t h e expressed and t h e i n e x p r e s s i b l e a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d , to
differing
study,
but
reference
degrees and a t v a r i o u s stages, their definition i s clarified
t o Bernard,
throughout
this
here
with
special
s i n c e c e r t a i n nuances o f
their
meaning
are p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o h i s ' t h e a t r e de
1'inexprime'.
266 As
was
touched
on above,
Bernard's 'theory'
e x i s t u n t i l t h e eve o f t h e premiere o f M a r t i n e . I n sur
l e theatre'
Bernard
r e c o u n t s how i n t h i s
d i d not
'Reflexions
instance
the
p r a c t i c e preceded t h e p r i n c i p l e s : Gaston Baty m'avait demande d'urgence un t e x t e pour l e programme. D'abord p r i s de c o u r t , j e m'avisai que l e personnage de M a r t i n e a i m a i t t o u t au l o n g de l a p i e c e , sans p o u v o i r exprimer une seule f o i s n i son amour n i sa s o u f f r a n e e . N ' e t a i t - c e pas une bonne occasion de p a r l e r de l a v a l e u r du s i l e n c e au t h e a t r e ? ( p . 48)
Although
i t i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t M a r t i n e never says t h a t
she
l o v e s J u l i e n , nor how h u r t she i s when she f i n d s t h a t t h i s love i s u n r e q u i t e d and i m p o s s i b l e , nor how p a i n f u l i t i s t o come t o terms w i t h h e r d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , no c h a r a c t e r on stage, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f A l f r e d , nor s p e c t a t o r i n t h e audience i s i n doubt about e i t h e r her l o v e o r her s u f f e r i n g . This i s because Martine does express them b u t w o r d l e s s l y . May Daniels r i g h t l y that
i n Martine,
instinctive hopelessness, anguish
266.
'the beginnings o f
movements agitation
a t t h e torments
See p. 37.
and
love
hesitations;
a t t h e s i g h t o f her thoughtlessly
show dismay
maintains in
little
at i t s
cultured
rival,
i n f l i c t e d on her by t h e
- 78 -
one
she
loves - a l l appear 267
expression'.
The
in
attitude,
example o f M a r t i n e
gesture
alone
is
p r o o f t h a t , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f Bernard's t h e a t r e , means
what
sufficient
'1'inexprime'
i s n o t expressed d i r e c t l y i n spoken
p o i n t i s r e i n f o r c e d by t h e d r a m a t i s t ' s
and
words.
This
d e f i n i t i o n o f 'silence':
. . . c'est t o u t ce que l e s personnages ne v e u l e n t ou ne peuvent d i r e , c ' e s t t o u t e l a s e r i e des pensees ou des d e s i r s q u i echappent aux mots, q u i ne peuvent s'echanger que par a l l u s i o n i n d i r e c t e , v o i r e par l e regard ou 1 ' a t t i t u d e , c'est t o u t e l a gamme des sentiments i n e x p r i m e s , inavoues ou i n c o n s c i e n t s . Et c'est p o u r q u o i , r e j e t a n t 1'expression de t h e a t r e du s i l e n c e , j ' a i t o u j o u r s p r e f e r e c e l l e de t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime, que j ' a v a l s d ' a i l l e u r s employee des l a premiere f o i s . (Temoignages, p. 27)
This
implies
expressed regard
'1'inexprime'
includes
whatever
t o another 'par a l l u s i o n i n d i r e c t e ,
ou
duration
that
1'attitude'.
To
avoid
such
can be
voire
par l e
ambiguity,
f o r the
o f t h i s t h e s i s 'the expressed' w i l l be used f o r
what
i s made known o r shown by words, l o o k s , a c t i o n s , s i g n s ,
whilst
'the i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' w i l l be k e p t , more s i m p l y , f o r what
cannot
be
expressed
particular
i n words
character.
specifically
'drama
by anyone
'The unspoken' w i l l be
used
by
a
to refer i n spoken
' t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime' i s t r a n s l a t e d
o f t h e unspoken'
rather
unexpressed'..
267.
a t a l l or
t o whatever i s n o t expressed d i r e c t l y
words, hence t h e French as
either
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, p. 184.
than
'drama
o f the
- 79 -
To prove t h a t t h e s k i l f u l a c t o r ' s f e e l i n g s are expressed across t h e f o o t l i g h t s , even when t h e r e i s no t e x t or r a t h e r when t h e t e x t i s u n w r i t t e n or w r i t t e n between the l i n e s and t h e r e f o r e unspoken, one would o n l y have t o compare a normal performance o f M a r t i n e w i t h one where a ' f i g u r a n t e ' , t r a i n e d i n t h e r e q u i r e d moves b u t i g n o r a n t o f t h e heroine's p e r s o n a l i t y and f e e l i n g s , was asked t o stand i n f o r the l e a d i n the scenes where she had no l i n e s . One would q u i c k l y r e a l i z e how much i s expressed i n good drama as i n l i f e through a c h a r a c t e r ' s presence, by h i s s i m p l y being. This a p p a r e n t l y magical f e a t u r e o f t h e t h e a t r e experience can be e x p l a i n e d i n p a r t by the f a c t t h a t i n normal circumstances s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s tend t o be expressed i n some p h y s i c a l way however s l i g h t . I t may be a g r e a t e r or l e s s e r r i g i d i t y o f t h e t o r s o , a t w i t c h o f the f i n g e r , a m a r g i n a l l y i n c r e a s e d pace o f b r e a t h i n g , a s i g h . To t h e argument t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f such f i n e t u n i n g of non-verbal and p a r a l i n g u i s t i c communication signals is exaggerated, and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e t h e a t r e as opposed t o the cinema, one o n l y has t o r e f e r t o the reviews and to certain w r i t t e n comments o f t h e a u t h o r s themselves p r a i s i n g the a c t o r s who c r e a t e d or l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e d t h e i r most important p r o t a g o n i s t s . On t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Martine by Marguerite Jamois and Madeleine Renaud r e s p e c t i v e l y , Bernard w r i t e s :
A l a Chimere comme a l a Comedie, c ' e t a i t Martine avec sa v o i x e t son v i s a g e , l e visage p l u s eloquent que l a v o i x , e t l e r e g a r d p l u s eloquent que le visage, e t p a r f o i s l e s mains plus eloquentes encore...
- 80 -
Dans l a scene ou M a r t i n e muette ^ ^ a r d e de l o i n l e s f i a n c e s e t n ' a r r i v e pas a p a r t i r , l e s yeux de M a r g u e r i t e p r e n a i e n t une i n t e n s i t e i n e x p r i m a b l e . . . Dans l a meme scene, un simple mouvement des d o i g t s de Madeleine au bout du bras immobile e t a i t d'un e f f e t d e c h i r a n t . (Mon Ami l e T h e a t r e , pp. 183-184)
In
the f i r s t
following
volume o f h i s Confessions,
Lenormand
has t h e
t o say o f F i r m i n Gemier's performance a t t h e end o f
Le Simoun (T I I ,
164-165):
Apres a v o i r t o u r n e , de sa demarche saccadee, coupee d ' a r r e t s spasmodiques, a u t o u r de sa f i l l e morte, i l apparaissait e n t r e l e s r i d e a u x jaunes q u i se r e f e r m a i e n t d e r r i e r e l u i . Cet e c l a i r de d e m i - f o l i e q u i l u i s a i t dans ses yeux, ee corps peureusement r e p l i e , encore c o n t r a c t e sous l e s coups du d e s t i n , ces r e s p i r a t i o n s t r a d u i s a n t I ' a f f r e u x soulagement de l a forme humaine e n f i n d e l i v r e e de son obsession, e t c e t t e d e t e n t e animale, sous I ' u l t i m e rayon des p r o j e c t e u r s , l e t h e a t r e ne m'a r i e n t r a n s m i s de p l u s p o i g n a n t n i de p l u s s u r dans 1 ' i n t u i t i o n de l a grandeur t r a g i q u e . ( p . 169)
With t h e t w o f o l d p r o v i s o t h a t v e r y h i g h standards o f are upheld i n a t h e a t r e
acting
269
^ J • 270 o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e and design.
268.
See pp. 131-132.
269.
Along S t a n i s l a v s k i a n l i n e s as opposed t o t h e s t y l i z e d ones o f A r t a u d , B r e c h t , Grotowski o r Meyerhold.
270.
The importance o f t h e choice o f t h e a t r e i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e h i s t o r y o f L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage, which was c r e a t e d a t t h e Odeon b u t t h e n moved t o be s e t o f f t o b e t t e r advantage a t t h e S t u d i o des Champs-Elysees. 'On c o n g o i t ' , w r i t e s Rene Bruyez, 'que l e vaste Odeon e t , a u s s i , l e p u b l i c q u i y f r e q u e n t e a i e n t e t e peu f a v o r a b l e s a c e t t e p i e c e dont l e s f i n e s e t p e n e t r a n t e s q u a l i t e s demandaient a s'epanouir dans l a d i s c r e t i o n d'une atmosphere determinee'. ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Le Theatre e t Comoedia I l l u s t r e , n o u v e l l e s e r i e no. 32, 15 a v r i l 1924, page n o t numbered.
- 81 -
one can argue t h a t i n t h e French ' t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime' between 1919 and 1945 l i t t l e t h a t i s p e r t i n e n t i s t o t a l l y unexpressed, as opposed t o unspoken or i n e x p r e s s i b l e .
With thesis,
regard
of
t h e expressed
as
investigated
t h e focus o f a t t e n t i o n l i e s i n two
firstly, spoken
to
in
particular
an assessment o f the e f f i c i e n c y / i n e f f i c i e n c y versus t h e unspoken expressed;
secondly, an
areas: of
medium
of
meanings, compared w i t h i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of
psychological
inexpressible
influence.
Consideration
f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
unspoken expressed
because
metaphysical
as
a
as
a
of
the
into
the
by p i n p o i n t i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between
i n t e r l o c u t o r s choose n o t to'speak and what they cannot verbally
the
evaluation
t h e r e l a t i v e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the spoken expressed
conveyor
and
this
words
prove inadequate
in
an
what
express
earthly
or
c a p a c i t y . This complex approach t o the
expressed
t h e i n e x p r e s s i b l e i n t h e t h e a t r e o f Bernard and
Lenormand
emerged
from
dramatists'
the
attempt
use o f language,
to
study
these
facets
of
i n as s t r u c t u r e d and systematic
the a
way as p o s s i b l e . T h i s a t t e m p t was made t o begin w i t h f i r s t l y i n the b e l i e f t h a t t h e r i c h seams o f l i n g u i s t i c , p s y c h o l o g i c a l
and
m e t a p h y s i c a l c o m p l e x i t y i n the t h e a t r e o f Bernard and Lenormand had
not
been
secondly
in
exploration
fully
scrutinized
by
critics
t h e hope t h a t such a comprehensive
hitherto, and
and
detailed
would y i e l d a new key t o a f u l l understanding
and
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t s . This key has proved t o be
the
paradox
the
dramas
which t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n has i s o l a t e d , namely t h a t of
Bernard
and
Lenormand
testify
not o n l y
to
the
- 82 -
r e l a t i v e impotence o f words as t o o l s o f communication but a l s o to t h e i r power as v e h i c l e s o f i n f l u e n c e . Apart from the i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g n a t u r e o f the evidence h i g h l i g h t i n g it, t h i s c e n t r a l paradox has repercussions on the h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e from which Bernard and Lenormand have tended t o be viewed in- t h e p a s t .
Although findings
the l i n g u i s t i c , p s y c h o l o g i c a l
of
this
thesis
w i l l confirm
and
the
metaphysical
viability
of
l i t e r a r y Maeterlinck-Bernard/Lenormand-Beckett chain as f a r
a as
271 t h e unspoken and i n e x p r e s s i b l e are concerned, show
that,
through
provocative Bernard
and
their
demonstration
psychologically
they w i l l a l s o
of
catalytic
the power
and Lenormand can be s a i d t o share a bond
nineteenth-
and
twentieth-century
dramatists
of
words,
with
other
who
r e f l e c t the paradox t h a t the impotence o f words as of
evocative,
similarly instruments
communication does n o t h i n g t o o f f s e t t h e i r potency i n
respects.
A
case w i l l consequently
be made
other
for establishing
additional
l i n k s between V i l l i e r s de 1'Isle-Adam and
Lenormand,
and between Bernard/Lenormand
and
Bernard/
Sartre/lonesco,
and f o r c o n s i d e r i n g Bernard and Lenormand as p r e c u r s o r s , not o f one,
but
dramatists
o f the two major c a t e g o r i e s
of
mid-century
d e f i n e d by E d i t h Melcher as 'those who
t h e power and importance o f words, and those who
271. 272.
See
French
pp.
believe i n 272 do n o t ' .
63-69.
E d i t h Melcher, 'The Use o f Words i n Contemporary French ^Theater', Modern Language Notes, v o l . 77, 1962, p. 470.
83 -
I t should be n o t e d t h a t t h e depth i n which t h i s paradox o f the
impot^ence/potency o f words i s e x p l o r e d i n t h e
Bernard
theatre
and Lenormand and t h e d e t a i l i n which i t i s
of
analysed
are unique t o t h i s t h e s i s . With r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t h a l f o f the paradox work
concerning the i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f has
not
been
examined
from
words,
this
Lenormand's
perspective
as
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y as Bernard's has, and, w h i l s t the d i s t i n c t
role
Lenormand
been
attributes
highlighted,
to
the
unconscious
r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e has been
mind
written
has
specifically
about t h e way i n which t h e unconscious i s shown t o sabotage the communication conscious
process
will.
independently o f
Similarly,
the
the
frustrated
interlocutors' search
f o r the
meaning o f l i f e conducted by Lenormand's anguished p r o t a g o n i s t s has n o t y e t been c o n s i d e r e d i n depth as a l i n g u i s t i c
impasse.
There has been a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f imbalance i n the
usual
approach t o Bernard. C r i t i c s have c e r t a i n l y drawn a t t e n t i o n Bernard's
in
the
communication process, b u t t h e y have tended t o s t r e s s what
his
plays
exploitation
o f t h e inadequacy o f language
to
t e l l us about t h e c h a l l e n g e s w i t h which t h e
lifelike
dialogue
presents
the dramatist
and
mastery the
latter's
p r o g r e s s i n overcoming these d i f f i c u l t i e s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t of
the
i m p l i c a t i o n s Bernard's work has f o r . t h e stage, i t has not
been
the
implicitly everyday
twentieth
reverse
century.
process,
highlight life.
about
The
on
focus
what
has
been
half
on
on
the
of
Bernard's
communication
However, as Una E l l i s - F e r m o r
stage
difficulties
plays in
m a i n t a i n s , both
Bernard and P i r a n d e l l o a t t a c k e d t h e problem 'of t h e i n t r a c t a b l e
- 84 -
matter
that
will
not
be
spoken
and
yet
must
conveyed
. . . r e g a r d i n g i t as one o f human conduct as much
be as
273 of dramatic technique'.
Bernard c e r t a i n l y used h i s knowledge
o f human conduct t o develop h i s dramatic t e c h n i q u e . John Palmer e x p l a i n s t h e t a s k he s e t h i m s e l f : action
and
emotions
get
' t o convey t o us by means o f
dialogue, . . . h i s only
i n s t r u m e n t s , ideas and
which do n o t i n l i f e come t o t h e p o i n t o f a c t i o n 274
themselves
challenge,
explicitly
declared'.
In rising
t o the
Bernard e x p l o i t e d t o t h e maximum t h e ways i n which
such ideas and emotions i n l i f e do come t o t h e b r i n k o f or
or
action
g e t themselves i m p l i c i t l y d e c l a r e d . Because i t s author
was
such an a c c u r a t e o b s e r v e r o f human n a t u r e as w e l l as a s k i l l e d 275 dramatic craftsman, t h e t h e a t r e thus c r e a t e d 'underscored c e r t a i n b a s i c t r u t h s about man and h i s l i n g u i s t i c behaviour 276 that
had been unduly n e g l e c t e d by p l a y w r i g h t s ' .
Critics
in
t h e i r t u r n have tended t o take t h e e x t e n t and s u b t l e t y o f these for
granted,
so
fascinated
have
they
been
by
Bernard's
technical innovations. It
i s above a l l t h e second h a l f o f t h e paradox
o f the
impotence versus t h e potency o f words which has been overlooked by
critics
o f Bernard - and, though
to a
lesser
degree,
Lenormand. Bernard's d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f how p o w e r f u l words are i n
273.
F r o n t i e r s o f Drama, p. 117.
274.
S t u d i e s , p. 100.
275.
See pp. 16-17.
276.
B r a n f o r d , A Study, p. 227.
- 85 -
s p i t e o f t h e i r i n e f f i c i e n c y as t o o l s o f communication has n e g l e c t e d . I t i s hoped, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the p a r t i c u l a r taken
approach
i n t h i s study w i l l r a i s e f u r t h e r doubt about the
of
a t t a c h i n g t o o much importance t o such l a b e l s as
of
the
unspoken'
in
connection
with
either
been
wisdom
'dramatist Bernard
or
277 Lenormand. to
show
spoken'
Indeed, i t i s one o f t h e purposes o f t h i s that
t h e y are b o t h v e r y
much
playwrights
thesis 'of
and n o t merely i n s o f a r as a l l dramatic a r t o u t s i d e
the of
mime and b a l l e t has t o be drama o f the spoken, nor i n the sense that a l l
' t h e a t r e de 1'inexprime' i s drama o f the spoken
since
silence
'est un moment du langage; se t a i r e ce n'est pas 278
etre
muet,
c'est
study
aims
r e f u s e r de p a r l e r , done p a r l e r to
demonstrate t h a t
Bernard
encore'.
This
and
Lenormand
are
notable
d r a m a t i s t s 'de I'exprime' because they
highlight
the
varied,
sometimes
spoken
mysterious p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
p o s s i b i l i t i e s which f a r exceed the i n t r i g u e s they are to
split
t h e s i s i s d i v i d e d i n t o two main p a r t s . The
into
expressed
the
expected
engender. The
1919
words,
is
of
the
Chapters 1-3 which are devoted t o aspects and t h e i n e x p r e s s i b l e i n Bernard's
theatre
and 1945, P a r t I I comprises Chapters 4-6 which same
first
theme
i n Lenormand's
Inter-War
plays.
between treat
The
of
basic
s t r u c t u r e o f P a r t s I and I I i s the same: the f i r s t two chapters show how
the r e l a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f words
as i n s t r u m e n t s o f
277.
See pp. 3 and 40-46 f o r o t h e r r e s e r v a t i o n s i n t h i s respect.
278.
S a r t r e , S i t u a t i o n s I I , p. 75.
- 86 -
communication
is
question;
the
in
r e f l e c t e d i n the plays of the t h i r d c h a p t e r o f each
Chapters 3 and 6,
the
focus
shifts
dramatist
Part, to
that
the
in
is, in
dramatist's
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f spoken words. Each chapter contains
an i n t r o d u c t i o n
conclusion
summarizing
a n a l y s i n g t h e p o i n t s covered them.
A l l the
chapters
and
are
a
further
subdivided i n t o sections. Following crucial
the
Conclusion,
detailed
of
the and
C l a r i s s e B r i e u l e s i n Act I o f Le Printemps des A u t r e s i s
given
Appendix A
thoroughness
to in
between
account
Maurice G a r d i e r
in
misunderstanding
a
exemplify
exposing
Bernard's
the
special
unreliability
skill
of
the
and oral
communication process i n everyday s i t u a t i o n s . I n Appendix B t h e conversation Nationale 6 analysed
between and
Robert
and
Francine
t h e g i r l ' s account o f i t t o
in
Act I I I
of
her
father
are
i n s i m i l a r depth t o demonstrate Bernard's
competence
and m e t i c u l o u s n e s s i n i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e power o f t h e unconscious mind
to
manoeuvre
exchange constitutes
of
and/or
correspondence the
subject
distort
a
between matter
of
dialogue Bernard
at and
Appendix C,
will.
An
Lenormand where
an
e x c e p t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e p e r s o n a l l i v e s o f t h e
two
d r a m a t i s t s a t t h e end o f t h e Second World
War.
- 87 -
PART I
JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD (1888-1972)
- 88 -
Tel un magicien q u i o p e r e r a i t ses t r a n s m u t a t i o n s sur l e s s e n t i m e n t s , Jean-Jacques Bernard, maniant des pensees q u o t i d i e n n e s , remuant nonchalamment l a masse des s o u v e n i r s , des a s s o c i a t i o n s , des penchants s e c r e t s dont l e s ames o r d i n a i r e s sont p e t r i e s , en e x t r a i t soudain une gemme s p i r i t u e l l e dont 1 ' e c l a t nous e b l o u i t . . . Nous l a regardons b r i l l e r un moment. L'emotion q u i a du s'emparer de l u i , quand i l amenait a l a l u m i e r e ce j o y a u des p r o f o n d e u r s , nous e n v a h i t . Le s p e c t a c l e e s t termine; l e magicien d i s p a r a i t ; mais un ebranlement se propage en nous, jusqu'aux r e g i o n s obscures de I ' e t r e . . .
(Henry-Rene Lenormand, 'Chronique dramatique', C h a n t e c l e r , 12 j u i n 1926, p. 1.)
- 89 -
CHAPTER 1
THE PARALINGUISTIC AND NON-VERBAL PACKAGING OF TWO-TIER DIALOGUE
- 90
-
The f i r s t t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f t h i s chapter are devoted t o an exploration o f the way Bernard i l l u s t r a t e s not o n l y the total f a i l u r e o f words i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s but a l s o the r e l a t i v e importance o f p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s and the interdependence o f a l l the i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication. I n the fourth section two i m p o r t a n t types o f s i l e n c e and their s i g n i f i c a n c e are d i s c u s s e d . I n the second h a l f o f the chapter a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on the way Bernard h i g h l i g h t s the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the s i m u l t a n e i t y o f a spoken d i a l o g u e and an unspoken communing w i t h s e l f . F i r s t a comparison i s made between c o n t r i v e d s o c i a l masks and more a u t o m a t i c a l l y erected fagades o f speech as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Bernard's t h e a t r e . The r e p e r c u s s i o n s on the communication process o f the convention o f small-talk and the c a t h a r t i c r o l e o f t a l k i n g are then i n v e s t i g a t e d . Other ways i n which spoken and unspoken words are shown t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h one another are h i g h l i g h t e d i n the f i n a l s e c t i o n o f the c h a p t e r .
•
1.
The
enforced
Bernard forced
to
words
fail
>
•
silence
s p r i n k l e s h i s work w i t h examples o f people express t h e i r s t r o n g e s t them. At the end
of
feelings
comes
to
explaining
the
for
are reduced t o s i l e n c e .
Through Marie-Louise, Bernard suggests how i t
because
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage,
example, the two p r i n c i p a l p r o t a g o n i s t s
when
silently
being
inadequate words are
minutiae
of
complicated
- 91 -
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n s . As f o r O l i v i e r , h i s ignorance o f what has o r has n o t been happening means t h a t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y two years
doubts and concern have been b u i l d i n g up i n him, n o t t o
mention t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d , acute suspense j u s t experienced w h i l e waiting that
f o r Marie-Louise's r e t u r n from E p i n a l . When he
she
learns
i s n o t g o i n g t o see P h i l i p p e a g a i n , j o y and
relief
surge up i n him w i t h such i n t e n s i t y t h a t h i s h e a r t i s l i t e r a l l y a f f e c t e d . Here one i s reminded o f M a r t i n e who, when overwhelmed 279 by
her
feelings,
can
neither
speak
nor move,
or
of
Louise de l a V a l l i e r e who, when s p e c i a l l y chosen by t h e King i n preference role
t o t h e two o t h e r maids o f honour, a p p a r e n t l y f o r
i n a ' d i v e r t i s s e m e n t ' , f a i n t s , incapable o f
h i s s i m p l e 'Comment vous appelez-vous?' i s another
replying
a to
(Louise de l a V a l l i e r e ,
T V I , 50).
Olivier
Bernardian
character
who
illustrates
how t h e v e r y i n t e n s i t y o f a person's emotions
can
n o t o n l y s t r i k e him dumb b u t d e b i l i t a t e him p h y s i c a l l y i n o t h e r ways a t t h e same t i m e . He takes pains t o remain a r t i c u l a t e l o n g enough t o reassure Marie-Louise t h a t he i s n o t r e j o i c i n g i n her sadness,
but eventually
breaks down and
can
say
Marie-Louise has t o o much t o say i n a q u a n t i t a t i v e many
details
which
she would have
t o track
no
more.
sense - t o o
down
mentally
h e r s e l f b e f o r e b e i n g a b l e t o express them v e r b a l l y ; O l i v i e r has
279.
See pp. 131-132.
- 92
too
much t o say i n a more q u a l i t a t i v e sense. For
words simply
are too
Marie-Louise
t o o b i g , slow and l a b o r i o u s ; f o r O l i v i e r small.
A p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h cases,
they
however,
are is
a
s t a t e m e n t o f M a e t e r l i n c k which Bernard quotes i n ' Le s i l e n c e au T h e a t r e ' ( p . 6 7 ) : 'Des que nous avons v r a i m e n t quelque chose
a
280 nous d i r e , nous sommes o b l i g e s de nous t a i r e ' .
At the end o f
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage i t i s n o t j u s t a q u e s t i o n o f l e a s t soonest mended, Marie-Louise and O l i v i e r have no choice but
said to
use a l t e r n a t i v e means o f communication: ( O l i v i e r se c o n t i e n t . Son regard va se f i x e r sur l a p e t i t e t a b l e . Le regard de Marie-Louise a s u i v i l e s i e n e t s'accroche au meme point... E t , soudain, e l l e s a i s i t l e Baudelaire e t l e porte a l a bibliotheque. Puis, ayant p r i s 1 ' e v e n t a i l sur l e piano, e l l e va l e mettre dans l e t i r o i r de l a t a b l e . E n f i n e l l e va au p e t i t f a u t e u i l e t l e t i r e l o i n du poele... En r e c u l a n t , e l l e a r r i v e a l a hauteur d ' O l i v i e r qui n'a cesse de l a s u i v r e des yeux avec une emotion contenue... Longue e t r e i n t e . . . C'est Marie-Louise qui se degage l a premiere. D'un pas l e g e r , e l l e va au piano e t commence l e morceau q u ' e l l e j o u a i t au debut de l a p i e c e . ) (T I , 351)
At
t h i s p o i n t O l i v i e r does speak,
show to
h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the Chopin
play,
(T I ,
'd'une voix etranglee', Marie-Louise has
b u t t h e n a l l he can manage i s
simple
started
'Merci...'
351), and i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r piece o f
music s h o u l d take over where words f a i l .
280.
a
to
Le Tresor des humbles, p. 10.
193
-
The denouement o f Le Print'emps des Autres a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s the
incompetence
emotions Maurice powerful
o f words as t o o l s f o r
communicating
strong
or t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f c e r t a i n mental processes. arrives
on
t h e scene,
Gilberte's
feelings
t h a t they render her i n a r t i c u l a t e . Her
When
are
so
pleasure
and
r e l i e f are enormous, n o t o n l y because i t becomes c l e a r w i t h i n a few
seconds
that
reconciliation, emotional
he
but
refuge
has
also
an
explanation
because she
from t h e bewilderment
and
desperately and
wants
a
needs
an
repugnance
which
have i n e v i t a b l y accompanied her d i s c o v e r y o f her mother's motivations.
At
Marie-Louise
and O l i v i e r i n t h e c l o s i n g scene o f
au Voyage.
The
t h e very end C l a r i s s e and
great
Gilberte
c o m p l e x i t y o f what i s
on
real
resemble
L'Invitation their
minds
t o t h i s g e n e r a l i s s u e i s the i d e a t h a t the
purer
o b l i g e s them t o say n o t h i n g . Related
and t r u e r t h e emotion i n q u e s t i o n , t h e harder i t i s t o verbally, feeling
an adage which i m p l i e s t h a t depth and can be judged on how
sincerity
of
v o l u b l y i t i s , or r a t h e r i s
expressed.
Thus, t h e loquacious Fontaney t e l l s
oui,
vous d i t e s : " I I n'est pas a u s s i amoureux
vous
express
c r o i t . I I en p a r l e t r o p " ' (Le Secret d'Arvers,
Arvers,
T II,
not, 'Oui,
qu'il 15).
le More
o f t e n t h a n n o t , however, i t i s l e s s the s i l e n c e per se which i s communicative appearance
than how
t h e person l o o k s - h i s
and countenance - and what he
and mannerisms - d u r i n g i t .
posture,
does - h i s
gait,
gestures
-
2.
94
The l i m i t a t i o n s and advantages o f non-verbal p a r a l i n g u i s t i c expression A study o f Bernard's drama r e v e a l s how
non-verbal
and
paralinguistic
t o o l s o f communication can be much
more
and
effective
than they are o f t e n g i v e n c r e d i t f o r . That they o b v i o u s l y their
limitations,
considered truism
to
because
of
which
words
are
generally
be v e r y much more i n f o r m a t i v e , i s o f
beyond
dispute,
but
i t is
the
have
course
degree
of
a the
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v e r b a l i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication as opposed to
the
relative
ineffectiveness of
paralinguistic
and
n o n - v e r b a l ones which Bernard's t h e a t r e would have us q u e s t i o n . One
problem
with
paralinguistic
and
non-verbal
communication s i g n a l s i s the f a c t t h a t they are n o r m a l l y
given
less
c o n s c i o u s l y t h a n words are u t t e r e d , w i t h the r e s u l t
that
they
are
more
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l e s s s p e c i f i c and
ambiguous, for
so t h a t t h e Queen i n
example,
contained
can
sexual
mistake
potentially
Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse,
Bothwell's
symptoms
p a s s i o n and ambitiousness
for
of
scarcely
fear
(T V I I ,
65-67). Another
limitation
communication
of
paralinguistic
and
s i g n a l s i s the f a c t t h a t they are
non-verbal usually
less
d i r e c t e d than words, and are r a r e l y aimed a t an i n t e r l o c u t o r i n a
p r e c i s e way - t h e y may
Even
when
objective
even be hidden from him
d e l i b e r a t e concealment i s not a f a c t o r ,
on
purpose. whilst
observer on t h e l o o k o u t f o r such s i g n a l s may
notice
them c o n s i s t e n t l y , the a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a d i a l o g u e may t o o i n v o l v e d o r n o t m o t i v a t e d enough t o p e r c e i v e them, or may
p e r c e i v e them b u t d i s r e g a r d or m i s i n t e r p r e t them.
an
be they
- 95 -
The a c t r e s s i n Les C o n s e i l s d'Agathe notes t h e non-verbal s i g n a l s o f . h e r ' i n t e r l o c u t o r ' w i t h some p r e c i s i o n and even t e l l s h e r a t one p o i n t 'Votre o e i l gauche a v i b r e . C'est heureux. I I f a u d r a g a r d e r ga...' (T V, 161). Agathe i s a comic and exaggerated example o f someone who a c t u a l l y registers n o n - v e r b a l communication s i g n a l s b u t f a i l s t o i n t e r p r e t them a p p r o p r i a t e l y . C e r t a i n l y , i f t h e y a r e t o be interpreted c o r r e c t l y , n o n - v e r b a l i n s t r u m e n t s . o f communication call for genuine r e c e p t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r , and t h i s i s o f t e n l a c k i n g o r i n s u f f i c i e n t . However, i f one looks no f u r t h e r t h a n t h e s a t i r e Le Roy de Malousie, i t would seem t h a t t h e same can be s a i d when t h e exchange o f words i s a t i s s u e . As t h e baby's 'avocate' t r i e s i n v a i n t o t e l l t h e gentlemen o f t h e c o u r t , t h e Malousiens' v e r y loquaciousness and pedantry have made them l o s e t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e meaning o f t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t words about which they t a l k e n d l e s s l y but p o i n t l e s s l y (T IV, 227-228).
One r i s k which s i l e n c e does n o t r u n i s t h a t o f drowning vital
a
p o i n t i n t h e same way a g l u t o f words i s shown t o do i n
Le Roy de Malousie. On t h e c o n t r a r y , Bernard's t h e a t r e suggests that silent
i t i s more l i k e l y t o e l u c i d a t e than confound and listener
relatively after
can be
more
actively
expressive
p a s s i v e speaker. I n t h e t h i r d Tableau
Alfred
has l e f t t h e two women
together,
that than
a a
o f Martine, Jeanne
talks
about J u l i e n ' s r e t u r n from Germany, t h e wedding, where they a r e going
to live
and so f o r t h (T I ,
caught up i n these t h i n g s
143-145).
She
becomes
as she mentions them t h a t ,
so
although
- 96 -
she needs and wants M a r t i n e ' s l i s t e n i n g ear, she might as be
s o l i l o q u i z i n g . I n t h e words o f Kester B r a n f o r d 'the
well effect
281 is
one o f monologue
'monologue'
Martine
everything
i n dialogue'. says
hardly
Throughout
anything
whilst
Jeanne's absorbing
as i f h e r l i f e depended on i t . Her involvement i s
t o t a l . When Jeanne touches on the prospect o f an e v e n t u a l to
Paris,
Julien
will
envisages bliss
M a r t i n e i s upset because t h i s means go
altogether.
one day
When
Jeanne
o u t l o u d the e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t s o f t h e c o n j u g a l
t o which
distressed enjoy,
out o f her l i f e
that
move
she
because
i s looking
forward,
Martine
these a r e a l l the t h i n g s
i s again
she w i l l
never
as she w i l l never have them w i t h t h e man she l o v e s .
As
M a r t i n e ' s deep sadness i s a more i n t e n s e emotion than
Jeanne's
joyful
of this
scene
expectancy, i s given
monologue listener in
comes
t h e monologue i n d i a l o g u e e f f e c t
an added t w i s t : over
as
less
t h e person expressive
delivering the than
because t h e l a t t e r ' s mental and emotional
t h e words spoken i s h i g h e r than the
speaker's.
the s i l e n t investment Something
v e r y s i m i l a r happens a t t h e end o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal, when Monsieur Merin s e n i o r more o r l e s s s o l i l o q u i z e s i n the of
h i s son and d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w i n the wake o f t h e i r
quarrel
o f which he h i m s e l f knows n o t h i n g . As he
company
climactic voices h i s
r a t h e r sombre t h o u g h t s about l o n e l i n e s s and t h e tenuousness o f conjugal et
happiness
s i n c e 'I'un e s t condamne a m o u r i r t r o p t o t
1'autre a v i e i l l i r s e u l ' (T I , 8 9 ) ,
281.
A Study, p. 129.
Andre says v e r y
little
- 97 -
and Blanche says n o t h i n g , b u t , q u i e t and m o t i o n l e s s though they a r e , t h e y can be c o n s i d e r e d . t h e
two most a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n
282 t h e scene. I r o n i c a l l y , s i l e n c e i s sometimes shown t o be an instrument
o f communication
because
i t i s not
effective explicit.
P a r a d o x i c a l though i t may seem, t h e doubts and questions it
raises
and
n u r t u r e s and which
words
could
which
remove, a r e
p r e c i s e l y t h e element which g i v e s s i l e n c e s p e c i a l communicative impact. 'lis
I n Le Roy de Malousie t h e King says o f h i s
adorent
ministers,
des mots, e t c e l a l e s dispense / De
reflechir'
(T I V , 184). Madeleine's t a c i t u r n i t y i n Act I I I o f Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan
has
t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t , p r o v o k i n g thoughts
i n an
i n f u r i a t e d D a n i e l who complains t o h i s s i s t e r :
Comprends, Marie, c'est c e t t e femme... Sa de me p a r l e r sans r i e n d i r e , de me r e g a r d e r . . .
fagon
Tout l e temps, e t s u r t o u t quand e l l e se t a i t . C'est e f f r a y a n t . En auto, j e sens ses yeux f i x e s sur ma nuque. Ce n'est p l u s p o s s i b l e .
. . . Est-ce que c'est s e r i e u x ou est-ce q u ' e l l e se moque de moi?
(T V I , 335-336)
Since he i s t h e f a m i l y ' s employed c h a u f f e u r a t t h e t i m e , Daniel has
no
presence,
282.
choice
b u t t o p u t up
with
Madeleine's
b u t where t h e r e i s g r e a t e r freedom,
See pp. 221-222, 225-227 and 242-243.
tantalizing i f one o f t h e
- 98 -
speakers i n a duologue r e s t r i c t s what he says t o t h e s t r i c t e s t minimum o f ' p o l i t e s s e s ' , t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n may s i m p l y become so u n s u s t a i n a b l e t h a t i t i s t e r m i n a t e d and f u r t h e r meetings are avoided. This does n o t a p p l y where t h e r e a r e more than two i n t e r l o c u t o r s and i n a number o f Bernard's scenes t h e s i l e n c e o f a t h i r d person i s shown t o be p o t e n t i a l l y v e r y e f f e c t i v e as an i n s t r u m e n t o f communication. Thus, a t d i f f e r e n t stages i n t h e p l a y , M a r t i n e ' s r e f u s a l t o a i r her f e e l i n g s i n t r i g u e s n o t o n l y J u l i e n b u t a l s o Jeanne and Madame Mervan and i n e v i t a b l y increases their s e n s i t i v i t y t o her p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s . The r e s u l t i s t h a t , a l t h o u g h h e r l i p s are f i r m l y sealed on h e r p l i g h t , h e r v e r y s i l e n c e draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f e e l i n g s she cannot o r does n o t want t o v o i c e .
Words
may
be more p r e c i s e , b u t i n b e i n g so they
lose
a
q u a l i t y t h a t s i l e n c e r e t a i n s . I n t h e terms o f one o f Bernard's key
postulates,
origin,
'To
name
o f which he b e l i e v e d Shakespeare i s t o d e s t r o y / To suggest
t o be t h e
i s t o create'
( ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e t h e a t r e ' , p. 4 7 ) . Spoken words can name and t h e r e f o r e be d e s t r u c t i v e , s i l e n c e can suggest and t h e r e f o r e be creative.
There a r e numerous examples i n Bernard's t h e a t r e o f
t h i s phenomenon a t work i n t h e communication process. B o t h w e l l does n o t v o i c e h i s j e a l o u s y and annoyance i n t h e opening are
scene o f Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse,
n e v e r t h e l e s s w e l l expressed
non-verbally
although (T V I I ,
they
22-23).
When Darnley e n t e r s , he n a t u r a l l y sees what t h e Count sees and h i s f e e l i n g s a r e comparable, b u t he v o i c e s them (T V I I , 23-24).
- 99 -
I n d o i n g so he i s a c t u a l l y l e s s expressive than B o t h w e l l . This i s because i n the Count's case the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r i s allowed t o imagine the i n t e n s i t y o f h i s f e e l i n g s , whereas Darnley's words leave us n o t h i n g f u r t h e r t o imagine. Thus, when they remove doubts, words n o t o n l y reduce a l i s t e n e r ' s a t t e n t i v e n e s s to the p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal signals of his i n t e r l o c u t o r , they a l s o d u l l h i s s e n s i t i v i t y by making h i s i m a g i n a t i o n redundant. The i m a g i n a t i o n o f the audience i s a n y t h i n g b u t b l u n t e d i n M a r t i n e . Driven by a mixture of t i m i d i t y , f e m i n i n e i n t u i t i o n , common sense, s e l f - r e s p e c t and stubbornness, M a r t i n e never v o i c e s her f e e l i n g s . Consequently we have o n l y our eyes and i m a g i n a t i o n t o h e l p us empathize w i t h her. Assuming t h a t t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r agrees t o p l a y h i s p a r t , making as f u l l a use as p o s s i b l e o f both f a c u l t i e s , by the end o f the p l a y he i s maximally s e n s i t i z e d , and the final scenes prove so e m o t i o n a l l y g r u e l l i n g t h a t they can even leave him w i t h a sense o f p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t . I t i s a t times like these t h a t Bernard goes a l o n g way t o making the expressiveness of silence tangible.
Obviously,
one
has t o be c a r e f u l not t o
exaggerate
g e n e r a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s i l e n c e . Sometimes i t can be non-communicative With
regard
silence,
and/or a cause o f
can
be
heavily submerged
on by
the the
extremely
misunderstandings.
t o t h e communicative value o f
i t depends
significance
major
the
a
third
context, talk
the this
its other
Kester Branford
points
precisely
happens
opening scene o f L ' I n v i t a t i o n
i n the
that
since
interlocutors. what
out
of
person's
is
- 100 -
283 a c t u a l l y c u t on r e v i s i n g t h e p l a y .
au Voyage, which Bernard As
Landreau p r e s e n t s h i s p r o p e r t y and n a i l - m a k i n g business
Calais
to
and t h e l a t t e r makes p o l i t e comments i n response, t h e
two men and t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r can e a s i l y f a i l t o r e g i s t e r o r interpret
t h e l a t e n t l y meaningful
s i l e n c e o f Marie-Louise
and
t h e s i g n s she emits o f i r r i t a t i o n , r e s t l e s s n e s s and boredom. As
f a r as non-verbal
concerned, convey
one
o f communication a r e
o f t h e i r g r e a t e s t assets i s t h e way
they
can
i n f o r m a t i o n more s u c c i n c t l y than words. I n A c t I I I o f
Nationale 6
twelve
pages
F r a n c i n e a r e subsequently in
instruments
o f dialogue
between
Robert
r e p o r t e d by t h e l a t t e r t o h e r f a t h e r
another s i x pages o f d i a l o g u e , whereupon M i c h e l
conclusion
that
and
Robert has made h i s daughter
a
draws t h e 'declaration
284 deguisee'
(T V 8 7 ) .
I n the following
Act the
facial
e x p r e s s i o n s , d e j e c t e d a i r and s i l e n c e o f Robert and Antoine are sufficient made
t o t e l l M i c h e l w i t h i n a minute t h a t Robert has n o t
h i s daughter
such a d e c l a r a t i o n and t h a t
champagne i s consequently Bernard's subtlety their
theatre
o f non-verbal
a
bottle
of
n o t c a l l e d f o r (T V, 1 1 7 ) . h i g h l i g h t s .not
only
t h e speed
i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication
and
but also
g r e a t d i v e r s i t y and t h e wide range o f emotions they
can
convey. Mention has a l r e a d y been made o f t h e way t h e s p e c t a t o r sees
Martine's
agitation
and
incipient anguish
love
and h e r subsequent
i n . her
attitudes,
283.
A Study, p. 122.
284.
See pp. 147-149, 162-166 and 455-457.
dismay,
gestures
and
- 101 -
expressions. joylessness
285
In
and
the f i f t h Tableau
her
resignation
Martine
very
expresses
her
through
her
clearly
h a i r s t y l e ( M a r t i n e , T I , 173). The
communicative q u a l i t y t h a t s m a l l a c t i o n s can have
illustrated value
is
in
a number o f p l a y s .
highlighted
au Voyage
where
particularly
Marie-Louise
Their well
expresses
varying
attitudes
objects
i n c l u d i n g a photograph,
potential in
is
symbolic
L'Invitation
herself
and b e h a v i o u r a l r e a c t i o n s t o
through a
her
series
of
a f a n , a book and a c h a i r .
In
Act I I o f Le Printemps des Autres C l a r i s s e ' s d e c i s i o n
not
to
p u t any l i p s t i c k on j u s t b e f o r e her t a l k w i t h Maurice t e l l s
us
that
i n the d i s c u s s i o n which f o l l o w s she i n t e n d s ,
consciously
a t l e a s t , t o speak t o him on b e h a l f o f G i l b e r t e and not as rival
(T I , 230-231). I n Les Soeurs Guedonec i t i s
temporarily word
is
overlooked
said
an
action
t h a t a c t u a l l y does the t a l k i n g .
by e i t h e r s i s t e r
regarding
the
her
Not
pleasure
a the
c h i l d r e n ' s presence g i v e s them, nor does e i t h e r o f them say
how
much they miss t h e boys when they l e a v e . I n f a c t they c l a i m the opposite true
on both c o u n t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , they do
feelings
indirectly,
as
express
Robert de Beauplan's
succinct
summary o f the p l a y makes c l e a r :
Deux vieilles filles, cupides et grincheuses, a c c e p t e n t d'heberger t r o i s gamins de P a r i s , p u p i l l e s d'une oeuvre de vacances s c o l a i r e s , car on l e u r o f f r e 5 f r a n c s par j o u r e t par e n f a n t . Le mois s'ecoule. Les deux paysannes gemissent sur la depense e x c e s s i v e , sur l e s e s p i e g l e r i e s des garnements. Mais quand on v i e n t r e p r e n d r e l e s e n f a n t s , l e u r s yeux.
285.
See
pp. 77-78.
their
- 102 -
t o u t a coup, s'embuent de larmes e t e l l e s o u b l i e n t de compter l e u r a r g e n t : l e sentiment de l a m a t e r n i t e s'est insinue sournoisement dans leur coeur fletri.2^^
When
t h e s i s t e r s g e t back t o c o u n t i n g t h e i r money, they do so
'fievreusement' their
(T I I I , 201) c l e a r l y i n an e f f o r t t o d i s t r a c t
t h o u g h t s from t h e boys and from t h e sharpened
loneliness du Groc
with
which
t h e i r d e p a r t u r e has l e f t
comes t o t h e p o i n t o f h i s v i s i t
Tableau V I I I
sense o f them.
i n the f i r s t
o f Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse, he
half
expresses her g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e l a r g e l y
handling
of a
Ambassador planned una
bunch
broaches
of violets. the widely f e l t
When,
nothing
through her
f o r example,
concern
the
regarding her
marriage t o B o t h w e l l , 'Marie, entre deux doigts,
violette
of
speaks f o r
t h r e e pages o f s c r i p t d u r i n g which t h e Queen, who says verbally,
When
du bouquet e t 1' envoie devant e l l e
sort
e t dans ce
simple geste, i n f i n i m e n t meticuleux e t c a l c u l e , on sent tout ce q u ' e l l e c o n t i e n t . . . ' ( T V I I , 117). That p o s t u r e .can be e x p r e s s i v e i s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h i s same
Tableau.
position
Throughout
du Groc's v i s i t ,
Marie
she i s i n when he i s announced, t h a t i s
keeps t h e 'etendue
a
p l a t ventre en t r a v e r s du l i t , l e visage tourne v e r s l e p u b l i c ' (T V I I , physical
113).
Notwithstanding her hollow
attitude
alone t e l l s
i t s own s t o r y .
change o f p o s i t i o n and t h e manner
286.
apologies,
her
S i m i l a r l y , her
i n which she makes i t have a
Robert de Beauplan, 'Les Soeurs Guedonec au S t u d i o des Champs-Elysees', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 287, 26 decembre 1931, page n o t numbered.
- 103 -
s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e audience once t h e Ambassador has l e f t and she hears B o t h w e l l ' s v o i c e behind her. I n a f l a s h we see her 'se retournant d'un bond e t s'asseyant, farouche' (T V I I , 122).
Although
he may n o t e x p l o r e t h e s u b t l e t i e s o f
intonation
as N a t h a l i e Sarraute does, f o r example, i n Pour un o u i ou pour 287 unnon,
Bernard n e v e r t h e l e s s h i g h l i g h t s t h e i m p o r t a n t
role
t h a t p a r a l i n g u i s t i c s i g n a l s g e n e r a l l y p l a y i n the communication process.
A t t h e c l i m a x o f Act I I I
o f Le Printemps des Autres
t h e 'Oh! oh!...' G i l b e r t e u t t e r s b e f o r e she manages t o stammer out
h e r 'maman...' (T I ,
259) should express a whole range o f
emotions i f i t i s p r o p e r l y d e l i v e r e d by t h e a c t r e s s : t h e heady sensation the
experienced
eyes;
didn't
when scales have j u s t been removed
c o n f u s i o n - "How d i d t h i s happen?";
I
see t h i s
as i t was
realization
o f what
frustration
and f e a r .
response
happening?";
h e r mother
has been
I t i s the
fierceness
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exchange
from
from
wonder - "Why horror skirting,
a t the plus
o f Maryvonne's
Les Soeurs Guedonec
which t e l l s t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r and Madame Le Cahu, i f she i s attentive
enough
t o notice i t ,
t h a t the s i s t e r s are i n f a c t
a n y t h i n g b u t g l a d t o be r i d o f t h e boys: MADAME LE CAHU, regardant autour d ' e l l e ^a va vous f a i r e un v i d e
287.
ici.
N a t h a l i e S a r r a u t e , Theatre (Pour un o u i ou pour un non E l l e e s t l a - C'est beau - Isma - Le Mensonge Le S i l e n c e ) ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , 1993Y'.
- 104 -
MARYVONNE, avec trop de violence Pouvez debarras.
(T I I I ,
Through
a
dire
que ga nous f a i t
surtout
un bon
195-196)
h e s i t a t i o n and a h i a t u s i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n
word
o f one s y l l a b l e Francine o f N a t i o n a l e 6 t e l l s her
that
h e r dreams extend beyond t h e house a t which h i s own
of a father have
terminated:
MICHEL Petit fonctionnaire en r e t r a i t e , peuh! j e ne m e r i t a i s pas mieux. D ' a i l l e u r s , j ' a i longtemps reve d ' a v o i r c e t t e maison. Je I ' a i . Nous I'avons. Tu t ' e n plains, toi?...
FRANCINE ...N...on...
MICHEL
pas
C'est v r a i , t o i , t u n'as pas v i n g t ans, pareil.
ce n'est
(T V, 9-10)
I t was no doubt Bernard's r e a l i z a t i o n o f the c r u c i a l p l a y e d i n t h e communication which
contributed
ecrire silences theatre'
des
process by pauses and t h e i r t i m i n g
t o h i s being u n j u s t l y
plays w i t h silences.
'N'ai-je
role
accused
of writing
pas l u q u e l q u e f o i s que j e v o u l a i s
pieces avec des s i l e n c e s ! . . .
Confusion
entre l e s
e t l e s i l e n c e ' , w r i t e s Bernard i n 'Reflexions s u r l e (p. 4 8 ) .
I n f a c t only i n the exceptional
Les Conseils
- 105
d'Agathe,
where
one o f t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s
mute, does Bernard or
question
-
is
physiologically
p u t a combination o f suspension, a
'replique',
a l t h o u g h t h i s device i s used i n normal d i a l o g u e i n
full-length
plays
by
Sarment. basic
marks
on
dramatists
t h e i r own
in
lieu
as d i v e r g e n t as
Sacha G u i t r y
I n t h e r e s t o f h i s drama Bernard
precept
speak - i n
a
limitations
of
exclamation
imposed
n a t u r a l t o them, w i t h i n on
this
aim
by
Jean
simply r e s p e c t s
o f making h i s stage c h a r a c t e r s manner
and
his
speak - o r
not
of
the
certain
course
inviolable
288 theatrical principles.
As Kester B r a n f o r d p o i n t s out:
Bernard's abundant pause-dots (and o t h e r resti n d i c a t i o n s ) are o f course c o n d i t i o n e d by an anxious d e s i r e t o transpose t o t h e drama the speech p a t t e r n s of l i f e , and r e v e a l t h e author's profound concern w i t h t h e whole r h y t h m i c design o f the v e r b a l score; moreover, such i n d i c a t i o n s e v i d e n t l y m u l t i p l y i n importance i n p l a y s where words are employed w i t h such t i g h t economy, and where t h e r e i s a p e r p e t u a l c r o s s - i l l u m i n a t i o ^ g g between b r i e f utterance and pregnant s i l e n c e .
Whilst
i t would be as wrong t o make l i g h t o f these
suspension
p o i n t s as i t would be t o d i s r e g a r d t h e o t h e r p u n c t u a t i o n in
marks
t h e p l a y s , t h e a c t u a l l e n g t h o f t h e pauses and s i l e n c e s
performance,
l i k e a l l the f i n e t u n i n g o f
and non-verbal
communication s i g n a l s ,
288.
See
6-9.
289.
A Study, p.
pp.
24.
both
in
paralinguistic
i s inevitably
determined
- 106 -
by t h e a c t o r s and d i r e c t o r - a l t h o u g h one can imagine Bernard w a n t i n g t o make suggestions a t r e h e a r s a l s along t h e l i n e s o f one of t h e a c t i n g notes g i v e n by Samuel Beckett to
B i l l i e Whitelaw
asking
h e r t o 'make
those
three
dots
two
^ ^ . 290 dots' .
3.
P a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s as p o t e n t i a l l i e d e t e c t o r s and t h e interdependence o f t h e v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication It
i s r a r e f o r t h e v a r i o u s types o f p a r a l i n g u i s t i c
non-verbal
communication
isolation.
They a r e m u t u a l l y complementary and none stands o u t
as
significantly
possible
more
i n s t r u m e n t s t o be found
and
e f f i c i e n t than
any
working i n
other,
e x c e p t i o n o f t h e eyes. When a sobbing
with the
Denise Marette
t e l l s Gerard t h a t she was n o t born f o r l o v e , he r e p l i e s 'Je ne crois
pas
ce
(Denise M a r e t t e ,
que vous d i t e s . Je ne c r o i s
que
vos
larmes!'
T I I , 159). T e a r - f r e e eyes a r e a l s o shown t o
be h i g h l y e x p r e s s i v e and i n many cases e m o t i o n a l l y t r a n s l u c e n t . Louise de l a V a l l i e r e ' s eyes t e l l t h e w o r l d how much she i s i n love
with
the King
de l a V a l l i e r e ,
even
before
he
courts
her
(Louise
T V I , 18). I n A c t IV o f N a t i o n a l e 6 i t i s t h e
l o o k i n Michel's eyes which t e l l s E l i s a t h a t a d r e a d f u l mistake has been made:
290.
James Knowlson, ' P r a c t i c a l aspects o f t h e a t r e , r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n . E x t r a c t s from an u n s c r i p t e d i n t e r v i e w w i t h B i l l i e Whitelaw. A t e l e v i s i o n r e c o r d i n g made on 1 February 1977 f o r t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London Audio-Visual Centre'-, J o u r n a l o f B e c k e t t S t u d i e s , no. 3, Summer 1978, p. 86.
- 107 -
MICHEL Elisa...
ELISA Quoi?... ( E l l e l e regarde e t p a r a i t tout a f a i t e f f r a y e e de son expression. E l l e plonge machinalement l a louche dans l a soupiere e t , d'une voix changee:) Je vous s e r s , monsieur Vanier?
(T V, 121-122)
Sometimes
an
information. Gilberte
unreciprocated
During
and
glance
or stare
p a r t o f the conversation
can when
Maurice,
C l a r i s s e are f i n i s h i n g t e a a t the beginning
Act I I o f Le Printemps des Autres we a r e t o l d 'demeure s i l e n c i e u s e , l e s regardsuit'
that
of
Clarisse
(T I , 216). Not o n l y
C l a r i s s e ' s t a c i t u r n i t y a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n here because she
convey
does
hitherto
has been a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n , b u t
her f i x e d gaze i n f o r m s t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r t h a t she i s s u b j e c t t o some s i g n i f i c a n t emotion as t h e couple converse. Eye
c o n t a c t has t h e advantage o f being so
localized information third
that
n o t only
using
can two people
immediate and
rapidly
t h i s method, b u t they can do so
exchange without
a
p a r t y being made aware o f t h e i n t e n s i t y o r s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f what i s ' s a i d ' . Although she i s i n t h e room w i t h them a t t h e time, at
one can argue t h a t C l a i r e i s o n l y s u p e r f i c i a l l y
t h e f i r s t post-War meeting between Durban
A l a Recherche des Coeurs:
present
and D a r i e l i n
- 108
(. . . D a r i e l entre. Les deux hommes se regardent e t c ' e s t un regard profond qui va l o i n dans l e passe, mais dent r i e n , n i dans l e s gestes, n i dans l a voix, ne s a u r a i t t r a h i r 1'emotion. Figes dans une immobilite glacee, l e s deux hommes sont I'un devant 1'autre, comme des a d v e r s a i r e s . E n f i n , D a r i e l p a r l e , mais ce sont des paroles banales, d i t e s s u r un ton indi fferent.) (T I I I , 68-69)
Similarly, ocular
Maurice
dialogue
would a u t o m a t i c a l l y be excluded
between C l a r i s s e and G i l b e r t e a t the
Le Printemps des A u t r e s , psychological
from t h e
discovery
even made
i f he
were
end o f
aware
by the two women
o f the
only
a few
291 minutes p r e v i o u s l y (T I , 262). I n o t h e r wordless exchanges where eye c o n t a c t plays a r o l e the
communication
crucial. wordlessly
may
be more one-sided but
none
A t one p o i n t i n Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse and u n w i t t i n g l y
the less Darnley
' t e l l s ' the Queen how she can s e t
about r e v e n g i n g R i c c i o ' s murder. On seeing her husband f o r t h e first
time a f t e r t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n , Marie orders him t w i c e i n
f u r i o u s anger t o go away. When he r e f u s e s : ( l i s r e s t e n t face a f a c e . Dans l e s yeux de Marie i l y a de I'horreur e t du mepris. Dans l e s yeux de Darnley i l y a de l a t e r r e u r e t du d e s i r : visiblement c e t t e femme f u r i e u s e e t legerement vetue I'epouvante e t 1 ' a t t i r e en meme temps. Marie S t u a r t semble saisir ce sentiment complexe. Quelque chose en elle parait se transformer. Un etrange regard passe dans ses yeux. Une r e s o l u t i o n farouche semble n a i t r e chez c e t t e femme, i l y a un i n s t a n t accablee ) (T V I I , 41)
291.
See p. 117.
- 109 -
The f a c t t h a t Marie-Louise can o n l y bear the i n t e n s i t y o f O l i v i e r ' s gaze f o r so l o n g i n the f o l l o w i n g s i l e n t 'dialogue' from L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage i s meaningful i n i t s e l f :
GERARD On
a a p p r i s ma geographie, papa. L'Amerique
du
Sud.
(Long regard entre O l i v i e r e t
Marie-Louise.)
OLIVIER, d'une voix blanche Laisse-nous, mon p e t i t . . . (Gerard s o r t . S i l e n c e , l i s sont I'un en face de 1'autre. I I l a regarde fixement. E l l e s o u t i e n t son regard. Visiblement, 11 attend una parole, mais e l l e ne d i t r i e n . E l l e h e s i t e , s a p o i t r i n e se gonfle, puis, soudain, elle b a i s s e l a t e t e , t r a v e r s e l a scene e t s o r t sans un mot . . .)
(T I , 314-315)
There have
the
regarding fact
that
are h i n t s i n Bernard's t h e a t r e t h a t the p o t e n t i a l t o expose l i e s . their reliability
However,
any
eyes
complacency
i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s shaken
i t i s Jeanne L i r o n o f a l l people who,
even
by
the
'pesant
ses
mots', expresses t h e t h e o r y in.Le Feu q u i reprend mal:
Non, non! Croyez-vous que I'on puisse e t e r n e l l e m e n t m e n t i r quand on v i t cote a cote? Le s e c r e t que l a bouche r e t i e n t passe par l e s yeux. Je n ' a i pas pu. Qui p o u r r a i t ? (T I , 56)
- 110 -
On
l e a r n i n g l a t e r t h a t Jeanne h e r s e l f c o u l d and has done,
that
she
Andre
i s a c t u a l l y l y i n g t o him as she
will
n o t be reassured o f h i s own
says
these
wife's
and
words,
innocence
by
292 a n y t h i n g she says t o him e i t h e r w i t h her l i p s o r her eyes. In the
s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t even t h e e s s e n t i a l
eyes
can
be c h a l l e n g e d ,
communication albeit
opposed
and
paralinguistic
s i g n a l s g e n e r a l l y are shown t o have
limited,
interlocutor
non-verbal
honesty o f
value
is
o f t h e i r own
in
dialogues
certain, where
an
untruth
as
m i s l e a d i n g him. W h i l s t t h e d e c e i t
of
d e l i b e r a t e l y t e l l i n g someone
t o unconsciously
a
an
the
speaker's words may be u n d e t e c t a b l e , the way he says
and
t h e accompanying non-verbal
and
appear f a l s e o r s u s p i c i o u s l y s t r a n g e . This i s because
conscious
selection
language are l i k e l y
o f t h e word c o n t e n t o f a
of
calculating
i t c a l l s f o r a c t i n g t a l e n t . There liars
illustration
of
i n Bernard's the
point
Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse. into
betraying
assassination, great
his
at
issue
When
is
she c o n t r o l s her v o i c e and her
very
an
to
t h e Queen
sound the
successful
are
but
fellow-conspirators
be
excellent found
tricks in
few
in
Darnley
the
Riccio
movements
with
s k i l l . At one p o i n t Darnley says t o her 'Mais vous
etes
une grande comedienne, Marie...'
292.
theatre,
to
convincing l i e
r e q u i r e s only e x t r a preparatory thought, w h i l s t the telling
them
See pp. 169-170.
(T V I I , 4 3 ) . This statement i s
-
ringing
w i t h dramatic i r o n y , s i n c e i t i s made by Darnley
reference whereas
t o t h e Queen's behaviour i t is
presence. starts
Ill
Be
to
i n Marie Seton's
a c t u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o her that
as i t may,
the
presence,
behaviour
reader/spectator
a p p r e c i a t e t h a t the compliment
is
well
with
in
his
quickly deserved.
Having decided on t h e course she i s going t o t a k e , Marie has t o wheedle
the
facts
out o f Darnley
using
a l l her
seductive
charms. Saying t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t h i n g s i s l e s s p r o b l e m a t i c
than
h i d i n g her r e a l f e e l i n g s . J u s t a f t e r Marie Seton's e x i t we
are
told:
(. . . l i s r e s t e n t un moment s i l e n c i e u x . . . Marie semble s c r u t e r I'ame de ce miserable jeune homme... Lui, sous ce regard accablant, chancelle... Brusquement Marie l u i tend l a main.) (T V I I , 42)
A
few
moments
I'etreint.
later
Darnley
'brusquement
transporte
E l l e se l a i s s e f a i r e , puis se degage'
. . .
(T V I I , 4 3 ) .
T h i s o s c i l l a t i o n between g i v e and take continues throughout the scene.
Only t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r r e a l i z e s the e f f o r t Marie
having
to
non-verbal
make i n dominating what would
be
her
is
instinctive
communication s i g n a l s :
. . . ( E l l e a t t i r e s a t e t e e t prend ses l e v r e s . Au bout d'un moment e l l e l e repousse doucement. I I demeure e t o u r d i . E l l e se leve e t , d e r r i e r e l u i , essuie violemment ses l e v r e s avec un profond degout . . .) (T V I I , 50)
At
the
really
crucial
moment
Bernard
' a c t r e s s ' i s n o t t o be s u b j e c t t o Darnley's a
specifies that gaze:
'Agenouillee
s e s pieds., e l l e place s a t e t e centre l u i , en s o r t e que
v o l t son visage que
l u i ne v o i t pas'
(T V I I , 52).
the
I'on
- 112 -
Luck r a t h e r t h a n s k i l l saves the day f o r her t h e f o l l o w i n g year
when, under p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e and B o t h w e l l ' s
influence,
she f i n d s h e r s e l f speaking i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y t r e a c h e r o u s manner t o her husband. T h i s t i m e Darnley i s p h y s i c a l l y separated her
i n so f a r as he i s l y i n g i l l
etoffe
from
i n an 'alcove fermee par
l e g e r e ' (T V I I , 86) - a l o g i s t i c a l set-up which
une
serves
two purposes. I t means Marie's n o n - v e r b a l language can t e l l the audience
something
of
her
thoughts
and
feelings
without
e n l i g h t e n i n g D a r n l e y , and a t t h e same time i t i n d i r e c t l y a l l o w s Bernard t o s t r e s s t h e importance o f p a r a l i n g u i s t i c It
is
now
ocular
n o t o n l y a mercy t h a t Marie
scrutiny
mission,
but
is
a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r the
expression.
spared
Darnley's
success
of
because f o r t h i s performance t h e ' a c t r e s s ' i s n o t
form.
The
tired
h e r . Since she i s r e l a t i v e l y sure about what she has
say
and
developments
which have t a k e n
as she does riot have t o worry
signals,
place
about
have
her
her on
clearly to
non-verbal
one might expect her t o be able t o i n v e s t t h e
energy
t h u s economized i n her p a r a l i n g u i s t i c ones, b u t she i s n o t very successful.
At one p o i n t she cannot even speak, and even
when
she r e c o v e r s , her v o i c e c o n t r o l i s poor:
(Marie n'a pas l a force de p a r l e r tout de s u i t e . E l l e e n f o u i t s a t e t e dans ses mains, silencieusement, e t r e s t e a i n s i un i n s t a n t . E n f i n e l l e redresse l a t e t e , e t l e s mains c r i s p e e s , e l l e a r r i v e a p a r l e r d'un ton detache, sous l e q u e l par moments perce 1 ' e f f o r t douloureux, a u s s i t o t reprime.) (T V I I , 91)
A few moments l a t e r we are t o l d t h a t she speaks 'toute e t d'un
tendue,
ton que l a l u t t e q u ' e l l e s o u t i e n t centre elle-meme rend
agressif
(T V I I , 9 2 ) .
Marie's
paralinguistic
faux pas
do
- 113 •-
n o t h i n g t o assuage Darnley's s u s p i c i o n s which he f i n a l l y v o i c e s i n t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e ' r e p l i q u e s ' (T V I I , 9 4 ) . I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t Bernard h i g h l i g h t s how treacherous p a r a l i n g u i s t i c communication s i g n a l s can be. By t h e t i m e Darnley asks Marie d i r e c t l y i f she i s t e l l i n g him t h e t r u t h her emotions a r e so wracked and her nerves so raw t h a t she e x c l a i m s , 'dans un c r i , dont on ne s a l t a qui i l s'adresse', 'C'est a t r o c e de m ' i n f l i g e r une p a r e i l l e epreuve!' (T V I I , 9 4 ) , Darnley assumes t h a t t h e 'epreuve' i n q u e s t i o n f o r Marie i s h a v i n g a husband who r e f u s e s t o t r u s t her; we know t h a t i n a c t u a l f a c t the 'epreuve' f o r Marie i s l y i n g t o him so t r a i t o r o u s l y t h a t t h e more c o n v i n c i n g she i s , t h e more c e r t a i n h i s d o w n f a l l . What i s significant here, however, i s t h a t Darnley does not m i s i n t e r p r e t Marie's words so' much as t h e volume, p i t c h and tone o f t h e v o i c e i n which she u t t e r s them:
VOIX DE DARNLEY, avec soulagement, cependant que Marie regarde devant e l l e avec des yeux hagards Ah!.,. V o i l a e n f i n un c r i . . . q u i ne trompe pas... Je p a r t i r a i avec vous en c o n f i a n c e , chere M a r i e , . . J ' a v a l s s i peur que vous ne f u s s i e z pas sincere
(T V I I ,
This
94)
last
example
not
only
brings
into
relief
the
i m p o r t a n t f a c t t h a t t h e p a r a l i n g u i s t i c s i g n a l s which i n e v i t a b l y accompany
words a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y bound up w i t h them,
demonstrates
that
the
spoken
indissociable
from some k i n d
expressed
is
i t also frequently
o f n o n - v e r b a l language:
i n this
- 114
-
case, a l t h o u g h Darnley i s not i n a p o s i t i o n t o see i t , the look i n Marie's eyes. What i s more, i t becomes e v i d e n t on c l o s e r examination o f t h i s and o t h e r p l a y s t h a t the relative independence o f non-verbal i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication i s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t i l l u s o r y . Many o f the non-verbal s i g n a l s e m i t t e d by Bernard's c h a r a c t e r s are h i g h l y i n f o r m a t i v e but o n l y when they are c o n s i d e r e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the d i a l o g u e which precedes and/or f o l l o w s them. When J a c q u e l i n e has gone out t o f i n d O l i v i e r i n the f i r s t Tableau o f Act I I I of L'Invitation au Voyage we are t o l d :
(. . . Marie-Louise r e s t e agitee, anxieuse, e t p u i s , en tremblant, e l l e va v e r s l a p e t i t e t a b l e e t , d'une main, sans s ' a s s e o i r , ouvre l e Baudelaire et l e f e u i l l e t t e machinalement... S i l e n c e . E t soudain, ayant entendu du b r u i t , e l l e referme l e l i v r e e t s'ecarte d'un a i r detache. Jacqueline entre avec O l i v i e r . ) (T I , 325)
This
example
of
a
non-verbal
monologue
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r much about Marie-Louise's
tells
the
psychological
state
a t t h e t i m e , but i t o n l y r e a l l y speaks volumes when s i t u a t e d i n its
immediate and g e n e r a l context,' when we bear i n
J a c q u e l i n e and Marie-Louise and
as
we
Baudelaire
mind
have j u s t been s a y i n g to.each
c a r r y a t t h e back o f
our
consciousness
has come t o s i g n i f y t o Marie-Louise
she v e r b a l l y , and n o n - v e r b a l l y , dismissed
what other
a l l the
s i n c e the
it:
. . . Et ce B a u d e l a i r e q u ' i l m'a rapporte d ' E p i n a l . . . ( E l l e prend un l i v r e sur l a t a b l e . ) Sans doute ne p o u v a i t - i l d e v i n e r que mon poete p r e f e r e , c ' e t a i t Chenier. B a u d e l a i r e , j e comprends mal. Trop obscur, complique... (Reposant l e l i v r e . ) E n f i n , 1'intention y e t a i t . (T I , 278)
days
115
Thus,
-
w h i l s t t h e expressed i s i n d i s p u t a b l y more than
the
spoken words which f r e q u e n t l y c o n s t i t u t e i t s core b u t which i t can
a t times bypass, o n l y r a r e l y i s i t meaningful
to
appraise
t h e unspoken expressed i n a vacuum. The c o r r e l a t i v e o f t h i s even
truer.
'Nos
lettres
closely
J u l i e n remarks t o Jeanne i n nous
related
denaturent' - i n e v i t a b l y
t o h i s correspondent
however n a t u r a l l y and a c c u r a t e l y he may if
Martine
(T I ,
since,
the w r i t e r
128),
however
may
be
r e c o r d h i s thoughts
he were s a y i n g them o u t l o u d t o t h e person
concerned,
a l l - i m p o r t a n t packaging i n which spoken words are presented missing.
A c c o r d i n g l y , i t should n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t
paralinguistic heavily fact
and
non-verbal
tools
of
is
and as the is
verbal,
communication
are
dependent on one another f o r t h e i r very e x i s t e n c e .
In
i t i s m i s l e a d i n g t o assess t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words
as
instruments
o f communication w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o the
way
in
which t h e y are s a i d and the t i m i n g o f t h e i r d e l i v e r y ; s i m i l a r l y p i t c h , volume and i n t o n a t i o n have minimal s i g n i f i c a n c e d i v o r c e d from t h e words i n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f which they are used. it
i s w i t h g e s t u r e : a wave o f the hand i s j u s t a wave
hand
out
of
c o n t e x t . Only i n r e l a t i o n t o
pauses
coming
really
meaningful
silence
itself
before,
the
d u r i n g or a f t e r i t does
words
communication s i g n a l . Last b u t
not
' i s as much d e f i n e d and suggested by 293
C h i a r i , The
Contemporary French Theatre, p.
12.
the
and/or
i t become
space i s by t h e o b j e c t s which i t c o n t a i n s ' .
293.
of
So
a
least,
words
as
- 116 -
4.
The paradox o f s i l e n c e On
only
a
t h e q u e s t i o n o f s i l e n c e , Bernard shows i t t o be n o t s i g n i f i c a n t v e h i c l e o f meaning but a l s o a
product
of
harmonious and e f f e c t i v e communication.
the
When
d i s c u s s i n g Francine's p i c t u r e s q u e c o n c l u s i o n s
cars
she sees
going
by
on
t h e N a t i o n a l e 6,
about Antoine
compliments h e r on h e r 'sens e x q u i s ' , her ' f l a i r sans e g a l ' f o r such
things
applicable
( N a t i o n a l e 6, i n other
T V, 51).
Bernardian
Such
contexts
terms where
are a
kind of
empathic i n t u i t i o n would seem t o be i n v o l v e d . I t i s t h i s accounts
f o r why F e l i c i e n understands
Jeanne de P a n t i n , addressing of
whilst
miss t h e p o i n t .
the heroine's
the students
she i s
also
which
words i n ostensibly
The h e a r t , as the symbolic
t h i s i n t u i t i o n , r a t h e r than t h e head as the seat o f
centre reason
i s p r e s e n t e d as t h e key t o t h i s s p e c i a l way o f h e a r i n g what may be
hidden
understands
i n o r by words. When
Jeanne C h a i l l a n d
o f Martine
J u l i e n even b e f o r e he f i n i s h e s speaking, when she
t e l l s him b e f o r e he has u t t e r e d f o u r words t h a t he w i l l n o t be able
t o explain
comments, 'Qu'est-ce (T I ,
129).
after
what he i s a t t e m p t i n g t o say, he an
ocular
exchange,
on h e r
que mon i n t e l l i g e n c e v i e n t f a i r e Even
with
reference
intelligence.
ici?'
the
she asks
t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
something as f a c t u a l as h i s t o r y , Robert o f Deux Hommes along
suddenly
of
insists
w i t h Hermann Bogler t h a t i n the l a s t i n s t a n c e i t i s n o t i n t e l l e c t which p l a y s t h e c r u c i a l r o l e :
' I I faut bien,
en
e f f e t , que l e coeur nous aide a f r a n c h i r c e r t a i n e s m u r a i l l e s ou se h e u r t e l a r a i s o n ' (T V, 229).
- 117
Irrespective
of
the type o f
-
relationship
involved,
in
Bernard's drama whenever t h e h e a r t s o f any two p r o t a g o n i s t s are in
i n t u i t i v e harmony, communication i s a t i t s most
effective.
I r o n i c a l l y but l o g i c a l l y , i t i s a t such times t h a t words become more
or
less
meaningful
redundant.
Consequently
some
of
the
'dialogues' i n Bernard's t h e a t r e are s i l e n t ,
most witness
t h e main p a r t i n g scene between l a Louise and P i e r r e Garbin:
( I I porte l a main de l a Louise a ses l e v r e s , puis l a r e t i e n t . E l l e n'ose pas l a r e t i r e r . E l l e e s t troublee. l i s r e s t e n t a i n s i un i n s t a n t , se regardant. E t puis i l f i n i t par l a l a c h e r , a regret, e t f a i t quelques pas en a r r i e r e pendant qu'elle va vers l a porte. Elle disparait. II reste immobile... Silence...) (La Louise, T I I I , 243)
This
principle
normally
applies
even i f t h e
characters
have d i f f i c u l t y communicating, or have
p a r t i c u l a r communication problems and may w e l l again. Gilberte
another shown
question
recently
had
never communicate
so
I t i s v e r y l i k e l y t h a t i n the moment C l a r i s s e
part
understand
in
at
the
end
of
Le Printemps des Autres
and they
each o t h e r b e t t e r and are e m o t i o n a l l y c l o s e r t o
one
than they have been f o r some t i m e . Once
Clarisse
has
her r e s o l u t i o n t o amend the s i t u a t i o n and
Gilberte
has
absorbed the shock o f her d i s c o v e r y and become open again t o
a
sense o f f i l i a l compassion, t h e i r o c u l a r exchange conveys t h e i r mutual
comprehension
to
perfection:
(Les deux femmes se regeirdent fixement. E t soudain, eomme a t t i r e e , G i l b e r t e s'avance vers sa mere. C l a r i s s e l a prend centre e l l e . Tres long regard muet, regard d ' i n t e l l i g e n c e de femme a femme. Puis une e t r e i n t e . E t e l l e s se separent brusquement . . .) (T I , 262)
- 118 -
Similarly, a t t h e e n d o f L ' I n v i t a t i o n a u Voyage i t i s a s t h e emotional gap b e t w e e n M a r i e - L o u i s e and O l i v i e r gradually diminishes t h a t t h e l a t t e r becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y inarticulate u n t i l words f a i l h i m :
MARIE-LOUISE, a v e c d e s l a r m e s dans l a v o i x Mais j e s u i s t r e s
contents, Olivier...
OLIVIER Non, non... maintenant...
i
l
ne
faut
pas
me
le
MARIE-LOUISE C ' e s t b o n de t ' e n t e n d r e me p a r l e r
gentiment.
OLIVIER Ne t ' a i - j e
pas t o u j o u r s p a r l e
ainsi?...
MARIE-LOUISE b a i s s e l a t e t e a t murmure ...J'ai
t e n e m e n t b e s o i n de t o i .
OLIVIER C'est
vrai?...
MARIE-LOUISE t
C'est
vrai...
OLIVIER, Marie-Louise... (II s'arrete.)
(T I , 3 5 0 - 3 5 1 )
l a p o i t r i n e gonflee Alors...
dire
-
Bernard's paradox
lies
profound
greater
thus
suggest
emotions
and
the
that
a
logical
communication:
more
complex
the
the
more
thought
t h e more i m p o s s i b l e t h e i r v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n and
the
language need
would
-
embedded i n e f f e c t i v e
the
processes,
theatre
119
need
f o r the i n t e r l o c u t o r s to
o f empathic
for
intuition,
w o r d s . The
converse
success i n which
resultant silence i s ,
of
the
in
the
removes
the
course,
poles
a p a r t f r o m t h e s t r a i n e d s i l e n c e o f a M a r t i n e , f o r example, b e c a u s e she too
i s t o o moved, t o o t i m i d ,
obstinate
express
to
speak
facial
of
L'Ame en p e i n e n e v e r
laughs
these when
alternative
but
t h r o u g h h e r body
to find their earthly
scenes .in M a r t i n e contrasting
highlight
types of
and
the
arrival,
souls
difference
After
Martine
cornucopia,
there
e r r a t i c e x c h a n g e s a t t h e end
' i l s restent
un
instant
news
sans
later,
other's
when
J e a n n e and J u l i e n h a v e
not
been
overcoming
meaningful
exchange
their
initial
awkwardness,
c o n t r a s t s sharply w i t h the
of
short
in
presence v e r y l o n g but are nevertheless having
difficulty
of
parler',
c r e a t i n g a n e g a t i v e , d i s s o n a n t s i l e n c e (T I , 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ) . A time
to
place.
a s e c o n d b e f o r e Madame M e r v a n e n t e r s w i t h t h e
Jeanne's
or
language
resting
silence.
J u l i e n uses t h e metaphor o f a
follows a series of faulty which,
no
expressions - feelings destined l i k e the l o s t
significant
between
t o o s e n s i b l e , too proud
left
- more o r l e s s i n v o l u n t a r i l y
and
Two
is
who
a
ten
' r e p l i q u e s ' o f t h e e a r l i e r d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n M a r t i n e and
each little simple
abortive Julien:
- 120 -
JULIEN Certaines c h o s e s o n t un p a r f u m d ' a u t r e f o i s q u i monte a l a t e t e . V o t r e e n t r e e dans cette piece... Avec q u e l q u e c h o s e de n o u v e a u p o u r t a n t , de p l u s g r a v e que j a d i s . . .
JEANNE
O u i , j e comprends ce que v o u s v o u l e z
dire...
(T I , 1 2 9 ) Immediately
after
silencieux, resonant.
t h i s we a r e t o l d
reveiars'. This
harmony
Here
'lis
restent
the silence
C ' e s t b i e n emouvant...'
(T I ,
says - o r
his/her
does
w o r d s and
interprets
n o t say - a c c o r d i n g t o a
130).
what
common
J u l i e n does h i s b e s t t o e x p l a i n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
by
d'abondance':
l a r g e l y b e c a u s e s h e ' h e a r s ' i n t h e way h e does a n d v i c e selects
and
e s t a b l i s h e d , we a r e n o t s u r p r i s e d
J u l i e n succeeds i n communicating e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h
Each
instant
i s positive
J e a n n e ' s r e s p o n s e t o J u l i e n ' s image o f t h e 'corne 'Tiens, c'est v r a i .
un
Jeanne, versa.
the other code,
which
terms:
J e p a r l a i s une l a n g u e e t r a n g e r e e t j e r e t r o u v e u n p a r l e r f a m i l i e r , une f a Q o n d i r e c t e de c o m p r e n d r e l e s c h o s e s . . . s a n s e x p l i c a t i o n s . Le l a n g a g e de ce q u i ne s'exprime pas... ( I I l a regarde.) E t i l y a tant de c h o s e s q u i ne s ' e x p r i m e n t pas e t q u ' i l faut c o m p r e n d r e . . . comme g a . . . n ' e s t - c e p a s ? (T I , 129-130)
G i v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e a n i n g f u l eye c o n t a c t and t h e mutual ability
to
comprehend t h e l a n g u a g e o f what
inexpressible,
i s unspoken
t h e e x c h a n g e o f w o r d s b e t w e e n Jeanne and
is t o a certain extent
superfluous.
and
Julien
- 121
5.
Contrived social
masks
The e r e c t i o n o f a n a r t i f i c i a l character liars
fagade t o conceal
i s g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d t o be
second
and h y p o c r i t e s and a s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e
diplomats, status.
courtiers
This
kind
of
mask i s i l l u s t r a t e d
real
nature
to
politicians,
and o t h e r s i n p o s i t i o n s o f of
their
high
i n a
social
number
of
Bernard's p l a y s . In
her dealings
de M o n t e s p a n courtesan
the
L o u i s e de l a V a l l i e r e ,
i s so . e x c e l l e n t i n t h e r o l e that
hypocrisy
with
her perfidious
tells
insincerity
are only rarely perceptible.
a r c h e t y p a l King t o p e r f e c t i o n .
of
Louis
Madame
the
charming
and
unctuous
meanwhile
plays
As a y o u n g man, however,
L o u i s e how he h a s dreamed o f m e e t i n g
he
a g i r l f o r whom
he
would
be 'un homme comme l e s a u t r e s ' , t o whom h e c o u l d s a y 'des
mots
de
tous
l e s jours
( L o u i s e de l a V a l l i e r e , clear
that
. . . des
T V I , 58-59).
choses
tres
Indeed,
Bernard
i f t h e K i n g t a k e s L o u i s e as h i s
p a r t l y b e c a u s e f o r h e r he i s p r i m a r i l y because h e r c o u r t l y screen
simples...' makes i t
mistress
L o u i s and n o t
i t
'le roi' ,
i s t r a n s p a r e n t , b e c a u s e s h e i s open
and c a n d i d a n d b e c a u s e he c a n l o v e h e r 'comme s ' i l n ' e t a i t roi...' Marie he
(T V I , 6 2 ) .
The r e g a l f a g a d e i s a l s o i n e v i d e n c e
S t u a r t , R e i n e d'Ecosse. When du Groc t e l l s
will
Bothwell,
not attend
t h e wedding
ceremony
i n her
t h r o u g h h e r hands w h i c h ,
'voix b l a n c h e '
i f she
and
pas in
t h e Queen t h a t
s h e i s c l e a r l y d e v a s t a t e d . She b e t r a y s h e r
paralinguistically
is
marries feelings
non-verbally
' c r i s p e e s s u r l e bouquet de v i o l e t t e s ,
t r e m b l e n t l e g e r e m e n t ' (T V I I , 1 2 1 ) . To b e g i n w i t h , h o w e v e r , h e r
122 -
verbal
screen remains
formality, Songez
she
a
intact.
Thus, r e t a i n i n g
manages t o s a y ' M a i s . . .
l a s i g n i f i c a t i o n que p r e n d r a
d i r a - t - o n p a s que l a c o u r de F r a n c e When t h i s f a i l s , pas
que
votre
vous s u p p l i a i s . . . '
(T V I I ,
done...
abstention.
Ne
m'abandonne?' ( T V I I , 1 2 1 ) .
ce s o i t au moins
b e h i n d t h e woman who s a y s ,
diplomatic
songez
' . . . S i ce
I'ami
n'est
q u i vienne'
121). F i n a l l y , h e r queenly fagade crumbles
leaving
King
mais
Marie t h e diplomat withdraws:
1!ambassadeur,
(T V I I ,
her
altogether,
'desemparee', ' E t . . . s i j e
1 2 2 ) . Le Roy de M a l o u s i e , where t h e
i s o n l y a l l o w e d t o speak i n v e r s e even t o h i s w i f e , i s a
satirical prepared
parody o f t h e extremes to
t o which c e r t a i n regimes
go i n t h e e r e c t i n g o f c o u r t l y
or
are
administrative
masks. In
A l a Recherche des Coeurs - p a r t i c u l a r l y
beginning
b e f o r e he has s t a r t e d t o l i v e
at
i n accordance
d e e p l y h e l d communist p r i n c i p l e s - C h a r l e s p u t s up a professional
front
when
t a l k i n g business
or
the
with his clear-cut
politics
with
c o l l e a g u e s , s u b o r d i n a t e s o r o u t s i d e r s , b u t d r o p s i t when he i s alone
with
h i s w i f e . As s o o n as t h e c o u p l e ' s
Act I
i s i n t e r r u p t e d by Roger w i t h h i s news
tete-a-tete of
the
strike,
Charles' r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i s business f r o n t i s v i s i b l e :
CHARLES, a p r e s une seconde de r e f l e x i o n Bien... ( I I s ' a s s i e d e t f a i t s i g n e a Roger de s'asseoir.) D i t e s - m o i ce que v o u s s a v e z . . . (Depuis qu'il n'est plus seul avec Claire, toute trace d'emotion e t de t e n d r e s s e a d i s p a r u de s o n v i s a g e . Ce n ' e s t p l u s qu'vin homme d ' a f f a i r e s s e c e t p r e c i s . )
(T I I I ,
15)
in
-. -123 -.
Although her motives are f a r from being simplistically unworthy, D e n i s e M a r e t t e becomes an h a b i t u a l liar when she p r o l o n g s her f a t h e r ' s d e c e i t , making t h e w o r l d b e l i e v e t h a t he is the. creator o f w o r k s w h i c h she p a i n t s . I n d o i n g so she eventually finds herself i m p r i s o n e d by a confining and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y damaging fagade o f d i a l o g u e . T h i s v e r b a l mask, however, i s so a r t i f i c i a l l y and c o n s c i o u s l y m a n u f a c t u r e d that i t i s as o b v i o u s t o t h e r e a d e r / a u d i e n c e as t h o s e w h i c h a r e w o r n in B e r n a r d ' s h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p l a y s , and about which there i s nothing particularly original. What i s more innovative i n Bernard's t h e a t r e i s i t s s t r o n g evidence that communication screens are not the prerogative of liars, hypocrites, politicians, d i p l o m a t s , c o u r t i e r s and the like, that they are t h e norm o u t s i d e of stylized, political or business environments, indeed r i g h t across t h e s o c i a l spectrum.
6.
A u t o m a t i c a l l y e r e c t e d p e r s o n a l fagades o f d i a l o g u e It
there
i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t i n e v e r y d a y d i a l o g u e s , where is
n e v e r t h e l e s s more t h a n a p u r e l y
functional
use
l a n g u a g e , p e o p l e exchange words i n o r d e r t o communicate t o another t h e i r predominant and
t h o u g h t s , i d e a s , b e l i e f s and
t h a t they are r e l a t i v e l y
of one
feelings
s u c c e s s f u l i n d o i n g so.
Bernard's
t h e a t r e s u g g e s t s t h a t , h o w e v e r s t a n d a r d s u c h an a s s u m p t i o n
may
be,
people
are
preoccupations
or
i t i s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t e r r o n e o u s , and
inclined emotions.
not Of
to
voice
their
principal
that
c o u r s e . J u s t because people t e n d
t h e s e t h i n g s does n o t mean t h a t t h e y a r e i n c l i n e d
not
to
t o be
voice silent.
- 124 -
a l t h o u g h some, l i k e M a r t i n e , may be more t a c i t u r n t h a n others. They may w e l l be q u i t e v o l u b l e b u t t h e i r l o q u a c i o u s n e s s can be considered a more o r l e s s t r i v i a l f a g a d e , t h e v e r y p u r p o s e o f which i s t o c o n c e a l , f o r a v a r i e t y o f reasons, what they a r e r e a l l y t h i n k i n g and f e e l i n g .
A remark i n N a t i o n a l e 6 i s r e l e v a n t i n t h i s r e s p e c t . Francine
tells
portrait,
he e x c l a i m s
has dis
ce que j e p e n s e '
and
know a b o u t F r a n c i n e
maintains
i n his
t o accept
je
from what
we
and
that
artless, she
she t h i n k s when g i v i n g an o p i n i o n . What we c a n n o t that
further
she s a y s w h a t she i s t h i n k i n g . F o r i f
are almost
unspoken t h o u g h t s
says accept
looks
she
context
as she c o n v e r s e s w i t h
Robert
h a s been e x p e c t i n g t h e
road
to
play,
o f Bernard's c h a r a c t e r s v a r i e s from
and t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e surmised
content
the
bring
1 9 ) . The e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e a u d i e n c e c a n c o n j e c t u r e
t h e unspoken t h o u g h t s
no
the
c e r t a i n l y c e n t r e d on w h e t h e r o r n o t he c o u l d be
' p r i n c e charmant' (TV,
one
t h a n t h e s c e n e i n q u e s t i o n , we know f r o m
t h a t Francine's
girl
'...Mais...
t h a t she i s i n n o c e n t
i s prepared
her
time a p r e t t y
(T V, 7 1 ) . Now i t i s o b v i o u s
the reader/spectator
what
to
that this i s the f i r s t
t o l d him t h a t . Naively Francine
already
is
R o b e r t she t h i n k s he has f l a t t e r e d
When
at play
inevitably
v a r y m i n i m a l l y f r o m one r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r t o a n o t h e r .
More o f t e n
t h a n n o t , h o w e v e r , some k i n d o f ' d i a l o g u e s o u s - j a c e n t '
- t o use
Bernard's
dialogue
terminology - i s
discernible
'sous
le
-
125
-
294 entendu' ( ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r l e t h e a t r e ' , p. 4 8 ) . Even though we c a n n o t be s u r e o f t h e e x a c t w o r d s she i s u s i n g , we can be c e r t a i n t h a t what F r a n c i n e i s s a y i n g t o h e r s e l f i n t e r n a l l y , her 'dialogue sous-jacent', i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t she says vocally t o Robert, her 'dialogue entendu'. Furthermore, the evidence o f Bernard's t h e a t r e considered i n i t s e n t i r e t y leads the reader/spectator t o conclude that Robert's reply to Francine, 'Vous d i t e s ce que v o u s p e n s e z ? . . . Q u e l phenomene!' ( T V , 7 1 ) , h a r b o u r s as much t r u t h as i t does c y n i c i s m . There are numerous e x a m p l e s o f p e o p l e who t e n d n o t t o say w h a t they t h i n k and e v e n more r a r e l y say w h a t t h e y a r e t h i n k i n g . Indeed, most B e r n a r d i a n c h a r a c t e r s e r e c t some k i n d o f communication screen regularly or intermittently and, like Francine, i n n o c e n t l y w i t h o u t any r e a l a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g so.
The
fact
inconsistently
that and
such
with varying
i n e v i t a b l y complicates paralinguistic
and
of
dialogue
degrees
of
the communication process
non-verbal
everyday conversations
294.
fagades
packaging
speakers tend
are
unconsciousness because o f t h e
o f speech.
t o have
erected
Since
less control
in of
B e r n a r d d i d n o t d i s c o v e r t h e s e two t y p e s o f d i a l o g u e . I n 1896 M a e t e r l i n c k makes a s i m i l a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a ' d i a l o g u e e x t e r i e u r e m e n t n e c e s s a i r e ' and 'un a u t r e d i a l o g u e q u i semble s u p e r f l u ' , a d d i n g , w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l a t t e r , 'Examinez a t t e n t i v e m e n t e t v o u s v e r r e z que c ' e s t l e s e u l que 1'ame e c o u t e p r o f o n d e m e n t , p a r c e que c ' e s t en c e t e n d r o i t s e u l e m e n t qu'on l u i p a r l e ' ( L e T r e s o r des h u m b l e s , p. 1 3 8 ) . L a t e r , i n a p r e f a c e e n t i t l e d 'A p r o p o s d ' a r t d r a m a t i q u e ' and d a t e d 1907, H e n r y B a t a i l l e w r i t e s o f a 'langage d i r e c t ' and a 'langage i n d i r e c t ' ( T h e a t r e c o m p l e t I I , p. 9 ) . B e r n a r d ' s o r i g i n a l i t y l i e s i n h i s a n a l y s i s and s k i l f u l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e s e two ' d i a l o g u e s ' o r ' l a n g a g e s ' i n s t a g e - m a n a g e a b l e p l a y s . See a l s o pp. 4 3 6 - 4 3 7 .
- 126 -
how t h e y s a y w h a t t h e y s a y t h a n t h e y have o f t h e w o r d content o f t h e i r s p e e c h , t h e p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s t h e y e m i t may be a p p r o p r i a t e p a c k a g i n g f o r t h e i r s u b j a c e n t dialogue b u t t o t a l l y i n c o n g r u o u s w i t h t h e words t h e y v o i c e , o r e l s e they may tally perfectly with these and j a r w i t h their more s i g n i f i c a n t u n s p o k e n t h o u g h t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t w o u l d seem t h a t in some i n s t a n c e s i n t e r l o c u t o r s , may a t l e a s t become aware o f , or e v e n go some way t o p e n e t r a t i n g , each o t h e r ' s screen of 'dialogue entendu' i f they a r e a t t e n t i v e t o t h e p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s b e i n g e m i t t e d .
In
A c t I I o f L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage O l i v i e r i m p l i e s
Marie-Louise
was
t h e i r marriage, and of
much more t r a n s l u c e n t a t
the
beginning
b u t now he c a n o n l y g u e s s v a i n l y a t t h e
nature o f her mysterious
that
u n s p o k e n t h o u g h t s . The
of
extent
existence
t h e s e , however, i s b e t r a y e d , p r e d i c t a b l y , t h r o u g h t h e eyes:
. . . Q u ' e s t - c e que t u etais quand je t'ai epousee? Une e n f a n t , n ' e s t - c e p a s ? E t n o t r e bonheur t'avait conservee e n f a n t . . . I I n'y avait que de 1'insouciance dans ces bons yeux-la... Mais maintenant... ( I I l u i t o u c h e l e f r o n t . ) qu'y a-t-il la d e r r i e r e ? Je s e n s des t a s de p e n s e e s . . . s i p r o f o n d e s . . . s i c a c h e e s . . . (T I , 302)
We
learn
a t the very beginning,
t h a t even i f C l a i r e of
A l a R e c h e r c h e des Coeurs
i s n o t i n v i t e d behind
'dialogue entendu',
their
of
a l l Charles'
she i s c u l t i v a t i n g t h e a r t o f
e x i s t e n c e . A c e r t a i n way o f j o k i n g i n f o r m s h e r
screens detecting in
i n s t a n c e t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s t r o u b l i n g h i m . When he d e n i e s she
i g n o r e s w h a t he s a y s ,
presses
him t o t e l l
r e g i s t e r s h i s 'faux enjouement'
h e r w h a t i s on h i s m i n d (T I I I , 1 0 ) .
this this, and
- 127 -
It
would appear t h a t Francine o f N a t i o n a l e 6
b e h i n d h e r mother's she
'Maman ne s a l t p a s se t a i r e
dans s a n a t u r e , v o i l a t o u t '
picture
and
appearances his
wife
realizes
would
sees
f a g a d e . She d o e s n o t r e a l l y u n d e r s t a n d
i s so t a l k a t i v e :
pas
never
that
i s more
s u g g e s t . He u n d e r s t a n d s ,
' q u i se
plaint
de
. . . ce n ' e s t
( T V, 8 ) . M i c h e l h a s a
Elisa
porter
why
better
complex
than
f o r instance,
tout
le
that
poids
du
menage . . . n ' e s t j a m a i s a u s s i c o n t e n t e que quand o n l u i donne une
f a t i g u e supplementaire
pas' he
. . . Seulement e l l e
ne
I'avouera
( T V, 5 7 ) . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , one w o n d e r s how f u l l y knows t h e i n n e r E l i s a .
When M i c h e l i n f o r m s h e r t h a t
even Robert
h a s a s g o o d a s t o l d F r a n c i n e h e w a n t s t o m a r r y h e r , she i s t o o moved
t o p u t up h e r u s u a l s c r e e n o f f u s s i n g v o l u b i l i t y .
t i m e M i c h e l t r i e s t o g e t a response 'Oui',
Every
f r o m h e r she can o n l y r e p l y
'Oui...' o r '...Qui...' even a f t e r a p a r t i c u l a r l y
'replique'
on
M i c h e l ' s p a r t w h e r e he s p e a k s f o r more
page o f d e n s e l y p a c k e d p r o s e
long
than
(T V, 8 9 - 9 2 ) . O n l y when he
a
leaves
h e r o n h e r own does she g r a d u a l l y g i v e v e n t t o h e r t h o u g h t s and emotions
i n an arm movement w h i c h
f e w w o r d s murmured It outside feelings. she Her not
i s partly
'se f a i t p l u s l e n t ' and i n a
'd'une v o i x m o u i l l e e
de l a r m e s '
(TV, 92).
t o p r o t e c t h e r v u l n e r a b l e psyche
w o r l d t h a t M a r t i n e never
from
the
says a n y t h i n g about h e r
real
By n o t t a l k i n g a b o u t h e r l o v e a n d s u f f e r i n g
herself
d i s c o u r a g e s o t h e r s f r o m t r e s p a s s i n g on h e r i n n e r s a n c t u a r y . bulwark o f silence i s f a i r l y appreciate i sthat,
efficient,
b u t what
she
may
p a r a d o x i c a l l y , s i l e n c e c a n be q u i t e an
- 128 -
295 effective instrument o f communication. By n o t v o i c i n g h e r deep e m o t i o n a l concerns, and by n o t f i l l i n g the resultant s i l e n c e w i t h some k i n d o f s u p e r f i c i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , she i s n o t p u t t i n g a n opaque f e n c e a r o u n d t h e t a b e r n a c l e o f h e r s o u l b u t a perspex screen.
7.
The c o n v e n t i o n o f s m a l l - t a l k Sometimes c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e m a i n s a t a s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l
becomes
c o m p l i c a t e d b e c a u s e one o r b o t h o f
the
interlocutors
s i m p l y t a l k s f o r t h e sake o f t a l k i n g . R o b e r t i s g u i l t y at
t h e b e g i n n i n g o f A c t I I I o f N a t i o n a l e 6.
tells
her father
comme
s ' i l avait
t h a t Robert peur
de
'parlait,,il rester
(T V, 8 8 ) . I n f a c t t h e t h r e a t o f m u t u a l is
silence
being
this
Francine
p a r l a i t sans
n o t t h a t f r i g h t e n i n g . I t i s n o t unusual
silent
of
Later
silencieux
or
arret,
avec
moi...'
i nthis
f o r people
scene t o be
t o g e t h e r when some a c t i v i t y r e q u i r i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t . R o b e r t d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y have t o speak
Francine.
However,
absent-mindedly,
he
helps
maintains him
work.
that
talking,
'C'est comme
to even
l e bruit
du
m o u l i n ' , he e x p l a i n s , ' S i l e m o u l i n ne f a i s a i t pas de b r u i t , i l ne
t o u r n e r a i t pas...'
the
(T V, 7 3 ) . I f b o t h i n t e r l o c u t o r s t a l k f o r
s a k e o f t a l k i n g a n d a r e aware t h a t t h e y a r e engaged i n t h i s
kind
o f s u p e r f i c i a l d i a l o g u e , t h e r e may be no r e a l l y
communication
b u t no c o n f u s i o n w i l l
arise
when a s p e a k e r m a k i n g s m a l l - t a l k
295.
See p p . 95-100.
ensue
either.
inadvertently
meaningful Problems trespasses
129
on
the
deepest
succinct
emotional
example
of this
Le P r i n t e m p s d e s A u t r e s . up
concerns
can
work
daughter. tack
i s t o be f o u n d
a t the
fresh
t o confessing
he
i n common. I n m e n t i o n i n g
u n w i t t i n g l y and i n d i r e c t l y
A of
opening
appears
Sometimes
the
preoccupations, from
these Autres,
Clarisse
a
some
have
relatively When h e r
embarrassment
a
dual
purpose
in
so
that
i t
hides
success their
f r o m o t h e r s a n d / o r d i v e r t s t h e i r own concerns.
In
speaking
t h e vacuum o f s i l e n c e w h i c h w o u l d
t h e y t r y w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f dialogue
name,
m i s i n t e r p r e t s (T I , 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 ) .
Whilst f i l l i n g
.exist,
engineer
t o take the
friend's
probes
r e t i c e n t , M a u r i c e shows
people
superficially.
the
f o r her
s m a r t i n g wound i n C l a r i s s e ' s h e a r t .
w h i c h she i n t u r n u n d o u b t e d l y
otherwise
h i s love
The t a s k i s a d e l i c a t e one a n d he d e c i d e s
and s t i l l
response
the
first
Act
of
he f i n d s t h a t t h e c o u r a g e t o t e l l
real
Le P r i n t e m p s
h e r what i s
h i s m i n d i s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g . Any s i l e n c e s i n t h e
with Clarisse a t this
to
attention
once M a u r i c e h a s s t a r t e d up t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n
are t h r e a t e n i n g f o r h i m because, g i v e n h i s tenuous
get
beginning
M a u r i c e h a s t o f i n d a way o f
h i s way r o u n d
of a friend
however,
on
his interlocutor.
a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h C l a r i s s e , who h a s n e v e r met h i m , so t h a t
he
des
of
with really
dialogue
relationship
s t a g e , he f e e l s hounded by them e i t h e r t o
t o the point or t o terminate the conversation
and
leave,
n e i t h e r o f w h i c h he w a n t s o r c a n b r i n g h i m s e l f t o d o .
Clarisse
who
entendu'
i s t r y i n g t o p e n e t r a t e h i s screen
eventually
of
h i t s on a s u b j e c t a b o u t w h i c h ,
small white l i e ,
'dialogue
a t t h e expense o f
he c a n t a l k v o l u b l y and i n n o c u o u s l y :
a
-
130 -
CLARISSE Alors, quoi?... J e ne suppose p a s v e n i e z p o u r l e s c h a m p i o n n a t s de t e n n i s . . .
que
vous
MAURICE, p r e c i p i t a m m e n t Oui, o u i , justement.
CLARISSE P o u r q u o i ne l e d i s i e z - v o u s pas t o u t de s u i t e ? . . . P a r c e que ce n ' e s t p a s v r a i ?
MAURICE Mais s i , c ' e s t v r a i . Je s u i s t r e s fort au tennis, tres fort... J'aime t o u s les sports d'ailleurs . . .
(T I , 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 )
And runs
so
he c o n t i n u e s u n t i l ,
out
t w e l v e l i n e s o f speech
o f m a t e r i a l and i s f o r c e d t o
qu'au
fond
204).
After
j e n ' a i aucun m e r i t e a aimer l e a
telling
silence
significantly
'Tout
confidences...'
(T I , 2 0 4 ) .
Most where
conclude
of
the
cela
pour
ne
'Vous
smiles
pas
'make
of to
exchanges, nothing
to
silences
Michel, distract
which
E l i s a , Antoine them f r o m
embarrassment, disappointment
interrupt
fill
their
personal
an
dinner and, i n
their
and R o b e r t f i n d
de
dialogue
s i l e n c e . E v e n t u a l l y t h e atmosphere a t t h e
intermittent
says
faire
t a b l e becomes s a t u r a t e d w i t h i n t e n s e u n s p o k e n e m o t i o n s , the
(T I ,
and
me
conversation'
he
voyez
tennis...'
A c t I V o f N a t i o n a l e 6 i s composed
interlocutors
uncomfortable
Clarisse
later,
forced
they
have
feelings
and sadness, n o t t o mention
of
their
-
131
-
shared sympathy f o r t h e mute, e m o t i o n a l l y b l e e d i n g Francine whose a l m o s t a u d i b l e s i l e n c e t h e y a r e a n x i o u s t o drown (T V, 122-126). Here we see c h a r a c t e r s who a r e determined not to v o i c e t h e i r r e a l t h o u g h t s b u t r a t h e r t o s u p p r e s s them by s a y i n g a n y t h i n g e l s e t h e y c a n . Words a r e n o t b e i n g u s e d as i n s t r u m e n t s of communication - e f f e c t i v e l y or otherwise - but rather as psychological buffers.
A somewhat s i m i l a r phenomenon o c c u r s o f M a r t i n e . The
final
when
J u l i e n marries
mark
the
end
aggravated t h a t she
when
she
s e a l i s p u t on M a r t i n e ' s
suffering.-
Jeanne t e l l s her
t h a t she
their
her is
union
torment
almost
is
certain
(T I , 1 5 4 ) . G i v e n t h e f a c t t h a t Jeanne
experiencing the b l i s s of c a r r y i n g the c h i l d of loves,
experience,
the
excruciating.
the
destined
never
to
latter's
at
point
is
A few
e a c h o t h e r and
emotional
pain
s e c o n d s a f t e r M a r t i n e has and
this
given
the
Jeanne c l e a r l y have t h i n g s t o
tell
emotions t o express;
been
t h e l a s t t h i n g t h e y want t o
i s i n d u l g e i n s m a l l - t a l k , b u t t h e y a r e o b l i g e d t o do so
Martine's
p r e s e n c e . They d e l i v e r and
i n s u c h a way trop'.
because
manipulate
t h a t i t i s b l a t a n t l y obvious
Martine h e r s e l f i s very conscious
obtrusive
but she
is
is
a joy Martine h e r s e l f i s
news, J u l i e n a r r i v e s . He
do
Indeed,
Tableau
disillusionment
J e a n n e , b u t by no means does her
i s pregnant
currently man
of
i n the f o u r t h
this
still
shaking
interiorly
small-talk
that Martine
is
'de
t h a t her presence
c a n n o t r e a c t i n consequence, l a r g e l y from
the
by
no
is
doubt
emotional
- 132 -
impact
t h e news o f J e a n n e ' s p r e g n a n c y has h a d on h e r and
partly
b e c a u s e she a l s o w a n t s t o s a v o u r t h e p l e a s u r e o f s e e i n g a g a i n . S e e m i n g l y ' r i v e e a u s o l ' (T I , 1 5 5 ) , she c a n do but
stare
at
conversation
the
between
couple,
their
paralysed
J e a n n e and J u l i e n
s t r a i n e d , b u t they are unable to
too
room, b e c a u s e
to
becomes
l a chambre'
nothing
speak.
and
retire
(T I , 1 5 7 ) .
E v e n t u a l l y , j u s t a f t e r t h e y have d r o p p e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y hint
t o p r o m p t h e r d e p a r t u r e , M a r t i n e makes a r e a l
speak
b u t i n v a i n . D u m b s t r u c k she s u d d e n l y ,
The
increasingly
t o take the i n i t i a t i v e
'Simone f a i t
Julien
strong
effort
silently,
to
leaves
w i t h o u t b e i n g a b l e t o say e v e n a p o l i t e goodbye. I n t h i s
scene, 296
'dont have
aucune a n a l y s e
ne p e u t r e n d r e
I'angoisse
a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e two i n t e r l o c u t o r s c a n n o t say w h a t
want t o say n o r can t h e y s t o p s p e a k i n g to
muette',
'hear'
we they
because t h e y do n o t w a n t
t h e h i g h l y e x p r e s s i v e s i l e n c e o f a s u f f e r i n g and mute
third party.
8.
The c a t h a r t i c r o l e o f t a l k i n g Of
course
n o t a l l human b e i n g s
r e a l preoccupations. say
296.
consistently
hide
their
Some h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o t a l k o p e n l y
and t o
w h a t t h e y a r e . t h i n k i n g more o f t e n t h a n o t h e r s .
Here one i s
Leon L e m o n n i e r , 'Le T h e a t r e de J e a n - J a c q u e s B e r n a r d ' , La Revue M o n d i a l e , no. 15, 1 a o u t 1925, p. 295.
-
133
-
reminded
of
Fontaney, Charles
d'Arvers
or
o f the King i n Louise
Henriette
how
he
has
Nodier
and
Marie
de l a V a l l i e r e ,
suffered 'd'etre p r i v e
e s s e n t i e l l e au b o n h e u r q u ' e s t
in
de
l a conversation'
Le
Secret
who
tells
cette
chose
(T V I , 4 2 ) .
Sometimes b o t h c h a r a c t e r s i n a d i a l o g u e a r e q u i t e happy t o express t h e i r thoughts so
absorbed
listen
in
v e r b a l l y b u t i n t h e p r o c e s s each becomes
w h a t he h i m s e l f i s s a y i n g t h a t
to his interlocutor at a l l .
The
he
does
not
is
two
effect of this
297 'monologues points
in
out,
dialogue', Andre and
of
which,
Blanche Merin
as
Kester
provide
an
Branford excellent
298 example they
in
may
years'
Act be
I o f Le Feu
t o h a v e one
separation,
together
qui reprend
another
mal.
However
glad
after
four
t o t a l k t o again
t h e y a r e b o t h more o r
less
o n l y a q u a r t e r o f an h o u r a f t e r A n d r e ' s
soliloquizing return
from
t h e army (T I , 3 2 - 3 3 ) . Occasionally talk for
b o t h i n t r o v e r t s and
a b o u t t h e i r deep e m o t i o n a l
n o r m a l l y unspoken
want
to
concerns
t h e c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t s u c h an a i r i n g p r o d u c e s . T h e r e comes a
point
i n A c t I o f Le Feu
longer
keep her t h o u g h t s
to
and
e x t r o v e r t s may
herself.
'Je ne
qui reprend
mal
when B l a n c h e
r e g a r d i n g the American's
v o u l a i s d ' a b o r d pas
vous l e
v o u l a i s l e d i r e a p e r s o n n e au monde. M a i s c e l a me says t o
Jeanne
p.
just
297.
See
298.
A S t u d y , pp.
can
no
proposition dire.
Je
pese...'
ne she
b e f o r e u n b u r d e n i n g h e r s e l f (T I , 1 7 - 1 8 ) .
96. 48-49.
- 134
-
A f t e r h i s major d i s p u t e w i t h Blanche i n Act I I I o f the same p l a y , Andre i s 'tout pret a v i d e r son coeur' t o h i s f a t h e r but h e s i t a t e s and p r o b a b l y o n l y decides a g a i n s t doing so because t h e l a t t e r says how weary and o l d he i s f e e l i n g (T I , 8 7 ) . I n Act I I I o f Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan D a n i e l experiences some r e l i e f from h i s g u i l t when, having t o l d Madeleine t h a t he i s l e a v i n g , he goes on t o use her as a confessor: 'Ah! ga me fait du b i e n , madame, de vous d i r e c e l a . . . I I y a longtemps que j e v o u l a i s , mais j e ne pouvais pas...' (T V I , 332).
A t times the p s y c h o l o g i c a l need f o r deep emotions t o
find
k i n d o f v o c a l e x p r e s s i o n i s so s t r o n g t h a t i t w i l l
seek
some
fulfilment
unbeknown
conscious
will.
to
and/or
Martine
is
against
obliged to
the
individual's
seek
this
type
of
c a t h a r t i c r e l i e f t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y o f Madame Mervan
and
Jeanne
her
who
do express t h e i r f e e l i n g s f o r
Julien.
Hence
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e t e a r s when Madame Mervan says ' C ' e t a i t t r o p beau et
c e l a ne p o u v a i t d u r e r . . . ' f o l l o w e d seconds l a t e r
beaucoup
de
c h a g r i n , mais j e ne veux pas q u ' i l s
by
le
'J'ai
sachent'
( M a r t i n e , T I , 164), which would be Martine's own words i f let
herself
say
them.
When, i n
Act IV
of
N a t i o n a l e 6,
she a
b i t t e r l y d i s a p p o i n t e d Antoine s t a r t s t o come t o terms w i t h
the
idea
his
o f moving on, he makes a supreme e f f o r t t o crowd out
depressing
thoughts
with
t a l k of other
things,
'de
choses
s e r i e u s e s ' he says i r o n i c a l l y (T V, 112). However, he f i n d s difficult, vocally. on
the
and
eventually his real
preoccupations
resurface
At one p o i n t Robert, t r y i n g t o h e l p h i s f a t h e r future
rather
than
the
present,
i t
asks, 'Que
focus vas-tu
- 135 -
faire?'
(T V, 1 1 5 ) . I n h i s r e p l y Antoine's subjacent
thoughts
speak t h r o u g h t h e tenuous fagade he and h i s son have e r e c t e d :
Un roman, p e u t - e t r e ? D ' a i l l e u r s , j ' a v a l s promis a ces braves gens de l e u r d e d i e r un roman. A u j o u r d ' h u i , j ' a i t r o u v e mon denouement... (D'un ton detache.) ...Seulement, v o i l a , p e u t - e t r e pas t r e s p u b l i c . Un peu t r i s t e . . . melancolique... (T V, 115)
In
i n s t a n c e s o f t h i s k i n d , where deeply f e l t
subconscious to
f e e l i n g s and i m p u l s i o n s show t h e i r
co-operate
c o v e r t l y expressed
so
as t o
t h e l i s t e n e r ( s ) may
s u f f i c i e n t l y i n f o r m e d t o be able t o understand
being
and/or
determination
w i t h a screen o f 'dialogue entendu'
achieve some k i n d o f e x p r e s s i o n through i t , be
emotions
t h e message
through t h i s s t r a t e g y , which
i s the
case i n t h e exchange between Antoine and Robert j u s t c i t e d
and
in
o t h e r s i m i l a r i n s t a n c e s d u r i n g t h e meal i n t h e second
half
of
t h e same
A c t o f t h e same
semi-submerged discernible attempted
thought
may
play.
At
other
be t o o complex o r
t o the l i s t e n e r ,
b u t one
times, t h e
subtle
presumes
t o be
that
the
a i r i n g o f t h e repressed idea o r emotion f o r i t s own
sake n e v e r t h e l e s s serves a purpose f o r t h e speaker, even i f he himself
is
psychological be
unconscious
or
quasi-unconscious
of
the
mechanism a t work. A good example o f t h i s i s t o
found i n A c t I I o f Le Printemps
des Autres
when
Clarisse,
' l a voix b r i s e e ' , e x p l a i n s her concern t o a s u r p r i s e d Maurice:
Mais j ' a d o r e G i l b e r t e . Mais j e v o l s c e t t e p e t i t e e n c e i n t e , l a s s e , i n q u i e t e . S i e l l e ne sent pas ces choses, j e vous j u r e que j e ne l e s sens que t r o p pour e l l e . P e u t - e t r e que son a f f e c t i o n I ' a v e u g l e . Ou p e u t - e t r e q u ' e l l e ne v e u t r i e n vous montrer. Mais moi, j e peux vous d i r e ce q u ' e l l e ne vous d i r a pas... Ah! vous etes un e n f a n t , vous etes un e n f a n t . Vous ne
- 136 -
savez pas q u e l l e s s o u f f r a n c e s provoque un geste m a l a d r o i t . Vous ne savez pas ce qu'un r e g a r d de vous mal d i r i g e peut b l e s s e r un coeur q u i vous aime. E n f a n t , e n f a n t , vous f a i t e s mal, vous f a i t e s mal... Vous ne devez pas f a i r e t a n t de mal... (T I , 235-236)
Here
Clarisse
i s t a l k i n g about
Maurice's
causing
Gilberte
s u f f e r i n g , b u t a t t h e same time h e r own subconscious resentment against surface.
Maurice
f o r causing her s u f f e r i n g
i s struggling
to
S i m i l a r l y , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g speech from
L'Invitation
au Voyage Marie-Louise t a l k s t o h e r husband about
Jacqueline's
marriage voice
whilst
h e r own d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n t r i e s
indirectly to
itself:
L ' e s s e n t i e l e s t que J a c q u e l i n e s o i t heureuse... (Songeuse.) E t e l l e saura I ' e t r e . Son mari l u i donnera t o u t ce q u ' e l l e peut d e s i r e r : un i n t e r i e u r , la p a i x b o u r g e o i s e , un budget b i e n e q u i l i b r e , des e n f a n t s , P a r i s deux f o i s p a r an, des amis de l e u r milieu, des p e t i t s p o t i n s . . . J a c q u e l i n e n'a pas beaucoup... d ' a s p i r a t i o n s . . . (T I , 306-307)
When Denise M a r e t t e i s o s t e n s i b l y e x u l t i n g i n her f a t h e r ' s g i f t o f s e l f i n t h e presence o f M a r t i n and C h a r o l l e s , she i s
really
t a l k i n g about h e r own s e l f - s a c r i f i c e and i n so doing f i n d i n g much needed o u t l e t f o r h e r p e r s o n a l p a i n and f r u s t r a t i o n :
. . . I I ne f a u t pas c r o i r e que nous... (Comme si e l l e a v a i t bute siir ce mot, e l l e se reprend.) I I ne f a u t pas c r o i r e q u ' i l t r a v a i l l e comme un a u t r e . C'est lui-meme q u ' i l met dans ses oeuvres; c'est un peu de sa substance, un peu de son coeur... P r o d u i r e , mais c'est donner de sa v i e . . . Savez-vous meme que Qa f a i t mal?... Ma c h a i r , mon sang! Ces p a r o l e s s e r o n t t o u j o u r s v i v a n t e s pour des c r e a t e u r s . Car c'est b i e n c e l a q u ' i l s vous donnent! Cela? Mes s o u f f r a n c e s , mes j o i e s , mon o r g u e i l , ma jeunesse... (D'un autre ton.) Ma jeunesse... (Denise M a r e t t e , T I I , 108-109)
a
137
It
i s l i k e l y t h a t Denise's move from t h e t h i r d
person she
singular with
'Ma c h a i r , mon sang!' i s a c c i d e n t a l ,
as
has a l r e a d y made a s i m i l a r mistake e a r l i e r i n h e r speech.
It
i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t she q u i c k l y and d e f t l y
damage it
t o the f i r s t
corrects
any
done v i s - a - v i s h e r i n t e r l o c u t o r s i n such a manner
that
allows
her t o return
t o the f i r s t
person
which
is
c a t h a r t i c a l l y s a t i s f y i n g f o r her. When
people a r e drawn t o do some
psychological
which e n t a i l s c l a s s i f y i n g t h e i r thoughts and f e e l i n g s
'filing' verbally
i n o r d e r t o f i n d an e m o t i o n a l r e s t i n g p o i n t i n words, a more o r l e s s s i l e n t i n t e r l o c u t o r a c t i n g as a sounding board i s a l l t h a t is
required.
I t i s t h i s sort o f service
that
t h e as y e t
unmarried Jeanne a p p r e c i a t e s from M a r t i n e when she s t i l l has a week
t o wait before Julien's
return
from
Germany.
Monsieur
Merin s e n i o r uses h i s son and d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w i n a s i m i l a r in
A c t I I I o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal. On o t h e r
way
occasions t h e
a s s i s t a n c e o f a more a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t e r l o c u t o r may be necessary. urgently
I n t h e f i n a l scene
begs P h i l i p p e
o f L'Ame en peine
Marceline
t o l i s t e n t o her and t r y t o understand:
Au secours, P h i l i p p e . Tu v o l s comme j e v i e n s a t o i , sans defense, sans pudeur, sans c r a i n t e que nous s o u f f r i o n s . . . Aide-moi, P h i l i p p e . . . Ah! j e v o u d r a i s m'exprimer autrement, c l a s s e r t o u t ce que j ' a i dans la t e t e , m e t t r e de I ' o r d r e . . . Mais comment veux-tu? Tu v o l s , l e s idees s o r t e n t n'importe comment. Excuse-moi, ne f a i s pas a t t e n t i o n a ce que j e t e d i s . Tu es assez i n t e l l i g e n t pour comprendre quelque chose dans c e t t e c o n f u s i o n . (T I I , 285)
In
t h e f i f t h Tableau o f M a r t i n e J u l i e n appears
make
Martine
talk
about
what
has happened,
desperate
to
although the
- 138 -
unhealed
wound
which p a r t o f him knows such a
dialogue
aggravate i s a p r e s s i n g reason f o r him t o r e s p e c t her He
persists
Henry Bidou,
i n h i s questioning, motivated, i n
silence.
the
by ' l a c u r i o s i t e , melee d'une c r u e l l e
will
words
of
tendresse,
299 de
vouloir
Edmond See put man
connaitre
l e mal
qu'il
a
fait'.
Similarly,
p o i n t s o u t how J u l i e n ' s r e l e n t l e s s p r o b i n g
can
be
down t o a form o f i n b o r n male v a n i t y , t o the c r u e l t y o f
a
' acharne a c o n s t a t e r e t a f a i r e d i r e q u ' i l f u t aime'.'^^'^ At
least
one
other
co-existent
explanation
is
probable.
His
grandmother's death marks t h e end o f a c a r e f r e e , happy era
for
J u l i e n , one i n which M a r t i n e p l a y e d a s p e c i a l p a r t . J u s t as is and
l e a v i n g Grandchin house
s o l d , u n c o n s c i o u s l y he a l s o wants t o
psychologically questions.
p h y s i c a l l y t i d y w i t h possessions
cleared
leave
t i d y w i t h no emotional loose ends
or
he
things gnawing
Although he would never c o n s c i o u s l y put i t i n
such
terms, t h i s means i n d i r e c t l y drawing from M a r t i n e some k i n d
of
c o v e r t a b s o l u t i o n or b l e s s i n g . He comes c l o s e t o succeeding,
as
much
t h r o u g h h i s p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and . non-verbal
signals
as
legerement,
through
h i s words: ' ( I I s'avance.
honteuse,
mais
deja
prete
a
communication Martine
plie
s'abandonner.)
M a r t i n e . . . M a r t i n e . . . ' (T I , 179). At the l a s t minute, however, he
suddenly
withdraws,
allowing
Martine
to
maintain
her
p r o t e c t i v e screen i n t a c t t o t h e b i t t e r end.
299.
Henry Bidou, 'Chronique Dramatique. M a r t i n e ' , J o u r n a l des Debats, no. 1473, 19 mai 1922, p..841.
300.
Edmond See, Ce S o i r . . . notes e t impressions dramatiques ( P a r i s , La Renaissance du L i v r e , no date) p. 248.
- 139 -
9.
The mutual i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e 'dialogue entendu' and t h e 'dialogue s o u s - j a c e n t ' Quite
often
people make
superficial
conversation
when
t h e i r t h o u g h t s are elsewhere and t h e y are q u i t e happy f o r to
be
elsewhere - indeed when they would r a t h e r be
muse.
The opening o f Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d mal
point.
When
Jeanne L i r o n asks Blanche, 'On
pas?',
i t is
c l e a r from t h e way she
them
alone
to
illustrates ne
replies
vous 'un
this
derange
peu
vivement' t h a t she r e a l l y means ' S i ' and n o t t h e 'Non,
trop
non...'
301 she a c t u a l l y says (T I , 1 1 ) . register
However, s i n c e Jeanne does
t h i s p a r a l i n g u i s t i c s i g n a l or i g n o r e s i t ,
obliged
to
temporarily
divert
her a t t e n t i o n
from
her
Blanche
inner
a t l e a s t , i n o r d e r t o converse w i t h her f r i e n d .
o v e r l a p s Blanche's However
may
leave
essentially
him
Unbeknown
which
trivial
i t s content,
a
fagade
relatively
free
to
commune
with
spoken
their
himself.
d i a l o g u e they are engaged i n t o
unspoken
self-communion.
In
of
or i t
t o t h e i r i n t e r l o c u t o r s , people can a c t u a l l y use
superficial
As
'dialogue s o u s - j a c e n t ' .
may r e q u i r e most o f t h e person's c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
sustain
is
dialogue,
i t happens, Jeanne almost immediately touches on a t o p i c
speech
not
the
feed
Act I I
and of
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage Marie-Louise f i n d s h e r s e l f i n t h i s happy situation subtle, Geography
as
she t e l l s her son Gerard about A r g e n t i n a . I n
indirect
way
what i s
a
straightforward
l e s s o n f o r t h e u n w i t t i n g Gerard, enables h i s
t o t a l k t o h e r s e l f about P h i l i p p e
301.
apparently
See pp. 103-104.
a
(T I , 307-314).
mother
- 140 -
Sometimes a speaker may become so absorbed by h i s unspoken thoughts, surface other
whether
he i s happy t o have them o r n o t ,
c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h r o u g h an i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h preoccupations,
i s a f f e c t e d by them so
b i z a r r e v e r b a l , p a r a l i n g u i s t i c o r non-verbal
that h i s t h e mind's
that
he
gives
s i g n a l s which
are
l i a b l e t o be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . To a s m a l l degree, t h i s i s t r u e o f the
opening scene o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal r e f e r r e d t o above
where
Blanche's
dialogue latter
concentration
i s torn
between
her
and her 'dialogue entendu' w i t h t h e r e s u l t
inner
that
i s i n f l u e n c e d and c o l o u r e d by t h e former.
Unable t o
a p p r e c i a t e t h e f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Monsieur Meunier's r o l e Clarisse's
subjacent
des A u t r e s ,
Maurice
dialogue
i n Act I
i s understandably
of
the
in
Le Printemps
perplexed
by
the
c o n t r a d i c t o r y way i n which, o n l y a few moments a f t e r saying she would
prefer
not t o talk
about
Monsieur Meunier,
b r i n g s him back i n t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n h e r s e l f (T I , a
long-standing
p r e o c c u p a t i o n has become
an
Clarisse
195). Where
obsession,
the
person's everyday c o n v e r s a t i o n may be c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t o r t e d by his said
'dialogue s o u s - j a c e n t ' and he may n o t even r e g i s t e r what i s t o him. The b e s t example o f t h i s i s t o be found
i n the
opening ' r e p l i q u e s ' o f A c t I I o f L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage, which, c o n s i d e r e d devoid o f t h e i r accompanying stage d i r e c t i o n s , smack o f some o f t h e a b o r t i v e d i a l o g u e exchanged between V l a d i m i r and 302 Estragon
302.
i n B e c k e t t ' s En a t t e n d a n t Godot:
See p. 67.
- 141 -
(Au l e v e r du rideau, O l i v i e r , au bureau, range des papiers, prend des notes. Marie-Louise e s t a s s i s e pres du piano. E l l e t r a v a i l l e a un ouvrage, assez distraitement.)
OLIVIER, sans s ' a r r e t e r Qu'est-ce que t u f a i s ?
(Marie-Louise ne tourne meme pas l a t e t e . E l l e n'a pas paru entendre. Un long s i l e n c e . Les memes jeux de scene continuent de p a r t e t d'autre.)
MARIE-LOUISE, sans l e v e r l a t e t e , comme un echo lointain Qu'est-ce que t u f a i s ?
OLIVIER Je range de l a paperasse. Oh! j ' a i f i n i , d'ailleurs. (Mais Marie-Louise semble d e j a avoir oublie s a question. E l l e ne continue pas l a conversation. C'est O l i v i e r q u i , ayant mis une derniere l e t t r e sous vin presse-papier, q u i t t e son bureau; 1 1 v a v e r s e l l e e t l a regarde.) E t t o i ?
MARIE-LOUISE Moi?
(T I , 297-298) Later, about
'tout a f a i t l o i n t a i n e ' ,
Marie-Louise
tells
h e r son
t h e r i v e r s i n A r g e n t i n a u n t i l h e r v o i c e t r a i l s o f f . 'Et
p u i s ? ' asks Gerard t i m i d l y a f t e r a s i l e n c e :
MARIE-LOUISE sursaute, comme arrachee a son reve Et p u i s ? . . . ( E l l e regarde l e p e t i t e t , soudain, lui prend l a t e t e a deux mains.) Oh! t o i , p e u t - e t r e que t u peux encore comprendre... Ah! qu'est-ce que j e dis?
- 142 -
( E l l e l e lache e t se l e v e en tremblant. L'enfant l a regarde, i n t e r d i t . . .)
(T I , 313)
The
s o r t o f d i a l o g u e which can r e s u l t when a
speaker
charged
w i t h pent-up q u e s t i o n s and e m o t i o n a l t e n s i o n a t t e m p t s t o break through his
t h e fagade o f an i n t e r l o c u t o r e q u a l l y anxious t o keep
p r i v a t e w o r l d o f unspoken t h o u g h t s c a r e f u l l y concealed i s
e x e m p l i f i e d v e r y w e l l i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x t r a c t from t h e end o f Act I I
o f t h e same p l a y , O l i v i e r has j u s t r u n t o t h e door
c a l l i n g Marie-Louise back:
. . . (Au bout d'un i n s t a n t , e l l e r e p a r a i t s u r l e s e u i l . I I l u i prend l a main e t 1 ' a t t i r e en tremblant v e r s l e m i l i e u de l a p i e c e . ) Ecoute... Je v o u d r a i s . . . t e . . . Je s u i s s i . . . tourmente...
MARIE-LOUISE, d'une voix blanche Tourm... ( E l l e l e regarde. E l l e n'acheve pas.)
OLIVIER Tu n'as... r i e n a me d i r e ? . . .
MARIE-LOUISE, l a t e t e basse Quoi?
OLIVIER Vraiment r i e n ?
MARIE-LOUISE Mais... O l i v i e r . . .
non...
- 143 -
OLIVIER Pourtant...
MARIE-LOUISE Quoi?
OLIVIER ...Je ne s a i s pas.
MARIE-LOUISE Alors
(T I , 315) •
• •
Enough evidence has p r o b a b l y been g i v e n
i n this
chapter
alone t o i n d i c a t e how t h e r e i s no guarantee t h a t when words are being said
exchanged a n y t h i n g r e a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i s a c t u a l l y or
that
Bernard's holds
mutual
drama
bonds
silently.
More
highlighted
complicates
are forged
and
intuitively, 'indirectly
particularly, this investigation t h e expressed and
that
non-verbal
isa
combination
signals
which
genuine and/or
has
so f a r
of
verbal,
in
itself
m a t t e r s , t h a t communication screens a r e t h e r u l e
than
'dialogue
established.
a l s o suggests t h a t t h e h e a r t , n o t t h e head,
that
paralinguistic
throws
i s being
t h e key t o e f f e c t i v e communication
emotional
rather
understanding
being
t h e e x c e p t i o n and t h a t
entendu'
the co-existence
of a
and a 'dialogue s o u s - j a c e n t ' a u t o m a t i c a l l y
doubt on t h e v a l u e o f t h e words exchanged and causes o r
- 144 -
aggravates
communication
self-centredness are
presented
difficulties.
The
innate
and i s o l a t i o n i s m , o f which screens o f as
symptomatic,
are
the
object
of
speech further
s c r u t i n y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r fundamental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i a l o g u e and a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s t o f a u l t y and a b o r t i v e
communication.
contributing
- 145 -
CHAPTER 2
MISTAKES, MISUNDERSTANDINGS AND MISINTERPRETATIONS
- 146 -
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e mistakes, misunderstandings and m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which c o n s t i t u t e t h e drama o f a number o f Bernard's p r i n c i p a l p l a y s i s made i n t h i s chapter as i t sheds l i g h t on some o f t h e major f a c t o r s which, i n combination w i t h t h e p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal packaging o f speech and t h e t w o - t i e r n a t u r e o f d i a l o g u e , a r e shown t o sap t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words as i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication. The g e n e r a l l u b r i c i t y and f i c k l e n e s s o f words, t h e t u n n e l v i s i o n o f i n t e r l o c u t o r s who are i n t r i n s i c a l l y e g o i s t i c and t h e p o l t e r g e i s t e f f e c t o f a largely unconscious, u n r u l y and unfathomable psyche are e x p l o r e d i n some depth i n s e c t i o n s 1-4 and 6, Halfway through t h e c h a p t e r an e x a m i n a t i o n o f some i n s t a n c e s i n Bernard's drama where words a r e exchanged smoothly and w i t h r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y i s i n t r o d u c e d as a complement t o t h e survey so f a r made o f those p o r t i o n s o f t e x t where t h e d i a l o g u e i s a b o r t i v e o r l e s s m e a n i n g f u l . I n t h e f i n a l two s e c t i o n s c e r t a i n socio-economic and c u l t u r a l . f a c t o r s which Bernard suggests a f f e c t the e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e v e r b a l communication process a r e considered, t o g e t h e r w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t type o f p e r s o n a l i t y clash.
•
1.
• •
The l u b r i c i t y and f i c k l e n e s s o f words Although
focusses
on
t h e c h a r a c t e r s and a c t i o n o f N a t i o n a l e 6, a
classic
'malentendu'
and
has
which another
misunderstanding a t t h e centre o f i t s sub-plot, l i e j u s t w i t h i n the
bounds o f p l a u s i b i l i t y , t h i s , l i k e L'Ame en p e i n e ,
de P a n t i n and Le Roy de Malousie,
Jeanne
i s best considered as a p l a y
- 147 -
o f symbolism. truthful
Of course, t h i s does n o t make i t e s s e n t i a l l y l e s s
t h a n t h e r e s t o f Bernard's drama. Moreover, a
o f p o i n t s r e g a r d i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l communication
number
a r e t o be found
woven i m p l i c i t l y i n t o t h e f a b r i c o f i t s t e x t . Amongst these i s the
f a c t t h a t i n t h e exchange o f words, meanings a r e s u b j e c t t o
the
same phenomenon as t h e i r component phonemes i n a
Chinese she
game o f
whispers. Francine i s confused by Robert's words
sits
as
misunderstanding
a
model
really
f o r him i n crystallizes
Act I I I ,
when
when
but the
she r e p o r t s her
c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h him t o h e r f a t h e r immediately a f t e r w a r d s . I t is
a l s o noteworthy t h a t , by t h e time Michel t e l l s
has
Elisa
happened, Robert's o r i g i n a l statement 'C'est un
fees...'
(T V, 72) has n o t o n l y
deformed o u t o f a l l r e c o g n i t i o n :
been
misapplied
conte
what de
but also
'Car c'est une espece de f e e , 303
notre That
Francine... I I l e l u i a d i t , words
can be s u b j e c t t o such
d'ailleurs'
(T V, 9 0 ) .
modification,
even
when
r e p o r t e d by c o n s c i e n t i o u s and well-meaning people, i s i n i t s e l f evidence o f t h e s p u r i o u s e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words as of
instruments
communication. A f t e r l i s t e n i n g t o Francine's r e p o r t Michel p u t s a p r o v i s o
on
h i s conviction
t h a t Robert has made
deguisee': MICHEL Si v r a i m e n t t u as b i e n entendu...
303.
See pp. 455-457.
her a
'declaration
- 148 -
FRANCINE Oh! Qa, j ' e n s u i s sure.
(T V, 87)
In
a
way
ambiguity has
F r a n c i n e has b o t h heard and n o t
heard.
Given t h e
o f t h e French verb 'entendre' one can say t h a t
she
a c c u r a t e l y r e g i s t e r e d most o f Robert's words b u t she has
n o t understood t h e i r r e a l meaning. When Robert and Antoine have l e f t , and f a t h e r and daughter are r e v i e w i n g what happened
with
t h e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s i g h t , Francine i n no way r e c a n t s :
FRANCINE . . . P o u r t a n t , j e ne m'etais P o u r t a n t , j ' a v a l s b i e n entendu...
pas
trompee...
MICHEL Entendu quoi? Ce q u ' i l t ' a d i t ? . . . Mais t ' a - t - i l d i t une seule chose p r e c i s e ? . . .
(T V, 129)
Francine's
repetition
o f an
affirmation
earlier i s not accidental, f o r i ni t ,
made
a
fortnight
and Michel's r e p l y ,
lies
one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l keys t o Bernard's dramatic exposure o f t h e general
ineffectiveness
communication.
of
words
as
instruments
of
However t a n t a l i z i n g l y e n i g m a t i c i t may seem, two
c o n t r a d i c t o r y statements can be made about t h e c e n t r a l d i a l o g u e between
Robert and F r a n c i n e . On t h e one hand i t i s undeniable
t h a t Robert says c e r t a i n t h i n g s t o Francine which she hears and comprehends;
on t h e o t h e r hand
i t can a l s o be m a i n t a i n e d t h a t
- 149- -
Robert says p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h i n g t o Francine who misunderstands v i r t u a l l y e v e r y t h i n g . One i s reminded here o f the accuracy and t h e f a l s e h o o d which are i m p l i c i t i n t h e sentences u t t e r e d by t h e d i s c o n s o l a t e and confused Francine i n Act V. I n her r e l u c t a n c e t o accept t h e p a i n o f her d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t she wonders whether, a f t e r a l l , Robert r e a l l y does l o v e her. I n so doing she u n w i t t i n g l y s t a t e s the t r u t h whilst overtly questioning i t . U n l i k e M i c h e l who i s too involved, the reader/audience can f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e the m i x t u r e o f pathos, g e n t l e humour and d r a m a t i c i r o n y w i t h which her words r i n g as she concludes: ' I I a p e u t - e t r e c r u que j ' a v a l s mal compris. C'est p e u t - e t r e un malentendu' (T V, 129).
Technically in
speaking t h e r e i s no a c t u a l
misunderstanding
M a r t i n e . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e words which pass between the
p r i n c i p a l p r o t a g o n i s t s can be s a i d t o be f l a w e d as of
two
instruments
communication because M a r t i n e a t t r i b u t e s an importance
e n d u r i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e t o J u l i e n ' s which as he u t t e r s them
and they
do n o t have. That
words
can
be
capable
not
only
of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b u t a l s o v a s t l y d i f f e r i n g degrees o f
various intensity
i s b r o u g h t home t o t h e reader i n t h e f i f t h Tableau when
Julien
i s t r y i n g t o make M a r t i n e t a l k about what has happened:
. . . I I y a un moment... ou nous e t i o n s t r e s amis... Vous vous rappelez? (Martine r e s t e immobile, sans repondre.) Moi, j e me r a p p e l l e . . . Je me rappellerai toujours... (Uh s i l e n c e . )
(T I ,
176)
- 150 -
The r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r knows t h a t i n t h e s i l e n c e before Martine s i m p l y reminds J u l i e n about h i s d r i n k she i s s a y i n g t o h e r s e l f , "Oh! mais o u i , j e me r a p p e l l e . . . Moi a u s s i , j e me rappellerai t o u j o u r s . . . " . He a l s o knows t h a t i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e same words are b e i n g used, M a r t i n e ' s , unspoken though they a r e , have a h i g h e r l e v e l o f meaning than J u l i e n ' s i n terms o f i n t e n s i t y , energy and resonances.
Le Printemps des Autres where
the
but
h i s i n t e n t i o n s are
hears
linguistically him,
another
of
Bernard's
l i t e r a l meaning o f a p r o t a g o n i s t ' s words
understood Clarisse
is
and
interprets
what
he
says
is
fully
misinterpreted.
Maurice's words
speaking, b u t she
because
radically
plays
accurately
n e v e r t h e l e s s misunderstands i s open
to
at
least
two
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , o f which t h e wrong one i s as p l a u s i b l e as correct
one, even when b o t h a r e considered from
an
objective
s t a n d p o i n t . Indeed Act I o f t h i s p l a y i s one o f Bernard's dramatic
indictments
instruments
of
the
ineffectiveness
of
paralinguistic
words
as
accused,
and non-verbal packaging o f what
se. as
discrepancies expresses
304.
as
Consequently t h e deceived
F r a n c i n e can, o f i g n o r i n g
Maurice
or
heroine
says spoken
rationalizing
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and n o n - v e r b a l l y . "^^^
the
cannot
between what her i n t e r l o c u t o r says and
See pp. 167-168.
this
opposed t o t h e one i n N a t i o n a l s 6,
i m p l i c i t l y c o n t a i n s t h e same p o t e n t i a l a m b i g u i t y as t h e per
best
o f communication because i n t h e g e s t a t i o n o f
misunderstanding,
words
the
what
be the he
The awkward
- 151 -
pauses, t h e embarrassment and t h e w i l l t o please showing i n the eyes a r e as symptomatic o f a shy debutant s u i t o r as they are o f
r a young man about t o ask f o r h i s g i r l f r i e n d ' s hand i n marriage.
2.
The t u n n e l v i s i o n o f t h e i n t r i n s i c a l l y interlocutor The
potential
perfidy
of
words
N a t i o n a l s 6, M a r t i n e and Le Printemps interlocutors
are
egoistic
as
demonstrated
in
des Autres means t h a t i f
t o communicate e f f e c t i v e l y ,
they
have
s e l e c t t h e words t h e y speak, and i n t e r p r e t t h e ones they according
hear,
t o common c r i t e r i a . Bernard's p l a y s suggest t h a t
practice
t h i s i s o f t e n n o t t h e case, l a r g e l y because the
governing
he
hears
i s dictated
by
h i s dominating
in code
a person's s e l e c t i o n o f t h e words he speaks and
meanings
to
the
personal
concerns which are r a r e l y s i m i l a r t o h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s ,
never
i d e n t i c a l and sometimes v e r y d i f f e r e n t . The
reader/spectator
o f N a t i o n a l e 6 i s informed
o f the
p e r s o n a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n s o f b o t h Francine and Robert b e f o r e f a t e f u l conversation a t the beginning o f Act I I I . Francine's strong with
the
We l e a r n from
t a l k w i t h her f a t h e r i n Act I t h a t i t i s w i t h
and p r e c i s e e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t she e n t e r s i n t o
very
dialogue
Robert. She r e a l l y wants t o be i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h
The f u l f i l m e n t o f her sweetest dreams i s a t stake i n the
him. words
t h e y exchange. I t i s made e q u a l l y c l e a r t h a t Robert's
attitude
to
be
more
I f Robert's presence i n t h e house i s a dream
come
any
d i a l o g u e he has w i t h Francine c o u l d s c a r c e l y
dissimilar.
t r u e f o r F r a n c i n e , Bernard g i v e s h i s hero every o p p o r t u n i t y l e t the reader/spectator
know t h a t f o r him
to
i t i s a nightmare.
- 152 -
'Quelle guigne!', 'C'est une c a t a s t r o p h e ! ' , 'Ah! f i c h u e panne!' he i n t e r j e c t s a t i n t e r v a l s during h i s conversation with h i s f a t h e r i n A c t I I (T V, 38, 41 and 4 6 ) . When Robert f i n a l l y t a k e s n o t i c e o f F r a n c i n e , he sees h e r above a l l as a p o t e n t i a l model f o r h i s p a i n t i n g . On s t a r t i n g up t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f A c t I I I he i s making t h e best o f an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s i t u a t i o n , and t r y i n g t o make sure t h a t a t l e a s t h i s work b e n e f i t s from t h e untoward circumstances. Francine's dearest a s p i r a t i o n s as she converses w i t h Robert are c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , lie i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f h e r mind, and i n v o l v e Robert s p e c i f i c a l l y . Robert's on t h e o t h e r hand are vague, are n o t i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f h i s mind, and do n o t i n v o l v e Francine i n p a r t i c u l a r . M e n t a l l y Francine i s geared t o t h e f u t u r e , as she more o r l e s s t e n t a t i v e l y e n t e r t a i n s t h e i d e a o f marrying Robert. The l a t t e r , however, i s l i v i n g v e r y much more i n t h e present.
It
i s t h r o u g h t h e non-verbal
communication s i g n a l s
Martine
gives a t t h e very beginning o f the play
informs
h i s reader/audience
Julien's shade she
how she i s predisposed
Bernard t o take
l i g h t - h e a r t e d f l i r t i n g s e r i o u s l y . When she spots t h e
o f t h e apple t r e e , b e f o r e p i c k i n g up t h e baskets
again
ou e l l e se l a i s s e tomber' ( M a r t i n e , T I , 9 7 ) . The
which
we
significant: avec
that
s t r e t c h e s h e r hands 'avec j o i e ' and 'se p r e c i p i t e vers
talus in
which
ivresse
clearly a
a r e t o l d she a p p r e c i a t e s
t h e shade
'Sa t e t e , renversee en a r r i e r e , l a f r a i c h e u r de
healthy
country g i r l
1'ombre'
serable
(T I , 9 7 ) .
le
terms
are a l s o aspirer This i s
who has a z e s t f o r l i f e
and
- 153 -
knows
how t o savour i t .
she
When she r e a l i z e s a man
i s coming,
i s c e r t a i n l y n o t i n d i f f e r e n t t o h i s approach.
She
could
have s i m p l y checked t h a t she was p r e s e n t a b l e and h a s t i l y h e r s e l f up as any woman might do i n such circumstances out
tidied
i f
only
o f i n n a t e v a n i t y o r i n s t i n c t i v e c o q u e t r y . Bernard i s much
more
explicit:
cheveux,
'Vivement
e l l e baisse
s a jupe,
releve ses
en tapote l e s extremites s u r l a s tempes, defripe
son
corsage, remet s e s paniers d r o i t ' (T I , 97). The g i r l who a
few minutes b e f o r e was h e r n a t u r a l s e l f , f l i n g i n g
and
l e g s 'a d r o i t e e t a gauche, n'importe comment'
all
o f a sudden wants t h i n g s t o be and t o look
only
her arms (T I , 9 7 ) ,
just
right.
S i g n i f i c a n t l y Bernard makes i t q u i t e c l e a r t h a t a l l t h i s i s i n aid
o f a man and n o t j u s t a person by r e i n f o r c i n g
with
text.
drama
I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t a p r o t o t y p e o f t h e French
o f t h e unspoken between t h e Wars should
silent
the point
open
monologue. That t h i s should develop i n t o a
soliloquy
with
a
traditional
i s s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e i n r e a l i t y people r a r e l y
speak
305 their
thoughts
nevertheless
aloud
presented
when
they
are
alone.
Bernard
h i s l e a d i n g l a d y w i t h t h e challenge
of
opening t h e p l a y w i t h a 'Qui est-ce?' addressed t o h e r s e l f . I f the right
i n e v i t a b l y nerve-wracked a c t r e s s d i d n o t have e x a c t l y t h e i n t o n a t i o n when answering h e r own
simplistic homme...'
statements (T I ,
as
'C'est
question
un homme'
9 7 ) , she c o u l d r a i s e
a
with
such
'Un
jeune
and
laugh
which
d e s t r o y t h e ambiance o f t h e opening Tableau, t h r e a t e n
305.
See pp. 6-9.
would
Martine's
- 154 -
viability risk.
as a c r e d i b l e c h a r a c t e r and p u t t h e e n t i r e
Moreover,
these
particular
statements
redundant.
After
chaud!...'
(T I , 9 8 ) , t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r
person
coming
play
appear
a l l , as soon as Martine says
t o be
'Comme
knows
i la
that
from Bateux i s male. Bernard, however,
at
the
was
an
arch-enemy o f redundant t e x t . One can o n l y conclude, t h e r e f o r e , that
he
accepted- t h e c h a l l e n g e o f making
statements clearly and
Martine
say
i n o r d e r t o draw t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r ' s
and r a p i d l y t o her e s s e n t i a l
emotional
these
attention
preoccupation
t o t h e f a c t t h a t she i s e s p e c i a l l y male-conscious
a t the
time. Similarly
with
J u l i e n , Bernard i s q u i c k
to
inform the
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r o f t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s behind h i s f l i r t a t i o n with
Martine.
W i t h i n minutes o f h i s appearance
he
has
enough f o r t h e audience/reader o f 1922 t o have guessed t h a t i s a r e c e n t l y demobilized
s u r v i v o r o f t h e F i r s t World War,
said he and
he s h o r t l y c o n f i r m s t h i s . R e t u r n i n g t o c i v i l i a n l i f e f o r J u l i e n means a f r e s h s t a r t , and he i s open t o a l l t h e beauty t h i s life
has t o o f f e r him. G r a t e f u l t o be a l i v e , f r e e o f
discipline Martine,
and
full
is full
of
of
expectant hope,
the
he,
' j o i e de v i v r e ' .
no This
new
military
less
than
i s stated
e x p l i c i t l y l a t e r when he e x p l a i n s t o h i s grandmother why he has been so r e s t l e s s l y i m p a t i e n t since r e t u r n i n g t o Grandchin:
Grand'mere, depuis quinze j o u r s que j e s u i s a Grandchin, e s t - c e que t u ne m'as pas vu souvent a u s s i a g i t e ? e ' e s t l a j o i e , c'est 1'immense j o i e d'etre l i b r e , d ' e t r e en France, d ' e t r e i c i , pres de t o i . . . (T I , 116)
- 155
Initially
i t would seem t h a t J u l i e n ' s mood
preoccupations their
and personal
a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y compatible w i t h M a r t i n e ' s f o r
encounter
t o have happy consequences.
These
fail to
m a t e r i a l i z e , J u l i a n ' s f l i r t a t i o n p r o v i n g i n i t s essence t o have only
m a r g i n a l l y more substance
Although Julien than
he
than Robert's
has no i n t e n t i o n o f behaving
i n N a t i o n a l e 6.
dishonourably, f o r
h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h M a r t i n e amounts t o n o t h i n g 'une j o l i e h i s t o i r e , q u i p o u r r a i t e t r e p l u s
moins j o l i e . . . Mervan
asks
jolie...
C'est l a meme chose...' (T I , 119). When him a t one p o i n t what
Martine, h i s reply i s s i g n i f i c a n t :
he
more
actually
ou
Madame
wants
from
'Ah! grand'mere, l e s a i s - j e ,
ce
que j e veux?... Des p r o j e t s ? . . . J'en a i t r o p f a i t quand j e
ne
pouvais pas l e s r e a l i s e r . A u j o u r d ' h u i j e me
(T I , 118). Martine's
laisse
vivre'
On t h e o t h e r hand, as t h e p l a y develops, we reasons
f o r being
as
male-conscious
as
learn Bernard
suggests she i s i n t h e f i r s t Tableau: pressure i s being p u t her t o marry A l f r e d whom she does n o t l o v e , and she knows for
on
that
p r a c t i c a l reasons she i s n o t g o i n g t o be able t o r e f u s e him
indefinitely. understand Julien's
On
why
a second r e a d i n g o r v i e w i n g o f t h e so much emotion i s s t i r r e d up
flirting
and r e a l i z e t h a t A l f r e d ' s
play
we
i n Martine
by
interruption
of
t h e i r i n i t i a l d i a l o g u e p r o b a b l y aggravates t h i s process, making her
a l l t h e more i n c l i n e d t o charge J u l i e n ' s
words
with
an
i n t e n s i t y he never i n t e n d e d . M a r t i n e ' s f u t u r e i s p o t e n t i a l l y a t stake.
Harsh
reality,
however, c o u l d
and f o r him o n l y
n o t be
t h e immediate
further
from
Julien's
mind,
present i s
engaged.
Indeed t h e r e a r e repeated i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t f o r J u l i e n
- 156
-
h i s f i r s t encounter w i t h M a r t i n e has something u n r e a l about i t , something o u t o f e a r t h l y time and space. 'On dirait vraiment q u ' i l n ' e x i s t e p l u s r i e n en dehors de c e t t e ombre' he says and, still r e f e r r i n g t o t h e shade o f t h e apple t r e e , continues ' I I fait s i a c c a b l a n t "dehors"...' (T I , 103). A l i t t l e later he t e l l s her 'Rien que de vous r e g a r d e r me prouve que Grandchin c ' e s t quelque chose d'un peu f e e r i q u e . C'est un monde a p a r t . G'est l a l u n e ' (T I , 104). Robert may n o t c a l l Francine 'une fee' b u t J u l i e n u n e q u i v o c a l l y c a l l s M a r t i n e one, suggesting t h a t as such she has t h e ephemeral q u a l i t y o f an a p p a r i t i o n . I n t h e course o f t i m e , t h e r e f o r e , i t becomes v e r y e v i d e n t t h a t i n t h e opening two Tableaux o f t h e p l a y Martine's subjacent d i a l o g u e w i t h her i n t i m a t e s e l f and J u l i e n ' s w i t h h i s are sufficiently d i v e r g e n t f o r us t o conclude t h a t t h e y , like Francine and Robert, are t a l k i n g t o one another along totally d i f f e r e n t wavelengths. A f o r t n i g h t a f t e r h i s i n i t i a l encounter w i t h M a r t i n e J u l i e n t e l l s h i s grandmother:
. . . Je ne e x p a n s i f que j e l e f a i t l e fond de ma a cote de c e l a , passagere. (T I ,
s u i s pas t o u j o u r s avec t o i a u s s i v o u d r a i s . C'est ma n a t u r e . Ce qui v i e , j e I'aime sans m a n i f e s t e r e t , j e m ' e x t a s i e r a i sur une fleur 116)
U n f o r t u n a t e l y J u l i e n i s n o t a ' f l e u r passagere' f o r M a r t i n e , he is a potential
life-saver.
Marie Menessier, nee Nodier, o f Le Secret d'Arvers, desperate
f o r a s u i t o r . She
popular,
so
semi-disguised
she
is
i s h a p p i l y m a r r i e d and knows she i s
n o t on
o v e r t u r e s on
i s not
the
lookout
for
t h e p a r t o f anyone.
disguised She
or
does not
- 157 -
suspect
that
A r v e r s ' s problem i s h i s hopeless l o v e
f o r her,
even when h i s f e e l i n g s and h e r obtuseness a r e as good as out
f o r her, o r a t l e a s t very strongly
sonnet.
hinted
at, i n his
T h i s i s l a r g e l y because she i s so caught up
practicalities Moreover,
spelt
with
the
and p h y s i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t
moment.
a l t h o u g h she i s no s t r a n g e r t o compliments,
she i s
used t o b e i n g t h e focus o f d i r e c t , expansive a d u l a t i o n . She i s not
used t o people who a r e i n d i r e c t o r r e t i c e n t i n e x p r e s s i n g
their
emotions
Moreover,
this
either kind
i n their of
speech
or
their
r e t i c e n c e i s n o t one
poetry.
o f her own
p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . She i s someone who, a t l e a s t i n t h e company o f f r i e n d s , does seem t o say most o f what she t h i n k s as she
t h i n k s i t . When Fontaney asks a f t e r her husband,
she n o t
o n l y makes a p o i n t o f g e n t l y r e p r o a c h i n g him f o r n o t
enquiring
sooner,
she a l s o shows t h a t she i s q u i t e happy t o t a l k
her l o v e (T I I ,
about
1 8 ) . No doubt because she b e l i e v e s t h a t i f she
were i n A r v e r s ' s p o s i t i o n , she would c o n f i d e h o n e s t l y i n a good friend,
she
unhappiness where
takes
a t face v a l u e
h i s explanation
that h i s
i s due t o h i s boredom i n t h e s o l i c i t o r ' s
office
he works. I n t h i s sense Marie Nodier-Menessier o f f e r s
classic suggests
example
of
a
phenomenon
that
Bernard
indirectly
i s a major f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o f a u l t y o r
communication,
a
abortive
namely people's tendency t o assume t h a t
others
t h i n k , r e a c t and c o n s e q u e n t l y t a l k v e r y much as t h e y do. Any r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r o f M a r t i n e , N a t i o n a l e 6 o r d'Arvers tunnel
who i s tempted t o say t h a t he would never vision
i s offered
a
salutary
lesson
Le Secret have
such
i n Act I o f
158 -
Le Printemps des A u t r e s reader/spectator female
where
Bernard
allows
t o f a l l i n t o t h e same t r a p
protagonist,
as
who t h i s time i s n e i t h e r
the
the leading
credulous
nor
young b u t a mature and f a i r l y strong-minded woman o f the w o r l d . The in
opening o f t h i s p l a y c o n f i r m s a p o i n t made
the f i r s t
Tableau
o f Martine,
namely
implicitly
that
physical
s u r r o u n d i n g s , because o f t h e atmosphere c r e a t e d by them and t h e influence have
an
this
e x e r t s on t h e mood o f the
interlocutors,
can
i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g on t h e way words are r e c e i v e d
and
exchanged. There can be no doubt t h a t t h e l e a f y apple t r e e and Summer
sunshine
s e t Martine
and h e r blond
hair
o f f to
p e r f e c t i o n so t h a t J u l i e n i s encouraged t o p r a i s e h e r i n terms he
might w e l l n o t have used i n a more sobre s e t t i n g
objectivity. somewhat
The d i a l o g u e would almost c e r t a i n l y have taken
d i f f e r e n t course i f M a r t i n e and J u l i e n had met
clouds
and
appreciates
i n ugly
develops.
Bernard
chooses
beginning
that is
surroundings.
The
S i m i l a r l y , t h e importance t o give
i n h i s stage
o f Le Printemps des Autres
under
as t h e
o f the details
d i r e c t i o n s a t the
becomes
clear
o f A c t I . From h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Maurice Clarisse's p r i n c i p a l preoccupation
a
reader/spectator
t h e f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the a c t u a l decor
Tableau
course
favouring
i n the
we
learn
a t the t i m e they
meet
an e m o t i o n a l l y consuming one. Widowed a t t w e n t y - f i v e she had
numerous
admirers, then a serious l i a i s o n terminated only
two
months p r e v i o u s l y . Now i n her f o r t i e s , she i s c u r r e n t l y f e e l i n g lonely,
unsure about h e r c o n t i n u i n g seductiveness
t h a t she may be d e s t i n e d never t o f i n d l o v e a g a i n .
and
afraid
On a second
- 159 -
r e a d i n g o r v i e w i n g o f t h e p l a y we r e a l i z e t h a t when Maurice approaches C l a r i s s e , h e r most r e c e n t 'activity', namely r e l a x i n g on a chaise longue l i s t e n i n g t o gypsy music, has done n o t h i n g t o d i v e r t h e r mind from h e r emotional l i f e . On t h e c o n t r a r y , h e r mood and thoughts have been so c o n d i t i o n e d t h a t , a l t h o u g h f a r l e s s credulous t h a n her t h e a t r i c a l sisters, Francine and M a r t i n e , C l a r i s s e i s predisposed t o take Maurice's words, i f she p o s s i b l y can, i n a way t h a t i s c o m f o r t i n g t o herself.
Clarisse the
bush
senses
q u i c k l y suspects
and
them,
along
running. of
deliberately hiding his real
the v i b r a t i o n s o f h i s inner
misinterprets running
t h a t Maurice i s b e a t i n g
round
concern(s).
dialogue
but
assuming t h a t h i s unspoken
completely
thoughts
t h e l i n e s on which she would l i k e
She
them
are
t o be
Maurice, meanwhile, i s t o t a l l y absorbed by h i s love
Gilberte
and t h e need t o w i n her mother's
approval.
means t h a t t h e words C l a r i s s e and Maurice speak t o one when t h e y meet, and t h e way each i n t e r p r e t s those
This
another
( s ) h e hears,
are governed by v e r y d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l c r i t e r i a . T h e i r h e a r i n g and v i s i o n a r e d i c t a t e d by t h e t u n n e l s along which each i n s i s t s on
moving.
Bernard
The
pattern i s familiar,
b u t on
this
occasion
chooses t o take t h e audience down one o f t h e t u n n e l s ,
t h a t i s C l a r i s s e ' s , u n t i l t h e v e r y end o f t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n . The first-time as
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r , t h e r e f o r e , i s almost as
Clarisse
u n t i l G i l b e r t e rushes i n , r e a l i z e s t h a t
gatecrashed
Maurice's
subsequently
finds
tete-a-tete
herself obliged
with
her
deceived she
mother
has and
t o pour o u t a l l t h e young
- 160 -
couple
have been keeping s e c r e t f o r weeks. However,
second-time surprise
reader/spectator
loses
i n suspense
what
the
in
the
and
element a t t h e end o f the Act he gains i n a
different
306 form o f d r a m a t i c i n t e r e s t . Maurice tried
but
could
h a r d l y do more t o confuse C l a r i s s e
t h i s i s n o t h i s aim. Of course, he can
be
i f
he
charged
w i t h p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n , but h i s i n t e n t i o n s are honourable, and he is
essentially
trifling
honest. He i s c l e a r l y no
more
accustomed
c a l l o u s l y w i t h t h e f e e l i n g s o f v u l n e r a b l e women
to than
M a r t i n e ' s t o r m e n t o r . As f o r t h e f a c t o r s e x o n e r a t i n g J u l i e n , one cannot
help
distinctly
feeling
that there
would
have
been
something
inhuman about a young and s i n g l e f r e s h l y demobilized
s o l d i e r who r e s i s t e d t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o f l i r t w i t h Martine under the
shade
o f an apple t r e e by a 'route noyee
j u i l l e t , a midi' J u l i e n Mervan
de
soleil,
( M a r t i n e , T I , 9 7 ) . I n f a c t Robert Vanier
are e s s e n t i a l l y no more u n f e e l i n g than
en and
Francine
and M a r t i n e . Both g i r l s s u f f e r g e n u i n e l y when s t r i p p e d o f t h e i r illusions, the
men
b u t t h e y are no more r e s p e c t f u l o f the emotions who
l o v e them i n v a i n . At her
most
sympathetic
of all
Francine
can say w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o Antoine i s 'Je r e g r e t t e
si
j'ai
l e p e i n e r . Mais que veux-tu que j ' y
eu
assez
pu
de c h a g r i n pour mon
T V, 131).
306.
compte, va,
fasse?
papa...'
J'ai
( N a t i o n a l e 6,
M a r t i n e , f o r her p a r t , i s q u i t e b r u t a l w i t h A l f r e d .
A' d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s - p o s s i b l e o n l y w i t h h i n d s i g h t - o f t h e c r u c i a l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t h e making i s g i v e n i n Appendix A (pp. 451-454) as a f u r t h e r example o f Bernard's s k i l l and thoroughness i n exposing the u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e o r a l communication process i n everyday s i t u a t i o n s .
- 161 -
I t i s c r u e l l y i r o n i c t h a t M a r t i n e never v e r b a l l y expresses feelings
her
f o r J u l i e n who a t one p o i n t i s c r y i n g o u t f o r her t o
307 do
so,
b u t expresses i n u n e q u i v o c a l language
for
A l f r e d who r e f u s e s t o hear h e r , r e m a i n i n g impervious t o her
threat
her
feelings
t o l e a v e , t o h e r s a y i n g t h a t she does n o t want
touch
her
and t o h e r b l u n t 'Je ne veux pas de t o i . ^a
s u f f i t pas?...' The cannot
him t o ne t e
( M a r t i n e , T I , 134).
adored Marie Nodier-Menessier
of
Le Secret d'Arvers
be w r i t t e n o f f as p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s e n s i t i v e e i t h e r .
She
i s n e i t h e r s e l f i s h n o r unobservant. Far from i t , she i s c a r i n g , considerate looking
and
well
sympathetic.
She
notices
Fontaney
i s not
and expresses her concern i n terms t h a t
o n l y assume a r e s i n c e r e : 'Toujours l e meme, ce bon
we
can
Fontaney...
I I ne changera j a m a i s , j e c r o i s . Mais i l a b i e n mauvaise
mine.
Cela m ' i n q u i e t e . Pauvre gargon, c e l a m ' i n q u i e t e . . . ' (T I I , 3 5 ) . She
comments on A r v e r s ' s gloomy e x p r e s s i o n when she
looks
up
from t h e piano (T I I , 2 8 ) . She g e n u i n e l y wants t o h e l p him. She s i m p l y cannot hear what he cannot express v o c a l l y , and she does not
grasp t h e i m p o r t o f what he expresses n o n - v e r b a l l y . The
Bernard's
lack
of
judgementalism
invited
on
our
part
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Robert V a n i e r , J u l i e n Mervan,
Nodier-Menessier and Maurice G a r d i e r i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n I t suggests t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t u n n e l v i s i o n and i n s e n s i t i v i t y which i s t h e h a l l m a r k o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' to penetrate, or t o attempt t o penetrate, 307.
See pp. 137-138.
their
by Marie
itself. egoistic failure
interlocutors'
- 162 -
screens o f 'dialogue entendu' should n o t be confused outright w i t h more b l a t a n t l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e s t r a i n s o f s e l f i s h n e s s , b u t be c o n s i d e r e d as something o f which people are n o t u s u a l l y conscious and, t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , as t h e norm i n any dialogue irrespective o f the individuals involved.
3.
The p o l t e r g e i s t e f f e c t o f unconscious m o t i v a t i o n s One
o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g
Nationale 6 nobody
insisted
misunderstandings can occur
upon i n f o r which
can be h e l d c u l p a b l y r e s p o n s i b l e . Even Antoine
concede the
i s that
points
has t o
t h a t he cannot blame Robert p e r s o n a l l y f o r i n i t i a t i n g
'malentendu':
pourtant jeune,
s i , Robert... mon
faute...
'Non,
Tu
petit...
non
ce n'est
pas
t a faute...
c ' e s t t a f a u t e , parce
que...
jeune . . . O u i , o u i , c ' e s t
t u es
bien
as v i n g t - d e u x ans' (T V, 110). Robert
Et
ta
certainly
does n o t c o n s c i o u s l y i n t e n d t o c o u r t F r a n c i n e . I n as f a r as he does
flirt
with
h e r , he i s merely
conforming
to a
social
c o n v e n t i o n , and he g e n u i n e l y pays v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o what he
i s s a y i n g because he i s c o n c e n t r a t i n g on h i s work
time.
a t the
I t i s obvious t h a t Francine does h e r best t o g i v e her
father
an honest summary o f h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n . As
intent
o n l y on h i s daughter's u l t i m a t e happiness,
f o r Michel, he
presses
F r a n c i n e r e p e a t e d l y t o t e l l him as much as she can remember that
he can h e l p h e r i n t e r p r e t Robert's statements
Together detail.
so
correctly.
f a t h e r and daughter review and analyse these i n some Unfortunately,
however, once they have
come
t o one
wrong c o n c l u s i o n , t h e o t h e r e r r o r s f o l l o w almost as a matter o f
-
course.
Thus
constitutes laid
at
blame
for
163.
the
classic
t h e d r a m a t i c substance
the
door o f any o f the
'malentendu'
o f Nationale 6 three
which
cannot
characters
involved.
Robert cannot be w r i t t e n o f f as an u n f e e l i n g cad any more F r a n c i n e as a g u l l i b l e s i m p l e t o n or Michel as an parent.
The
rest
o f the
play
belies
such s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
t h e r e are no easy answers t o i n t e r p e r s o n a l
difficulties
- nor
Afterwards,
none
misunderstanding learns
how
explanation
any of
really the
comforting
characters
explanations.
can
say
interpreted
his
words.
'Mais e l l e a t o u t p r i s a l a l e t t r e '
from
what Francine t e l l s him, M i c h e l does n o t take
as
she
know
the
Robert's
t h e c o n t r a r y , he i s on t h e l o o k o u t
When i t i s a l l over, Francine i s as
everything for
hidden
uncomprehending
i s sad. M i c h e l t e l l s her t h a t they w i l l
never
really
what happened. I t i s i r o n i c t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r who
comes Elisa
would appear t o be t h e l e a s t p r i v y t o i n s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n .
Michel quand
is
intention
c l o s e s t t o an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e r o o t o f t h e problem i s who
he
Antoine's
(T V, 109)
h a l f - c o r r e c t . I n t r y i n g t o understand
meanings.
how
o c c u r r e d . Robert i s g e n u i n e l y amazed when Francine
On
point
communication
only
literally.
than
irresponsible
l a b e l l i n g . I t i s as i f Bernard were a t p a i n s t o make t h e that
be
t e l l s Francine,
d i t que t u t ' e t a i s monte l e b o u r r i c h o n . . .
raison et
moi
a u s s i ' (T V, 129). Although she draws i t w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g
its
full
elle
'Peut-etre que t a mere a un peu
s i g n i f i c a n c e and
without
using
any
technical
terms,
E l i s a ' s c o n c l u s i o n touches on t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t r o l e played the
communication
process
by
unconscious
in
motivations.
- 164 -
Consciously Francine and Michel do n o t want t o be m i s l e d o r t o m i s l e a d ; u n c o n s c i o u s l y they a r e m i s l e d and they do mislead.
can
Michel
i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y good example o f t h e way
embark
on a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h preconceived
make
them
unconsciously
i n t e r p r e t t h e words
people
ideas,
they
hear,
select
t h e words they use, i n accordance w i t h p r i n c i p l e s
might
well
inappropriate
be
fitting
i n other
which
circumstances
and that
b u t are
f o r t h e occasion. Michel makes t h e mistake
of
assuming s u i t o r s always c o u r t i n a c e r t a i n way t o which he has the
key. H i s comments t o t h e confused
Francine,
just
after
Robert has l e f t , are s i g n i f i c a n t :
MICHEL He... Je s a i s b i e n que dans ces c a s - l a on d i t l e c o n t r a i r e de ce qu'on veut d i r e . . .
FRANCINE Le c o n t r a i r e ?
MICHEL On l o u v o i e , comme d i s e n t l e s marins... C'est l a seule fagon d ' a l l e r c e n t r e l e v e n t . E t , dans l a v i e , on s'imagine t o u j o u r s a v o i r l e vent debout, meme quand i l vous pousse.
(T V, 82-83)
This
exchange takes place b e f o r e Francine s t a r t s h e r
report hearing
o f her conversation w i t h
Robert.
h e r f a t h e r ' s words she becomes
Nevertheless,
detailed
Immediately
'reveuse'
after
(T V, 8 3 ) .
by h e r r e l u c t a n c e t o take Robert's c a l l i n g h e r a
- 165 -.
'phenomene' as complimentary F r a n c i n e shows not e n t i r e l y undiscerning:
t h a t she i s
still
FRANCINE P o u r t a n t , i l a r r i v e qu'on t r a i t e l e s gens phenomene pour se moquer d'eux.
de
MICHEL Eh! j u s t e m e n t , c'est c l a i r . On prend un terme ironique, mais a double sens, pour exprimer une v e r i t e profonde. C'est beaucoup p l u s f a c i l e .
FRANCINE Tu c r o i s ?
MICHEL Tu n'avals pas compris c e l a ?
(T V, 83-84).
It
i s from t h i s p o i n t on t h a t Francine seems t o become
credulous. which to
Thus M i c h e l guides h e r b l i n d l y i n t o t h e t r a p
he h i m s e l f has u n w i t t i n g l y f a l l e n , so she i s misconstrue
preconceived hold
It Robert's
words
partly
by
i d e a s . However, i t i s above a l l
o f the g i r l ' s
emotions
long-nurtured
dreams
encouraged
her the
and
into
father's
unconscious anticipated
which i s p r i m a r i l y a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e c o n f u s i o n . would coming
consciously and
Robert's
more
seem t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t l y f a i r y - t a l e into
h e r l i f e makes Francine
determined t o q u e s t i o n her immediate
nature o f
a l l t h e more assumptions,
i t i s no doubt h e r r e l u c t a n c e t o be t h e v i c t i m o f her own
- 166 -
gullibility t h a t encourages her t o p u t her t r u s t i n her f a t h e r ' s judgement. Her r a t i o n a l , conscious desire f o r h i s i m p a r t i a l o p i n i o n i s genuine, b u t unconsciously she engineers her r e p o r t so t h a t h e r deepest a s p i r a t i o n s r e c e i v e t h e support t h e y want w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t t o her conscience o r peace o f mind. S i m i l a r l y , because o f h i s l o v e f o r h e r , Michel consciously wants t o g i v e Francine sound advice b u t unconsciously chooses t o i n t e r p r e t h e r r e p o r t i n such a way t h a t he g i v e s her t h e g r e a t e s t immediate p l e a s u r e .
A comparison o f Francine's the
a c t u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h Robert and
exchanges r e p o r t e d by her t o Michel makes i t c l e a r
that,
however i n n o c e n t l y and u n w i t t i n g l y , Francine g i v e s her f a t h e r a 308 very
erroneous r e p o r t o f her c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h
fact,
most
partially
o f t h e statements right
discrepancies Francine many
the in and,
308.
Robert's
actual
of
the extremely
In
t o Michel
are
misleading.
The
conversation
the l a t t e r ' s r e p o r t o f i t t o her f a t h e r
examples
unconsciously
and a t t h e same time h i g h l y between
and
Francine makes
Robert.
subtle
way
with are so
Francine
and t h e r e f o r e i n n o c e n t l y s e l e c t s from her memory
words she wants t o r e c a l l , and r e p o r t s them t o her f a t h e r such a manner t h a t he draws t h e c o n c l u s i o n her
unconscious
indeed, h i s unconscious want him t o draw.
A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e v e r b a l c o n t e n t o f both t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n and t h e r e p o r t i s g i v e n i n Appendix B (pp. 455-457), as i t i s t h e t h e best way o f demonstrating Bernard's competence and meticulousness i n i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e i r r e s i s t i b l e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e unconscious t o manipulate t h e communication process as i t wishes.
- 167 -
I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t the same p r i n c i p l e s apply as f a r as p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l communication s i g n a l s are concerned. Francine does n o t mislead her f a t h e r s i m p l y by r e p o r t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r s e l e c t i o n o f Robert's words and by o m i t t i n g c e r t a i n c r u c i a l nuances which she d i d n o t hear, understand or r e g i s t e r a t t h e time or cannot remember t e n minutes l a t e r ; she a l s o misleads him by f a i l i n g t o g i v e him an adequate description o f t h e p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal packaging i n which Robert's words were wrapped. I f one f a i l s t o t a k e i n t o account t h e power o f Francine's unconscious, this seems s u r p r i s i n g , f o r elsewhere i n the p l a y she shows t h a t she i s n o t i n s e n s i t i v e t o atmosphere, f a c i a l expressions and a t t i t u d e . Although she does n o t acknowledge i t a t the time, she has no difficulty accurately discerning Antoine's p a r a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and n o n - v e r b a l l y expressed f e e l i n g s f o r her. Being p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e d i n her c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Robert, however, by her deep d e s i r e t o f i n d the love o f her l i f e i n him, she u n c o n s c i o u s l y d i s r e g a r d s the p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s he g i v e s , or m i s i n t e r p r e t s them so t h a t they are i n her f a v o u r . That Robert's 'C'est un conte de f e e s . . . ' i s n e g a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n p o s i t i v e - a g e n t l e c r i t i c i s m o f her pipedreaming r a t h e r t h a n a compliment - i s conveyed by an a l l - i m p o r t a n t 'Peuh!...' which precedes Robert's statement and which F r a n c i n e o m i t s t o mention t o her f a t h e r , i n s p i t e o f the f a c t t h a t she c l e a r l y r e g i s t e r s i t a t the t i m e , a s k i n g , 'Pourquoi d i t e s - v o u s "peuh"?' (T V, 7 2 ) . There are repeated i n d i c a t i o n s i n the scene t h a t Robert's c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s very
- 168 -
much to
on h i s work and t h a t h i s i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s t o Francine her r e a c t i o n s i s n o t f e i g n e d . A f t e r t a l k i n g t o her
Francine
becomes
convinced
speaking t o her was fact
i t can
portrait
that
d i s g u i s i n g 'une
simply
be put down
Robert's
strange
and
father, way
of
idee cachee' (T V, 8 7 ) . to
Robert's
a t the same t i m e as he i s c o n v e r s i n g .
In
painting
her
Francine
for
the former i n t e r p r e t a t i o n because deep down t h i s
she
wants t o b e l i e v e . Here one i s reminded o f Marie-Louise
in
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage. When she i s b e s o t t e d w i t h a figment
of
her
own
imagination,
attributes
not
paralinguistic
only
alias
Philippe,
she
is
opts what
retrospectively
t o the l a t t e r ' s words but
and non-verbal communication
also
signals
to
his
meanings
which he never i n t e n d e d :
Oh! j ' a i des s o u v e n i r s q u i ne me trompent pas... Des p a r o l e s , des r e g a r d s , des serrements de main, des fagons, a t a b l e , de me passer l e s p l a t s , ou, au t e n n i s , de m'envoyer l a b a l l e . . . e t t a n t de choses encore que t u ne s a i s pas... (T I , 322)
J a c q u e l i n e r e a l i z e s t h a t these words, glances and gestures were almost but
c e r t a i n l y d e l i v e r e d i n a more o r l e s s
she
cannot p r e v a i l a g a i n s t the
unconscious w i s h f u l Thus, expressed
power
of
neutral
manner,
Marie-Louise's
thinking.
a l t h o u g h Bernard's t h e a t r e emphasizes t h a t what
is
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and n o n - v e r b a l l y can be o f as much
significance
as
t h e spoken words per se, i t a l s o
makes
the
p o i n t t h a t a t t e n t i v e n e s s and s e n s i t i v i t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t are no match
a g a i n s t the p o w e r f u l w i l l o f a dominant unconscious.
Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse
In
Darnley i n t e r p r e t s t h e anguish i n
- 169 -
Marie's
v o i c e when she i s w i t h him i n Glasgow as a
sign
that
309 she
i s telling
him t h e t r u t h ,
because
that
i s what
he
f u n d a m e n t a l l y wants t o b e l i e v e . ' I I ne demande qu'a t e c r o i r e , ce p e t i t i m b e c i l e ' , B o t h w e l l t e l l s the Queen b e f o r e sending her off
on h e r m i s s i o n
with
impunity
unconsciously
(T V I I , 8 4 ) . Marie's ' a c t i n g ' can be
on
this
occasion,
preconditioned
because
t o be convinced
poor
Darnley
is
by h e r . When
Blanche Merin o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal t e l l s Andre t h a t i n h i s obsessive
j e a l o u s y he i s l i k e a s i c k person whom she w i l l
look
a f t e r and h e l p t o g e t b e t t e r ' s ' i l v e u t b i e n se l a i s s e r f a i r e ' , he
replies
until
' I I ne demande que
the c r i s i s i n Act I I I ,
unconscious infidelity
wants
cela'
(T I ,
an i n s t i n c t
him t o b e l i e v e
57-58).
rooted
Blanche
However,
i n Andre's
i s guilty
more s t r o n g l y than he c o n s c i o u s l y wants
of
to
accept
Consequently, a l t h o u g h i t may seem as
though
310 her innocence. he
i s c r y i n g o u t t o b e l i e v e Blanche, as Darnley i s c r y i n g o u t
to
believe
Marie S t u a r t i n t h e p r e v i o u s
example,
under t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f h i s unconscious, Andre i s a c t u a l l y c r y i n g out more loudly
n o t t o b e l i e v e h e r and a c c o r d i n g l y never does
for
any
length o f time. Through t h e example o f Andre, t h e f a c t t h a t people tend t o see
what t h e y u n c o n s c i o u s l y want t o see i s shown t o h o l d
even w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e eyes - the p u r e s t
309.
See pp. 112-113.
310.
See pp. 240-242.
good
and most r e l i a b l e o f
- 170 -
311 communication t o o l s though they may be. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exchange when, u r g i n g him t o be reassured, Blanche r e f e r s t o the honesty i n h e r eyes:
BLANCHE, s'accrochant. a l u i e t cherchant son regard A l o r s , regarde-moi, Andre. Mes yeux t e l a i s s e n t p e n e t r e r jusqu'au f o n d de moi e t j e ne r o u g i s pas. Vols s i mes yeux mentent...
ANDRE, penche sur e l l e Non, ce r e g a r d ne ment pas... ( I I l a regarde fixement. E t tout a coup.) Pourquoi r o u g i s - t u ? . . . Pourquoi d e t o u r n e s - t u l a t e t e ?
BLANCHE, s e degageant C'est t o i q u i me genes. I I passe dans t e s des pensees a f f r e u s e s .
yeux
ANDRE, dur Va, t u n'as pu v o i r dans mes yeux que ce q u i e t a i t en t o i . ( I I s'ecarte.)
(Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d mal, T I , 44)
The
role
relevant
o f i n t u i t i o n i n the
communication
i n t h i s c o n t e x t . A t the b e g i n n i n g
des Coeurs
Charles
process i s
o f A l a Recherche
understands the g r a v i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n
l e s s from what i s s a i d on t h e s u b j e c t than from what he senses. 'II
y
a des i n t u i t i o n s q u i ne trompent pas' he
(T I I I ,
311.
11).
tells
Claire
The evidence o f Bernard's t h e a t r e suggests t h a t .
See pp. 106-110.
- 171
although
this
foundation
fact,
i t can
unconscious,
unconscious and
k i n d o f i n t u i t i o n f r e q u e n t l y has
in
person's
-
or
a t times become i t may
even
i n s t i n c t masquerading as an
some
the
be
kind
pawn
an
not
heard
sceptical
of
'declaration
and
seen,
essentially
Francine's
intuition
M i c h e l ' s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Robert has deguisee'
(Nationale
6, T V, 8 7 ) .
of
a
irrational rational
f a c t u a l l y based i n t u i t i o n . I r r e s p e c t i v e o f what she
has
of
has
or
makes made
her
her
a
Unfortunately
t h i s i n t u i t i o n f a l l s v i c t i m t o the power of her deepest d r i v i n g wish.
Antoine,
for his part, is
intuitively
convinced
that
F r a n c i n e i s i n l o v e . When Robert asks him on what he bases conviction replies,
t h a t she 'Des
w i l l welcome h i s , Antoine's, o v e r t u r e s ,
riens...
I ' h a b i t u d e du coeur des I'oublies-tu?' un peu que
(T V,
des
riens... Fie-toi
9 6 ) . L a t e r he adds, 'Ah!
struck
by
Cupid's
arrow.
unconscious which b l i n d s him
However,
he
is
every
impenetrable,
98).
misled
interlocutor
homme
In
fact been
by
t o the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t she
his could
himself.
meddlesome consequences o f a complex and
That
and
metier,
i n t u i t i o n s ' , Francine has
be i n f a t u a t e d w i t h h i s son r a t h e r t h a n
The
J'ai
j e vais peut-etre
i n t u i t i o n s trompent rarement...' (T V, 'ses
he
moi...
femmes... ( s o u r i a n t . ) C'est mon
A n t o i n e i s not deceived by
4.
a
v i t e . Mais j ' a i c o n f i a n c e , v o i s - t u , e t j e s u i s un
ses
his
i n every
unruly
conversation
more or l e s s a c t i v e , e s s e n t i a l l y
psyche has
uncontrollable
p o t e n t i a l l y meddlesome unconscious i s e a s i l y f o r g o t t e n .
reader/spectator
t h i n k s he has
a
reasonable
an
The
understanding of
- 172 -
Jeanne de P a n t i n
and Denise M a r e t t e u n t i l Bernard g i v e s him a
privileged
and i n e v i t a b l y
unrealistic
glimpse
into
their
unconscious
t h r o u g h t h e stratagem o f m a t e r i a l i z i n g t h e i r dreams
on s t a g e . Jeanne's dream, as she dozes w h i l e w a i t i n g t o appear in
c o u r t , d r i v e s home amongst o t h e r t h i n g s t h e f a c t
that
she
has a p o w e r f u l i m a g i n a t i o n , i l l u s i o n s o f grandeur and a n a t u r a l tendency t o exaggerate of
and e x u l t i n t h e d r a m a t i c . Although some
these t r a i t s f i n d s u b l i m a t e d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e
day-to-day
r e a l i t y o f h e r l i f e , t h i s more d i r e c t and e x p l i c i t p r e s e n t a t i o n of
them
h e l p s us t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h e r
elsewhere fully
i n t h e p l a y . I t a l s o helps us
certain
remarks
behaviour
t o understand
she makes. Thanks
more
t o h e r dream t h e
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r has a good i d e a o f t h e whole Jeanne so t h a t he is
n o t s u r p r i s e d , as he might o t h e r w i s e be, by
the conceit
implicit
i n h e r q u e s t i o n when she asks F e l i c i e n , r e f e r r i n g
her
words,
own
de P a n t i n ,
'Et e l l e s ne
vous
grisaient
pas?'
i s i n mourning a t t h e t i m e , Denise Marette's
the
reader/spectator
large
which
and words i n Acts I and I I . i n Bernard's
words c o n s t i t u t e s
secrete'
T II,
a r e made e x p l i c i t l y aware
filial
love,
insatiable rivalry
we
dream
gives
t h e heroine's
Through t h i s
1'explication 6),
that
a f u l l e r p i c t u r e o f t h e mixed and t o a
e x t e n t c o n f l i c t i n g f e e l i n g s which govern
actions
(Jeanne
T I V , 148), A l t h o u g h one has t o bear i n mind
she
to
o f the previous
'I'envers, two
t h i r d Act, la
trame,
(Denise M a r e t t e ,
o f Denise's
strong
h e r c o n s t a n t a n x i e t y t o please h e r f a t h e r ,
her
need f o r h i s a p p r o v a l , h e l p and a t t e n t i o n , and h e r
with
t h e memory
o f h e r mother
i n t h i s respect. I n
- 173
-
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h these emotions we see her r e g r e t s a t having s a c r i f i c e d m a r i t a l l o v e and her own career f o r her f a t h e r , and her consequent resentment a g a i n s t M i c h e l b o r d e r i n g on hate and g i v i n g r i s e t o a s e c r e t wish f o r h i s death. I t i s i n the light of t h i s p r i v i l e g e d i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t the reader/spectator r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y ceases t o be puzzled by c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f d i a l o g u e between Denise and t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , i n p a r t i c u l a r by her f r a n t i c i n d e c i s i o n as t o whether o r n o t t o t e l l Gerard t h e t r u t h about t h e p a i n t i n g s . Denise i s a puzzle t o Gerard l a r g e l y because he does n o t know her s e c r e t . Henri comes close to understanding her b u t , d e p r i v e d o f t h e i n s i g h t we are subsequently g i v e n , n o t as c l o s e as the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r . The v e r y f a c t t h a t t h e audience o f Jeanne de P a n t i n and Denise M a r e t t e can understand t h e i r h e r o i n e s ' words b e t t e r a f t e r being a l l o w e d , i n a manner o f speaking, i n s i d e t h e i r unconscious, i n d i r e c t l y i m p l i e s t h a t i n t h e normal course o f events the f u l l impact o f much o f what i s spoken i s l o s t on i t s hearers.
A
number o f Bernard's p l a y s , moreover, p r o v i d e - w i t h
no
s a c r i f i c e o f t h e i r r e a l i s m - some p a r t i c u l a r l y complex examples of
the
way
the
spasmodically
unconscious
can
w i t h t h e conscious
interact
c o n s i s t e n t l y or
or subconscious mind so
that
i s s u e s become b l u r r e d , t h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d exchange o f r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i s t h r e a t e n e d o r d i a l o g u e ceases t o be v i a b l e . When old the
Monsieur Merin army,
scrupuleux L i r o n , who
i s s t i l l w a i t i n g f o r Andre t o
he d e s c r i b e s him as 'un type e p a t a n t ' .
return
from
' I I est
e t s i bon q u ' i l en d e v i e n t bete' he says t o
si
Jeanne
adds 'Je s o u h a i t e r a i s a t o u t l e monde d ' e t r e bete
de
174 -
c e t t e f a g o n - l a ' (Le Feu q u i reprend mal, T I ,
2 4 ) . Whatever the
n a t u r e o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l damage done by h i s War t h e unfounded j e a l o u s y o f such a man wife,
whom he l o v e s and who
stressful
that
experience,
causes h i s d i a l o g u e w i t h a
l o v e s him, t o become so tense
she r e s o l v e s t o leave him and
he
and
resorts
to
physical
v i o l e n c e . ' A u j o u r d ' h u i , nous ne p a r l o n s p l u s l a meme
langue',
he
eventually
says
at
one p o i n t
in
Act I I I
(T I ,
communication l i t e r a l l y breaks down
84),
when
and
Blanche,
f r i g h t e n e d by h i s t i g h t g r i p on her w r i s t s , s t r u g g l e s f r e e runs
off
into
problem.
t h e bedroom. At l e a s t Andre
The
protagonists
of
knows
he
and
has
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage,
Le Printemps des A u t r e s and Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan become unwitting their
pawns
a
of their conflicting
impulses,
statements a l l t h e more c o n s i s t e n t l y
which
more makes
contradictory
and
c o n f u s i n g . This i s t r u e up t o a p o i n t , even f o r t h e s t u d e n t
of
these p l a y s , as t h e d r a m a t i s t o f f e r s no e x p l i c i t guidance t o an understanding
o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n the form
of
supplementary
stage d i r e c t i o n s o r n o t e s . One saying
minute hard
and
Marie-Louise
of
unsympathetic
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage things
to
Jacqueline
is about
P h i l i p p e , t h e next minute she i s a s k i n g f o r her c o m p l i c i t y i n a mooted elopement. A l t h o u g h we are reduced t o c o n j e c t u r e i n such cases,
i t is
Marie-Louise associated
practically
certain
that
this
change
i s due p r i m a r i l y t o P h i l i p p e ' s suddenly w i t h a c o u n t r y which symbolizes a l l the
e x o t i c i s m , romance and adventure l a c k i n g i n her own e x i s t e n c e and a l s o , perhaps,
t o one,
in
becoming expansive restricted
o r a combination, o f two
- 175 -
o t h e r secondary p s y c h o l o g i c a l mechanisms. The f i r s t
possibility
is
he
that
P h i l i p p e becomes i n t e r e s t i n g t o her when
totally
i n a c c e s s i b l e i n the same way t h a t c h i l d r e n i n
school than
becomes
want the
t h e t o y s which are n o t a v a i l a b l e t o
play
them
ones t h e y can have. The second p o s s i b i l i t y
Marie-Louise
a
does f i n d P h i l i p p e a t t r a c t i v e i n some
rather is
that
ways
from
t h e b e g i n n i n g b u t her moral sense makes her r e p r e s s her nascent fascination
and
replace
i t with
dislike.
Her
groundlessly
exaggerated a n t i p a t h y a g a i n s t P h i l i p p e d u r i n g h i s 'stage' would suggest
t h a t t h i s second p o s s i b i l i t y o r a combination
of
the
two i s l i k e l y t o be t h e case. When P h i l i p p e leaves France t o go as f a r away as A r g e n t i n a 'pour longtemps sa
v i e ' (T I ,
. . . peut-etre
282), t h e r e a c t i o n f o r m a t i o n mechanism
toute
becomes
312 redundant,
and
Marie-Louise can i n d u l g e i n
her
imaginary
l o v e a f f a i r w i t h i m p u n i t y . J a c q u e l i n e has no i n s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g these processes as t h e y occur i n her s i s t e r ' s
psyche,
so
largely
t h e f o l l o w i n g u n n a t u r a l l y charged, d i s j o i n t e d
a b o r t i v e d i a l o g u e , j u s t a f t e r J a c q u e l i n e has t o l d
and
Marie-Louise
t h a t P h i l i p p e i s a t E p i n a l f o r two days, i s t o be expected:
312.
'A defense mechanism i n which unacceptable or t h r e a t e n i n g impulses are denied by g o i n g t o the o p p o s i t e extreme . . . and, as p o i n t e d o u t by R.M. Goldenson, The Encyclopedia o f Human Behavior (1970), " t h e outward b e h a v i o r may, a t l e a s t i n some cases, p r o v i d e a d i s g u i s e o r unconscious o u t l e t f o r t h e tendencies i t seems t o oppose . . ."'. Goldenson ( e d . ) , Longman D i c t i o n a r y , p. 621.
r 176 -
MARIE-LOUISE, d e f a i l l a n t e Mon Dieu!... Mon Dieu!...
JACQUELINE
su.
Eh
b i e n , t u es dans un b e l e t a t . . .
Si
j'avals
MARIE-LOUISE Jacqueline, nouvelle...
c'est une t e l l e n o u v e l l e , une
telle
JACQUELINE Qu'est-ce q u ' e l l e a de s i e x t r a o r d i n a i r e ? On c r o y a i t P h i l i p p e en Amerique. I I e s t en France. I I e s t venu a E p i n a l . . . V o i l a !
MARIE-LOUISE, b r i s e e Qu'est-ce que j e v a i s f a i r e ?
JACQUELINE Ce que t u vas f a i r e ?
MARIE-LOUISE Mais l e s e n t i r a E p i n a l , intolerable...
c'est...
Oh!
c'est
JACQUELINE I n t o l e r a b l e ? . . . E t pourquoi
done?
MARIE-LOUISE Pourquoi?... Une... une i m p r e s s i o n . . . peux pas comprendre, t o i , oh! non!
(T I , 318-319)
que t u ne
- 177 -
How can J a c q u e l i n e p o s s i b l y understand Marie-Louise's r e a c t i o n to her news, when even t h e objective and initiated reader/spectator can o n l y suggest an . e x p l a n a t i o n with h i n d s i g h t ? To have n o u r i s h e d an i m a g i n a r y l o v e a f f a i r on t h e s c a l e o f Marie-Louise's w i t h P h i l i p p e V a l b e i l l e o f A r g e n t i n a , t h e n t o f i n d t h a t he i s suddenly a c c e s s i b l e i n g e o g r a p h i c a l terms b u t t h a t she i s n e v e r t h e l e s s unable t o go t o him on o t h e r grounds i s ' i n t o l e r a b l e ' f o r e m o t i o n a l reasons. A t t h e same t i m e , w h i l s t Marie-Louise's conscience a l l o w s her t o i d e a l i z e P h i l i p p e as much as she l i k e s when he i s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e i n Buenos, t o t h i n k o f him a t a l l w h i l s t he i s p h y s i c a l l y a c c e s s i b l e i n E p i n a l i s j u s t as ' i n t o l e r a b l e ' f o r moral reasons. She u n d e r s t a n d a b l y needs a t l e a s t a few minutes t o accustom h e r s e l f t o t h e new s i t u a t i o n . When J a c q u e l i n e makes t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c t u a l l y seeing P h i l i p p e appear blindingly easy, Marie-Louise i s no l e s s 'affolee' (T I , 322). Again she has t o g e t used t o t h e i d e a . Her c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Jacqueline g i v e s her t h i s adjustment t i m e , and i n t h e end her deep l o n g i n g t o see P h i l i p p e wins t h e b a t t l e o f impulses r a g i n g i n s i d e h e r , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t Marie-Louise f i n a l l y does what she f u n d a m e n t a l l y wants t o do. Meanwhile, Jacqueline i n e v i t a b l y finds much o f what Marie-Louise says c o n t r a d i c t o r y and outlandish.
The
misunderstandings
interference become
so
of
because
of
the
t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o r t h e unconscious
mind
can
complex
t h a t they
which
arise
never g e t c l e a r e d up.
Even i f
- 178 -.
circumstances what
has
develop so t h a t people f i n a l l y become
happened
and manage t o
analyse
aware
of
the psychological
processes t h a t have taken p l a c e w i t h a f a i r degree o f accuracy, explaining the
t h e i r f i n d i n g s i s another t h i n g . We a r e l e f t
impression
t h a t O l i v i e r may never g e t t o t h e bottom
Marie-Louise's
i m a g i n a r y n o n - a f f a i r . For a l l we know he
spend
t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e assuming t h a t she r e a l l y
some
kind
of
illicit
relationship
with
of
could
d i d have
Philippe.
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r can t e l l from t h e d e l i v e r y , s t y l e and of
with
The
content
Marie-Louise's r e p o r t o f h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h P h i l i p p e
Epinal
that
actually
she
holding
unconsciously
was d i s i l l u s i o n e d t h e r e and
has
come
t h e o p i n i o n o f Monsieur V a l b e i l l e
pretended
t o have two years
at back
that
earlier,
she
a t the
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p l a y , when she c a t e g o r i c a l l y dismisses him
as
nothing
but the
c l o u s . . . pas
un
mauvais
gargon' b u t one who n e v e r t h e l e s s 'sent sa f e r r a i l l e
a
vingt
metres'
personally
replies
de
(T I , 276-277). O l i v i e r , however, who
i n v o l v e d and f a r l e s s i n f o r m e d t h a n t h e
reader/spectator, 'Dis-moi...
' f i l s d'un marchand
cannot
quand 'Mais
be
dois-tu jamais...'
so
easily
l e revoir?'
i s more privileged
convinced.
To
Marie-Louise
(T I , 3 5 0 ) ,
his simply
Consciously
or
u n c o n s c i o u s l y she o p t s t o say as l i t t l e as p o s s i b l e , p a r t l y , no doubt,
because
nothing
has
actually
happened
and
partly
because, as was n o t e d above, even i f she were l u c i d l y aware
of
them h e r s e l f , she s i m p l y would n o t know how t o b e g i n e x p l a i n i n g
- 179 -
a l l t h e r o m a n t i c p e r e g r i n a t i o n s o f her i m a g i n a t i o n and the
way
313 they i n f l u e n c e d her f e e l i n g s . Le Printemps des Autres i s another p l a y which the
power
dialogue
of into
t h e unconscious o r subconscious a
minefield
of
error
and
illustrates
mind
to
turn
confusion.
Once
C l a r i s s e ' s eyes have been opened r e g a r d i n g her misunderstanding o f Maurice's i n t e n t i o n s i n Act I , she i s besieged by a of
variety
emotions o f which t h e two main ones are almost c e r t a i n l y
suppressed
j e a l o u s y o f her daughter as a v i c t o r i o u s r i v a l
Maurice's
affection,
particular Maurice,
her which
son-in-law.
Two
and a r e p r e s s i v e
thwarted
but
guilt
unquenched
reaction
formation
for
controlling
infatuation
smacks o f t h e i n c e s t u o u s when he
in with
becomes
mechanisms
a
are
her thus
a c t i v a t e d . I n K e s t e r B r a n f o r d ' s words: C l a r i s s e ' s l o v e f o r Maurice, once repressed, i s r e p l a c e d on t h e s u r f a c e by d i s l i k e ; so much so t h a t the couple p o s i t i v e l y f e e l t h a t she bears him m a l i c e . At t h e same t i m e , her malevolence towards g-j^^er daughter d i s g u i s e s i t s e l f as u n s t i n t e d d e v o t i o n .
Inevitably
t h e more C l a r i s s e i s exposed t o Maurice's
presence
and t h e s t r o n g e r her i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h him grows, the more f u l l y the does
f i r s t o f these two mechanisms i s a c t i v a t e d , b u t t h i s not
make
i t s e f f e c t s any l e s s p u z z l i n g
c o u p l e . G i l b e r t e complains t o her mother:
313.
See pp. 90-92.
314.
A Study, p. 106.
for
the
logic young
- 180 -
Q u e l q u e f o i s t u es brusque avec l u i , meme un peu... desagreable. Nous ne savons pas b i e n p o u r q u o i . Tout a I'heure encore... Maurice ne comprend pas. E t c'est s u r t o u t depuis que nous v i v o n s chez t o i . I I n'a pas change, l u i . . . (T I , 228)
A l t h o u g h she i s undoubtedly more aware a t c e r t a i n times than a t others,
C l a r i s s e i s never f u l l y conscious o f h e r
conflicting
emotions u n t i l h e r t o t a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e t r u t h a t the end o f the
p l a y . Meanwhile,
as she t r i e s i n a semi-confused s t a t e t o
purge, c o n t r o l o r make sense o f her f e e l i n g s , her c o n v e r s a t i o n i s l a c e d i n consequence w i t h a s t r i n g o f v e r b a l
contradictions
which i n e v i t a b l y p e r p l e x G i l b e r t e and Maurice and, though t o a lesser extent, the reader/spectator. We
note
C l a r i s s e ' s a t t e m p t t o engineer
a
relationship
between Madame Desgrees and Maurice, b u t o n l y w i t h h i n d s i g h t do we u n d e r s t a n d why C l a r i s s e says o r does n o t say c e r t a i n and
things
why she says what she says i n t h e way t h a t she does.
When
she promises, and l a t e r renews her r e s o l v e , t o t a l k t o Maurice about
Madame Desgrees
evening,
and t o ask him n o t t o go
riding
that
she t e l l s G i l b e r t e t o go and f e t c h her husband i n an
a b r u p t tone o f v o i c e c l e a r l y e x p r e s s i n g a k i n d o f urgency:
CLARISSE, brusquement Va, j e v a i s l u i p a r l e r •
• •
. . . (Brusquement.) Envoie-moi t o n m a r i . •
«
•
. . . Va, ma c h e r i e , v i t e . . .
(T I , 229-230)
- 181 -
At t h e same time C l a r i s s e i s f i n d i n g i t hard t o h o l d back her t e a r s . With r e g a r d t o these p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s , G i l b e r t e can o n l y accept h e r mother's e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t she i s 'nerveuse' (T I , 230). We have a s t r o n g i n k l i n g why she is i n t h i s s t a t e , b u t we cannot a p p r e c i a t e the subtle c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l mechanisms behind i t u n t i l t h e end o f t h e p l a y . C l a r i s s e i s t o r n between two c o n f l i c t i n g impulses. C l a r i s s e t h e j e a l o u s woman does n o t want t o do what G i l b e r t e i s a s k i n g h e r t o do. C l a r i s s e t h e good mother does. Her n o b l e r s e l f r e a l i z e s t h a t unless she a c t s 'brusquement' she w i l l l o s e t h e impetus t o h e l p her daughter, and t h e pressure o f her c o n f l i c t i n g j e a l o u s y - d r i v e n impulse t o work a g a i n s t t h e l a t t e r ' s marriage w i l l e x e r t i t s e l f . Such d e t a i l s s t a r t t o become c l e a r i n t h e course o f Act I I I . C l a r i s s e ' s double r e a c t i o n t o G i l b e r t e ' s i n i t i a l l y ambiguous news t h a t ' t o u t e s t f i n i ' (T I , 244), t h e encouragement she subsequently gives her daughter's f e a r s and her e x a l t a t i o n a t t h e prospect of a d e f i n i t i v e r i f t between t h e couple c o n f i r m our s u s p i c i o n s , b u t i t i s n o t u n t i l C l a r i s s e l i e s t o Maurice on t h e telephone t h a t all our r e s e r v a t i o n s are removed and t h a t she l o s e s her r i g h t to t h e b e n e f i t o f any doubt. Now G i l b e r t e ' s eyes are a l s o opened t o t h e f a c t t h a t C l a r i s s e has been working a g a i n s t and n o t f o r her. She grasps a t h e r mother's motive f o r doing this in a s e r i e s o f w i l d i n t e r r o g a t i v e exclamations f o l l o w i n g C l a r i s s e ' s c a t e g o r i c d e n i a l t h a t she hates Maurice. At t h e same time G i l b e r t e ' s 'Alors? a l o r s ? a l o r s ? . . . ' (T I , 258) prompts C l a r i s s e ' s dramatic s e l f - d i s c o v e r y . Only now does
-
182 -
e v e r y t h i n g begin t o f a l l i n t o place r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y . The h i t h e r t o more o r l e s s p e r p l e x i n g v e r b a l , p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal communication s i g n a l s g i v e n by C l a r i s s e since t h e end o f A c t I cease t o p e r p l e x .
The been
genuineness
o f Clarisse's r e a l i z a t i o n that
t h e p l a y t h i n g and pawn o f h e r own
and c o n f l i c t i n g impulses she
were
simply
obsessive
a
jealousy,
unconscious
i s a c r u c i a l element i n t h i s p l a y . I f
consciously or a
c a l c u l a t i n g l y possessive
insidious
she has
scheming
meddling
woman
driven
mother-in-law,
by
or
mother, Le Printemps des Autres
a
would
be an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f drama and l e s s r e l e v a n t t o t h e s u b j e c t c u r r e n t l y under d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s t h e s i s . C l a r i s s e i s even
less
culpable
than
Madeleine Landier
d'Ispahan. We may understand
o f Le J a r d i n i e r
t h e l a t t e r and f e e l f o r h e r i n h e r
plight,
b u t h e r t r e a t m e n t o f Germaine and her m a n i p u l a t i o n
events,
even
actively find the
i f they a r e c a r r i e d o u t subconsciously,
s u s t a i n e d and so d i r e i n t h e i r consequences
i t hard t o exonerate other
Clarisse Rightly
we
h e r from a l l blame. At no stage,
on
t h e l a t t e r ' s obsession
does
Clarisse
suffer
from
constant
respect.
w i t h h e r parentage
leads one t o c o n s i d e r h e r t o some degree as m e n t a l l y Nor
innocence.
from Madeleine Landier i n another
o r wrongly,
are so that
hand, does C l a r i s s e l o s e her e s s e n t i a l differs
of
unstable.
restlessness
and
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n l i k e t h e d i s t u r b e d Marceline o f L'Ame en peine. C l a r i s s e i s i n no way unbalanced o r e c c e n t r i c . She has suddenly but
simply
s u f f e r e d a very r e a l
disappointment,
a f t e r which
- 183 -
much o f what she says t o her daughter and son-in-law r a t h e r than a i d s t h e communication process.
It makes
i s t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n o f C l a r i s s e t h a t Bernard the
point
that
words
instruments
of
individual's
unconscious
reviewing t h e way
communication and
can by
be
rendered
the
conflicting
things
best
ineffective
machinations
of
impulses.
an
Anyone
t h e t e x t o f t h e p l a y cannot f a i l t o be d i s t u r b e d
by
a f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n n o c e n t , honest and well-meaning woman
can i n a l l s i n c e r i t y say t o her daughter, as
bonheur' very
sabotages
'Tu
' l a caressant',
s a i s b i e n que j e n ' a i jamais
(T I ,
248),
pense
w h i l s t she i s a c t u a l l y working
such
qu'a
ton
in
that
c o n v e r s a t i o n t o d e s t r o y t h e g i r l ' s happiness. What
makes
words so t r e a c h e r o u s i n i n s t a n c e s o f t h i s k i n d i s t h e f a c t t h a t the
more
consciously
genuine t h e speaker i s , the
more
the
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l packaging i s l i k e l y t o t a l l y w i t h h i s spoken word. Had C l a r i s s e been a c r u e l , h y p o c r i t i c a l woman, something caress
i n her tone o f v o i c e , her f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n
might
Gilberte. jealousy same
have r e g i s t e r e d as
spurious
and
T h i s i s n o t t h e case because C l a r i s s e ' s
a w h o l l y a u t h e n t i c and normal maternal alone
demonstrates
the
fact
unconscious
love.
that,
more
although
r e l i a b l y i n f o r m a t i v e than words, alone
conjunction
with
poltergeist
effect
the
latter,
they
are
subject
o f t h e unconscious, which
d i s t o r t them w i t h o u t f e a r o f d e t e c t i o n .
can
the This
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication sometimes
her
alerted
o f her daughter does not p r e c l u d e her f e e l i n g a t
time
example
well
or
or to
are in the
doctor
or
Some k i n d o f shock
may
- 184 -
trigger
o f f t h e repressed
themselves
involuntarily,
f e e l i n g s prompting witness
the
them
t o express
' c r i involontaire'
accompanying C l a r i s s e ' s ' G i l b e r t e . . . ' when she walks i n on t h e couple
i n A c t I I and f i n d s them n o t i m p r o p e r l y ,
naturally,
'enlaces'
indeed
very
(T I , 220), b u t even then t h e i n v o l u n t a r y
s i g n a l s t i l l has t o be c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d . 'Frankly,
I don't know what t h i s p l a y i s about',
James Agate w i t h r e g a r d t o Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan i n a
admits review,
315 t h e v e r y t i t l e o f which i s s i g n i f i c a n t :
'An Odd Play'.
Much
o f what Madeleine L a n d i e r says perplexes h e r i n t e r l o c u t o r s the
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r , because she t h w a r t s
excessively
inclinations
predominant
personality t r a i t s .
and
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y and
and impulses which a r e amongst h e r 316 She i s a f r a i d t h a t she may
have
i n h e r i t e d h e r mother's s e n s u a l i t y . I n s t e a d
of
accepting
this
p r o b a b i l i t y , coming t o terms w i t h i t and c o n t r o l l i n g
any
p o t e n t i a l excesses t h r o u g h a f i r m b u t moderate s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e , her anxious d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o be v i r t u o u s a t a l l costs makes h e r overreact
t o the detriment o f her psychological
health.
When
she i s a t t r a c t e d t o t h e v i r i l e and a t h l e t i c D a n i e l who i s t o be the c a r e t a k e r o f h e r mother's e s t a t e , she i s so f r i g h t e n e d by her i n s t i n c t s t h a t she p r e c i p i t a t e l y marries a man whom she has hitherto f l a t l y rejected,
whom she does
n o t love
and who has
315.
James Agate, The Contemporary Theatre: (London, Harrap, 1946) p. 90.
1944 and 1945
316.
The p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s c o u l d n o t have been made w i t h confidence w i t h o u t t h e support o f Bernard's novel on Madeleine Landier. See Madeleine Landier & New-Chicago ( P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1933).
- 185 -
none
o f t h e physical q u a l i t i e s o f Daniel
attractive.
Confusion,
t r a g e d y and a
which
complete
she
breakdown o f
communication between Madeleine and h e r husband ensue, her
deep
finds
d r i v e s r e f u s e t o be repressed and e x e r t
because
themselves
w i t h a vengeance i n s p i t e o f Madeleine's conscious w i l l . Madeleine
is a
character
who knows
a
major
part
of
h e r s e l f , b u t wants t o r u n away from what she knows. I n t h i s she resembles
Charles Durban
Unfortunately, h e l p her. of
of
A l a Recherche des Coeurs.
t h e r e i s no e q u i v a l e n t
o f C l a i r e i n her l i f e
She f e e l s unable t o unburden h e r s e l f t o anyone, l e a s t
a l l Robert, and when, i n d e s p e r a t i o n , she f i n a l l y
real
attempt
interrupted
t o explain by
Robert's
drowned
makes
h e r f e a r s t o her mother,
has
herself, after
believes
that a heart-to-heart
which
discussion
she
i s activated
i n Madeleine,
c o n s c i o u s l y wants t o be a d u t i f u l pleasant
as
intensely.
that
undoubtedly
w i t h anyone i s t o a
e x t e n t f u t i l e . Before t h i s tragedy a r e a c t i o n
mechanism
a
she i s
entrance and h i s d e c l a r a t i o n
Germaine
large
to
who,
formation
because
she
w i f e , f o r c e s h e r s e l f t o be as
she can w i t h Robert whom
she a c t u a l l y
She i s l a r g e l y s u c c e s s f u l i n m a i n t a i n i n g
dislikes her mask,
u n t i l Germaine's s u i c i d e removes t h e scales from her eyes.
She
t h e n r e a l i z e s t h a t she has b l o t t e d h e r copybook as a good woman so
radically
forcing Since
by
i n d i r e c t l y causing
the g i r l ' s
death
that
h e r s e l f t o be p l e a s a n t w i t h Robert becomes
pointless.
she has k i l l e d a lamb, i l l - t r e a t i n g a sheep
i s o f no
consequence,
particularly
as she f i n d s
herself
drawn towards an a c t o f a d u l t e r y w i t h t h e now f r e e
increasingly Daniel.
- 186 -
This
kind
objective
of
analysis
is
reader/spectator • t o
difficult make
enough
l e t alone
for
Madeleine's
i n t e r l o c u t o r s . Even when they c o n f e r w i t h one another, Lorin for
Robert,
and Madame L a n d i e r f i n d her a p u z z l e . There i s example,
speaking
Robert
cruelly
can
understand
why
no
Madeleine
t o him a f t e r Germaine's death. At
t i m e h i s v e r y incomprehension
the
way, starts
the
same
o f her psyche does n o t h i n g i n i t s
t u r n t o a l l e v i a t e t h e i r communication d i f f i c u l t i e s . When Robert t e l l s Madeleine t h a t he a p p r e c i a t e s her o c c a s i o n a l l y p r e f e r r i n g t o be alone and t h a t n o t h i n g c o u l d do her more good than t o
go
for
calme
et
Sors
une
a
drive
1'atmosphere grande
w i t h D a n i e l , adding de
fuelling
he
de
c e t t e campagne e s t s i reposante...
heure...
(T V I , 304),
'Tu as besoin
Dis
a
has
Daniel
de
conduire
no i d e a o f the
internal
doucement...' battle
he
i n s i d e her. On t h e one hand she knows she has o n l y
dozen words t o say t o Robert t o s e t events i n motion t h a t remove
Daniel
satisfy
her
emotional Daniel's
However, making
from her p r o x i m i t y f o r good, and r a t i o n a l and moral s e l f . On the
and
sensual
self
in
so
other
doing
hand
i s p r e s s u r i z i n g her
to
impulses, as
Madeleine i s
in
psychological
she l i s t e n s t o Robert o f a l l people
i t easy f o r her t o t a k e t h e l a t t e r course to
situation.
be
struck To
the
by t h e c r u e l initiated
irony
and
reader/spectator
be
are p e r f e c t l y
logical
but they
her in two
torment.
unwittingly she
humour the
cannot of
the
verbal,
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s she g i v e s i n response h i s suggestion
a
will
presence as much as p o s s i b l e . Torn between these
competing
fail
is
to
understandably
187 -
-r
leave Robert, who has simply suggested a r u n i n t h e c a r , u t t e r l y nonplussed. When 'Madeleine, qui I ' a ecoute avec stupeur, e s t p r i s e brusquement d'un r i r e nerveux', he asks her what t h e m a t t e r i s :
MADELEINE, l u t t a n t contra son r i r e Excuse-moi... Je ne peux pas... C'est e f f r a y a n t . . . Je ne s a i s pas... Ah! excuse-moi... ( E l l a s o r t rapidemant.)
ROBERT Mad... ( I I demaure a t t a r r e
)
(T V I , 304-305)
It
i s a t such moments i n Bernard's t h e a t r e t h a t our a t t e n t i o n
is
drawn
to
t h e power o f t h e p r e s s u r i z e d psyche
complete mockery o f t h e convention Whether more story
and
irrespective
Clarisse Brieules,
rebellious the
Le Printemps des A u t r e s ,
imagination,
impulse
are
an
a
or her
L'Invitation
namely
that,
o f t h e reason, i f t h e excesses o r a b e r r a t i o n s
uncontrolled
between
than
blameworthy
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e same p o i n t t h a t i s made i n
au Voyage
an
disturbed
make
o f dialogue.
o r n o t Madeleine Landier i s more
psychologically
to
indisciplined
allowed t o h o l d
sway,
i n d i v i d u a l i n q u e s t i o n and those
l i k e l y t o be hampered o r s e r i o u s l y a d u l t e r a t e d .
drive any
around
or
of a
dialogue him
is
- 188 -
5.
Deux Hommes and La Louise Although
La Louise somewhat
t h e wartime circumstances
make
o f Deux Hommes and
the c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g
i n both
dialogues
e x c e p t i o n a l - not t o mention the coincidences o f t h e
former and t h e s p e c i a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e l a t t e r - these oneact
p l a y s can be c o n s i d e r e d Bernardian
implicit
guidelines
effective oral
blueprints
f o r t h e establishment
containing
of
maximally
communication.
I n Deux Hommes Robert b r i e f l y q u i t s h i s r o l e o f impersonal guard
t o make a g e s t u r e o f human kindness
t o Hermann,
thus
showing t h a t he i s prepared t o r e l a t e t o him p r i m a r i l y as a man rather
than as an enemy, a German o r a p r i s o n e r .
The German,
however, does not respond when Robert speaks t o him, g i v i n g the impression erecting down
that
he
does n o t understand
French
and thereby
t h e i d e a l communication b a r r i e r , whereupon
t o s l e e p . S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s Robert a c t u a l l y
he
lies
drops h i s
mask c o m p l e t e l y when, b e l i e v i n g h i m s e l f t o be as good as alone, he
lets
h i s t h o u g h t s d w e l l on h i s f i a n c e e ,
writing,
and i n so doing becomes v i s i b l y sad.
apparently Robert (TV,
sleeping
Hermann
t o whom
he i s
Meanwhile, t h e
i s surreptitiously
watching
a
'reveur, l e s yeux f i x e s devant l u i , lourds de t r i s t a s s e ' 216).
At t h i s
point
Robert,
i n writing
the
i n a d v e r t e n t l y m u t t e r s i t out l o u d , t h e r e b y prompting a
date, crucial
ocular dialogue:
(Se rendant compte q u ' i l a p a r l e tout haut, 11 toume l a t e t e v e r s I'Allemand. I I s'apergoit alors que c e l u i - c i l e regarde. Les deux hommes r e s t e n t un moment immobiles, l e s yeux dans l e s yeux . . .) (T V, 216)
- 189 -
Seeing b e h i n d Robert's p r o t e c t i v e mask i s more t h a n j u s t a cue f o r Hermann t o open up t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n , i t i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e . When pressed by Robert, a f t e r t h e i r i n i t i a l v e r b a l exchange, t o say why he d i d n o t want t o speak t o b e g i n w i t h b u t subsequently changed h i s mind, Hermann e v e n t u a l l y t r i e s t o e x p l a i n :
L'ALLEMAND, apres une h e s i t a t i o n Ecoute... quand j e s u i s a r r i v e i c i . . . cette impression... c e t t e s o l i t u d e . . . c ' e t a i t a f f r e u x .
ROBERT Et maintenant?
L'ALLEMAND Maintenant?
ROBERT Tu n'as p l u s c e t t e impression?
L•ALLEMAND .Moins,
(Un long temps.)
ROBERT Mais pourquoi?
L•ALLEMAND J ' a i vu que t u e t a i s t r i s t e .
(T V, 218-219)
- 190 -
Not o n l y i s Hermann made aware o f Robert's deepest f e e l i n g s , he a l s o f i n d s he can r e a d i l y i d e n t i f y w i t h them. I t t u r n s o u t t h a t beyond t h e i r common work and i n t e r e s t s t h e y b o t h have a n i n e t e e n year o l d f i a n c e e , from whom t h e y a r e c u r r e n t l y separated and whom t h e y c o u l d w e l l never see a g a i n . Hermann and Robert consequently have no d i f f i c u l t y empathizing w i t h each o t h e r ' s most p r e s s i n g e m o t i o n a l concerns, and such a meaningful bond i s formed between them t h a t by t h e end o f their c o n v e r s a t i o n each i s prepared t o s a c r i f i c e h i s l i f e f o r the other.
The
chances o f t h e r e b e i n g any meaningful
communication
between l a L o u i s e , ^ f o r whom i t i s a p p a r e n t l y t h e norm t o sleep routinely
with
accommodation, faire
une
d i f f e r e n t s o l d i e r s p u t up i n h e r
one-bedroom
and P i e r r e Garbin, who we a r e t o l d
infidelite
a
sa
femme
en r e g a r d a n t
'croirait une
d e c o l l e t e e ' (La L o u i s e , T I I I , 2 1 1 ) , would seem t o be as
between
two men
of different
nationalities
fille
as
slim
currently
f i g h t i n g i n opposing camps. I n f a c t , i t i s p r e c i s e l y because o f their
theoretical
think
i t w i l l be a good j o k e t o b i l l e t
for
incompatibility
one n i g h t w i t h a g i r l
monde
renverse'
that
Pierre's
companions
' l e modele des maris'
'qui a u r a i t l e p r i x de v e r t u dans l e
(T I I I , 2 1 1 , 2 0 7 ) . Indeed,
t o begin
with,
P i e r r e and l a Louise communicate i n a v e r y f a u l t y way. J u s t Hermann core
catches a f u r t i v e glimpse o f Robert's s e n s i t i v e
a t the beginning
o f Deux Hommes,
Pierre's without h i s realizing i t :
l a Louise
as
inner
observes
- 191 -
( I I porta lentement une photographie a s e s l e v r e s . E t p u i s i l l a p l a c e siir l a t a b l e , prend une f e u i l l e de papier e t r e s t e songeur. La porte de l a chambre s'ouvre doucement. La Louise r e s t e dans 1'embrasure e t l e regarde un long moment. Soudain, P i e r r e , l e s coudes s u r l a t a b l e , prend s a t e t e a deux mains. I I r e s t e un i n s t a n t a i n s i , e t puis on entend un sanglot. La Louise f a i t un mouvement. P i e r r e se retourne brusquement e t s e l e v e . ) (T I I I , 225)
Having thus seen behind h e r l o d g e r ' s s o c i e t a l screen, l a Louise is
n e v e r t h e l e s s more circumspect
than no
i n her r e l a t i o n s w i t h
Hermann i s a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g point
anything
does
j u n c t u r e w i t h Robert.
P i e r r e t a l k t o h e r as a t y p e .
primed
that,
He
never
t o h e r which he c o u l d n o t say t o any woman.
c l e a r l y b e l i e v e s , p a r t l y , no doubt, because c been
given
by Sermain and p a r t l y from t h e minimum o f coaxing
Pierre
has
says
Yet she
o f the way she has
h e r own
experience,
and n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g h i s
m a r i t a l s t a t u s , P i e r r e w i l l prove t o be l i k e a l l t h e o t h e r she
At
lodged and w i l l end up s l e e p i n g w i t h
men
h e r . When she
encourages P i e r r e t o make h i m s e l f a t home and says t h a t she has always
g i v e n a good r e c e p t i o n t o
' l e s pauvres gars'
billeted
w i t h h e r (T I I I , 227), she i s a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e s o r t o f response made by p r e v i o u s l o d g e r s and i s embarrassed by t h e innocence o f his
r e p l y which suggests he c o u l d be d i f f e r e n t . The
dialogue one
meaningful
between P i e r r e and l a Louise and t h e i r openness
with
another s t a r t t o develop from t h i s p o i n t . When she ventures
t a c t f u l l y i n t o t h e sanctuary o f h i s love and l o n e l i n e s s f o r h i s wife,
he a l l o w s h e r t o e n t e r
as f a r ,
possibly,
as he would
- 192 -
a l l o w another human s o u l . La Louise and P i e r r e cannot with
empathize
one another as d i r e c t l y as Hermann Bogler and Robert
but
Pierre
which
a p p r e c i a t e s the elements o f
feminine
do,
sensitivity
l a Louise has r e t a i n e d , and she can i d e n t i f y the
person
she would have l i k e d t o be w i t h the o b j e c t o f P i e r r e ' s l o v e . I t is
for
this
willingly fiancee
woman
effaces
whom she does
not
know
that
l a Louise
h e r s e l f , j u s t , as i t i s i n d i r e c t l y
o f t h e o t h e r t h a t Robert and Hermann are
for
the
prepared
to
make t h e i r supreme s a c r i f i c e . An a n a l y s i s o f these two p l a y s c o n f i r m s a c o n c l u s i o n can
be
that
drawn from Bernard's t h e a t r e i n i t s e n t i r e t y ,
namely
a l t h o u g h the problems i n h e r e n t i n any d i a l o g u e cannot
radically
obviated,
oral
communication
can
be
these
is
interlocutors, check.
the to
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , on
the
part
first
of
keep p r e j u d i c e s and preconceived
The second i s t h a t , w h i l s t b e i n g prepared t o
be
rendered
c o n s i d e r a b l y more meaningful g i v e n t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s . The of
that
both
ideas
in
be
known
themselves, they should make the r e q u i r e d e f f o r t t o know
their
interlocutor
by
paralinguistic that
each
attentive
to
all
his
verbal,
and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s . The t h i r d c o n d i t i o n
should
altruistically, emotional
being
to
concerns
be as s e n s i t i v e as
possible,
the o t h e r ' s s u b j a c e n t once
they
Bernard's t h e a t r e a l s o suggests
are
innately
dialogue
known.
The
and
evidence
is or deep of
t h a t the second o f these t h r e e
- 193 -
conditions, w h i l s t being o f considerable probably the hardest t o f u l f i l .
6.
importance,
is
The unknowable s e l f , t h e unknowable i n t e r l o c u t o r It
would
c e r t a i n l y seem t h a t ,
alongside
prejudice-free
openness and e m o t i o n a l s e n s i t i v i t y , a key element i n e f f e c t i v e communication Evidently,
must
be
knowledge
of
one's
interlocutor.
c r u c i a l allowances and adjustments o f a t t i t u d e
can
o n l y be made i f t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s know t h e r e l e v a n t aspects each
other's
temperament
and p e r s o n a l
history,
of
t h e words
exchanged
b e i n g s e l e c t e d and i n t e r p r e t e d
knowledge
i s shown
primarily
because people a r e c o n s c i o u s l y o r unconsciously t o o
distrustful is
t o be
i n consequence.
particularly
t o a l l o w themselves
hard
to
This
achieve,
t o be known. On t h i s p o i n t i t
w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t n e i t h e r Robert o f Deux Hommes nor P i e r r e
Garbin
o f La Louise v o l u n t e e r s h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y . I n a
manner
o f speaking Hermann and l a Louise s t e a l t h e i r i n i t i a l and v i t a l glimpses behind t h e i r i n t e r l o c u t o r s ' s o c i a l
fronts.
Moreover, Bernard's t h e a t r e poses t h e problem o f whether a person
has o n l y one r e a l s e l f , l e t alone whether o r not i t i s
knowable.
I f one
looks
no f u r t h e r
than
the beginning o f
Le Printemps des A u t r e s , b o t h the women i n v o l v e d can be s a i d t o have a t l e a s t two i d e n t i t i e s . For Maurice, G i l b e r t e i s a woman
whom he would
l i k e t o marry;
young
f o r C l a r i s s e she i s 'une
- 194 -
t o u t e p e t i t e f i l l e ' (T I , 208). N e i t h e r a t t i t u d e t o G i l b e r t e i s s u r p r i s i n g . I t i s e q u a l l y understandable t h a t Maurice should approach C l a r i s s e as a p o t e n t i a l mother-in-law. The f a c t that t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what she i s i s proven by Maurice's s h o r t l y becoming h e r son-in-law. That a t t h e same time i t would have been b e t t e r had he n o t t o t a l l y d i s r e g a r d e d her i d e n t i t y as a still d e s i r a b l e widow i n h e r f o r t i e s i s a l s o t r u e , b u t t h i s begs t h e q u e s t i o n o f how many o t h e r i d e n t i t i e s C l a r i s s e could have and how many o f them Maurice c o u l d be expected t o take i n t o account when approaching her. This i n t u r n leads one t o c o n s i d e r whether any o f these i d e n t i t i e s can c l a i m t o be t h e e s s e n t i a l C l a r i s s e more than t h e o t h e r s . I n t h e opening scene of Act I I I o f A l a Recherche des Coeurs D a r i e l says t h a t he knew one Durban d u r i n g t h e war, found another j u s t s i x months p r e v i o u s l y and i s now a p p a r e n t l y about t o meet a t h i r d (T I I I , 9 2 ) . This t i c k l i s h issue c e n t r a l t o t h e drama o f P i r a n d e l l o and touched on i n Bernard's p l a y s i s double-faceted, and i n any i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e o r a l communication process i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o r e s t a t c o n s i d e r i n g the problems posed by a speaker's l a c k o f knowledge o f h i s interlocutor, one a l s o has t o take i n t o account those engendered by h i s l a c k o f knowledge o f h i m s e l f .
Self-knowledge
i s c l e a r l y o f considerable
importance
as
f a r as t h e communication process
i s concerned, s i n c e people may
be
their
prevented
because
they
assumptions
from
expressing
do n o t know themselves, about
themselves
and
thoughts
and
o r they may
false
feelings
make
wrong
statements based on
- 195
these
assumptions
thereby
-
unconsciously
misleading
others.
However, Bernard's p l a y s imply t h a t , t r y as he m i g h t , a can
never
totally.
d e f i n e h i s i d e n t i t y or fathom Moreover,
the
degree t o
which
an
self-deception
i s shown t o be d i s t u r b i n g . When reproach
caches r i e n de ce que
insists,
however:
dupe
t h a t he i s h i d i n g
'presque h u m i l i a n t ' , she t e l l s him me
the
self
individual
or
Claire's
be
essential
subconsciously
finds
unconsciously
his
person
of
may
his
own
Charles Durban
things
from
her
'Je s u i s c e r t a i n e que t u
ne
t u veux b i e n t'avouer a toi-meme'.
He
'Je t ' a s s u r e que
moi-meme' (A l a Recherche des
j e suis
Coeurs, T I I I ,
tres
lucide
sur
61). Only when she
goes on t o say t h a t he i s i n danger o f g a i n i n g a r e p u t a t i o n 'un homme c r u e l ' the
psychological
deliberate for
i s he prompted t o choose between conflict
tormenting
him,
confronting
and
making
move t o escape conscious awareness o f i t .
t h e l a t t e r course by t r y i n g u n s u c c e s s f u l l y
as
opts
change
the
s u b j e c t . L a t e r , when he m a i n t a i n s t h a t the r e a l Charles i s
the
c u r r e n t one,
C l a i r e i s more e x p l i c i t :
toi-meme' (T I I I , The
to
He
a
'Tu mens... t u t e mens
67).
very f a c t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s vary i n t h e i r
inability
ability
t o know themselves and/or o t h e r s throws y e t
spoke i n the wheels o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l communication, since,
as
a
Bernard's
difference
between
psychology
as
there
drama theory
highlights, and
practice
there in
i s i n any o t h e r sphere. As
another
especially
is the
or
as
much
field far
as
of the
p r i n c i p l e s are concerned, Maurice o f Le Printemps des Autres i s quite
a
discerning,
observant
psychologist.
'Vous etes
une
- 196 -
i m p u l s i v e ' , he t e l l s C l a r i s s e , 'Et c'est pour c e l a q u ' i l vous a r r i v e d ' e t r e poussee par des sentiments c o n t r a d i c t o i r e s que vous avez souvent 1 ' a i r de ne pas comprendre vous-meme . . . Oh! e s t - c e que personne e s t jamais s u r de se comprendre?...' (T I , 215). Maurice i s much l e s s competent i n p r a c t i c e . He t h i n k s he knows C l a r i s s e , b u t i n a c t u a l f a c t he does not even come c l o s e t o f a t h o m i n g t h e m y s t e r i e s o f her psyche. He u n w i t t i n g l y b u t none t h e l e s s c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y misleads her i n S t r e s a and never r e a l i z e s he has done so. Then he b e l i e v e s t o the end o f the p l a y , and no doubt beyond, t h a t C l a r i s s e g e n u i n e l y d i s l i k e s him and t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d e i s due t o maternal jealousy.
Robert Darmon understands example
of
Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan,
who
thinks
h i s w i f e b e t t e r than she does h e r s e l f , i s
o f how
a l a r g e l y t h e o r e t i c a l and incomplete
he
another
knowledge
317 o f o t h e r s can be more o f a hindrance than a h e l p . of
The e x t e n t
h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t h e o r y o f Madeleine's case on
one
other
are
b l a t a n t l y e v i d e n t i n some o f t h e advice he g i v e s her. When
she
begs 'Tu from
hand
him d e s p e r a t e l y t o take her away from V i l n a y , he c r o i s f u i r t o n mal e t t u cours apres' the
previously
317.
and h i s ignorance o f the p r a c t i c e on t h e
the
fact
that
before
t h i s was above
she m a r r i e d him
See pp. 186-187.
replies
(T V I , 298).
a l l applicable a
and t h a t
i t i s now
Apart year rather
- 197
late
f o r such p r i n c i p l e s , he t h i n k s her 'mal' i s c u r r e n t l y i n
Paris
when
i t i s a c t u a l l y only too present a t Vilnay
in
the
shape o f D a n i e l . A n t o i n e Melvaux o f L'Ame en peine i s c e r t a i n l y wise t o be sceptical their
when
Emile says t h a t he knows him w e l l
t a l k i n the Tuileries
Whilst Antoine
being
gardens
aware o f t h e inadequacy
(T I I ,
even
after
226-227 and 234).
o f h i s self-knowledge,
would seem t o have a b e t t e r understanding o f h i s own
psychology
t h a n h i s f r i e n d . I n some cases, however,
a
person
may
know h i m s e l f l e s s w e l l than he i s known by o t h e r s ,
o r he
may
be l e s s capable o f p u t t i n g h i s own t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s
motivations
i n t o words than c e r t a i n i n t e r l o c u t o r s are on h i s
b e h a l f . I n A c t I o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal Blanche Merin Jeanne L i r o n ,
and
tells
'Oui... o u i . . . vous savez b i e n exprimer ce que j e
ressens... Pour c e l a , c ' e s t un peu vous q u i me remplacez Andre' (T I , 1 6 ) . U n t i l M a r c e l i n e o f L'Ame en peine r e j e c t s Robert a confidant precisely he
as
because she does n o t l i k e t h e home t r u t h s
has t o t e l l her, he a c t s as a k i n d o f a n a l y s t f o r her.
The
f o l l o w i n g exchange c o n c e r n i n g h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h P h i l i p p e i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s respect:
ROBERT Tu n'as meme pas c r u 1'aimer. Tu as eprouve pour l u i un s e n t i m e n t d i f f e r e n t , t r e s beau, d ' a i l l e u r s , e t meme t r e s courageux. Mais m'as-tu jamais p a r l e de l u i comme t u m'as p a r l e de ceux que t u as vraiment aimes? Non, t u m'as d i t : "Je s u i s b i e n f a t i g u e e p a r l a r o u t e e t p a r l e s orages..."
MARCELINE Je t ' a i d i t cela?
- 198 -
ROBERT Non, mais j e t r a d u i s : "Je s u i s f a t i g u e e . V o i c i une maison d'aspect s o l i d e . Je v a i s e n t r e r la-dedans e t j e m'y r e p o s e r a i b i e n . " Tu v o i s comme j ' a i compris t o n langage . . .
(T I I , 213)
A
number o f B e r n a r d i a n c h a r a c t e r s go so f a r as t o expect
this
kind
o f t r a n s l a t i o n s e r v i c e from t h e i r f a m i l y / f r l e n d s o r even
take
i t f o r granted.
I t i s q u i t e impossible
f o r Jacqueline
of
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage t o f i n d a way i n , l e t alone through, t h e labyrinth
o f h e r s i s t e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n and y e t
Marie-Louise Ironically, excellent
says
she ought
to
t h e d i s c e r n i n g Jacqueline
a t one p o i n t
understand
(T I , 333).
a c t u a l l y does
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the e s s e n t i a l , v e r y
have
simple
an
reality
which she p i n p o i n t s t o a tee when she t e l l s Marie-Louise ' J ' a i des
yeux pour v o i r . E t j e s a i s b i e n que 1'Argentine
t'a fait
r e v e r ' . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e e x t e n t t o which a human b e i n g may n o t have t h e eyes t o see i n t o h i s own psyche i s epitomized perfectly
i n Marie-Louise's
disarming
artlessness:
vrai'
7.
clearly
uttered
'Qu'est-ce que t u d i s ?
Ce
less
with
a
n'est pas
(T I , 319).
Socio-economic and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e communication process The
is
reply
no
b e l i e f t h a t t o t a l and l a s t i n g communion between l o v e r s
unattainable
through
the
L'Ame en p e i n e .
i n p r a c t i c e i s conveyed i n Maeterlinck-based Even
i f there
theme i s such
and
a
symbolic
way
storyline
of
a t h i n g as u n i q u e l y
199
-
matched soulmates, they f i r s t have t o meet one another.
Robert
explains the theory t o Marceline:
. . . C'est M a e t e r l i n c k q u i raconte c e l a . Et d ' a i l l e u r s , c'est une v i e i l l e idee: I'ame complete e s t a l a f o i s male e t f e m e l l e ; e t l e s deux m o i t i e s de I'ame se cherchent a t r a v e r s l e monde. Mais l e bonheur p a r f a i t ne peut n a i t r e que de l e u r r e u n i o n . Et c'est pour c e l a q u ' i l e s t s i r a r e .
C'est p e u t - e t r e un homme que t u ne connais pas... s ' i l e x i s t e . . . car i l e s t p e u t - e t r e d e j a mort, car i l n'est p e u t - e t r e pas encore ne... Et meme s ' i l existe, i l peut vivre en Chine ou en Patagonie
(T I I ,
Unions
215-216,
of
this
's'accommodent Since
217)
kind
being
t r e s b i e n d'un
perfect
and
lasting
quasi-impossible,
most
bonheur i m p a r f a i t ' harmony
between
people
(T I I , two
216).
sexually
complementary soulmates i s presented as i m p l a u s i b l e , and
since
t h e r e i s no s u g g e s t i o n i n the p l a y s t h a t people o f the same sex communicate more e f f e c t i v e l y amongst themselves, t h e gender t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n would appear t o be
of
relatively
unimportant. People w i t h i n a common age b r a c k e t are,not shown t o get on any b e t t e r than o t h e r s between whom t h e r e i s a g e n e r a t i o n Nor
i s t h e r e any i n d i c a t i o n t h a t communication i s rendered more
effective
just
connected
by a c l o s e blood t i e . I t i s g e n e r a l l y accepted
one
gap.
of
the
relationship,
because
the people
closest f a m i l i a l and
yet
bonds
the h e r o i n e
involved
is of
the
are
intimately that
mother-daughter
Jeanne de P a n t i n
and
- 200 -
Francine o f Nationale 6 both f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o t a l k t o t h e i r respective
mothers.
In
months
Gilberte
des A u t r e s f i n d s n e i t h e r t h e courage
of
Le Printemps
nor the opportune
moment
t o t e l l C l a r i s s e about Maurice. 'Et a P a r i s , c'est s i r a r e
les
moments de v r a i e i n t i m i t e avec t o i . . . ' she e x p l a i n s a t the
end
of
Act I
solitude
(T I ,
207).
In
t h i s case
the
mother's
sense
v i s - a - v i s her daughter i s shown t o be no l e s s
of
acute,
as C l a r i s s e c o n f i d e s t o Maurice:
. . . P o u r t a n t , c'est b i e n dur de se sentir seule aupres d'un e t r e qu'on adore. On s'en va ensemble de p a l a c e en palace - h i e r Lucerne, a u j o u r d ' h u i S t r e s a , b i e n t o t p e u t - e t r e Venise - chaque s o i r on s'embrasse eperdument, mais chacune garde pour e l l e ce q u ' e l l e pense... Vous devez comprendre ces c h o s e s - l a . . . (T I , 199)
With the
r e g a r d t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o communicate w i t h siblings
in
Bernard's t h e a t r e
fair
one
another
marginally
better.
I r o n i c a l l y i t i s t h e v e r y openness and honesty o f t h e
dialogue
between Robert and M a r c e l i n e o f L'Ame en peine which the l a t t e r e v e n t u a l l y f i n d s unacceptable. out u
her,
Before t h e i r r i f t Robert p o i n t s
t o h i s s i s t e r what a good p e r s o n a l i n t e r p r e t e r he
is for
318 adding: , . . Pour c e l a , i l f a u t un d i c t i o n n a i r e que j e s u i s s e u l a posseder. J ' a i a p p r i s t o u t p e t i t . Quand t u me p a r l a i s de t e s poupees, j e comprenais des choses que nos p a r e n t s n'ont jamais comprises. (T I I , 213)
318.
See pp. 197-198.
- 201 -
However, knack
t h e r e i s no evidence t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n
o f such
i s a q u e s t i o n o f t i m e o r i n t i m a c y p e r se, a p o i n t
which
i s made e x p l i c i t l y l a t e r i n t h e same p l a y . When Lemesle to
a
refers
h i m s e l f as an o l d f r i e n d and M a r c e l i n e p o i n t s o u t t h a t she
has o n l y known him t h r e e months, he r e p l i e s :
Le temps ne f a i t r i e n a 1 ' a f f a i r e . I I y a des gens que vous avez t o u j o u r s connus e t q u i sont pour vous des e t r a n g e r s . Est-ce que vous connaissez v o t r e pere? Est-ce que vous connaissez v o t r e mari? (T I I , 247)
Whilst shown
q u e s t i o n s o f sex, age o r shared b l o o d may
t o help
significant tendency people
o r hinder
degree,
effective
communication
t h e p l a y s do suggest
that
to
there
f o r more communication d i f f i c u l t i e s t o occur who have s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s
d i v e r g e n t socio-economic and c u l t u r a l As is
n o t be any is a between
beliefs
or
attitudes.
f a r as Bernard's Inter-War p l a y s are concerned,
there
g e n e r a l l y no way o f t e l l i n g whether t h e c h a r a c t e r s have o r
do n o t have a s p e c i f i c it. that
I n Louise de l a V a l l i e r e , however, t h e r e i s an people whose f a i t h d i f f e r s i n i n t e n s i t y
problems meeting regal
r e l i g i o n o r t o what e x t e n t they p r a c t i s e
communicating between
mask,
with
one
another.
L o u i s and Louise, t h e k i n g
indication
have
additional
During
the l a s t
has
t h e duchess h e r d u c a l one, and they
dropped h i s are
talking
319 heart t o heart. because L o u i s 319.
N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e i r communication i s hampered cannot comprehend t h e r e l i g i o u s l y s p i r i t u a l p a t h
See p. 121.
- 202 -
Louise
has chosen t o f o l l o w , w h i l s t Louise has gone
too
far
down t h a t p a t h t o understand Louis (T V I , 184-186 and 190). Although t h e evidence Bernard's
characters
allegiance
i s i n e v i t a b l y l i m i t e d , s i n c e most o f
a r e French, t h e q u e s t i o n
would n o t seem t o be o f fundamental
Deux Hommes
i s anything
differences,
Bernard's
communication
t o go
by. As
t h e a t r e suggests
barriers,
o f national
consequence i f
f o r socio-political t h a t they do
a l t h o u g h these
p u t up
are n o t necessarily
i n s u p e r a b l e ones. Jeanne de P a n t i n has more i n common w i t h t h e middle-class
students
whom
she i s o v e r t l y
supposed
t o be
i n s p i r i n g than w i t h t h e more w o r k i n g - c l a s s cafe owner's son who is
o r i g i n a l l y d e s t i n e d t o t a k e over h i s f a t h e r ' s business
and
o n l y l i s t e n s i n on Jeanne'-s speeches from a back room. I t i s t o Felicien, message
however, even
t h a t she a c t u a l l y
i f i t i s through
A l a Recherche des Coeurs genuinely
disconcerted
differently employer. deepest
from
what
communicates a
half-open
b o t h . workers and u n b e l i e v i n g
her r e a l door.
In
and management
are
when
Charles
they c o n s i d e r t o be t h e norm
convictions
and
i s alone w i t h D a r i e l ,
t h e two men understanding
t h e y had d u r i n g t h e war was n o t so shallow as t o be the p o l i t i c a l
civilian The Martine Jeanne
f o r an
On t h e o t h e r hand, once he s t a r t s being t r u e t o h i s
communicate as equals and r e a l i z e t h a t t h e mutual
by
speaks
d i v i d e which has emerged
threatened
between
them i n
life. difference
i n social standing
between
Julien
i s h i g h l i g h t e d when, a few minutes a f t e r h e r
and
arrival,
'qui semble apercevoir Martine pour l a premiere f o i s au
- 203 -
moment
ou
bonne?'
s o r t ' asks a d i s c o n c e r t e d
( M a r t i n e , T I , 126).
difference in
elle
However,
Julien the
social
between M a r t i n e and J u l i e n i s o n l y r e a l l y
so f a r as i t i s i n d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e
cultural
'C'est l a
and
educational differences.
class relevant
f o r more
These
are
crucial
illustrated
w e l l i n t h e second Tableau. Looking through t h e window, recites loss,
Julien
some l i n e s o f Andre Chenier. Martine i s c l e a r l y g i v i n g t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t she has never even
at a
heard
of
Chenier l e t alone l e a r n e d any o f h i s p o e t r y by h e a r t :
JULIEN
Je t i e n d r a i l a f a u c i l l e ou l a faux recourbee^ Et devant mes pas I'herbe ou. l a moisson tombee Viendra r e m p l i r t a grange en l a b e l l e saison...
MARTINE, apres un s i l e n c e Qu'est-ce que vous d i t e s ?
JULIEN Des
vers.
MARTINE Des
vers?
(T I , 123)
Before
t h e end
communication will
o f t h e same Tableau
difficulties
n o t be aggravated
we
know
that
J u l i e n may have w i t h
by a d i f f e r e n c e
i n their
whatever
Jeanne
they
educational
background. J u l i e n s t a r t s t o r e c i t e h i s Chenier again:
- 204 -
JULIEN
Je t i e n d r a i l a f a u c i l l e ou l a faux recourbee...
JEANNE I ' a r r e t e d'un geste e t , a s a j o i e , continue lentement: .Et devant mes pas I'herbe ou l a moisson tombee Viendra r e m p l i r t a grange en l a b e l l e s a i s o n A f i n que n u l m o r t e l ne d i s e en t a maison...
(T I , 131)
Another have
s i g n i f i c a n c e i s t h a t between the simple and the
wise.
The b e s t
N a t i o n a l e 6, latter has
d i f f e r e n c e o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e which i s shown t o
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r e Francine
t h e former
w i t h her sheltered
w i t h h i s much more w o r l d l y one. The
almost
worldly-
and Robert
of
l i f e s t y l e , the
innocent
c e r t a i n l y never f r e q u e n t e d the s o c i a l
Francine
circles i n
which Robert moves r o u t i n e l y , and she has o n l y dreamt o f going to
t h e places
he
has a c t u a l l y
visited.
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a t one p o i n t communication
I t is
scarcely
between them
breaks
down t o t a l l y . A f t e r commenting on t h e f a c t t h a t more o f t e n than not
p a i n t e r s have t o use i n a p p r o p r i a t e models f o r t h e i r
Robert
concludes:
magnifiques: des
'Et p o u r t a n t avec ga on f a i t
des choses
des madones avec des c o u r t i s a n e s , comme
Raphael,
enfin!'
whereupon
F r a n c i n e asks 'Des q u o i , monsieur Robert?' w i t h such
ingenuity
that
jeunes f i l l e s au b a i n avec des... o u i ,
work,
Robert,
(T V, 7 5 ) .
understandably,
does
n o t attempt
to
answer
-.205
8,
-
The r e a l i s t - r o m a n t i c i s t d i v i d e By
f a r t h e most
personality are
fundamental
pair
of
contrasting
types t h a t emerge from Bernard's t h e a t r e as a whole
t h e i m a g i n a t i v e dreamers and v i s i o n a r i e s on the one hand,
as opposed t o t h e down-to-earth p r a g m a t i s t s and r e a l i s t s on the other.
Of course, w i t h i n and between each extreme
variations differ whole
there are
o f degree so t h a t t h e v i s i o n a r i e s and t h e
amongst gamut
themselves.
I n the
symbolic
realists
Nationale 6 the
o f nuances o f r e a l i s m and romanticism are
t o be
found r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f the c h a r a c t e r s :
EXTREME REALISM Elisa
EXTREME ROMANTICISM
Robert
Antoine
Michel
Michel
has h i s f e e t more f i r m l y on t h e ground
Robert
may
pragmatist not
be
Francine
than
Francine.
i n t h e r e a l i s t s ' camp, b u t he i s l e s s
of a
t h a n E l i s a . As an a r t i s t we must assume t h a t he i s
d e v o i d o f i m a g i n a t i o n b u t d i s c i p l i n e s i t and keeps i t
for
h i s work. Antoine i s i n a halfway house p o s i t i o n between Robert and F r a n c i n e : a l t h o u g h he has t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m o f novelist
who
i s v e r y much i n t h e w o r l d ,
Francine's
the
'logique
m i r a c u l e u s e ' appeals t o h i s a r t i s t i c i m a g i n a t i o n (T V, 54). There i s no i n d i c a t i o n i n t h e p l a y s t h a t people to
t h e same
successfully character
b a s i c c a t e g o r y are and m e a n i n g f u l l y
types,
irrespective
bound than
belonging
t o communicate those
o f the
of
context
more
contrasting and o t h e r
206 -
variables. either
N e v e r t h e l e s s Bernard's t h e a t r e does
apart
slanted
from, o r i n conjunction w i t h ,
suggest
that,
the individually
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o r nuances o f meaning
which
speakers
c o n s c i o u s l y , s u b c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y g i v e t o t h e words t h e y say and hear, people have a g e n e r a l tendency t o to
words
one o f two types o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
approximately discussion,
t o t h e two major and t h i s
personality
naturally
which
attribute correspond
groupings
aggravates
under
communication
difficulties. One cannot h e l p wondering whether communication would have broken down q u i t e so r a d i c a l l y between Madeleine and Robert i n Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan,
i f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s had n o t been
diametrically
Madeleine
opposed.
i s horrified
when
Robert
pledges h i s s u p p o r t i n c l i n i c a l terms:
ROBERT J'aurai toute l a patience q u ' i l m ' a p p l i q u e r a i avec methode...
faudra...
Je
MADELEINE, 1'interrompant Avec methode... Helas! font deforme. Je ne s u i s mathematiques...
Robert, l e s sciences pas un probleme de
ROBERT Tout e s t probleme...
(T V I , 300)
Would
Arvers
communicate
have
found
i t impossible,
one wonders,
h i s message t o Marie Nodier-Menessier
to
i f she had
- 207
-
been temperamentally s e n s i t i v e t o innuendoes and veiled meanings as i s the heroine of L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage? Marie-Louise a u t o m a t i c a l l y expects her imaginary lover to converse w i t h her v i a a r t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t symbols such as gifts o f fans and p o e t r y . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a l l t h e evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y she a t t r i b u t e s t o P h i l i p p e V a l b e i l l e thoughts and i n t e n t i o n s he p r o b a b l y never c o u l d e n t e r t a i n , as f o r him they would be q u i t e o u t o f c h a r a c t e r .
Apart
from
'misunderstand' romantic,
the
fact
that
Marie-Louise
manages
P h i l i p p e because she assumes he has
the
i m a g i n a t i v e s t r e a k as h e r s e l f , much o f t h e
to same
abortive
communication i n L' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage can be p u t down t o fact
t h a t the heroine's v i s i o n o f the world i s d i f f e r e n t
the from
t h a t o f b o t h her s i s t e r and her husband. Landreau t e l l s O l i v i e r that
Marie-Louise,
grandmother, whilst When
is
who 'une
has i n h e r i t e d her i m a g i n a t i o n from reveuse,
une
Jacqueline i s l i k e h i s w i f e : Jacqueline
living
room
replaced
in
by
irrelevant.
romanesque' 'plus
posee'
looks through the extensive Act I , she sees t r e e s other
trees,
Marie-Louise,
their
which
species
her
(T I , 335), (T I , 336).
windows
of
the
could
well
be
being
on t h e o t h e r hand, sees
a
largely symbolic
mass o f b o r i n g and c l a u s t r o p h o b i c sameness (T I , 274-275). Once Marie-Louise Philippe, illustrated
has g i v e n her i m a g i n a t i o n f r e e r e i n w i t h r e g a r d t o this
polarized
i n a s p e c i f i c way.
Jacqueline
look a t the
of
the
Act I ,
double v i s i o n
is
accentuated
When Marie-Louise,
Olivier
and and
photograph o f P h i l i p p e towards the end
imaginative
visionary
o f the
three
sees
a
- 208
totally
d i f f e r e n t image from
Olivier's
words i n
that
seen
by t h e
t h e f o l l o w i n g exchange
other
are
two.
particularly
significant:
OLIVIER Voyez comme c'est c u r i e u x . V o i l a un homme q u i n ' e s t pas p a r t i depuis deux mois e t nous ne sommes d e j a p l u s d'accord sur l a ressemblance d'une photo.I I y a au moins I'un de nous t r o i s q u i a t r o p d'imagination.
MARIE-LOUISE, s ' e c a r t a n t , avec un peu d'humeur Eh b i e n , mettons que ce s o i t moi e t n'en p a r l o n s plus.
OLIVIER Oh! On peut simplement supposer que nous n'avons pas l e s memes yeux. C'est assez normal . . .
(T I ,
293-294)
Nationale 6
could
scarcely
make
i t clearer
that
the
exchange o f words between t h e E l i s a s and Roberts o f t h i s w o r l d , on
t h e one hand,, and t h e M i c h e l s and F r a n c i n e s , on the
is
bound
another
to
be p r o b l e m a t i c , even i f they l o v e
across
reading/viewing
the of
personality
gulf.
or
On
other,
like
one
an
initial
t h e p l a y i t i s t e m p t i n g t o argue
that i f
F r a n c i n e and Robert had been a b l e t o d i s c u s s o n l y i n d i s p u t a b l e , unambiguous
facts
there
would
probably
have
been
no
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . However t h e o r e t i c a l l y sound such a c o n c l u s i o n might seem, i t i s i n f a c t erroneous because Francine i s such an imaginative
dreamer t h a t she has a tendency t o
confuse
facts
w i t h f a n c y , t o mix what o t h e r s would keep a p a r t i n two separate
- 209 -
c a t e g o r i e s . A t one p o i n t M i c h e l r e f e r s t o Francine and h i m s e l f as
'deux f a n t a i s i s t e s ' . Her r e p l y i s s i g n i f i c a n t :
'Ou
est l a
f a n t a i s i e , papa? Qu'est-ce que c ' e s t que ga? Ou e s t l a v i e ?
Ou
e s t l e reve? Pourquoi l e s separer?' (T V, 1 7 ) . Whilst
her father
expectations
understands
h e r dreams
them
husband
and daughter immediately have t o change
t o h e r mother. When E l i s a e n t e r s i n A c t I ,
raison
personality d'etre
exchanging.
t o such
question
tells
her they
Elisa 15-16).
words can sometimes
a degree
that
they
between
lose
their
a r e n o t worth
M i c h e l does n o t even a t t e m p t t o answer h i s
simple
exchange
types
'Qu'est-ce que vous f a i t e s ? ' have
been t a l k i n g
o f comments on
sees
rain,
Almost
about
t h e weather
where Francine and Michel
as remarkable
wife's
truthfully;
cooking.
proves
her
the subject.
we f i n d Bernard s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n c o n v e r s a t i o n s
opposite
her
o f t h e N a t i o n a l e 6, Francine c o u l d n o t begin t o
explain
Here
and
Even
he an
controversial: see none
i s Francine's r e f e r r i n g
(T V, t o her
home as ' l a charmante p e t i t e maison q u i domine l a c o l l i n e
avec
sa g l y c i n e e t sa v i g n e v i e r g e ' (T V, 2 0 ) , w h i l s t f o r Robert i t is
'le logis
insignifiant, surprising
l e plus banal, l e plus
problem house:
l e plus
l e p l u s . . . l e p l u s . . . ' (T V, 4 3 ) . I t i s h a r d l y
that
there
should
between Francine and Robert terms
quelconque,
when
be
a
major
misunderstanding
each can use such
t o d e s c r i b e t h e same b u i l d i n g .
Antoine
different
pinpoints the
when he h e l p s Robert complete h i s d e s c r i p t i o n
o f the
210 -
Le p l u s moche, l e p l u s impersonnel, l e plus t e r n e , l e p l u s i n c o l o r e , l e p l u s vague. S i t u veux encore quelques a d j e c t i f s , j e p o u r r a i t ' e n t r o u v e r . . . Ah! jeune homme q u i ne savez pas v o i r , e t vous avez des yeux p o u r t a n t , e t savez vous en s e r v i r a 1'occasion, jeune p e i n t r e , e t q u i ne manquez pas de t a l e n t ! . . . ( T V , 43-44)
The same p a t t e r n i s t o be seen i n M a r t i n e , where J u l i e n i s the
imaginative
visionary,
Martine,
the
down-to-earth
p r a g m a t i s t . Having l i t e r a l l y showered her w i t h f l o w e r i n g and
metaphorically
'Promettez-moi
worshipped
her,
Julien
broom
concludes
que nous r e v i e n d r o n s i c i en p e l e r i n a g e
e t que
nous adorerons ce p e t i t pommier', i n r e p l y t o which a l l Martine can manage i s 'C'est comme vous voudrez' (T I , 105) - and t h e r e is
no
indication
appreciation night-time imagines
non-verbally. assignation
t h e scene
ingredients: tres
i n the text that When
with
will
she expresses
J u l i e n looks
a
deeper
forward
to a
M a r t i n e and t e l l s
be, he
includes
her how he
a l l the
ideal
' l e p a r a p e t du v i e u x pont . . . un p e t i t r u i s s e a u
l i m p i d e . . . un grand a r b r e sombre; e t , au-dessous, l a
l u n e ! ' , t o which M a r t i n e responds w i t h a d e f l a t i n g and pedantic ' E l l e ne sera pas l e v e e ' :
JULIEN A l l o n s ! bon! l a lune ne sera pas l e v e e . . .
MARTINE II f a u t a t t e n d r e un mois pour l a r e v o i r comme 1'autre s o i r , a I'heure que vous d i t e s . E t encore, s ' i l f a i t beau...
- 211 -
JULIEN Mais j e n ' a i pas b e s o i n d ' a t t e n d r e . Je v o l s t o u t c e l a en ce moment. Pas vous?
MARTINE, incredule Ou?
JULIEN, touchant son f r o n t La... (Martine se met a r i r e sans J u l i e n s ' e c a r t e avec un malaise.) . . .
comprendre,
(T I , 122)
Here,
once
communicate
again,
we
are
shown
two
people
failing
e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h each o t h e r , because one
to
of
t r a n s f o r m s much o f what he sees w i t h t h e power o f h i s
them
creative
i m a g i n a t i o n w h i l s t t h e o t h e r does n o t . •
The
examples
•
•
o f misunderstandings, c o n f u s i o n
and
communication d i f f i c u l t i e s analysed i n t h i s chapter the
essential l u b r i c i t y
other
illustrate
and f i c k l e n e s s o f words and how v a r i o u s
f a c t o r s can d i c t a t e a person's speech and t h e way he l i s t e n s t o o t h e r s . These i n c l u d e h i s mood and h i s emotional preoccupations which such
can be a f f e c t e d t o v a r y i n g degrees by as
external
the general a t t i t u d e of h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r ( s )
stimuli and
atmosphere o f h i s p h y s i c a l s u r r o u n d i n g s . To these can be his
innate
egoism,
his individual l i f e
the
poltergeist
effect
history
personality
and
of
unconscious,
unknowable and f r e q u e n t l y u n r u l y
and
the added
unique
his
largely
psyche.
Whilst
openness, knowledge and empathy are presented as i m p o r t a n t keys
- 212 -
t o m e a n i n g f u l p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e questions o f age, sex and
family
intimacy
irrelevant. as
religious
make
world
theatre
and
dictated divergent
that
would
appear
a
more
problematic.
are also
Last
largely
extent
the
by
of
on
'sight'
two
the pragmatist
visionary
divide
one
the
such
shown
but not
differently, this
attitudes - that of
realist-romanticist
be
suggests t h a t people may a c t u a l l y
large
of
to
socio-economic and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s ,
circumstances
to
se
and e d u c a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s ,
communication
Bernard's
and
Certain
per
to
least,
see t h e being
fundamentally
on t h e one hand other.
i n e v i t a b l y plays i t s own
c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e communication process s t i l l f u r t h e r .
This part
in
- 213 -
CHAPTER 3
THE POWER OF WORDS
- 214 -
I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Bernard's i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e v e r b a l communication process i s n o t prompted by h i s b e l i e f t h a t words are i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e . I n Bernard's t h e a t r e words are r e p e a t e d l y shown t o have some k i n d o f e f f e c t however i n d i r e c t . I t may n o t be t h e e f f e c t t h e y were o r i g i n a l l y designed t o have or t h e i r speaker i n t e n d e d o r anyone might ever imagine they c o u l d have, b u t t h e y have an e f f e c t . T h i s chapter i s devoted t o a r e v i e w o f t h e ways i n which, t h r o u g h o u t Bernard's drama, words a r e shown - i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h , as a by-product o f , o r divorced from their inefficiency as instruments of communication - t o be h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e and i n some cases dangerously so. The r h e t o r i c a l , e v o c a t i v e and p r o v o c a t i v e power o f words a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e opening t h r e e s e c t i o n s . The f o u r s e c t i o n s which c o n s t i t u t e t h e second h a l f o f the chapter are devoted t o v a r i o u s aspects o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c a t a l y t i c power o f words.
«
1.
•
«
The power o f r h e t o r i c I n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t spoken words are r a r e l y shown t o
be
d e f i n i t i v e l y i l l u m i n a t i n g and never i n f a l l i b l e p o i n t e r s
reason,
l e t alone
illustrate
how
situations. are
any
well
absolute t r u t h ,
they
can be
a
number
manipulated
to
o f plays
i n debating
T h i s i s because Bernard was w e l l aware t h a t
words
n o t s i m p l y p o t e n t i a l c a r r i e r s o f meaning, b u t a l s o ,
to a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t , notes o f music, and t h a t t h e s o n o r i t y o f phonemes
their
and t h e rhythm o f t h e sentences and phrases i n which
t h e y a r e combined,
can, even i n t h e prose o f everyday
speech,
- 215 -
give
them
Bernard's theatre.
a p o e t i c a l q u a l i t y which i s expressive exploitation
of
this
i s evident
in
itself.
throughout
I n h i s t h e s i s L l o y d Bishop w r i t e s a t some
length
t h e d r a m a t i s t ' s use o f stichomythy m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t i t many
l y r i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s even w i t h t h e s i m p l e s t
his on
'offers
vocabulary 320
and
so
i s w e l l s u i t e d t o Bernard's
Bernard
employs
type
t h i s device t o achieve a
of
dialogue'.
special
rhetorical
e f f e c t i n Jeanne de P a n t i n . Although we a r e n o t p r i v y t o any o f the sessions the
i n which Jeanne speaks t o her s t u d e n t f r i e n d s w i t h
s o l e purpose o f i n s p i r i n g them, we hear about them i n t h e
fourth
Tableau
mouvement points
which
Bernard
says 'doit e t r e
de plus en plus rapide'
joue
dans
(T I V , 4 2 ) . Here, as
un
Bishop
o u t , s t i c h o m y t h y i s used ' t o show t h e f e r v o r t h a t 321
the
h e r o i n e has c r e a t e d i n t h e h e a r t s o f her comrades'. Another example o f t h e r h e t o r i c a l power o f words i n a c t i o n is
t o be found i n A c t I I o f Denise M a r e t t e . Responding t o t h e
requests
of
accompanies
Martin
and
Charolles
t o see
Michel,
her n e g a t i v e answer w i t h an e x a l t e d
Denise
speech
conveys h e r passionate d e v o t i o n and enthusiasm so w e l l , both
i t s content
and
i t s delivery,
that
which through
i t moves
her
i n t e r l o c u t o r s and a l l o w s her t o send them o f f f e e l i n g s a t i s f i e d i n a way
they would
320.
Thesis, p. 273.
321.
I b i d . , p. 275.
n o t have f e l t
had she
simply
t o l d them
- 216 -
t h a t s e e i n g h e r f a t h e r was o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n . 'Grace a
vous,
nous
her
venons
d'avoir
(T I I , 110).
un peu de l u i . . . '
Charolles
This comment i s d r a m a t i c a l l y i r o n i c
tells
because t h e
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r knows t h a t i n f a c t Denise has j u s t g i v e n not
a l i t t l e b u t a l o t o f t h e a r t i s t whom,
it,
they
a c t u a l l y came t o see. Be t h a t as
them
without
realizing
i t may,
Denise's
unplanned r h e t o r i c a l o u t b u r s t s n o t o n l y have a c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t 322 on h e r s e l f ,
b u t j u s t as p o s i t i v e a one on h e r i n t e r l o c u t o r s .
Perhaps t h e b e s t example o f the p o t e n t i a l r h e t o r i c a l power of
a
combination
o f verbal,
paralinguistic
and
non-verbal
s i g n a l s i s t o be found i n Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse. At t h e juncture
i n question
vulnerable
position.
unprotected
with
enemy
Marie .could Bothwell
scarcely
be
in a
has had t o f l e e .
Crookston's household behind
She
is
h e r when t h e
l o r d s menacingly invade Borthwick C a s t l e . The way
'franchissent
more
l a porta e t s ' a r r e t e n t en apercevant
they
l a reine,
mais sans p l i e r l e genou' (T V I I , 155) makes i t i n s t a n t l y c l e a r that
posturing
w i l l play a v i t a l role
i n the confrontation
about t o take p l a c e . By a d o p t i n g a s t r o n g , a u t h o r i t a t i v e
stance
Marie
before
f o r e s t a l l s bloodshed and wins the ensuing debate
i t even begins. The r a t i o o f v e r b a l t o non-verbal i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exchange i s s i g n i f i c a n t : MARIE, a c e l u i q u i e s t en t e t e S a l u t , l o r d Hume.
322.
See pp. 136-137.
communication
- 217 -
HUME V o t r e Grace...
MARIE S a l u t , Lindsay! Morton! T u l l i b a r d i n ! Salut, G l e n c a i r n . . . Vous pouvez poser vos armes, mylords! (Et comme i l s h e s i t a n t , e l l e f a i t un pas en avant, l a p e l t r i n e o f f e r t e , l e s mains ouvertes.) S u i s - j e armee, moi?
(Devant c e geste, devant ce ton r o y a l , brusquement l e s l o r d s s^mblent domines. D'lan meme mouvement, l i s mettent ion genou a t e r r e , l e s t e t e s se courbent. Marie l e s contemple un i n s t a n t , non sans orgueil.)
(T V I I , 155)
Marie She
goes on t o s e l e c t her words w i t h s k i l l and
discernment.
knows how l o n g she should speak o r pause; t o what
extent
she s h o u l d a l l o w her l i s t e n e r s t o respond; when t o bombard them with
r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , d i s g u i s e d and o v e r t
flattery; speech
and t h e c r u c i a l moments a t which t o
reproaches
or
punctuate h e r
w i t h e l o q u e n t g e s t u r e s or p a r a l i n g u i s t i c
nuances. The
Queen's eloquence, however, i s shown, l i k e Denise Marette's i n the
p r e v i o u s example c i t e d , t o be as good as the d r i v i n g
motivating everything situation triumphs her
her i s strong. to fight
for.
A t Borthwick Castle Later,
a t Lochleven
has d e t e r i o r a t e d . Nevertheless Marie's
she has Castle, t h e regal
pride
over her d e p r e s s i o n when she r e c e i v e s t h e l o r d s , and
r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s come t o the f o r e as a t B o r t h w i c k ,
Lindsay
force
arrives
t o t e l l her t h a t B o t h w e l l has
left
until
Scotland
(T V I I , 175-178). W i t h t h i s news Marie c a p i t u l a t e s t o t a l l y : she
- 218
signs
t h e t h r e e a c t s and does n o t u t t e r another
178-179).
The
de P a n t i n .
U n l i k e her l e g e n d a r y / h i s t o r i c a l
never
same
principle
is
word
illustrated
(T V I I ,
in
Jeanne
prototype,
Jeanne
has any o t h e r weapon except her s k i l l i n r h e t o r i c ,
she
is
Defense
but
t o t a l l y disarmed when she goes t o t h e o f f i c e s
o f the
i n t h e s i x t h Tableau. The h e r o i n e f a i l s
convince
Gravard,
l a r g e l y because she has no confidence
to
i n her
ability
t o do so. P r e s s u r i z e d by t h e s t u d e n t s she makes t h e attempt b u t with
no i n n e r c o n v i c t i o n , b e l i e v i n g her e f f o r t s t o
be
doomed
from t h e s t a r t . In
t h e f i n a l i n s t a n c e , however, Bernard
insists that
r h e t o r i c a l power o f words i s l e s s dependent on t h e i r morale their
than
on t h e conscious
hearer(s)
between
Gravard
interview,
to
or
be convinced
unconscious or
moved.
and B r i s q u e t , b e f o r e Jeanne
the
speaker's
willingness of The
discussion
i s allowed
t e l l s us t h a t t h e newspaper chairman i s
her
determined
i n h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h h e r t o prove a p o i n t . However much may.
dream 'de r e n c o n t r e r des hommes d e s i n t e r e s s e s '
believes
he
t h a t 'cela n ' e x i s t e pas' (T I V , 9 4 ) . When he
agrees t o t a l k t o Jeanne, he i s predisposed
he
firmly finally
t o misinterpret or
mock every word she says r h e t o r i c a l l y o r o t h e r w i s e . The bombast of
t h e Malousien governors
rendered to
instantly
powerless as soon as enough r e b e l s r e f u s e t o subscribe
i t , but
importance brought
i n Le Roy de Malousie i s
i t is
i n A l a Recherche des Coeurs
o f the psychological a t t i t u d e o f the
that
the
hearer(s)
is
home b e s t , as f a r as t h e r h e t o r i c a l power o f words i s
concerned.
For
a
long time
t h e workers'
suspicions
resist
- 219
Charles'
eloquence
excellent himself
and when
a
a t t h e May Day meeting a l t h o u g h he s i n c e r e speaker. He
he t e l l s t h e crowd
pinpoints
i s an
t h e problem
'Ah! sans doute y
en
a-t-il
parmi vous q u i , malgre t a n t de preuves, sont decides d'avance a ne
pas
only
se l a i s s e r c o n v a i n c r e ' (T I I I , 105).
Ironically
y i e l d when he l o s e s h i s temper and s t a r t s t o use
they
a
tone
w i t h which they a r e more f a m i l i a r . The for,
f a c t n e v e r t h e l e s s remains t h a t whatever
or
results
l i m i t a t i o n s o f , t h e r h e t o r i c a l power speak
rhetoric
in
o f words, i t s
Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse
i n f l u e n c e s t h e course o f h i s t o r y ,
des Coeurs shot
for itself:
t h e reasons
i n A l a Recherche
Dubray b e l i e v e s t h a t Charles might never have
been
i f t h e speakers a t t h e f a t a l meeting had d e l i v e r e d
speeches
i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r (T I I I , 137), and
i n Le Roy de
M a l o u s i e , a l t h o u g h i t i s e v e n t u a l l y overthrown, t h e bolster
up
a
ridiculous
and s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e
their
Malousiens
regime
for a
c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h o f t i m e t h r o u g h t h e i r abuse o f t h e power o f rhetoric.
2.
The e v o c a t i v e power o f words and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n f l i c t mental p a i n In
t h e survey j u s t made o f some o f t h e more
rhetorical
passages
important power
i n Bernard's
drama
one
aspects o f e l o q u e n t language, namely
specifically o f the
most
the evocative
o f t h e words which a r e r h e t o r i c a l l y s t r u n g t o g e t h e r , i s
deliberately relevant
bypassed.
This
i s because
the principle
t o t h e words exchanged i n any d i a l o g u e ,
language i s p o e t i c a l ,
whether
impassioned o r extremely p r o s a i c .
is the
- 220 -
An i n c i d e n t i n L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s u b t l e t i e s a t i s s u e . I t i s obvious t h a t Marie-Louise winces when J a c q u e l i n e uses t h e word 'beguin' t o d e s c r i b e h e r i m a g i n a r y l o v e a f f a i r w i t h P h i l i p p e . 'Ah! qu'est-ce que c'est que ce mot s t u p i d e ? ' she asks h e r s i s t e r r e p r o v i n g l y (T I , 320). This r e a c t i o n i s almost c e r t a i n l y due t o t h e f a c t that, i n b e i n g b l u n t l y a c c u r a t e , J a c q u e l i n e impoverishes what i s now b o u n d l e s s l y r o m a n t i c and s e r i o u s i n Marie-Louise's mind, r e d u c i n g i t t o what she says i t i s , namely a mere 'beguin'. I n a way, by speaking t h e word, J a c q u e l i n e i n s t a n t l y c r e a t e s t h e r e a l i t y o f a 'beguin', which Marie-Louise r e j e c t s because i t i s incongruous with h e r mental image. The resonances of J a c q u e l i n e ' s spoken words c l a s h w i t h those o f Marie-Louise's unspoken ones a g a i n a few minutes l a t e r b u t f o r t h e opposite reason. A t t h i s p o i n t , j u s t b e f o r e she decides on t h e t r i p t o E p i n a l , she i s s u b j e c t t o a bout o f s c r u p l e s because t h e rational, s e n s i b l e Marie-Louise can see h e r imaginary romance t u r n i n g i n t o a r e a l e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r . J a c q u e l i n e questions her 'Ce n'est pas p o s s i b l e ' i n t h e f o l l o w i n g terms:
Pourquoi? Veux-tu v i v r e avec l e r e g r e t de n ' a v o i r pas eu c e t t e c o n v e r s a t i o n ? Je commence a t e c o n n a i t r e , c e l a ne t e v a u d r a i t r i e n . D'ailleurs, aucun danger. I I va r e p a r t i r pour 1'Argentine, on me I ' a d i t . Et p u i s , s i t u I ' a s . . . aime...
MARIE-LOUISE
Jacqueline!...
:T
I , 323)
- 221 -
This peremptory i n t e r r u p t i o n o f h e r s i s t e r i s n o t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n Marie-Louise's view J a c q u e l i n e ' s use o f t h e verb 'aimer' d i m i n i s h e s something i n h e r u n r e a l w o r l d b u t very probably t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t .anticipates the creation o f something concrete i n h e r r e a l one.
I n s e v e r a l p l a y s Bernard very
clear
depending
shows how spoken words can create
images i n t h e mind o f a l i s t e n e r on
sensations.
the subject
Denise Marette
'diminution'
with
regard
matter,
and w i t h
correspondingly
r e c o i l s when Henri uses t o her f a t h e r ' s
them, painful
t h e word
condition.
immediately puts up a p h y s i c a l and v e r b a l defence a g a i n s t
She it:
DENISE Taisez-vous... (Faiblement.) Taisez-vous...
HENRI Ma pauvre Denise...
DENISE, se cachant l a f i g u r e Ce mot q u i n ' a u r a i t jamais du v e n i r au j o u r . . .
(Denise M a r e t t e , T I I ,
Here
56-57)
Denise i s made t o v i s u a l i z e a c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n .
Usually
i n t h i s k i n d o f process t h e memory o f t h e l i s t e n e r i s a c t i v a t e d so
that
he
concomitant triggered what
r e l i v e s i n h i s mind past emotions,
experiences
their
o r e l s e h i s powers o f i m a g i n a t i o n a r e
o f f so t h a t he m e n t a l l y sees and f e e l s
he c o u l d
and
o r w i l l be
i n advance
subject t o i n the future.
In his
- 222 -
speech
i n the penultimate
Monsieur Merin s e n i o r Blanche
o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal
verbal
pictures
o f h e r acute sense o f l o n e l i n e s s
whereupon Andre
paints
scene
which
during
remind t h e War,
she imagines what the f u t u r e w i l l h o l d i n s t o r e f o r
i f she leaves him. A t the same time t h e f o l l o w i n g
also
h e l p s Andre sense
which
' l a douleur de l a s o l i t u d e '
cameo
(T I , 89)
Blanche has a l r e a d y endured and which he w i l l s u f f e r i f
she go^es:
Souvent, a l a tombee du j o u r , j ' e n t r a i s i c i . C'est p e u t - e t r e c e l a q u i m'a frappe quand j e s u i s a r r i v e . La p i e c e a v a i t l e meme e c l a i r a g e incertain. Blanche e t a i t a s s i s e j u s t e m e n t sur l a chaise basse ou t u es a s s i s , tournee v e r s l e f e u , comme t o i , e t e l l e j o u a i t avec l e s p i n c e t t e s , comme t u f a i s maintenant. (T I , 90)
However, clear,
i t i s above a l l i n M a r t i n e t h a t i t i s made
very
t o t h e malaise o f the s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r ,
that
spoken words can i n f l i c t a mental p a i n which can be as wounding as
any p h y s i c a l
imaginative
d i s c o m f o r t . Although
Martine
i s not
an
v i s i o n a r y and does n o t t r a n s f o r m r e a l i t y w i t h her 323
mind's or
eye,
will
describes readily
she can imagine r e a l i s t i c scenes, as they
be, v i v i d l y i n advance accepts
and a c c u r a t e l y . Indeed, their
night-time
h i s r e f e r e n c e s t o the
when
rendezvous, parapet
were Julien
Martine
o f the
old
b r i d g e , t o t h e s m a l l , l i m p i d stream and t o the t a l l , dark t r e e , because these
323.
she knows t h a t a t the meeting place i n f e a t u r e s w i l l be p r e s e n t .
See pp. 205 and 210-211.
question a l l
However, she r e j e c t s J u l i e n ' s
- 223 -
incorporating
a f a c t i t i o u s moon which she r e a l i z e s
physically
324 cannot
be t h e r e t h a t n i g h t .
I n f a c t , the a b i l i t y
o f spoken
words t o p a i n t p i c t u r e s and engender sensations i n the mind i s e x e m p l i f i e d p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l i n M a r t i n e p r e c i s e l y because i t s h e r o i n e has such a c r y s t a l sharp i m a g i n a t i o n . Jeanne surprised
and t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r by
cannot
t h e way M a r t i n e seeks o u t the
help
being
company
o f her
victorious
' r i v a l ' , and i n so doing i n e v i t a b l y aggravates
emotional
wounds.
Jeanne
puts
her
attitude
down
her to
' 1 ' i n c o n s c i e n t d e s i r de se r a c c r o c h e r a c e l a . . . ' (T I , 158). We must assume t h a t M a r t i n e takes some k i n d o f p l e a s u r e i n h e a r i n g b o t h Jeanne and o l d Madame Mervan t a l k about J u l i e n because i t enables she
h e r t o v i s u a l i z e him and h i s l i f e , a
situation
which
p r e f e r s t o no c o n t a c t o f any k i n d . A l f r e d ' s words, on t h e
other
hand,
compensatory
only
make
her s u f f e r
without
giving
p l e a s u r e . Although he i s b a s i c a l l y
her any
good-natured,
A l f r e d i s the one c h a r a c t e r i n the p l a y who i s u t t e r l y t a c t l e s s with
r e g a r d t o M a r t i n e ' s f e e l i n g s . When he e x p l a i n s t o Jeanne
and J u l i e n i n Tableau V why she w i l l n o t be a b l e t o go t o P a r i s in
t h e Spring,
he
u n w i t t i n g l y but
none
the less
cruelly
t o r t u r e s h e r (T I , 181). Martine's s p i r i t i s c l e a r l y broken a t this
stage,
herself
b u t e a r l i e r i n t h e p l a y she s t r u g g l e s
defend
a g a i n s t the v e r b a l blows w i t h which A l f r e d c o u r t s her
as s t r e n u o u s l y as she r e s i s t s h i s g r i p on her arm:
324.
to
See p. 210.
- 224 -
ALFRED M a r t i n e , entends b i e n ce que j e v a i s t e d i r e . Je t ' a i dans l e sang... Je t e veux... T o i e t moi, on e s t f a i t pour se m a r i e r . Tu ne seras heureuse qu'avec moi... Faut qu'on v i v e ensemble tous l e s j o u r s , dans l a meme maison.
MARTINE Tu vas t e t a i r e ? . . .
ALFRED Faut qu'on a i t l e s memes meubles, l e s memes champs. Faut que t u prepares l a soupe pour moi tous les soirs.
MARTINE Tu vas t e t a i r e ? . . .
ALFRED Faut que t u a i e s des e n f a n t s avec moi. Faut que t u l e s n o u r r i s s e s pres de moi. Faut qu'on s o i t tout un, t o i e t moi. Faut que t u s o i s l a mere e t moi l e pere.
MARTINE
Tu vas t e t a i r e ? . . . Tu vas t e t a i r e ? . . .
(T I , 135-136) A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n i s t o be found i n L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage when J a c q u e l i n e t r i e s t o make Marie-Louise t h i n k about what c o u l d be a t s t a k e i f she p u t s her marriage a t r i s k :
JACQUELINE Ton menage, l e mien, c e l u i de nos p a r e n t s , l a v i e p a i s i b l e , l e bonheur...
MARIE-LOUISE Tais-toi...
tais-toi!...
JACQUELINE Veux-tu r u i n e r c e l a dans un coup de t e t e ?
MARIE-LOUISE Tais-toi!...
JACQUELINE C e t t e maison ou t u es nee, ou t u as connu t o u t e s t e s j o i e s , ou t u as e t e jeune mariee...
MARIE-LOUISE Tais-toi!...
JACQUELINE Ou t u as e t e mere...
MARIE-LOUISE, s e bouchant l e s o r e i l l e s Jacqueline!...
(T I , 333)
It
would
seem
'Tais-toi!' utters images
them,
t h a t these repeated
'Tu vas t e t a i r e ? '
a r e e f f e c t i v e , p r o b a b l y because,
as
h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s d i v e r t e d from
that
have
been
evoked.
Andre
and
and
the victim the
painful
Blanche
are
p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e e v o c a t i v e power o f o l d Monsieur Merin's
words
r e p r e n d mal,
i n the penultimate
as t h e y cannot p u t up
scene
of
Le Feu q u i
t h i s k i n d o f defence since
- 226
-
it would mean e x p l a i n i n g t o t h e i r f a t h e r ( - i n - l a w ) t h e y have come t o s e p a r a t i n g .
On t h e q u e s t i o n o f why others and
feelings
close
some people should s u f f e r more than
from t h e power o f spoken words t o evoke
corresponding
how
sensations,
are shown by Bernard
the
mental
speaker's
images
intention
t o be o f l i t t l e consequence.
i s t h e v i v i d n e s s o f the l i s t e n e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n and h i s susceptibility
and
t o t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t are t h e
I t
general
significant
f a c t o r s , and i t would seem t h a t these do n o t i n c r e a s e w i t h dynamic
input
Alfred's for
of
t h e speaker i n the way
one
might
l a c k o f awareness o f h i s v e r b a l c r u e l t y
expect.
to
Martine,
example, does n o t d i m i n i s h t h e p a i n he i n f l i c t s . Nor
t h e h u r t f u l n e s s o f h i s t a c t l e s s words depend on t h e with
which
harrowing Martine of
the
he
utters
discomposure
them. of
the
On
the
contrary,
robustness the
reader/spectator,
almost
let
alone
h e r s e l f , i n t h e p e a c e f u l scene w i t h A l f r e d a t the
t h e p l a y i s worse than i t i s i n t h e t h i r d Tableau
t r i e s t o b u l l y her i n t o a c c e p t i n g h i s p r o p o s a l . This along
does
w i t h o t h e r p o i n t e r s i n Bernard's drama, t h a t
end
when
he
suggests, words
can
e x e r t a maximum degree o f e v o c a t i v e power when t h e speaker does not
intend
expressly appear
to
them charge be
circumstances
due
t o have any e f f e c t , and them w i t h energy o r not
only
to
the
when
he
intensity. fact
that
does
not
This
would
in
these
t h e l i s t e n e r has no j u s t i f i c a t i o n or impetus
r e t a l i a t e v e r b a l l y i n s e l f - d e f e n c e , b u t a l s o t o the power o f understatement
to
additional
which comes i n t o p l a y . Once again i t i s
227
-
t h e p e n u l t i m a t e scene o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal which an e x c e l l e n t example o f t h i s f e a t u r e Old Monsieur Merin opportune
moment
widowhood. might
could
not
provides
i n action. have
arrived
at
t o d e l i v e r h i s s o l i l o q u y on the
a
more
sadness
of
He knows a l i t t l e about Andre's s u s p i c i o n s , and
he
w e l l have been u n c o n s c i o u s l y guided by h i s i n t u i t i o n
to
come
and
t a l k t o t h e couple when and how
very
u n l i k e l y t h a t he has t h e i n t e n t i o n - or i f he does i t i s
extremely how
he does, but
w e l l d i s g u i s e d - o f g i v i n g them a c o v e r t
lucky
fortunate
Andre they
i s t o have come out o f t h e
War
are t o have one another and
i t is
sermon alive,
how
they
on how
should
e n j o y each o t h e r ' s company as much and as l o n g as they can.
If
he had come over w i t h t h a t aim i n mind, one wonders whether h i s speech would have been so e f f e c t i v e . What he might have in
rhetoric
he
understatement, through
vmwitting
to
have
risking
p e r v e r s i t y i n two
would
lost the
in
simplicity
arousal
stubborn
of
conscious
almost
certainly
resistance
fact
This
that
succeeds,
attempt t o dissuade
E p i n a l and t h e r e b y j e o p a r d i z i n g
and
individuals.
seem t o be confirmed by t h e
Merin s e n i o r
Jacqueline's going
whilst
human
conclusion
would
gained
the
whereas
Marie-Louise her
marriage
from fails
( L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage, Act I I I Tableau I ) . Although the inflicted
by
an
o b l i v i o u s speaker t r i g g e r s
off
a
positive
r e a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r s a t t h e end o f q u i r e p r e n d mal,
in
r a t h e r than the r u l e .
Bernard's t h e a t r e t h i s i s
the
pain
Le
Feu
exception
- 228
3.
The dangerously When
about his
Antoine
p r o v o c a t i v e power o f words o f N a t i o n a l e 6 remonstrates
with
t h e damage h i s s m a l l - t a l k has done, Robert defence
faut
h i s son
exclaims
in
'Si on ne peut p l u s p l a i s a n t e r maintenant! S ' i l
se m e f i e r de 1' i m a g i n a t i o n des gens!
Je ne
sais
pas
ce q u ' e l l e a pu comprendre, c e t t e p e t i t e f i l l e , mais
elle
est
t e r r i b l e m e n t dangereuse...'. A n t o i n e , however, knows
that
Francine i s no more dangerous than Robert, and concludes ' V o i l a comment,
sans
l e savoir,
on
fait
du
mal...'
(T V, 109).
Bernard's
p l a y s r e p e a t e d l y h i g h l i g h t t h e f a c t t h a t people
never
t o o c a r e f u l about what they
be
possibly use, and
say.
As
they
cannot
know a l l t h e p o t e n t i a l resonances o f t h e words
they cannot be sure what they mean t o t h e i r consequently
can
they
interlocutor
what e f f e c t they may have on him.
There
are
numerous examples i n Bernard's p l a y s o f c h a r a c t e r s ' u n w i t t i n g l y saying
t h e wrong
t h i n g a t t h e wrong at
t h e end o f
time.
The
Act I
of
content
of
Gilberte's
disclosure
Le Printemps
des A u t r e s
would be t h e h e i g h t o f t a c t l e s s n e s s i f she had t h e
s l i g h t e s t i d e a o f her mother's f e e l i n g s w i t h r e g a r d t o Maurice. Blissfully
unaware
of
his
cruelty,
Robert Darmon
of
Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan torments Madeleine i n exchanges l i k e the following,
when f o r a s p l i t second she i s l e d t o b e l i e v e
he might a c t u a l l y
understand:
ROBERT . . . Seche t e s larmes, v o i c i D a n i e l . . .
that
- 229 -
MADELEINE, r e l e v a n t l a t e t e Pourquoi d i s - t u cela?
ROBERT, sans i n t e n t i o n Parce q u ' i l ne f a u t pas qu'un s u b a l t e r n e t e v o i e pleurer...
MADELEINE, machinalement Ah!... o u i . . . ( E l l e e s s u i e s e s yeux.)
(T V I , 303)
Similarly, au Voyage, although
i n the following
exchanges
t h e audience can sense Olivier
from
L'Invitation
Marie-Louise's
and J a c q u e l i n e a r e q u i t e
discomfort,
ignorant
o f the
e f f e c t t h e i r words a r e h a v i n g on her:
OLIVIER Au f o n d , c e t homme qu'on ne r e v e r r a sans doute p l u s , c'est assez d r o l e de penser q u ' i l n'y a pas s i x semaines i l e t a i t encore dans ce fauteuil a p l a i s a n t e r avec nous.
MARIE-LOUISE, regardant fixement l e f a u t e u i l bas entre l e s deux a u t r e s , devant l e poele C'est loin...
vrai...
Dans ce f a u t e u i l . . .
Que
c'est
OLIVIER Non, ce n'est pas l o i n . . . Oh! c'est l o i n s i t u veux, comme t o u t ce q u i ne r e v i e n d r a p l u s
(T I , 287)
230 -
JACQUELINE En somme, Argentine.
dans
peu
de
jours,
i l sera
en
assez.
Pas
OLIVIER I I y e s t peut-etre deja.
JACQUELINE V o i l a un vous, O l i v i e r ?
voyage q u i me
tenterait
OLIVIER Tous l e s voyages sont t e n t a n t s , s u r t o u t quand on ne peut pas l e s f a i r e . ( I I r i t . ) N'est-ce pas, Marie-Louise?
(T I , 294)
In
none
words
o f these i n s t a n c e s i s any g r e a t harm
spoken,
beyond,
caused
that i s , the painful
or
by t h e
unpleasant
emotions aroused i n C l a r i s s e , Madeleine and Marie-Louise a t t h e time.
Unfortunately,
unknowing negative of
speaker
on
some
occasions
t h e words
can i n f l i c t a p a i n which prompts
of a
conscious o f t h e r e a c t i o n t r i g g e r e d o f f , do
mitigate contrary,
highly
and d e t r i m e n t a l r e a c t i o n . At such times t h e o b l i v i o n
t h e speaker, and t h e f a c t t h a t even t h e v i c t i m may
fully
an
the destructiveness
o f t h e words
n o t be
nothing t o
spoken.
t h e p o t e n t i a l l y autonomous o r semi-autonomous
On t h e power
o f words t o provoke h a r m f u l r e a c t i o n s i s increased by t h e same lack
o f knowledge
of self
or
others,
which
considerably
- 231 -
aggravates
communication
difficulties
and i s - discussed i n
325 depth
above.
The more unknown, complex and mysterious t h e
i n t e r l o c u t o r i n q u e s t i o n , the g r e a t e r the r i s k becomes. That confidant
the well-intentioned, but i n s u f f i c i e n t l y can u n w i t t i n g l y
exacerbate
with
words
informed t h e very
problems he i s w o r k i n g t o a l l e v i a t e , i s an i m p l i c i t message o f Bernard's of
t h e a t r e . Having
l e t o u t t o Madame Landier i n a b u r s t
h i t h e r t o pent-up emotion t h a t h e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o be 'une
femme f i d e l e ' , Robert
'une femme p r o p r e ' i s n o t a s i g n o f her love f o r
and t h a t
retracted
she d e t e s t s him, Madeleine
h e r statement,
might
n o t have
i f i t were n o t f o r t h e words o f
c o m f o r t h e r mother begins t o murmur. By t e l l i n g Madeleine
that
she
past
experienced
similar
(Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan, daughter
from
'peines
de
coeur'
T V I , 311), Madame Landier d e t e r s her
v o i c i n g her r e a l f e e l i n g s
and aggravates
mental t o r m e n t , because t h e r o o t o f Madeleine's fear
i n the
her
problem i s her
o f becoming another Adele L a n d i e r . L i k e w i s e , Robert,
who
comes c l o s e r t o t h e t r u t h but n o t c l o s e enough, makes Madeleine f e e l more, n o t l e s s , i s o l a t e d , i n s p i t e o f h i s l o v e f o r her and his
pure i n t e n t i o n s . D u r i n g one p a r t i c u l a r a t t e m p t t o counsel
her
he u n w i t t i n g l y enflames Madeleine's
worst f e a r s
her
genotype,
h i s well-meant
theoretically
with
the result
speaking,
constructive
i n s t e a d o f h e l p f u l (T V I , 301-302).
325.
See pp. 193-198.
that
advice
proves
regarding and, harmful
- 232 -
Excellent destructive
examples
o f words'
having
this
kind
of
e f f e c t where t h e speaker i s n o t i n a . c o u n s e l l i n g
r o l e a r e t o be found i n Le Printemps des Autres.
Bernard
makes
i t c l e a r t h a t C l a r i s s e goes i n t o h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n
with
Maurice
in
that
evening
She does n o t do so i n s p i t e
o f her
A c t I I i n t e n d i n g t o ask him n o t t o go r i d i n g
with
Madame Desgrees.'^^^
conscious her
r e s o l v e , l a r g e l y because Maurice
unwittingly
goads
i n t o ' f o r g e t t i n g ' h e r promise. One o r two exchanges
stand
out i n t h i s r e s p e c t . subject
S h o r t l y a f t e r C l a r i s s e has brought up t h e
o f Madame Desgrees, Maurice
violently
a g i t a t e s her
wounds:
. . . Mais, Clarisse, votre crainte est saugrenue, passez-moi l e terme. Je me moque de c e t t e madame Desgrees... (Avec un r i r e f o r c e . ) Je vous assure q u ' e l l e ne me- f a i t pas p l u s d ' e f f e t que... e n f i n , j e ne s a i s pas... que moi a vous, par exemple... (II r i t . )
(T I , 234)
On h e a r i n g
these words C l a r i s s e must wince i n t e r n a l l y ,
her
i s only f a i n t l y p e r c e p t i b l e
hurt
signals
when
plaisantez pas
en
i n her p a r a l i n g u i s t i c
'grave, apres un s i l e n c e ' ,
'...Ne
pas. Vous vous en defendez t r o p pour q u ' i l n'y
vous...
Clarisse's
326.
she r e p l i e s ,
although
au moins
finer
See p. 101.
un
peu d'emotion...'
i n c l i n a t i o n s must
also
ait
(T I , 234).
be b l u n t e d and h e r
- 233 -
resolve
weakened by t h e emphasis Maurice subsequently p u t s
the i n t e n s i t y o f h i s f e e l i n g s f o r G i l b e r t e . qui
existe,
c ' e s t mon a f f e c t i o n
(T I , 2 3 6 ) . with
'Oh!
Gilberte
'Ce q u i compte,
pour G i l b e r t e ' ,
he
et
ce
qu'il y a
dans
mon
Gilberte seule...', Clarisse's
ce
insists
When he concludes t h i s l o n g speech i n h i s sachez
on
coeur:
defence Gilberte,
echoing
of
his
f i n a l words i s charged w i t h pathos f o r t h e audience (T I , 237). When Maurice l a t e r makes a move t o go, C l a r i s s e stops him, still
does n o t say a n y t h i n g about h i s g o i n g r i d i n g , even
but when
Maurice asks her d i r e c t l y whether she has a n y t h i n g else t o
say
t o him:
CLARISSE Vous n'etes pas presse. C'est p a r o l e s e n t r e nous...
important,
ces
MAURICE Oui, mais j ' a u r a i s v o u l u l e s entendre de bouche de G i l b e r t e , pour p o u v o i r l a r a s s u r e r . . .
la
CLARISSE, desemparee E l l e ne vous l e s d i r a pas... E l l e ne peut pas. E l l e ne s a l t pas...
(T I , 239)
I t i s n o t c e r t a i n whether C l a r i s s e becomes 'desemparee' a t t h i s point
because
Maurice says he wants t o t a l k t o
Gilberte,
or
because her conscious s e l f knows t h a t she has something t o t e l l him her
b e f o r e he l e a v e s , b u t her unconscious s e l f from s a y i n g i t .
is
preventing
Whatever t h e reason, t h e f a c t remains t h a t
- 234
a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r moment Maurice t a u n t s C l a r i s s e f u r t h e r the
covert
non...
implication
o f h i s ' E l l e ne me
E l l e m'aime t r o p . . . '
(T I ,
with
les dira
pas...
239). A n a l y s i n g t h i s
scene,
i t i s easy t o l o s e t r a c k o f who i s b e i n g v i c t i m i z e d , and i t i s sobering Maurice
t o c o n s i d e r t h a t i f t h e i n n o c e n t and h a p p i l y had
scarcely
been
m a n i p u l a t i v e and
machiavellian,
married he
have achieved b e t t e r r e s u l t s i n an a t t e m p t
could
t o wound
C l a r i s s e and i n d i r e c t l y d e s t r o y G i l b e r t e ' s happiness by
making
her mother s i c k w i t h j e a l o u s y . Related stimulants
t o the p o t e n t i a l l y disastrous effect of
o f verbal done
when
words p l a n t thoughts and ideas i n t h e psyche o f a hearer,
which
subsequently
t h i s k i n d i s t h e damage t h a t can be
grow u n t i l they a r e s u b s t a n t i a l enough t o d i s t u r b ,
t r a n s f o r m o r devastate e n t i r e
4.
lives.
The power o f words t o t r i g g e r o f f dynamic and t e n a c i o u s p s y c h o l o g i c a l processes By a t h i r d o f t h e way through Le Printemps
Martine,
t h e i n i t i a l misunderstandings,
des Autres
and
which a r e t h e s u b j e c t
327 of
a n a l y s i s elsewhere,
confusion by
i n Le Printemps
have p a l e d i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . des A u t r e s i s e x p l i c i t l y c l e a r e d
G i l b e r t e when she e x p l a i n s t h e n a t u r e o f h e r
w i t h Maurice a t t h e end o f A c t I .
The up
relationship
I n Martine the t r u e state
of
t h e s i t u a t i o n i s made e v i d e n t by Jeanne's a r r i v a l on t h e scene. The
f a c t remains t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f both p l a y s
and
apparently
327.
harmless words
t r i g g e r o f f a drama
See pp. 149-162 and 451-454.
innocent that w i l l
- 235 -
have
repercussions
throughout
the protagonists'
lives
and
p a r t i c u l a r l y unhappy ones i n t h e case o f M a r t i n e . I n A c t I o f Le Printemps des Autres a horde o f c o n f l i c t i n g impulses a r e aroused i n C l a r i s s e ' s psyche, t h e o v e r a l l
results
o f which h i g h l i g h t p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l how s u b t l e and p o t e n t i a l l y insidious words man
t h e power o f words can be. Through a combination
o m i t t e d and words spoken a serious-minded, honest goes
within
a
h a i r ' s breadth
o f seducing
of
young
h i s future
m o t h e r - i n - l a w w i t h o u t ever r e a l i z i n g he has done so, then, as a consequence
o f t h i s i n i t i a l psychological reaction,
she, a
f u n d a m e n t a l l y good and well-meaning mother, comes e q u a l l y close t o b r e a k i n g up h e r own daughter's marriage w i t h almost t h e same degree o f o b l i v i o n . With r e g a r d t o t h e e f f e c t o f J u l i e n ' s words on M a r t i n e , i t cannot he
be proven t h a t she o n l y f a l l s i n l o v e w i t h him
flirts
being
w i t h her. That c o u l d have happened w i t h o u t
exchanged.
Although
i t i s ironic that
because a
word
the only
time
J u l i e n ever has t o walk from Bateux t o Grandchin i s t h e day he meets M a r t i n e under t h e apple t r e e ( M a r t i n e , T I , 150), she was d e s t i n e d t o meet him and p r o b a b l y t o see him f r e q u e n t l y anyway. It
i s very l i k e l y
would
have
been
t h a t , g i v e n her p e r s o n a l circumstances, attracted
t o him
even
i f she
had
she been
i n t r o d u c e d t o him f o r m a l l y by Madame Mervan, and even i f J u l i e n had
t a k e n care n o t - o r had n o t f e l t i n t h e mood - t o go 328
r a p t u r e s 'sur une f l e u r passagere'
328.
See p. 156.
(T I , 116).
into
Had Martine
- 236 -
become
i n f a t u a t e d w i t h J u l i e n i n these c o n d i t i o n s ,
pipedreams
might w e l l have crossed h e r mind, b u t they would probably
have
remained pipedreams. As i t i s , a few words i n n o c e n t l y spoken by Julien
sow
maturates into
i n Martine's
psyche
a
thought
which
rapidly
t o become a f e a s i b l e i d e a . This i n i t s t u r n
ripens
a much needed hope, which, i n t h e f o r t n i g h t b e f o r e i t i s
dashed, beget
has
b o t h t h e encouragement and t h e time
required t o
a v e r y s t r o n g and genuine l o v e . The end r e s u l t ,
i n the 329
words
o f Serge Radine,
Martine's
i s 'une d e s t i n e e
brisee'.
h e a r t i s broken i r r e p a r a b l y i s made c l e a r
That
i n every
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l she emits a f t e r her hopes are
shattered.
Although
she had
been
resisting
advances
f o r months p r i o r t o meeting J u l i e n , once
marries,
Martine
Alfred's the l a t t e r
d o u b t l e s s l y c o n s i d e r s t h e r e i s no
point i n
p u t t i n g o f f t h e agony o f a c c e p t i n g h e r f a t e . Francine can p i c k up
t h e pieces a t t h e end o f N a t i o n a l e 6 by
rationalizing
her
d i s a p p o i n t m e n t and t e l l i n g h e r s e l f t h a t Robert was n o t her r e a l ' p r i n c e ' . No such e x p e d i e n t i s a v a i l a b l e t o M a r t i n e because she knows the
J u l i e n was, and i s , t h e l o v e o f h e r l i f e . M a r t i n e
comes
c l o s e s t she ever comes t o a reproach when.Julien t r i e s
t a l k her i n t o v o i c i n g her f e e l i n g s i n the f i f t h
Tableau:
MARTINE Si ga ne s e r t a r i e n , pourquoi me d i r e t o u t ga maintenant?... ^a ne vous s u f f i t pas, ce que vous tenant?.. •, I o i i Q - v -Fd m'avez f a ii•1-9 t?
329.
E s s a i s , pp. 123-124.
to
- 237 -
JULIEN Ce que j e vous a i f a i t ? . . .
MARTINE, e f f r a y e e de s e s paroles Enfin... j'aimal dit... E n f i n , j e ne s a i s pas, moi...
Vous
comprenez.
(T I , 178-179)
I n f a c t M a r t i n e i s t h e o n l y one who knows what J u l i e n has
done
t o h e r . As Jeanne says, 'nous ne saurons jamais ce qu'un
flirt
de quelques j o u r s . . . a pu l a i s s e r dans c e t t e ame
simple...'
(T I , 158). What i s i n d i s p u t a b l e , however, i s t h a t
words, i n
triggering
indirectly
created
off a
psychological
reaction,
have
something which may have no substance i n p h y s i c a l
c h e m i c a l terms b u t i s none t h e l e s s i n d e s t r u c t i b l e . Once Jeanne en play
or
again
shows h e r discernment when she t e l l s J u l i e n 'Tu as mis
e l l e un peu de t o i ' (T I , 159). I n t h e l a s t speech
o f the
A l f r e d t e l l s M a r t i n e t h a t Madame Mervan's house has
been
s o l d and t h a t t h e windows are going t o be c l o s e d on t h e i r s i d e . Then a heavy, u n c o m f o r t a b l e s i l e n c e , broken o n l y by t h e t i c k i n g of
the clock
reader/spectator
just
before
the f i n a l
Curtain,
leaves t h e
w i t h t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t , w h i l s t an
e r a may
have f i n i s h e d f o r J u l i e n , M a r t i n e w i l l c o n t i n u e t o l i v e w i t h painful
r e a l i t y which words c r e a t e d . I t i s i n t h i s p l a y
a
above
a l l t h a t Bernard d r i v e s home t h e message t h a t c e r t a i n emotional reactions,
t r i g g e r e d o f f by t h e c a t a l y t i c e f f e c t o f words,
never be n e u t r a l i z e d .
may
- 238 -
Through L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage, where t h e u t t e r i n g o f two phrases, and o f one word i n p a r t i c u l a r , s e r i o u s l y j e o p a r d i z e s a fundamentally
happy
marriage, Bernard
again makes
the point
t h a t words can e x e r t a p o w e r f u l and enduring i n f l u e n c e on t h e i r h e a r e r which i s o u t o f a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o a n y t h i n g t h e i r speaker could
have i n t e n d e d o r imagined.
apparently
responsible
Marie-Louise's
imagination
for
A k i n d o f shock t r e a t m e n t i s finally
neutralizing
t h e stubborn
reaction
in
'dechaine 330
comme
l a c a t a l e p s i e p a r l e s e u l son du mot A r g e n t i n e ' .
would
seem t h a t t h e r e a l i t y she encounters
I t
a t E p i n a l so
jolts
her
psyche t h a t h e r r a t i o n a l i t y i s allowed t o r e a s s e r t
and
she r e a l i z e s t h a t she does n o t want t o have any k i n d o f
relationship
with
Philippe
after
all.
itself
Ironically,
as
Rene Doumic suffi
p o i n t s o u t , 'pour se g u e r i r de son r e v e , i l l u i a 331 de 1'approcher'.
Le Feu q u i reprend mal i s another suggests
play
which
t h a t i f t h e r e a c t i o n t r i g g e r e d o f f by
clearly
the catalytic
a c t i o n o f spoken words develops i n t o a f u l l - b l o w n emotion, effects
can n o t o n l y be very dramatic b u t a l s o very
the
difficult
t o undo v e r b a l l y . Going by the example o f Blanche, t h i s i s t r u e even
i n t h e i n i t i a l stages o f such a
reaction.
When
Jeanne
t e l l s h e r t h a t she i s w o r r y i n g u n n e c e s s a r i l y about the delay i n Andre's
return,
she r e p l i e s
'Je s u i s b e t e , j e l e s a i s .
Mais
330.
Marcel Azais, Le Chemin des Gardies ( P a r i s , L i b r a i r i e N a t i o n a l e , 1926) p. 389.
Nouvelle
331.
Rene Doumic, 'Revue Dramatique - L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 mars 1924, p. 467.
- 239 -
quand une mauvaise idee me t r o t t e p a r l a t e t e , j e ne m'en debarrasse p l u s ' (T I , 1 5 ) . The nagging f e a r behind h e r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e American's p r o p o s a l r e f u s e s t o be allayed:
BLANCHE, songeuse Ce n'etait demandait...
pas
possible,
ce
qu'il
me
JEANNE Ne pensez done p l u s a c e l a .
BLANCHE Ah! o u i , j e ne s a i s p l u s ce que j e d i s . ( E l l e regarde autour d ' e l l e . ) I I e s t p a r t i . . . Eh b i e n ! c e l a vaut mieux... Maintenant, j e s e r a i plus pres d'Andre... Rien ne m'empechera de l e r e t r o u v e r chaque j o u r dans chacun de ces o b j e t s q u i I ' a t t e n d e n t avec moi.
JEANNE Oui, l e pauvre gargon a assez s o u f f e r t . Ce n'est pas au moment ou i l va r e v e n i r que vous pouvez a v o i r a u t r e chose en t e t e .
(Un s i l e n c e . )
BLANCHE
Et
s ' i l ne r e v e n a i t pas...
(T I , 25-26) ' Jeanne's
reassurances and recommendations
clearly
prove
f r u i t l e s s . Only h e r husband's safe r e t u r n succeeds i n r e l e a s i n g Blanche
from
the psychological
s p e l l cast
by t h e American's
- 240 -
r e q u e s t . Then i t i s Andre's t u r n t o f a l l prey t o h e r words. I n no
time
he
overwhelming
finds
himself
alternating
between
bouts
j e a l o u s y which defy a l l r e a s o n i n g , and
of
moods
complete r a t i o n a l i t y when he r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s accusations
of are
unfounded. I n one o f t h e l a t t e r moments he e x p l a i n s t o Blanche: 'Un doute i n f e r n a l , p a r i n s t a n t s , m'obscurcit
l a raison.
C'est
comme une f i e v r e q u i vous prend e t c e n t r e l a q u e l l e on ne
lutte
pas'
(T I ,
5 9 ) . Knowing deep down t h a t Blanche i s i n n o c e n t , t h e
consciously efforts
reasoning
Andre makes repeated
but
unsuccessful
t o master h i s o b s e s s i v e l y s u s p i c i o u s t h o u g h t s .
Others
also
t r y i n v a i n t o a r r e s t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l process t h a t
been
s e t i n motion. Andre's f a t h e r , who i s sure
has
o f Blanche's
innocence and reproves h i s son f o r h i s s u s p i c i o n s , n e v e r t h e l e s s a p p r e c i a t e s t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t be subjugated by words. 'Tout ce que j e t e d i r a i , j e l e s a i s b i e n , n'y f e r a n i chaud n i he
tells
casually trigger
Andre or
words
spoken
u n t h i n k i n g l y , may have t h e c a t a l y t i c
off a
subsequently
(T I , 5 1 ) . I r o n i c a l l y ,
dynamic r e a c t i o n , w h i l s t
froid',
other
power t o
words
prove i n e f f e c t u a l a g a i n s t i t , however
once,•
spoken
frequently
and e x p r e s s l y t h e y a r e r e p e a t e d . Whereas "Venez
en Amerique avec moi" (T I ,
established words
t h e seed sown by t h e b i l l e t e d
19) does n o t become
i n Blanche's mind because o f Andre's
' J ' a i du
opportunity
officer's
to
loger do
un
their
Americain' worst,
(T I ,
firmly
return,
38)
especially
words
her
have
the
since
the
c o n v a l e s c i n g Andre i s r e l a t i v e l y i n a c t i v e and can d w e l l on t h e subject.
Rapidly
t h e thought
planted
becomes f i r m l y r o o t e d .
- 241 -
and, i n t i m e , t h i s p e r v e r s e l y r e a c t i v a t e s the o f f i c e r ' s en
"Venez
Amerique avec moi". Once r e s u r r e c t e d , t h e American's
work
with
a vengeance: b e f o r e l o n g they
have
gained
words enough
ground f o r Blanche t o argue away her c o n t i n u i n g l o v e f o r Andre, her
doubts and s c r u p l e s and Jeanne's warnings and
reproaches.
Although Blanche almost c e r t a i n l y changes her mind i n the
end,
at
one p o i n t i t l o o k s v e r y much as i f t h e two groups o f
are
g o i n g t o prove p r o p h e t i c . Indeed Blanche comes so c l o s e
going
to
something
America
with
'him' and Andre
so
close
to
words to
having
t o be j e a l o u s about t h a t Le Feu q u i reprend mal
can
be s a i d t o endorse t h e a c c r e d i t e d t h e o r y o f t h e s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy,
according
to
which
spoken
words
can
indirectly
332 d i c t a t e the f u t u r e . Although
t h e ending o f Le Feu q u i reprend mal i s open
interpretation, psychological
there abscess
are of
strong Andre's
suggestions jealousy
that is
to the
finally
c a u t e r i z e d , b u t once a g a i n shock t r e a t m e n t i s r e q u i r e d . Blanche a d m i n i s t e r s t h i s , w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t l y i n t e n d i n g t o do so, f o r i t is
not
her
repeated declarations o f
innocence
which
yield
r e s u l t s b u t t h e desperate d e c i s i o n she makes when she i s a t her
332.
'The phenomenon i n which t h e more convinced a person i s t h a t an event w i l l o c c u r , t h e more l i k e l y t h e person w i l l behave i n a manner t h a t w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f i t s occurrence . . . I n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , e x p e c t a t i o n s about how o t h e r s w i l l behave can i n f l u e n c e one's own a c t i o n s toward them, which i n t u r n may i n f l u e n c e t h e o t h e r ' s b e h a v i o r i n t h e expected d i r e c t i o n . ' T e r r y P e t t i j o h n ( e d . ) , The Encyclopedic . D i c t i o n a r y o f Psychology, T h i r d E d i t i o n ( G u i l f o r d , C o n n e c t i c u t , The Dushkin P u b l i s h i n g Group, I n c . , 1986) p. 251.
- 242 -
w i t s ' end. Andre i s stunned when Blanche t e l l s him she i s going to
America w i t h t h e o f f i c e r (T I ,
79-80). He i s h o r r i f i e d
not
only
by t h e p r o s p e c t o f the l o n e l i n e s s Blanche's l e a v i n g
will
mean
for
might
have
has
been
actually
him, done
b u t by the i m p l i c a t i o n in
his
that
absence what f o r
she
weeks
he
a c c u s i n g her o f d o i n g . When Andre's h o l l o w s u s p i c i o n s and
unexpectedly
unbearable, there
likely
they
become
and he q u i c k l y s i n k s i n t o a l e t h a r g y o u t o f
which
talks
Blanche i s understandably s c e p t i c a l , b u t i t i s
t h a t h i s c o n v e r s i o n i s now
stakes
contrition just
possibilities,
i s no i s s u e b u t a genuine v o l t e - f a c e . When he
changing,
the
turn into real
suddenly
are
so h i g h . Andre
r a d i c a l and l a s t i n g shows
signs
of
h i s f a t h e r e n t e r s . The shock d e a l t
very
because
deep-rooted
r a t h e r t h a n h i s s u p e r f i c i a l repentance o f the
before
of
by
past
Blanche's
news makes him r e c e p t i v e t o h i s f a t h e r ' s e v o c a t i v e speech i n
a
333 way he would n o t have been beforehand.
Old Monsieur Merin's
words are thus a b l e t o c o n s o l i d a t e the e f f e c t made by Blanche's announcement. F i n a l l y , when t h e y are alone a g a i n , Blanche deals Andre a s e r i e s o f v e r b a l blows - a l t h o u g h her empathy w i t h
him
i s such t h a t t h e y are a l s o t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t s e l f - i n f l i c t e d and
we can assume from h i s r e a c t i o n t h a t these
their
part
fateful
in
a r r e s t i n g t h e process
likewise
triggered
off
by
play the
' J ' a i du l o g e r un Americain' spoken a t t h e end o f Act I
(T I ,
38).
At
t h e same
time
the
333.
See pp. 221-222 and 225-227.
catalytic
effect
of
the
- 243
-
officer's "Venez en Amerique avec moi" (T I , 19) would appear to l o s e i t s h o l d on Blanche who has been no l e s s shaken than Andre by her f a t h e r - i n - l a w ' s words. I t i s probable, therefore, t h a t as t h e f i n a l C u r t a i n f a l l s Andre and Blanche are g r a n t e d the r e p r i e v e M a r t i n e i s denied.
Even
i f one
assumes t h a t a l l ends
Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d mal successfully chimerical
and L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage, both
the p o i n t t h a t ,
however
eventually in
neither
called question
the
As
plays
insubstantial
or
power
i s brought i n t o r e l i e f by in
can
countermeasures
f o r . The autonomous n a t u r e
American o f f i c e r
Philippe Valbeille stage.
in
i n i t i a l l y seem t o be, t h e i r long-term e f f e c t s
so s e r i o u s and t e n a c i o u s t h a t r a d i c a l
power
well
t h e r e a c t i o n s t r i g g e r e d o f f by t h e c a t a l y t i c
o f words may be
make
reasonably
of
the
the
are
verbal
fact
that
Le Feu q u i reprend mal
i n L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage ever
t h e y are unaccounted f o r i n the
list
nor
appears of
on
dramatis
personae, one can argue t h a t they have no e x i s t e n c e whatsoever, yet the this
words spoken by and about them c r e a t e t h e havoc which forms d r a m a t i c substance o f t h e p l a y s . The f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e as
engulfed
far
as Le Feu q u i reprend mal i s
concerned
r e p r e n d mal
of
j e a l o u s y . 'La j a l o u s i e exasperee d'un homme f a i s a n t
1'amour
can
be
Le
Feu
by t h e p l a y ' s c e n t r a l theme. For most c r i t i c s
qui
i s an e x c e l l e n t l y dramatized b u t simple
dans l e coeur d'une femme, pour c e l u i
of
justement
story naitre dont
son m a r i e s t j a l o u x , n'est-ce p o i n t du T r i s t a n pousse au n o i r ? '
- 244 -
334 asks
Rene Wisner,
w h i l s t Fernand Gregh c l a i m s ,
'C'est
une
etude de l a j a l o u s i e comme j ' e n connais peu au t h e a t r e e t meme dans
l e roman,
et
qui, a
force
de 335
verite,
retrouve l e s
c a r a c t e r e s des oeuvres c l a s s i q u e s ' . it
According t o James Agate 336 i s an impoverished v e r s i o n o f O t h e l l o : We, i n t h i s c o u n t r y , have heard a l l t h a t M. Bernard has t o t e l l us about j e a l o u s y s i n c e we c o u l d f i r s t read p o e t r y , and a thousand times b e t t e r p u t . And i n any case, h i s schoolmaster i s w o r r y i n g about something which e i t h e r never happened o r i s a l l over and done w i t h . What we r e a l l y wanted him t o t a c k l e was t h e s i t u a t i o n a r i s i n g i f Blanche had had something c o n f e s s , and i f she had met him w i t h confession.
Mr. Agate does n o t seem t o have r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e p o i n t and the i r o n y o f Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d mal l i e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e f a c t Blanche,
'une femme e x c e p t i o n n e l l e m e n t f i d e l e '
(T I ,
that
1 6 ) , has
n o t h i n g t o c o n f e s s . U n l i k e Shakespeare's Desdemona, she has false taking
evidence a
t o r e f u t e e i t h e r . Bernard's
non-event
comparable potentially,
with as
and making from i t a
O t h e l l o , b u t as p l a u s i b l e ,
artistry drama, as
lay i n
not
genuine
t r a g i c . The c r i t i c does n o t appear
three ordinary,
justly and,
t o have
n o t i c e d t h a t t h e r e i s no e q u i v a l e n t , o f lago i n Bernard's t h e t r i a n g l e i s made up o f
no
play,
sympathetic people
334. ) Quoted by Gaston Sorbets, 'Le Feu q u i reprend mal, au and ) Theatre A n t o i n e ' , La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre, 335. ) n o u v e l l e s e r i e no. 47, 6 aout 1921, pages n o t numbered. 336.
W i l l i a m Shakespeare, O t h e l l o ( E d i t e d by A l i c e Walker and John Dover W i l s o n , Cambridge a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1971).
337.
James Agate, Red L e t t e r N i g h t s (London, Jonathan Cape, 1944) p. 157.
- 245 -
one o f whom never appears on stage. There i s , i n s h o r t , no human v i l l a i n , o n l y t h e power o f words.
5.
The c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f v e r b a l l y s t i m u l a t e d r e a c t i o n s Bernard
processes
does
n o t s i m p l y emphasize
how
difficult
such
a r e t o t e r m i n a t e , he s u b t l y draws a t t e n t i o n t o them
as t h e y b e g i n , c r y s t a l l i z e o r complete t h e i r p r e l i m i n a r y stage. Although what i s a c t u a l l y happening may o n l y become f u l l y c l e a r w i t h h i n d s i g h t , t h e f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e t h a t ,
whilst
t h e speaker remains c o m p a r a t i v e l y o b j e c t i v e and u n i n v o l v e d , t h e hearer with
w i t t i n g l y o r u n w i t t i n g l y charges t h e words i n q u e s t i o n a
ill-fated
special
significance.
The
exchange
i n which
c o n v e r s a t i o n between C l a r i s s e B r i e u l e s
and Maurice
G a r d i e r a t Stresa c u l m i n a t e s i s such a moment. Suggesting seal
t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a handshake, C l a r i s s e
Vous ne pouvez pas s a v o i r c o n t e n t de ce que vous me d i t e s .
transport combien
j e suis
CLARISSE, s u r p r i s e Mais... i l n'y a pas de q u o i , monsieur Gardier. ( E l l e l e regarde longuement. I I a l a t e t e basse.) Vous m'avez d i s t r a i t e un instant. Toute l a reconnaissance e s t de mon c o t e . . . (Au l o i n , on entend l e s tziganes.) . . .
(Le Printemps des A u t r e s , T I , 205)
they
' l u i tend l a
main' :
MAURICE, prenant s a main avec
the
- •.246- -
To
what
stage she
extent Clarisse i s infatuated with
Maurice
at
i s d e b a t a b l e , b u t from t h i s p o i n t u n t i l G i l b e r t e
this
enters
i s the one who i s the more confused and behaves very
much
l i k e someone f a l l i n g i n l o v e . Francine
o f N a t i o n a l e 6 takes s e r i o u s l y a l l t h a t
Robert
V a n i e r says t o h e r d u r i n g t h e p o r t r a i t s e s s i o n i n A c t I I I , one
particular
oblivious is
moment
stands o u t .
Although
i s totally
o f t h e e f f e c t h i s words are h a v i n g on her,
'medusee' by h i s r e f e r e n c e t o h i s b e i n g
(TV,
he
but
Francine
' p a r f o i s amoureux'
78-79). A s i m i l a r l y c r u c i a l c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n occurs a t t h e
end
o f t h e f i r s t Tableau o f M a r t i n e . When they
Grandchin
after
their
rest
under
set o f f
t h e apple
tree,
Julien
p l a y f u l l y takes M a r t i n e ' s arm s a y i n g 'Voyez, c'est p a r f a i t ! route
vers
whereupon as
Grandchin,
Martine...
comme
deux
i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g scene
En
amoureux',
M a r t i n e ' s ' a r r e t e brusquement' c l e a r l y as
Francine
for
'medusee'
o f N a t i o n a l e 6, and
J u l i e n , almost as heedless as Robert, asks 'Eh b i e n !
qu'est-ce
que vous avez?... A l i e n s ! ' and t h e C u r t a i n f a l l s (T I , 114). In
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage
I'Amerique'
and,
more
the c r u c i a l
especially,
words
are 'pour
'en A r g e n t i n e '
(T I ,
281-282). The b u i l d - u p t o t h e i r b e i n g spoken i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n this
instance.
The
reference
to
Gerard's
experimental
d i s m a n t l i n g o f the hosepipe makes the r e l a t i v e l y e x o t i c catalysts echoing
stand
out i n contrast.
o f them means t h a t the
t h e i r resonances w i t h her:
Moreover,
verbal
Marie-Louise's
reader/spectator
can
savour
- 247 -
OLIVIER
...
I I c h e r c h a i t - devine quoi - l a p r e s s i o n !
MARIE-LOUISE Oh! JACQUELINE, r i a n t La p r e s s i o n ! Qui e s t - c e q u i l u i a p a r l e de cela?
OLIVIER Ce d o i t e t r e P h i l i p p e . N a t u r e l l e m e n t , l e p e t i t a compris de t r a v e r s . J ' a i tache de l u i e x p l i q u e r quelque chose, mais j e ne c r o i s pas a v o i r e t e p l u s heureux.
MARIE-LOUISE Quel b e s o i n P h i l i p p e . . .
OLIVIER Oh! ce n'est pas t r e s grave. C'est g e n t i l . . . Au f a i t , i l s'en va apres-demain.
meme
JACQUELINE Philippe?
MARIE-LOUISE Bon voyage!
JACQUELINE C'est t o u t nouveau, a l o r s ? I I ne m'a r i e n d i t .
OLIVIER Une l e t t r e de son p e r e , a 1 ' i n s t a n t . Je v i e n s de l e v o i r . I I f a u t q u ' i l s'embarque mercredi pour 1'Amerique...
- 248 -
MARIE-LOUISE, s u r p r i s e L'Amerique...
OLIVIER Qui, une grosse a f f a i r e dont i l m'avait p a r l e , en A r g e n t i n e . C ' e t a i t en suspens depuis quelques mois. C'est f a i t . Oh! i l n'est pas a p l a i n d r e .
MARIE-LOUISE, d'une v o i x t o u t e changee En A r g e n t i n e ?
(T I , 281-282)
On Act
I
an i n i t i a l r e a d i n g / v i e w i n g o f appears
to
be
Le Printemps des A u t r e s , Act,
when
American play
clear
as
the
Act of
Blanche t e l l s Andre t h a t she has had t o p u t
i n h i s absence, appear t o be t h e e q u i v a l e n t
that
been
P h i l i p p e i s g o i n g t o A r g e n t i n a , and
t h e words which s t a r t o f f t h e Merins'
been spoken b e f o r e t h e C u r t a i n r i s e s by
of the
up
in
where
an this
Olivier
which
quoted. Upon more c a r e f u l examination,
that
actually
first
and t h e l a s t two ' r e p l i q u e s '
o f t h e exchange i n L ! I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage
mentions just
as p r e p a r a t o r y
Le Feu q u i reprend mal,
has
i t becomes drama a
have
character
who i s never seen. However, we are t o l d what they are as
early
as p o s s i b l e i n A c t I when Blanche r e p e a t s them word f o r word t o Jeanne and even d e s c r i b e s t h e i r non-verbal packaging:
BLANCHE Eh b i e n . . . t o u t a I'heure, avant de p a r t i r , i l a p r i s ma main. I I I ' a gardee longuement c e n t r e ses l e v r e s e t p u i s , l e s yeux p l e i n s de larmes, i l m'a dit...
- 249 -
(Elle hesite.)
JEANNE I I vous a d i t ?
BLANCHE "Je s o u f f r e de vous q u i t t e r . Venez en Amerique avec moi..."
Je
suis
libre.
(T I , 19)
At
t h e very
b e g i n n i n g o f the p l a y we
are only
aware
that
Blanche has something on h e r mind, b u t we r e a l i z e i n due course that
t h e American's p r o p o s a l i s r i n g i n g i n her ears
Curtain
goes
as t h e
up and i s t h e c e n t r e o f focus i n her subjacent 338
dialogue as
when Jeanne comes i n t o keep h e r company.
As
Blanche t e l l s h e r o f t h e American's p r o p o s a l , Jeanne
soon helps
us measure how f a r t h e r e a c t i o n has progressed: JEANNE Par exemple!
BLANCHE r e v e un moment a t , soudain Vous imaginez comme j ' a i p r o t e s t e . Abandonner Andre! S o u f f r i r q u ' i l t r o u v e son f o y e r v i d e en r e n t r a n t . . . Ah! est-ce que j ' a u r a i s pu me r e g a r d e r dans une g l a c e sans r o u g i r ? v
JEANNE Comment? Vous n'avez pas repousse c e t t e idee p r e m i e r coup?
338.
See pp. 139-140.
du
- 250,- -
BLANCHE Mais c'est b i e n ce' que j e vous d i s .
JEANNE A l o r s p o u r q u o i a v o i r perdu v o t r e temps a vous demander ce q u i s e r a i t a r r i v e s i vous e t i e z p a r t i e ?
BLANCHE Je ne comprends pas b i e n .
JEANNE Quand on une chose, on 1'on se met a on I'avait p e u t - e t r e pas
s'est mis dans l a t e t e de ne pas f a i r e n'y pense p l u s , e t v o i l a t o u t . Mais s i imaginer t o u t ce q u i se s e r a i t passe s i faite, eh b i e n ! c'est qu'on n'est sur d'avoir raison.
(T I , 19-20)
The
t h o u g h t t r i g g e r e d o f f by t h e American's words
i s clearly
maturating. Bernard i s more obvious i n t h e way he draws the
vital
largely namely
i n Marie S t u a r t , Peine d'Ecosse.
because here he makes an a d d i t i o n a l that
listener moment
words
he
catalysts
hears
becomes
o r t h e moment t h e i r e f f e c t
power
as
point,
becomes
and t h e
psychological apparent.
B o t h w e l l o f Bernard's p l a y i s d r i v e n by two m o t i v a t i n g desire
is
t h e moment t h e
t h e spoken words i n q u e s t i o n
subject t o t h e i r
This
important
t h e r e may be a t i m e - l a g between
first
attention to
The
forces:
f o r t h e Queen and p o l i t i c a l a m b i t i o n . The key t o t h e
f u l f i l m e n t o f b o t h i s p i n p o i n t e d f o r him by R i c c i o towards t h e end
o f t h e f i r s t Tableau.
Bernard makes
i t quite clear that
- 251 -
B o t h w e l l n o t o n l y hears and r e g i s t e r s t h e c r u c i a l statement made t o a background o f v i o l i n chords, b u t a l s o takes time t o file i t :
RICCIO Cette femme deux f o i s mariee n'a j a m a i s . . . comment vous d i r e . . . v i b r e . . . vous comprenez? ( I I l e regarde, Bothwell ne repond pas.) Pas sa f a u t e . . . E l l e n'a epouse que des e n f a n t s . . . (Mysterieusement.) Ma... ma... i l y a en e l l e une f o r c e . . . des p o s s i b i l i t e s e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s . . . Gelui q u i f e r a v i b r e r Marie S t u a r t sera m a i t r e du monde... (Machinalement violon.)
i l caresse l e s
cordes
de son
BOTHWELL Qu'est-ce que vous d i t e s ?
RICCIO Tenez, c'est comme ce v i o l o n , n ' a v a i t jamais su s'en s e r v i r . . .
si
personne
BOTHWELL, l a voix etranglee Ce v i o l o n . ..
RICCIO Oui, mylord... ( I I commence a jouer s u r son v i o l o n . )
(T V I I , 34)
We
a r e l e d t o assume t h a t t h e emotions s t i r r e d i n B o t h w e l l
by
t h i s exchange remain more o r l e s s dormant u n t i l Marie o f f e r s t o make
him
throne.
powerful i n r e t u r n f o r h i s l o y a l protection
B o t h w e l l i s now s u b j e c t
o f the
t o a combination o f impulses:
sexual
d e s i r e , i n t o x i c a t i o n a t t h e t h o u g h t o f t h e power
being
him and, p o s s i b l y , r e p r e s s e d s c r u p l e s due t o a
vague
offered awareness throne. Bothwell strong
that
he
w i l l n o t be s a t i s f i e d
just
guarding the
I t i s appropriate t h a t i t i s a t the very
moment
when
i s having t o make a supreme e f f o r t t o c o n t a i n
this
concoction
o f emotions
that
the previously
made
' r e c o r d i n g ' o f R i c c i o ' s words should p l a y i t s e l f back:
MARIE, recularit un peu, avec un s o u r i r e f o r c e , qui cache mal son e f f r o i B o t h w e l l . . . Mais... Qu'y a - t - i l ?
BOTHWELL dans un immense e f f o r t pour se contenir ...Rien... Pardon... ( I I s e l e v a , s e tourne, f a i t deux pas en t i t u b a n t . . . L'espace de quelques secondes 1 ' e c l a i r a g e de l a piece devient trouble... Bothwell entend l a p l a i n t e legere d'un v i o l o n , puis la voix de R i c c i o : " C e l u i q u i f e r a v i b r e r Marie S t u a r t sera m a i t r e du monde..." I I se retourne avec f u r e u r . ) Laissez ce v i o l o n !
MARIE, r i a n t Ce v i o l o n ! Mais j e ne I ' a i pas touche! Qu'est-ce que vous avez?.
(T V I I , 68)
6.
The p r e c o n d i t i o n e d r e c e p t i v i t y o f t h e hearer as t h e key t o the p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y • c a t a l y t i c power o f words Bernard's
to
p l a y s do n o t e x p l a i n why i n d i v i d u a l s f a l l
t h e c a t a l y t i c power o f words. The i n n o c e n t
Francine
o f Nationale 6
and
Blanche Merin
and of
prey
childlike Le Feu q u i
r e p r e n d mal are u n d e r s t a n d a b l y s u s c e p t i b l e b u t so are t h e more
- 253 -
worldly-wise
C l a r i s s e B r i e u l e s o f Le Printemps des Autres
James B o t h w e l l certainly
of
no
Marie S t u a r t , Heine d'Ecosse.
i n d i c a t i o n t h a t 'les reveurs
et
and
There
is
les illumines' 339
( T V , 90)
are more v u l n e r a b l e t h a n t h e pragmatic
although
they
process
that
au Voyage. the
may
be more prone t o the
takes
place
in
realists,
imaginative
Marie-Louise
of
kind
of
L'Invitation
The o n l y common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which stands out
various
reactions
examples
is
receptivity
of
the
Bernard
conscious,
the
gives
of
verbally
subconscious
person who f a l l s prey
triggered
or to
in
unconscious the
catalytic
e f f e c t o f the words spoken. I f , a f t e r an 'idee f i x e ' has
taken
h o l d , words s a i d subsequently w i t h a view t o d i s l o d g i n g i t are shown
to
have
counter-attack,
l i t t l e or no chance
of
making
a
successful
i t i s p r e c i s e l y because the v i c t i m ' s
mind
is
n o t r e c e p t i v e t o them. Thus, i t i s the hearer, n o t the speaker, who
is
shown t o be u l t i m a t e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
triggered theatre
o f f . Indeed, i n most o f the examples where
spoken
words
prove
powerful
au Voyage.
is
illustrated particularly
Certainly
well
in
reaction Bernard's
psychological
c a t a l y s t s t h e i n t e n t i o n o f the speaker i s l a r g e l y This
the
in
irrelevant. L'Invitation
no one except Marie-Louise can
be
held
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r her i m a g i n a r y l o v e a f f a i r . On t h i s occasion the verbal
catalysts,
281-282), Olivier,
339.
are
'pour I'Amerique' and
'en A r g e n t i n e '
spoken t o b o t h J a c q u e l i n e and
who s u f f e r s most
See p. 205.
as a consequence,
(T I ,
Marie-Louise
by
and who would be
- 254 -
h o r r i f i e d i f he ever l e a r n e d o f what he had u n w i t t i n g l y been an instrument.
I n case
any r e a d e r s / s p e c t a t o r s
a p p o r t i o n blame Bernard chain
of
'dropping' might
well
spirit
to
makes t h e e x e r c i s e f u t i l e by t a k i n g t h e
responsibility
enterprising
a r e tempted
of
back
enquiry.
to
the
The
long
little
Gerard's
prelude
t o the
o f t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t words a l s o i n d i c a t e s how never have been spoken; c e r t a i n l y pure
they
chance i s
340 responsible f o r the timing. Judging by a l l t h e examples so f a r reviewed, that
i t would seem
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words as p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a t a l y s t s i s
l a r g e l y dependent on t h e i r f a l l i n g tragedy
on prepared s o i l .
Martine's
cannot be c o n s i d e r e d an i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t o f J u l i e n ' s
flirting.
H i s words might have had no e f f e c t on another
The
h o l d s good f o r t h e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o f Francine
same
girl. in
N a t i o n a l e 6 and C l a r i s s e i n Le Printemps des A u t r e s . E v i d e n t l y , t h e f a c t o r s which predispose
be
M a r t i n e , Francine and C l a r i s s e t o 341
m i s l e d , and which a r e e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l i n Chapter 2,
a l s o make them v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e c a t a l y t i c e f f e c t o f t h e words spoken t o them by J u l i e n , Robert and Maurice r e s p e c t i v e l y . One of
t h e main
functions
o f the content
of
the f i r s t
three
q u a r t e r s o f t h e opening Tableau o f L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage i s t o inform the reader/spectator o f the f e r t i l i t y of psyche
i n this
respect.
340.
See pp. 246-248.
341.
See pp. 151-159.
Similarly,
Marie-Louise's
Bothwell's
d e s i r e and
- 255 -
ambition
make
him
susceptible
to
Riccio's
words
in
Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse. I n i t i a l l y Le Feu q u i reprend mal appears t o c h a l l e n g e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e p r e d i s p o s i n g o f t h e s u b j e c t . Why should
Andre
be so i n s t a n t l y i n c l i n e d t o suspect h i s w i f e o f i n f i d e l i t y because an American o f f i c e r was b i l l e t e d w i t h h e r f o r a
just
period
d u r i n g t h e War a t t h e mayor's i n s i s t e n t request? The answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n l i e s n o t o n l y i n Andre's unfathomable unconscious but
a l s o t o a c e r t a i n degree i n h i s w i f e ' s very innocence
scrupulousness. that
Andre
As soon as Blanche knows, o r s t r o n g l y
i s actually
exclusively
t o him.
on h i s way
home,
and
senses,
h e r thoughts
'Nerveuse, e x a l t e e ' , she exclaims
go
'Andre!
Andre! Ah! est-ce que quelque chose d'autre e x i s t e a
present?'
(T I ,
pains
28).
Then, when Andre walks i n , Bernard takes
make i t c l e a r t h a t h i s r e t u r n r e a l l y does r e l e a s e Blanche any word
preoccupation and
gesture
w i t h anyone o r a n y t h i n g except betray
a woman
who
to from
him. Every
genuinely
loves h e r
husband, who i s s i n c e r e l y e n r a p t u r e d t o have him back and who, so
long
thought
as
she knew he was a l i v e , c o u l d
of establishing
Consequently,
a
relationship
not entertain the with
another
once t h e f e a r which predisposed Blanche t o
man. fall
prey t o t h e power o f t h e American's words has vanished from h e r 342 consciousness so do t h e words i n q u e s t i o n .
The f a c t
remains,
however, t h a t Andre r e t u r n s t o a home where t h e woman he and
342.
has
n o t seen
f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e War,
See pp. 238-240.
has
loves been
- 256 -
c o n s i d e r i n g an elopement p r o p o s i t i o n and d i s c u s s i n g i t w i t h a n e i g h b o u r . The p r o p o s a l was made over a l u n c h f r e s h l y cleared away, by a man who has j u s t l e f t , a f t e r s t a y i n g w i t h h e r f o r f o u r months, and whom she made a p o i n t o f seeing o f f a t t h e s t a t i o n . Andre does n o t need t o know any o f these d e t a i l s f o r him t o sense something o f t h e atmosphere they have c r e a t e d . Blanche compounds m a t t e r s , because she i s so scrupulous that she f e e l s g u i l t y about t h i n g s she has no need t o f e e l guilty about. This accounts f o r t h e f a c t t h a t some o f the p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s she g i v e s Jeanne a t t h e beginning o f t h e p l a y suggest t h a t she r e a l l y does have something t o h i d e . A t t h e v e r y end o f t h e A c t t h i s tendency f o r Blanche's s c r u p u l o s i t y t o g e t t h e b e t t e r o f h e r r e a s s e r t s i t s e l f . When Andre i s moved t o f i n d h i s s e r v i e t t e s t i l l next t o hers i n t h e drawer, she r e a c t s p e r f e c t l y n a t u r a l l y w i t h t h e f u s s i n e s s o f an e x c i t e d p e r f e c t i o n i s t anxious t o please a loved one who has j u s t r e t u r n e d a f t e r a l o n g absence. However, had Blanche been g u i l t y o f i n f i d e l i t y and n o t o f a mere p e c c a d i l l o i n h e r housekeeping, she might w e l l have r e a c t e d i n a v e r y s i m i l a r manner:
( I I s o r t l e s deux s e r v i e t t e s . )
BLANCHE, vivement Non, non, l a i s s e done ces s e r v i e t t e s s a l e s . . . Ce n ' e s t pas a t o i , t u penses b i e n . . .
ANDRE Mais...
257 -
BLANCHE Je t e r a c o n t e r a i . J ' a i du l o g e r un Aliens! mets-toi a table.
Americain...
( E l l e s o r t rapidement.)
(T I , 37-38)
It
i s consequently n o t t o t a l l y
exit
we
surprising that
see a war-wracked Andre r a p i d l y
on
Blanche's
succumbing
t o the
c a t a l y t i c power o f words:
ANDRE, s'approche machinalement de l a t a b l e , s ' a s s i e d , prend ime fourchette, l a repose e t , tout a coup, r e d r e s s e l a t e t e , s e l e v e e t , songeur, trouble, murmure: Un A m e r i c a i n . . .
(T I , 38) With
Andre's j e a l o u s y , grows h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e p h y s i c a l
environment very
which r e c e n t l y s h e l t e r e d t h e American,
objects
words
s u r r o u n d i n g him t u r n s y m b o l i c a l l y i n t o
o f accusation
(T I , 4 5 ) .
Ironically,
u n t i l the so many
Andre's
waxing
s u s p i c i o n s e v e n t u a l l y predispose Blanche t o f a l l prey again t o the
American's words. As Blanche's e s s e n t i a l d r i v i n g emotion i s
h e r l o v e f o r h e r husband and as he i s now s a f e l y w i t h her, t h e American's
written
message would almost
certainly
n o t have
t a k e n e f f e c t , i f Andre's r e p e a t e d a c c u s a t i o n o f i n f i d e l i t y the
unpleasantness
o f her current l i f e
with
and
him had n o t
p r e d i s p o s e d h e r t o be s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e renewed p r o p o s a l .
- 258 -
7.
The power o f t h e spoken versus t h e unspoken word and i t s n e g a t i v e versus i t s p o s i t i v e p o t e n t i a l The
level of predisposition
Martine the
i n t h e case
o f Francine
i s such t h a t t h e women's thoughts c o u l d be
prime i n i t i a t o r s o f t h e r e a c t i o n s
and
considered
t h a t take h o l d o f them.
F r a n c i n e ' s words t o h e r f a t h e r immediately b e f o r e Robert e n t e r s make
i t quite
aspiring
c l e a r t h a t she t h i n k s he i s going
suitor
19-20).
even
Similarly,
Peine d'Ecosse, thoughts
might
catalytic
before
speaks
(Nationale
i n t h e opening Tableau
one
wonders
n o t have
'Celui
he
whether
prompted
t o be an 6,
TV,
o f Marie S t u a r t ,
Bothwell's
Riccio
unspoken
to deliver
q u i f e r a v i b r e r Marie S t u a r t sera
his
maitre
du 343
monde...' t o h i s h i g h l y r e c e p t i v e The
text
interlocutor
would s u p p o r t t h i s i n so f a r as
(T V I I , 3 4 ) .
Riccio's
searching
l o o k and mysterious tone o f v o i c e a t one p o i n t i n d i c a t e t h a t he senses end
h i s words a r e g o i n g t o have an e f f e c t on B o t h w e l l .
o f t h e Tableau a l s o suggests t h a t R i c c i o i s t o some
privy
t o Bothwell's
According which
sous-jacent'
extent
( T V I I , 34-35).
t o such p r i n c i p l e s , i t was n o t t h e American's
t r i g g e r e d o f f t h e drama i n Le Feu q u i reprend mal,
Blanche's
own spoken and unspoken ones: 'Et s ' i l ne 344
pas...' (T I , 26). into
'dialogue
a
somewhat
previously
spoken
This kind o f speculation futile words
debate since i t may triggered
The
but
revenait
can q u i c k l y well
words
be
o f f t h e thoughts
lead that which
p r e d i s p o s e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n q u e s t i o n t o succumb t o t h e e f f e c t 343.
See p. 251.
344.
See pp. 238-239.
- 259
of
-
t h e a c t u a l words under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . However f a r back
traces admit
t h e c h a i n o f cause and e f f e c t , and even i f one
has
t h a t spoken words o n l y have as much power as the
one to
mental
s o i l on which they f a l l g i v e s them, the f a c t remains t h a t
they
are f r e q u e n t l y v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a t a l y s t s . Madeleine's d'Ispahan
may
assistance, about
obsession appear
to
w i t h her parentage i n have
Le J a r d i n i e r
materialized without
b u t i t i s h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t she
her mother's a f f a i r s a t some e a r l y
heard
and
verbal
something
correspondingly
c r u c i a l stage i n her u p b r i n g i n g . Having s a i d t h a t , Madeleine i s an e x c e l l e n t example o f people whose unspoken words n u r t u r e and sustain time.
a r e a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r psyche over a l o n g I t can be argued t h a t through
Madeleine
her
period
subjacent
s i l e n t l y t a l k s h e r s e l f i n t o becoming t h e
of
dialogue licentious
woman she c o n s c i o u s l y does not want t o be. With r e g a r d t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the a c t u a l v o c a l i z a t i o n of
words, i t would appear t o vary depending on whether
or
unspoken
individual
words maximally
a c t i v a t e the imagination
spoken of
i n q u e s t i o n . I n the case o f Madeleine i t i s
the
likely
t h a t t h e v o c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f her f e a r s t o her mother e a r l i e r i n her
l i f e would have helped curb her i m a g i n a t i o n and
her
obsession,
b e f o r e i t was other
for
then a t l e a s t she would
have
cauterize been
too l a t e t h a t Monsieur Landier was her f a t h e r . I n
instances
i n Bernard's p l a y s the
person's
receptivity
would seem t o be i n c r e a s e d by h i s speaking h i s thoughts It
is
quite
u n l i k e l y t h a t Francine o f N a t i o n a l e 6 would so
told
preconditioned
to
take
Robert
for
have
aloud. been
a prospective
260 -
husband, i f she had o n l y mused about her hopes i n t e r i o r l y to
his
entrance
instead
of
voicing
them
with
prior
absolute
345 c o n v i c t i o n t o her f a t h e r . disappointment
Conversely, by n o t expressing
verbally
and
by n o t
explicitly
her
voicing
her
d e t a i l e d o b j e c t i o n s t o marriage w i t h A l f r e d , M a r t i n e s a c r i f i c e s the
c a t h a r t i c r e l i e f she would get from t a l k i n g but keeps
revolt
i n check, which she knows she has t o do,
because
farms
have
to
be r u n and
in
the
seem
to
quite
1920s
her
simply
unmarried
M a r t i n e s c o u l d n o t r u n them. A
few
Bernardian
principles defend
behind
themselves
characters
the
understand
c a t a l y t i c power o f words
a g a i n s t what they c o n s i d e r t o
and
the
try
be
to
negative
r e a c t i o n s . I n so d o i n g t h e y a c t u a l l y h i g h l i g h t t h e relevance o f the
v o c a l i z a t i o n o f words. To Henri's 'Ah! j ' e n veux
tache,
cette
votre
sante'
vous,
quel
116).
In
'Admets
jeunesse
Denise Marette r e p l i e s 'Si vous me
dites
cela,
(Denise M a r e t t e ,
TI I ,
Act I
j'arrangerai
votre
f o l l e tache ou vous gacherez v o t r e
courage me r e s t e r a - t - i l ? '
que
a
je les
o f L'Ame en peine Marceline sois
triste.
choses?' (T I I ,
Est-ce
en
says le
to
et
Robert
disant
207). Marceline a l s o
que
has
a
n e g a t i v e p r e s e n t i m e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o Robert's t e l l i n g her about Maeterlinck's
Blue B i r d ,
and she e x p l i c i t l y asks him
t o u c h on t h e s u b j e c t a g a i n : 'Tout ce que t u m'as pas
me
jamais
345.
f a i r e de b i e n . Done, c'est entendu, q u e s t i o n de ces
See pp. 151 and
to
d i t l a ne peut
i l ne
s o t t i s e s e n t r e nous' (T I I ,
258.
not
sera 218).
plus 'Je
261 -
t'en
prie,
Robert,
imaginaires... husband
et
tu
vas
finir
par
me f a i r e du mal...',
creer
des
Madeleine
when he i s u r g i n g her t o c o n f i d e i n him
maux
tells
her
(Le J a r d i n i e r
d'Ispahan, T V I , 283). As
these examples h e l p t o i l l u s t r a t e , Bernard's
dramatic
evidence i m p l i e s n o t o n l y t h a t the a c t u a l v o c a l i z a t i o n o f words i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n i t s e l f , b u t a l s o t h a t spoken words
generally
sow seeds o f n e g a t i v i s m more e a s i l y than they sow optimism. Try as
she m i g h t , Marie Seton f a i l s t o encourage her
mistress
at
Lochleven C a s t l e . ' I I me semble que t o u t e ma f a i b l e s s e p o u r r a i t devenir
pour
vous de l a f o r c e . . . ' she t e l l s
replies
'Marie,
chaque
jour-
Marie... ce
que
I I . f a u d r a i t que vous
venez
de
the
Queen,
vous
me
me
who
repetiez
dire
la...'
(Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse, T V I I , 175). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , c a t a l y t i c power o f p o t e n t i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l words i s shown,
the like
t h a t o f noxious ones, t o be . p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o the credence g i v e n them,
and the Queen i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y r e c e p t i v e t o any
reaction told
her
Marie Seton
might a t t e m p t t o muster i n
lady-in-waiting
t h a t every day
she
benign
her.
must
Having verbally
c o n d i t i o n her t o be s t r o n g , Marie asks, 'apres un temps', mais
cela
sert-il
encore
a
quelque
chose?'
and
'Ah!
'demeure
accablee' (T V I I , 175). Act V o f N a t i o n a l e 6 suggests t h a t , where t h e in
question
receptivity,
have r e t a i n e d a b a s i c a t t i t u d e and
of
a s t r o n g conscious w i l l , they
their
mood
by t h e i r words, r a t h e r than
words
t h e y exchange t o be governed
individuals openness can
passively
by t h e i r mood.
and
regulate allow
the
However, a
- 262 -
r e l a t i v e l y b i g e f f o r t i s r e q u i r e d on t h e p a r t o f Michel and F r a n c i n e t o t a l k themselves o u t o f t h e i r disappointments even w i t h each o t h e r ' s h e l p , w h i l s t i n A c t I I o f Le Printemps des Autres i t takes C l a r i s s a B r i e u l e s o n l y two o r t h r e e s u b t l y and c a r e f u l l y placed phrases t o u n s e t t l e t h e confidence o f both G i l b e r t e and Maurice i n t h e s o l i d i t y o f t h e i r marriage.
•
However
feeble
instruments
of
•
•
Bernard may prove spoken words t o be communication,
his
theatre
certainly
demonstrates t h a t they make up f o r t h i s weakness i n o t h e r or
less
formidable
vis-a-vis power
The
relative
autonomy
t h e i r speaker, t h e t e n a c i t y and magnitude
and
their
psychological disturbing
ways.
ability
reactions
features.
to trigger
Mention
should
of
be
made
their single
are t h e i r
also
more
o f words
o f f n o t only
b u t chains o f them
as
most
o f the
f a c i l i t y w i t h which people would seem t o be predisposed t o f a l l victim
t o n e g a t i v e processes o f t h i s k i n d ,
whilst
apparently
h a v i n g l i t t l e n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n , t r a i n i n g o r p r a c t i c e t o help them
e x p l o i t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f word power f o r
However,
t o appreciate
the l e t h a l p o t e n t i a l
positive
ends.
o f words
when
w i e l d e d by n o t o n l y t h e innocent b u t a l s o t h e unscrupulous, t h e criminal
and t h e megalomaniac, one has t o t u r n t o t h e t h e a t r e
o f Henry-Rene'Lenormand.
- 263 -
PART I I
HENRY-RENE LENORMAND (1882-1951)
- 264 -
I m p u l s i f e t genereux a u s s i f u t Lenormand, grand dramaturge f r a n g a i s . Nul ne s'etonnera a I ' e t r a n g e r que j e l e p l a c e t r e s haut: I'oeuvre d'Henri-Rene Lenormand a rayonne au-dela de nos f r o n t i e r e s . . . Quand i l e s t mort, ceux q u i savent b i e n q u e l l e place il e s t assure de garder dans notre histoire dramatique o n t pu s ' i r r i t e r de v o i r trop de j o u r n a l i s t e s f a i r e son panegyrique du bout des l e v r e s , comme c e l u i d'un a u t e u r quelconque. II s e r a i t v a i n de s'en i n d i g n e r : c'est l a l e k a l e i d o s c o p e du t h e a t r e , e t ce j e u a l t e r n e d'ombres e t de l u m i e r e s n'empeche pas l e s v e r i t e s de se f i x e r . Lenormand n'en r e s t e pas moins " I ' u n des dramaturges les plus considerables - peut-etre le plus c o n s i d e r a b l e par ses a p p o r t s personnels - de c e t t e epoque d ' e n t r e deux g u e r r e s " .
(Jean-Jacques Bernard, Mon Ami l e Theatre, p. 138.)
- 265 -
CHAPTER 4
THE SEARCH FOR THE 'INEXPRESSIBLE'
- 266 -
This c h a p t e r e x p l o r e s a theme which p l a y s o n l y a very s m a l l r o l e i n Bernard's t h e a t r e but i s c e n t r a l t o Lenormand's, namely t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y man's s p i r i t u a l unease and his i n a b i l i t y t o f i n d b e a r i n g s by which t o p l o t a p u r p o s e f u l and moral course t h r o u g h l i f e . This i s r e l e v a n t t o t h i s t h e s i s i n so f a r as h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e i r dilemma can be t r a n s l a t e d as a p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the need t o f i n d a v e r b a l s i g n f o r a someone or something t h a t i s as y e t by definition i n e x p r e s s i b l e . T h e i r awareness t h a t a c r u c i a l word i s missing and t h e i r need t o search f o r i t are discussed i n s e c t i o n 1. I n the f o l l o w i n g f i v e sections d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s given t o Lenormand's t r e a t m e n t o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' search f o r the 'inexpressible' in knowledge, i n r e l i g i o u s faith with p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , i n death and i n love o f v a r y i n g degrees o f p u r i t y . I n the f i n a l s e c t i o n the r a r e p r o t a g o n i s t s who c l a i m t o have found the ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' become the centre of a t t e n t i o n .
1.
The m i s s i n g 'mot' No
great
and t h e need t o search f o r i t
m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s are asked
in
Bernard's
I n t e r - W a r drama. R e l i g i o u s b e l i e f or u n b e l i e f i s n o t an It
is
s i m p l y taken f o r g r a n t e d t h a t some b e l i e v e ,
others
n o t , and t h a t i n C h r i s t i a n c i r c l e s c e r t a i n people, l i k e de l a V a l l i e r e ,
for
example, have or develop
a
issue.
Louise
particularly
deep f a i t h . On t h e o t h e r hand, a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e number Lenormand's
principal
because o f a s t r o n g ,
protagonists
live
do
frustrated
u n f u l f i l l e d metaphysical a s p i r a t i o n .
of
lives His
- 267 -
c h a r a c t e r s ' conscious awareness o f b e i n g i n a r e s t l e s s and d i s s a t i s f i e d s t a t e because they cannot f i n d t h e answer t o t h e mystery o f l i f e v a r i e s w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t f o r some i t i s a consuming obsession.
It
i s n o t so
non-existence
of
much doubt
regarding
the existence or
t h i s i n e x p r e s s i b l e something
which
plagues
Vera Z v i e r l o f o f Une V i e s e c r e t e as i t s i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y :
. . . Je sens p a r f o i s , avec une certitude absolue, q u ' i l y a, dans un e n d r o i t determine, une chose mysterieuse q u ' i l f a u t que j e v o i e . I I f a u t que j ' a i l l e v e r s e l l e . . . S i j e 1 ' a t t e i g n a i s , ce s e r a i t f i n i de s o u f f r i r . . . Et j e ne peux pas. Je ne s a i s pas ou e l l e e s t . . . Je ne I ' a t t e i n d r a i j a m a i s . (T I I I , 216)
In
those who g i v e up hope o f f i n d i n g t h i s 'chose mysterieuse' a
death
wish
grows
stronger.
I t i s Vera's
despair
in
this
r e s p e c t , as much as her t e r r o r o f becoming m e n t a l l y i l l again, which
makes
l i f e so u n l i v e a b l e t h a t ,
initially
lacking
the
courage t o do t h e deed h e r s e l f , she t r i e s t o persuade Michel t o h e l p h e r commit s u i c i d e (T I I I , 2 8 8 ) . The idea t h a t t h i s as y e t i n e x p r e s s i b l e something may n o t e x i s t i s unacceptable, even a b h o r r e n t , t o Lenormand's tormented p r o t a g o n i s t s . L u i and E l l e o f Les Rates are cases i n p o i n t . the times
second Tableau o f t h e p l a y L u i t e l l s E l l e t h a t t h e r e i n t h e past when he came t o t h i n k ' q u ' i l n'y a
c h e r c h e r , r i e n a t r o u v e r au d e l a de n o t r e i n q u i e t u d e ' :
ELLE Non; ce s e r a i t t r o p a f f r e u x !
In were
rien
a
- 268 -
LUI Assurement. F a i r e l e s memes gestes, dire les memes mots, comme des machines, un j o u r apres 1'autre, sans jamais s a v o i r p o u r q u o i ! . . . S i I'homme ne p o u v a i t t i r e r a u t r e chose de l a v i e . . .
ELLE, bas e t v i t e I I y a a u t r e chose. I I e s t impossible q u ' i l a i t pas quelque chose . . .
n'y
(T 1, 30)
For
some
possibility is
o f Lenormand's c h a r a c t e r s i t i s n o t j u s t t h e
t h a t t h e r e may be no i n e x p r e s s i b l e something which
disturbing
b u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s no word
t o express
whatever i t i s . However, one can argue t h a t i n t h e t h i n k i n g o f certain need
Lenormandian heroes no nuance can be made between t h e
t o f i n d a word f o r t h e ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' and t h e need t o
f i n d the 'inexpressible' i t s e l f , f o r i n spite o f the fickleness and
l u b r i c i t y t h a t words a r e shown t o have as
instruments
of
346 communication,
t h e r e i s a suggestion
i n Lenormand's
theatre
t h a t t h i n g s would have no e x i s t e n c e , no r e a l i t y a t a l l , however illusory, demande
i f i t were n o t f o r t h e words g i v e n s i l a honte,
vraiment...
l a jalousie,
la
them.
colere
Ce ne sont p e u t - e t r e que des mots...',
'Je me existent
Lui tells
E l l e i n Les Rates (T I , 6 7 ) , w h i l s t Nico Van Eyden o f Le Temps e s t un Songe
indirectly
t e l l s Saidyah t h a t t h e r e would
past,
present
them:
'Hier, a u j o u r d ' h u i , demain, ce sont des mots, Saidyah...
346.
o r f u t u r e i f words had n o t been
be no
See Chapter 5, e s p e c i a l l y pp. 337-348.
invented f o r
- 269 -
Des mots q u i n'ont de r e a l i t e que pour nos mesquines c e r v e l l e s ' (T I , 213). A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s l o g i c the r e a l i t y o f anything depends on t h e r e b e i n g a word t o r e p r e s e n t i t . A problem i n e v i t a b l y a r i s e s i n t h i s r e s p e c t as soon as t h e q u e s t i o n o f a p o t e n t i a l absolute t r u t h i s a t issue.
A v a r i e t y o f p r o v i s i o n a l expressions the
are used t o r e p r e s e n t
i n e x p r e s s i b l e something which Lenormand's
seeking.
Amongst
these
are
'la verite'
characters
and
are
' l e mot de
I'enigme'. Sometimes t h e word ' v e r i t e ' i s r e p l a c e d o r supported by
t h e word 'mot' s t a n d i n g alone and charged w i t h
connotation life. the
as
the representative of the elusive
a
special
mystery
T h i s i s a p p r o p r i a t e s i n c e Lenormand's p l a y s suggest crucial
precisely
f a i l u r e o f t h e sum t o t a l o f human
i n i t s i n a b i l i t y t o encompass
inexpressible.
language
that lies
the metaphysically
As L u i e x p l a i n s t o E l l e i n Les Rates,
t h e one
word t h a t r e a l l y counts i s m i s s i n g :
LUI, absorbs Je s a i s p o u r t a n t b i e n nettement que I'enigme e s t posee. I I y a un mot, une v e r i t e , q u i nous echappe, q u ' i l f a u t t r o u v e r . . . On ne peut pas v i v r e en p a i x , t a n t qu'on n'a pas t r o u v e .
ELLE Quel mot, mon c h e r i ? Quelle v e r i t e ?
LUI, l e s yeux a t e r r e Est-ce que j e s a i s , moi? V o i l a des annees que j e cherche
(T I , 29)
of
- 270 -
Others who have a t h i r s t f o r something m e t a p h y s i c a l , l i k e L u i , are keen t o fathom a n y t h i n g m y s t e r i o u s , i n case t h e s e c r e t they are
l o o k i n g f o r i s hidden a t t h e bottom o f i t .
accustom
themselves
'inquietude' more
t o l i v i n g with a
pervasive
(e.g. La Dent Rouge, T I I I ,
precise
about
what
Meanwhile
a i l s them,
'doute'
6 9 ) . They
because
Le Temps e s t un Songe
deteriorates
to clinical
debilitated existence
p r o p o r t i o n s , and
n o t o n l y by h i s doubts of a
concomitant he
Nico Van Eyden's
metaphysical
regarding
'reality',
be
have
no
experience.
condition he
and
cannot
they
language f o r t h a t o f which they have a need b u t no In
they
rapidly
i s seriously the potential
but also
by
u n c e r t a i n t y about t h e p h y s i c a l ' r e a l i t y ' i n
a
which
lives. Although
with
Nice's i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y bad case, one
t h e impression
unconsciously,
that
i n searching,
f o r the missing
is
left
consciously
or
'mot' o r a
compensatory
experience which w i l l d u l l t h e i r s p i r i t u a l anguish, Lenormand's c h a r a c t e r s as a group leave few stones unturned. I n a d d i t i o n t o the
more
orthodox avenues which they e x p l o r e , they
psychoanalysis,
spiritualism
society's
time-honoured
surrender
themselves
everything Keats,
or black
moral p r i n c i p l e s , dabble
t o sexual
to artistic
magic,
debauchery
creativity,
invert
their
with
drugs,
and/or
believing,
toy with
sacrifice
rather
like
t h a t ' l a Beaute e s t 1'essence e t e r n e l l e du monde e t se 347
confond a i n s i
347.
avec l a v e r i t e ' .
Such a l i s t may remind t h e
Leon Lemonnier, 'Front l i t t e r a i r e commun', Mercure de France, 15 j u i l l e t 1935, p. 231.
- 271 -
reader/spectator o f some o f t h e avenues the restlessly d i s s a t i s f i e d M a r c e l i n e e x p l o r e s i n L'Ame en peine, but w h i l s t i t s parapsychic element i s e x c e p t i o n a l i n Bernard's Inter-War drama, a s t r o n g m e t a p h y s i c a l s t r a i n i s much i n evidence t h r o u g h o u t Lenormand's p l a y s .
2.
- t h r o u g h the p u r s u i t o f knowledge One
fill
of
t h e ways i n which Lenormand's c h a r a c t e r s
t h i s v e r b a l lacuna i s t h r o u g h the a c q u i s i t i o n o f
try
to
various
t y p e s o f knowledge. The V e r i f i c a t e u r t e l l s the Receveur i n Le Simoun t h a t Percepteur's
passion
i s ' l a connaissance des h o r i z o n s ' ,
'Vous avez vu avec q u e l l e i n q u i e t u d e i l
l e s pourchasse'
the
adding, (T
II,
130). At one time L u i o f Les Rates a l s o looked f o r an answer t o h i s a l l - i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n i n t r a v e l , as he e x p l a i n s t o E l l e :
. . . Quand j ' a v a l s d i x - h u i t ans, i l me s e m b l a i t que t e l pays, t e l l e v i l l e me d o n n e r a i t une reponse... C ' e t a i t s t u p i d e ! . . . E n f i n ! . . . Je r o g n a i s sur mes s a l a i r e s pour voyager... Je p a r t a i s . . . N a t u r e l l e m e n t , rien ne m ' e t a i t r e v e l e que des formes, des c o u l e u r s . . . e t j e r e v e n a i s , encore p l u s d e s i r a n t , encore p l u s tourmente qu'avant (T I , 29-30)
To
begin w i t h , A l b e r t o f L'Amour magicien has
a
similar
k i n d o f i l l u s i o n w i t h regard t o research. R e f e r r i n g t o h i s l i f e b e f o r e Berthe's death, he t e l l s Fernande:
Tant q u ' e l l e e t a i t l a , j ' a v a l s 1'impression que de t o u t e s ces recherches eparses, 11 a l l a i t sortir une l u m i e r e , une reponse unique. Je me disais: "Un j o u r , j ' a u r a i ma v e r i t e a d i r e , une verite simple, eblouissante." (T V I , 16)
- 272 -
Some b e l i e v e , l i k e Riemke Van Eyden o f Le Temps e s t un Songe, that ' l e mot de t o u t e s l e s enigmes e s t en nous-memes' (T I , 2 0 5 ) , which might e x p l a i n why a number o f Lenormand's c h a r a c t e r s are p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r o s p e c t i v e . Others behave as i f t h e ' t r u t h ' were t o be found i n a sum o f t r u t h s . They i n s i s t on honesty a t any c o s t and p r e f e r t o be c o n f r o n t e d with unpalatable f a c t s r a t h e r than be duped. Thus, j u s t before 1'Homme t e l l s Laure e x a c t l y why he i s l e a v i n g h e r , she asks f o r h i s a b s o l u t e honesty:
LAURE J'aime mieux t e s sarcasmes que t e s i n v e n t i o n s h y p o c r i t e s . Je s u i s digne de l a v e r i t e .
L•HOMME Oui. Mais s e r a i s - t u capable de l a supporter?
LAURE Essaie.
(L'Homme et-ses Fantomes, T I V , 27)
Rose o f Les T r o i s Chambres t a l k s o f Florence's ' s o i f de v e r i t e ' (T V I I I , 1 6 ) . R e l a t e d
t o t h i s , i n t h e same p l a y ,
'respect/manie/superstition 104).
de l a v e r i t e '
i s Pierre's
(T V I I I , 63, 72 and
I n h i s 'passion du v r a i ' (T V I I I , 65) P i e r r e
Michel Sarterre 'glacialement
o f Une Vie s e c r e t e curieux'
Le Mangeur de Reves,
(T I I I ,
whom
Vera
213) and t h e
resembles
describes
as
Luc de Bronte o f
who c o l d l y t r i e s t o f i n d t h e ' s e c r e t '
by
s t u d y i n g t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e c r e t s o f h i s p a t i e n t s . As i s noted
- 273 -
34-8 below,
Pierre
and
others
l i k e him are opposed
t o the
e r e c t i o n o f screens o f d i a l o g u e o u t o f concern f o r t h e f e e l i n g s of
s e l f or others.
secret
Apparently,
i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o get t o the
o f l i f e , these p r o t a g o n i s t s t r y t o sound
the
lowest
l e v e l o f man's basest i n s t i n c t s , i n s t e a d o f f o l l o w i n g t h e more c o n v e n t i o n a l avenue and l o o k i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l l y 'upwards' t o t h e r e s t r a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e o f h i s moral conscience. I n t a k i n g rebellious entendu'
course,
they
reject
any
fagades
of
'dialogue
which may be used t o c l o a k and h i d e , w i t h a
acceptable
veneer, t h e ' j o l i marecage' and t h e
their
socially
'monstres' they
a r e anxious t o i n v e s t i g a t e (Les Rates, T I , 9 2 ) . Lenormand's
characters
do n o t f i n d any
crucial
answers
t h r o u g h t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f knowledge a p a r t from t h e r e a l i z a t i o n that
l e a r n i n g i s no panacea. Indeed, i t would seem t h a t , as
response t o metaphysical
a n x i e t y , t h e p u r s u i t o f f a c t s c o u l d be
n o t o n l y i l l - a d v i s e d , because i t i s rendered and
inexhaustibility
counter-productive, of
anguish
crucial wiser
Riemke
348.
v a i n by t h e nature but
also
s i n c e people a r e shown t o a v o i d t h i s
kind
explored,
i n t h e f i r s t place by remaining
item o f vocabulary
unaware
i s m i s s i n g . Some argue t h a t ' I I n'est
that
a
i t
peut-etre
de demander a l a v i e a u t r e chose qu'un
is
pas
demi-sommeil',
t e l l s Madame Beunke i n t h e opening Tableau o f Le Temps
e s t un Songe the
of the material
n o t t o ask t o o many q u e s t i o n s .
prudent
a
dilemma,
(T I , 155). A few l i v e i n b l i s s f u l because
See pp. 361-363.
they
have
never
been
ignorance
of
alerted
to
- 274 -
p h i l o s o p h i c a l issues. I n t h e course o f time P i e r r e T a i r r a z comes t o r e s e n t C l a i r e ' s e f f o r t s t o e n l i g h t e n him, e f f o r t s which she i n s i s t s d u r i n g t h e i r argument towards t h e end o f Act I I I have been e s s e n t i a l l y v a i n :
CLAIRE, accablee . . . Personne ne change personne, v o i l a l a v e r i t e !
et
on
ne
change
PIERRE, avec une grande inquietude S i , t u m'as change, moi... Je ne s u i s p l u s l e meme q u ' a u t r e f o i s . Depuis que j e p a r l e avec t o i , j e me pose des q u e s t i o n s q u i me rendent malheureux... J ' a i p l u s de gout a r i e n . . . Y a en t o i queque malediction!...
(La Dent Rouge, T I I I ,
Earlier
116)
i n t h e p l a y , when t a l k i n g about her education,
Claire
i s more e x p l i c i t :
' J ' a i l u , j ' a i r e f l e c h i , j ' a i a p p r i s l e doute
et 1'inquietude',
she t e l l s her f a t h e r i n Act I I (T I I I , 6 9 ) .
3.
- i n religious faith Lenormand
generally
i m p l i e s t h a t , w i t t i n g l y or u n w i t t i n g l y ,
and more w o r l d l y - w i s e
characters
simple
look t o r e l i g i o n e i t h e r f o r
v a c c i n a t i o n a g a i n s t , o r a response t o , t h e a n x i e t y provoked
a by
t h e e l u s i v e 'mot de I'enigme'. Some accept an i n h e r i t e d network of b e l i e f s formulated for
the
deficiency
inexpressible Lady S u l l i v a n ,
by t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s i n o r d e r t o make in
human
languages
as
far
as
'quelque chose' i s concerned. Even Fearon, has
recourse t o
up the
alias
theosophy and f e t i s h i s m .
She
275 -
flippantly
explains
the rationale
behind
her b e l i e f
in
r e i n c a r n a t i o n t o Monique:
FEARON . . . Quand j e r e n a i t r a i , j e r e n a i t r a i c ' e s t decide . . .
voleuse,
MONIQUE, r i a n t Quand vous r e n a i t r e z ?
FEARON Vous ne s a v i e z pas que j ' e t a i s theosophe? Q u i , o u i . C'est une bonne r e l i g i o n pour l e s v i e i l l e s putains, parce q u ' e l l e l e u r donne I ' e s p o i r de r e d e v e n i r de jeunes p u t a i n s , dans une a u t r e v i e !
( M i x t u r e , T V I I , 178)
On
her deathbed a t t h e end o f Terre de Satan, she m a i n t a i n s ,
'dans
un demi-delire', t h a t o n l y t h e e x p r e s s i b l e
exists.
The
Soeur N o i r e has j u s t c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e nuns w i l l t a k e care o f her 'pour 1'amour de Dieu':
P a r l e z pas du bon Dieu a q u i va q u i t t e r l a v i e . . . P a r l o n s de ce q u i e x i s t e . E t qu'est-ce q u i e x i s t e ? Gore-Gore lui-meme n'est p l u s qu'un morceau de b r a i s e ! Qu'est-ce q u i e x i s t e ? . . . Le sang dans ma bouche, o u i , i l e x i s t e . (Chant de I'aranran.) Et l e p e t i t o i s e a u au-dessus de nous, i l aussi. Darling. Darling! ( E l l e ferme l e s yeux.)
(T X, 310)
existe
- 276 -
Unconsciously, Fearon cannot be as c e r t a i n as she sounds, f o r s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s we a r e informed by Le Cormier t h a t , still r a m b l i n g , she c l a i m s t o have heard 'Gore-Gore l u i c r i e r , pendant q u ' i l se consumait: "Je s u i s l e r o i du monde"' (T X, 313). Are we t o presume she p r e f e r s t o d i e a f e t i s h i s t rather t h a n an a t h e i s t ?
That Fearon m i g h t be r i g h t i n t a k i n g the o p t i o n t o b e l i e v e i n someone o r something r a t h e r than n o t h i n g i s never r e f u t e d i n Lenormand's t h e a t r e . The e x i s t e n c e o f a s p i r i t u a l superpower i s n o t denied any more t h a n i t i s a f f i r m e d i n h i s c o l l e c t e d in
general.
Mixture,
I n Le Mangeur de Reves,
Les T r o i s Chambres
and
Le Lache,
plays
L'Innocente,
Crepuscule du Theatre
no
paranormal i n t e r v e n t i o n o f any s i g n i f i c a n c e i s mooted, b u t t h e reader/spectator the
can e x p l a i n the p l o t s o f the o t h e r
Theatre complet, e x c l u d i n g
either
rationally
supernatural
the fabulous
plays i n
La F o l l e du C i e l ,
or w i t h reference t o the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f
agencies, which i n t h e i r t u r n a r e dependent on t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f an i n e x p r e s s i b l e someone o r something: One peace love
can say t h a t Lui and E l l e o f Les Rates and redemption i n death through
and s u f f e r i n g i n l i f e ;
however, whom and
that
their
i t i s no l e s s
find mutual
arguable,
they are s i m p l y two f a i l u r e s
one o f
k i l l s the o t h e r under the i n f l u e n c e o f
alcohol
subsequently commits s u i c i d e . I n Le Temps e s t un Songe one can b e l i e v e
t h a t Romee t i m e - t r a v e l s
either
o r t h a t she happens t o have.
- 277 -.
and t a l k about, an unpleasant daydream - a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r t h e o r y i s h e a v i l y dependent on one o r two large coincidences.
In
Le Simoun
one can sense
the supernatural
f o r c e s a i d i n g and a b e t t i n g t h e m a c h i a v e l l i a n
Aiescha
as she f o r m u l a t e s and implements her e v i l schemes; o r one
can say t h a t t h e tragedy has i t s r o o t s
i n the
s t r i k i n g resemblance between C l o t i l d e and h e r mother, and time
that the c l i m a t i c conditions prevailing exacerbate
n o t o n l y t h e emotional
pressures Laurency i s consequently also
a t the
t e n s i o n and
subjected t o , but
t h e p a s s i o n a t e j e a l o u s y and e x c i t a b i l i t y
of a
h i g h l y v o l a t i l e woman. As
f o r La Dent Rouge,
either
Claire
is
a
s o r c e r e s s , o r t h e tragedy i s s i m p l y due t o a c l i m b i n g accident
which
i s n o t improbable
i n v o l v e d , almost generations (T I I I ,
met
108), n o t t o mention
One
can
the r i s k s
'tous l e s hommes de l a f a m i l l e ' f o r
having
of Pierre's f a l l
given
(T I I I ,
their
death
that
way
t h e a c t u a l circumstances
143-144).
take t h e view t h a t t h e resurgence
of
i n s p i r a t i o n i n Michel S a r t e r r e a t t h e end o f Une V i e secrete
i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t he and h i s
creative
genius have been m y s t i c a l l y redeemed by Vera's death. On t h e o t h e r hand one can m a i n t a i n t h a t h i s accrued
suddenly
sense o f g u i l t f o r h i s p a r t i n causing Vera's
desperate
plight,
together
with
t h e shock
dealt
- 278 -
f i r s t by her t a l k o f s u i c i d e and then by t h e deed, have a c t i v a t e d h i s i m a g i n a t i o n and r e t r i g g e r e d h i s t e m p o r a r i l y dormant a r t i s t i c t a l e n t .
The women abandoned by t h e 'Don Juan' o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes take vengeance on him from beyond the grave; and
or else, d e b i l i t a t e d
an
tragic
victim
is
a
Madame Le Cormier
is
murdered because a t t h e end o f A c t I Scene V
fetishist priest,
the
he
o f auto-suggestion.
A 1'Ombre du Mai
brutally
spell
debauchery
u n d e r s t a n d a b l y g u i l t y conscience,
In
the
by a l i f e o f
on her natives'
'au comble de l a rage', c a s t s a
house (T I V , 153); o r s i m p l y because o f decision
t o copy
Rouge
and
act i n
accordance w i t h h i s perverse law o f ( i n ) j u s t i c e . In
L'Amour magicien
spiritualist ghost
medium
eventually
hallucinates
Beatrice
f o r t h e deceased
kills
under
her;
or
the influence
becomes Berthe
else of
a
a whose
Beatrice repressed,
jealous
p a s s i o n f o r A l b e r t , and, when t h i s
love
openly
requited,
of
resultant fragile In
dies
joy, guilt
from
the
and remorse
effect on
her
is the
already
constitution. Asie
a devoted pagan mother takes
her
l i f e h a v i n g k i l l e d her c h i l d r e n t o r e d r e s s t h e
own wrong
done t o h e r , and t h e t h r e e o f them f i n a l l y f i n d peace w i t h one another i n a s p i r i t - r u l e d a f t e r l i f e ; o r e l s e
- 279 -
a j e a l o u s , v e n g e f u l woman murders her c h i l d r e n punish t h e i r f a t h e r and then commits s u i c i d e .
At given
t h e end o f La Maison des Remparts L o l i t a a
real f a i t h i n a loving deity,
or,
to
to
is use
M i c h e l S a r t e r r e ' s t e r m i n o l o g y i n Une V i e s e c r e t e , she finds
the
illusion
created
by
her
desires
(T I I I , 2 4 2 ) . W h i l s t some would i n s i s t t h a t t h e b a t t l e in
T e r r e de Satan
others
would
see
metaphysical Evil,
God
view
might
i s of a
purely
earthly
i t as symbolic o f
clash
a
say t h a t i n t h e f i n a l
l e Pere Sahler
nature,
global
between t h e Forces o f
and t h e D e v i l . Those t a k i n g
fought
Good
this
scene
of
Act I I
i s 'entame dans s a r e s i s t a n c e
from then on, because
'demon-singe' this
way.
would
at
Those i n t h e
takes vengeance on strictly
him
rationalist
poisoned by t h e arrow he removes o r , more p r o b a b l y , by t h e green
sa and
invoked
simply maintain t h a t the p r i e s t i s slowly
lethally cassock
Gore-Gore
the r i t u a l l y
and
latter
d e c i s i o n ' (T X, 258), and g r a d u a l l y becomes more more i l l
and
in camp but
from
his
powder
the
349 N'Gil shakes over him. The t o do
349.
simplified,
' e i t h e r / o r ' n a t u r e o f t h e above resumes f a i l s
j u s t i c e t o the
w e a l t h o f angles from
which a number o f
With r e g a r d t o t h e double aspect o f Soeur Marguerite's f a t e , see pp. 286-287.
- 280 -
Lenormand's
plays
can be
viewed, as i s
highlighted
by
350 Martial-Piechaud's
a n a l y s i s o f one o f them:
Drame de p s y c h o l o g i c freudienne? Simple legende bretonne transposee s u r l e p l a n moderne? Essai t h e a t r a l sur l e s p i r i t i s m e ? Piece p h i l o s o p h i q u e s u r 1'incessante compenetration du monde des v i v a n t s e t du monde des morts, de I ' i c i - b a s e t de I'au-dela? Piece, inconsciemment chretienne, sur la r e v e r s i b i l i t e des m e r i t e s , 'et l e r a c h a t de t o u t peche par 1'amour? ^ ^ j . y a de t o u t c e l a dans 1'Amour magicien . . .
For
the purpose o f the d i s c u s s i o n i n hand s t r e s s i s l a i d
simply
on
the fact
that
both
rational
and
here
supernatural
e x p l a n a t i o n s can be g i v e n f o r the tragedy i n these p l a y s . Which o f these we are expected t o accept has been the s u b j e c t o f much debate.
With r e g a r d t o L'Homme e t ses Fantomes,
Robert Emmet Jones argues t h a t the f i r e , ghost
o f Alberte',
'seeing the
f o r example,
'apparently s e t by the
undermines Luc's c l a i m
that
1'Homme i s
o n l y h i s i n n e r w o r l d ' and makes i t i m p o s s i b l e t o view
p l a y as a v i v i d v i s u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f 'the w o r l d
o f the
352 subconscious'.
However,
the f i r e
i s only
ghost; a p a r t from
'apparently'
started
by A l b e r t e ' s
the possibility
natural
arson, f i r e s can and do happen a c c i d e n t a l l y ,
and
of the
t h e o r y o f a c a r e l e s s l y e x t i n g u i s h e d c i g a r i s mooted i n the play (T IV, 108-109). As G a b r i e l Marcel p o i n t s o u t , 'Lenormand a su habilement
menager jusqu'au bout
1'equivoque q u ' i l l u i eut ete
350.
See a l s o pp.
351.
M a r t i a l - P i e c h a u d , 'L'Amour magicien', La Revue Hebdomadaire, 18 decembre 1926,
352.
70-71.
H.-R. Lenormand, p. 73.
p. 364.
- 281
s i a i s e de d i s s i p e r par un d e c r e t a r b i t r a i r e ' .
353
Robert Emmet 354
Jones but
m a i n t a i n s t h a t 'Lenormand cannot have i t both he
can
and does. He sees t o i t t h a t
ways',
i n a l l the plays
t h r o u g h which these r a t i o n a l and s u p e r n a t u r a l threads r u n , t h e psychological/rational proved
to
c o u l d e x p l a i n e v e r y t h i n g b u t cannot
do so and t h e . s u p e r n a t u r a l / i r r a t i o n a l
e x p l a i n e v e r y t h i n g b u t cannot be proved t o do so.
could
be also
Consequently
t h e o n l y t h i n g which i s i n d i s p u t a b l e i s t h a t Lenormand p r o v i d e s a
choice o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , even i f one i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d o r
foregrounded plays
more than t h e o t h e r . A c l o s e examination
i n question
evidence
reveals that
throughout
them
o f the
pieces
of
i n s u p p o r t o f the . r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n are o f f s e t
by
o t h e r s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e i r r a t i o n a l t h e o r y . I n both cases these p o i n t e r s may be obvious o r v e i l e d , weighty o r s u b t l e , b u t they cannot
be i g n o r e d by t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r w i s h i n g t o make
an
o b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e dramas under s c r u t i n y . There i s ample
evidence
psychological
i n L'Amour magicien, explanation
can
be
f o r example, given
for
that
the
a
play's
355 events,
b u t Lenormand never l e t s us f o r g e t t h e
interpretation them.
l a femme Quemer and
alternative
her a s s o c i a t e s would
Moreover, as t h e f i n a l C u r t a i n f a l l s , immediately
B e a t r i c e ' s death,
does n o t t h e l e a r n e d and
give after
now i l l u s i o n - f r e e
353.
G a b r i e l Marcel, 'L'Homme e t ses Fantomes', La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise, 1*^^ j u i l l e t 1924, p. 124.
354.
H.-R.
355.
See pp. 368-369, 386-388, 390 and 394.
Lenormand, p. 73.
- 282 -
A l b e r t C a r o l l e s f e e l a presence which makes him t u r n round and ask 'Berthe?' (T V I , 1 1 3 ) .
I t i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the one o r two c h a r a c t e r s who declare
categorically
ruthlessly making
a
t h a t t h e r e i s no
suppress any p h y s i c a l doctrine
'inexpressible'
o r metaphysical
o f t h e i r very n e g a t i v i t y ,
and
aspirations,
are the least
appealing
o f Lenormand's c r e a t i o n s .
Le Simoun
i s a case i n p o i n t . H i s d e p r e s s i n g speeches i n t h e
eighth
Tableau
are
life-appreciating
offset
The n i h i l i s t i c Prophet i n
by
a
good-natured
and
m o n o t h e i s t , and t h r o u g h t h e i r exchanges t h e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f the l a t t e r ' s f a i t h f i n d s expression i f only comparison w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i v e (T I I ,
by
79-82). Furthermore, i n
the
c l o s i n g speech o f the Tableau the V i e i l l a r d p o i n t s o u t t o
the
Prophet t h a t n i h i l i s m i s i t s e l f a type o f creed
nihilists
a r e as
s u s c e p t i b l e t o doubt
and
that
and i t s concomitant
anguish as any o t h e r ' c r o y a n t s ' (T I I , 8 2 ) . The
fact
remains
unapologetically
that
Lenormand
frequently
p r e s e n t s a l l b e l i e f s as p a l l i a t i v e
escapism and s e l f - d e c e p t i o n .
forms
and of
With r e g a r d t o Madame Beunke, Nico
Van Eyden t e l l s Romee, ' F i l e ne peut s u p p o r t e r l e poids de ces responsabilites... elle
Pour y echapper, e l l e va a
s'endort d ' a i l l e u r s a u s s i t o t . . . '
T I , 193).
I n t h e same
metaphysical Holland
from
I'eglise...
ou
(Le Temps e s t un Songe,
conversation, explaining
anguish has been reawakened s i n c e h i s I n d i a , Nico goes on t o t e l l Romee
why return
how
much
would l i k e t o take a s e d a t i v e s i m i l a r t o Madame Beunke's:
his to he
- 283 -
. . . L ' e s p r i t s'apaise v i t e , l a - b a s . . . On ne s o u f f r e p l u s de 1 ' i n c o n n a i s s a b l e . On accepte l a v i e . Ici, on l a r e f u s e . On demande a comprendre! (Aprement.) Comprendre?... C r o i r e , v o i l a ce qu'il f a u d r a i t . . . Destinee ou l i b e r t e , ame ou m a t i e r e , i l f a u t se c o n f i e r a I'un quelconque de ces mots v i d e s . Le repos e s t a ce p r i x . Mon mal, c'est de ne pas v o u l o i r , de ne pas p o u v o i r e t r e dupe... (T I , 198)
Lui
of
Les Rates a l s o yearns t o b e l i e v e i n God
f r e e d o f h i s ' i n q u i e t u d e ' and
and
thus
'doute':
ELLE, enervee Quel ennui carillon, tous insupportable!
d'etre a cote les quarts
du b e f f r o i ! Ce d'heure, c'est
LUI, l a t e t e penchee en a r r i e r e , revassant Non... c'est j o l i . . . c'est caressant... c'est comme une idee q u i cherche a vous s e d u i r e . . . c'est I ' i d e e de Dieu q u i vous d i t : "Je s u i s l a , au-dessus de vous, a t t e n d a n t . . . Tachez done de v e n i r jusqu'a moi"... Evidemment, i l f a u d r a i t . Ce s e r a i t l a p a i x . . . 1'acceptation...
(T I , 114)
ELLE, tendrement II ne f a u t pas se tourmenter, mon c h e r i . I I ne f a u t r i e n r e g r e t t e r . On ne peut pas manquer sa v i e .
(Un c a r i l l o n sonne.)
LUI, r i c a n a n t Et 1'autre, l a - h a u t , q u i vous tend ses p i e g e s ! . . . Ah, s i seulement on p o u v a i t s'y laisser prendre!
(T I , 123)
be
- 284 -
Romee Cremers, on t h e o t h e r hand, i s wary o f t h e f a i t h s o l u t i o n . To Riemke's 'Nico e s t malade...' she r e p l i e s 'Mais o u i . Qui ne I ' e s t pas? Le doute peut e t r e une maladie... La f o i en e s t probablement une. I I y a des gens q u i sont malades de c e r t i t u d e . J'en connais' (Le Temps e s t un Songe, T I , 2 0 3 ) .
4.
- i n C h r i s t i a n versus pagan b e l i e f s Some
o f Lenormand's c h a r a c t e r s
indiscriminately
with
sorcery.
mix C a t h o l i c
At one p o i n t
practices
i n Le Simoun
Aiescha claims t h a t an o v e r t u r n e d t o r t o i s e s t r u g g l i n g t o itself
right
i s an e v i l omen. Three Tableaux l a t e r we see t h e same
woman
crossing
(T I I ,
113, 163). A l b e r t e o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes
herself
h e r s e l f and t h e v i c t i m she has j u s t
murdered describes
as 'une ame c h r e t i e n n e ' i n almost t h e same
breath
she
t h r e a t e n s t o take g h o s t l y vengeance on 1'Homme,
him
i n this
l i f e and t h e n e x t , should he
leave
as
haunting
h e r (T I V ,
356 13-15). humbly
I n A c t I I o f La Maison des Remparts t o t h e C h r i s t i a n God f o r J u l i e ' s safe
afterwards,
without
Lolita
return.
making any k i n d o f apology
prays Shortly
but shifting
s i m p l y from t h e use o f 'vous' t o ' t u ' , t h e same woman c a l l s Quetzalcoatl,
'1'esprit
dou t o n n e r r e ' , f o r help
on
i n avenging
J u l i e ' s murder (T X, 135 and 138). The d u a l i t y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s thinking just cited
356.
o f Aiescha, A l b e r t e and L o l i t a i n t h e t h r e e reflects
See pp. 397-398.
Lenormand's
examples
i n s i s t e n c e on t h e e s s e n t i a l
- 285 -
357 ambivalence o f t h e human p e r s o n a l i t y . I t also implies t h a t a t l e a s t two t y p e s o f r e l i g i o u s system a r e a v a i l a b l e t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s and may be c a l l e d upon as and when they wish.
When Le Lache
Charlier about
challenges
the Christian
Demoiselle i n
h e r ' s u p e r s t i t i o n s ' , her p r e d i c t a b l e
defence
does l i t t l e f o r t h e cause she r e p r e s e n t s :
LA DEMOISELLE J ' a i l a f o i . Je n ' a i pas de s u p e r s t i t i o n s .
CHARLIER L ' a u t r e j o u r , dans l a g r o t t e de g l a c e , vous e t i e z a demi asphyxiee de peur, vous poussiez des c r i s d ' h y s t e r i q u e e t vous d i s i e z que, pour r i e n au monde, on ne vous f e r a i t t r a v e r s e r seule c e t e n d r o i t puni.
LA DEMOISELLE I I y a v r a i m e n t des e n d r o i t s punis, ou l e s morts reviennent.
CHARLIER Et l e printemps d e r n i e r , c e t t e n u i t ou l a glace c r a q u a i t s u r l e l a c , vous entendiez gemir l e s ames du purgatoire.
LA DEMOISELLE J ' a i pu me tromper, mais l e s ames gemissent veritablement dans l e purgatoire... Et puis, r e s t o n s - e n l a , j e ne d i s c u t e pas r e l i g i o n avec l e s athees.
(T V, 35)
357.
See pp. 328-334.
- 286 -
T h i s t y p e o f exchange i s one o f t h e means by which Lenormand i n d i r e c t l y suggests t h a t nominal o r a d u l t e r a t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y i s no more a s o l u t i o n t o t h e r i d d l e o f t h e i n e x p r e s s i b l e 'quelque chose' than any o f t h e o t h e r f r u i t l e s s avenues h i s c h a r a c t e r s explore.. However, he i s c a r e f u l t o present a f a i r c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t types o f b e l i e v e r s i n h i s t h e a t r e . To o f f s e t t h e e v i l C h r i s t i a n o r s e m i - C h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s such as Aiescha, and t h e narrow-minded, p a t h e t i c , u n i n s p i r i n g ones l i k e t h e Demoiselle. o f Le Lache, Madame Lerouesnier and Sophie M a l f i l a t r e o f La Maison des Remparts and Madame Beunke o f Le Temps e s t un Songe, Lenormand g i v e s us t h e ardent and g e n u i n e l y devout C a t h o l i c s o f Terre de Satan, who simply cannot be p u t i n t o t h e same c a t e g o r y . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g i t s f l a w s , Soeur M a r g u e r i t e ' s p r a y e r towards t h e end o f t h e f i n a l Act i s s a t u r a t e d w i t h a r e l i g i o u s p u r i t y t h a t would n o t be o u t o f p l a c e i n t h e t h e a t r e o f Paul Claudel (T X, 315-316). Lenormand, however, was n o t a Paul Claudel 'malgre l u i ' , a f a c t which i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e denouement o f t h e p l a y i n q u e s t i o n . To a l l i n t e n t s and purposes, Soeur M a r g u e r i t e commits what i s f o r her t h e s i n o f s u i c i d e and runs i n t o t h e j u n g l e t o a c e r t a i n death. She i s presumably d r i v e n t o do so by a f e a r o r consciousness o f demonic possession. This sense i s enflamed by h e r r e l i g i o u s s c r u p u l o s i t y and t h e g u i l t aroused by h e r f r e s h l y awakened and r e b e l l i n g sexual i n s t i n c t s , i n s t i n c t s which had h i t h e r t o been s t r i n g e n t l y repressed as opposed t o e f f e c t i v e l y s u b l i m a t e d . The r e a l message t h i s e n t i r e i n c i d e n t i s - c l e a r l y meant t o convey i s
- 287
well
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e f i n a l exchange o f t h e p l a y ,
just
after
Le Cormier has r e t u r n e d w i t h Soeur M a r g u e r i t e ' s dead body:
(La caresse morte.)
Soeur Noire se l a i s s e tomber a genoux e t se l e visage avec l a chevelure pendante de l a
LA SOEUR NOIRE, dans un c r i d'amour e t d'esperance Mon damnee!
Dieu, vous ne p e r m e t t r e z pas
qu'elle
soit
LE CORMIER, sourdement, dans une c o l e r e sans eclat Oh! v o t r e Dieu... Taisez-vous!... Ne l a touchez pas!
LE MILICIEN, hochant l a t e t e Tout ga comprendre.
n'a
choses
d i blancs.
Moi
pas
is
left
(T X, 319)
As
the Curtain
falls
the reader/spectator
contemplate t h e a p p a l l i n g sense o f waste w i t h which is
filled
as a r e s u l t o f a s i n c e r e i f misguided
to
Le Cormier Christian's
zeal. • The p r a c t i c a l consequences o f b e l i e f are a l s o an issue the
end
'repliques' and
358.
o f La Maison des Remparts.
final
three
as she t a l k s alone w i t h Andre c o n s t i t u t e a
simple
beautiful
affirmation
See pp. 313-315.
of faith
Lolita's
at
(T X, 182-183),
but
- 288
indirectly
-
they made i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h i s p l a y t o reach
its
f i r s t r e h e a r s a l , as Dorothy Knowles e x p l a i n s :
Immediately on i t s c o m p l e t i o n i n 1936 i t was accepted f o r p r o d u c t i o n by Gaston Baty, who then, suddenly, r e j e c t e d i t , j u s t as r e h e a r s a l s were about t o begin; t h e r e was a t h r e a t o f excommunication not o n l y f o r Baty b u t a l s o f o r h i s p u b l i c , and Baty was a p r a c t i s i n g C a t h o l i c . The Church c o u l d not accept the p r o s t i t u t e ' s v i s i o n o f God. Lenormand, i t seems, was n o t l e a r n e d i n t h e matter o f convertggg p r o s t i t u t e s and had n o t p r o v i d e d the r i g h t v i s i o n !
The
Church might n o t have been able t o 'accept the
vision with
o f God',
b u t i t c o u l d c e r t a i n l y accept
prostitute's
her
repugnance
her e x i s t e n c e . The h a t r e d o f and d i s g u s t w i t h t h e i r
shared
by
Julie
interpretation
and
of
Lolita
render
work
questionable
La Maison des Remparts
as
a
any
dramatic
360 'apotheosis o f t h e p r o s t i t u t e ' . do
for
crime she
J u l i e hates what she has
her l i v i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y t o become an accomplice i n o r d e r t o be i n a p o s i t i o n
understandably
t o g i v e i t up,
r e j e c t s w i t h vehemence Rene's
and
to
to
a
whilst
hypocritical
i n s u l t s , she acknowledges t h a t i f a p r i e s t or 'mere de f a m i l l e ' reproached
her,
she
L o l i t a d e t e s t s her way and
would say n o t h i n g
in
reply
(T X, 9 6 ) .
o f l i f e even more, p o s s i b l y , than
longs d e s p e r a t e l y f o r an escape from i t . Her
Julie
comments
on
t h e u g l i n e s s and s o r d i d n e s s o f her work come from the h e a r t and the
page-long speech they c o n s t i t u t e
i s an i n t e n s e l y
powerful
i n d i c t m e n t o f the h o r r o r s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n (T X, 181-182).
359.
Inter-War Years, p.
360.
H e w i t t , Thesis, p.
101. 275.
Part
- 289 -
o f t h e problem as f a r as t h e Church i s concerned may w e l l have been t h e f a c t t h a t , as t h e f i n a l C u r t a i n f a l l s , Lenormand has n o t g i v e n t h e s l i g h t e s t h i n t t h a t L o l i t a w i l l be able t o change the p r a c t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f her l i f e and i n so d o i n g change her p r o f e s s i o n , however much she d e p l o r e s t h e l a t t e r and always has d e p l o r e d i t . She t e l l s Andre t h a t he i s one c l i e n t she w i l l never have and reproaches him f o r s u g g e s t i n g t h a t she should take J u l i e ' s p l a c e i n h i s sexual l i f e , b u t we are s t i l l left w i t h t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t , f a i t h o r no f a i t h , she i s doomed t o spend t h e r e s t o f h e r w o r k i n g e x i s t e n c e p h y s i c a l l y s o i l e d and exploited.
Lenormand
would
seem
be a t
to
whatsoever
a g a i n s t s u f f e r i n g . The t e r r e s t r i a l v i c t o r y o f
Satan
and
provides
stress
or
innocence
altruism
pains
Christian
over
humanistic
to
i s t h e p r i n c i p a l i m p l i c i t message
a r e c u r r i n g l e i t m o t i v throughout the
no
that
immunity
of
evil
Terre de
other
plays.
Perhaps t h e most i n n o c e n t and s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g c h a r a c t e r i n t h e Theatre complet mentally
is
t h e Toca o f L'Innocente, who i s n o t
r e t a r d e d b u t c r u e l l y v i c t i m i z e d by her
compassionate
and
committing
selfless
murdered one
play,
Jeannine and
a
c a r i n g Madame Le Cormier, who a c t o f c h a r i t y when
she
fellows. is
i s brutally end
of
i n d i r e c t l y murders
i n Le Mangeur de Reves, c o n t i n u e s her l i f e
m i s c h i e f i n M i x t u r e and r e t u r n s o n l y somewhat
and depressed
The
actually
i n A 1'Ombre du Mai, f a i l s t o s u r v i v e t o t h e w h i l s t t h e troublemaker Fearon
only
of
crime
world-weary
t o s t i r up f u r t h e r c o n f u s i o n and d i s c o r d i n Terre
de Satan, where she i s one o f t h e l a s t t o d i e .
- 290 -
Lenormand's as
they
i n t e l l e c t u a l arguments a g a i n s t
are made t h r o u g h h i s dramas, are
Christianity,
certainly
damning,
Lenormand's t h e a t r e , however, can be judged from two angles
no
361 less
than
verite
Bernard's.
des
faits',
Viewed from the his
plays
present
standpoint
of
Christianity
'la
as
an
a n t i - s u r v i v a l i s t v a r i a t i o n on a theme, d i f f e r e n t from, but
not
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e r i o r t o , the b l a c k magic o f the witches
and
the
the
f e t i s h i s t s who
standpoint
f i g u r e p r o m i n e n t l y i n them. Viewed from
o f ' l a v e r i t e des coeurs', they r e v e a l an
attitude
towards C h r i s t i a n i t y which i s more complex. It
i s i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t h a t Lenormand's
leanings
become most apparent. Although the
(Fearon) S u l l i v a n 'evil'
or
off
in
Lady
simplistically
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l sense o f the
are moderate 362
word.
As
many o f these c h a r a c t e r s p r a c t i s e C a t h o l i c i s m
humanistic: the C h r i s t i a n s c o l l e c t i v e l y i n
and/or
Satan, Faneres
Therese i n Une Vie s e c r e t e , Aimee de L i s t r a c i n Asie, i n A 1'Ombre du Mal.
361.
See pp.
49-51.
362.
See pp. 345-346.
i t
Christian
T e r r e de
l e Pere Sahler, t h e cure i n La Dent Rouge,
Madame Le Cormier
as
the most g e n e r a l l y l i k e a b l e
by p r i n c i p l e s which c o u l d be considered e i t h e r
especially and
written
charismatic
i n Lenormand's t h e a t r e are those who
'good'
happens, live
be
i n s p i t e o f her malevolence,
characters
and
cannot
emotional
I n s p i t e o f the way
and he
- 291 -
taunts
t h e C h r i s t i a n Demoiselle i n Le Lache, C h a r l i e r
has t o
concede t h a t even she has h e r m e r i t s :
CHARLIER, l u i touchant l e s cheveux • du bout des doigts Vous etes quand meme une bonne f i l l e . Vous croyez a des t a s de s o t t i s e s . Au fond, j'aime ga. Et j e s a i s b i e n que, s i j ' a v a l s une r e c h u t e , vous etes encore l a s e u l e dans c e t h o t e l q u i me s o i g n e r a i t convenablement.
A
propos, est-ce que vous p r i e z
toujours
pour
moi?
LA DEMOISELLE Certainement, comme pour l e s m a l f a i t e u r s e t l e s assassins.
CHARLIER C'est t r e s g e n t i l .
LA DEMOISELLE Moquez-vous. vos a c t i o n s . . .
Le j o u r ou vous rendrez compte
de
CHARLIER Je ne me touchante . . .
moque
pas.
Je
vous
trouve
(T V, 36-37)
This
exchange, however, r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g
sincerity.
Charlier's
I s he mocking o r p a t r o n i z i n g t h e Demoiselle, o r i s
he g e n u i n e l y touched? S c e p t i c i s m o f t h i s k i n d i s t y p i c a l o f t h e
- 292 -
r e a c t i o n c o n s t a n t l y provoked i n t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r regard t o any i n f e r e n c e he might make concerning d r a m a t i s t ' s d e p i c t i o n o f b e l i e f and b e l i e v e r s .
Anyone with
a
f a m i l i a r w i t h a l l t h e p l a y s i s consequently
very
presentation
with the
ambivalent
impression
regarding
left
Lenormand's
o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . A c e r t a i n l i g h t i s shed on
this
by a statement which Lenormand made some time between 1946 and 1948
i n a l e t t e r t o Andree S i k o r s k a and which i s quoted
here
from t h e d o c t o r a l t h e s i s o f A l e x i n a Macpherson:
Si on r e v i e n t aux v a l e u r s c h r e t i e n n e s , j e s u i s a r c h i - c u i t ! Car l e s e c r e t de t o u t ce t h e a t r e , c'est une haine e t une c o l e r e ardente c e n t r e I'ame c h r e t i e n n e , l a morale c h r e t i e n n e - t o u t ce que, en somme, I'homme ne peut pas r e j e t e r sans tomber dans l a barbgg^e. La e s t ma f a i b l e s s e e t ma c o n t r a d i c t i o n intime.
The
attitude
which
t h e d r a m a t i s t would
seem
t o foster i s
e x e m p l i f i e d p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l i n Le Cormier o f A 1'Ombre du Mal and
Terre de Satan.
religion to
His disregard
for
Soeur Marguerite's
does n o t a l t e r t h e f a c t t h a t he i s e m o t i o n a l l y
h e r goodness which reminds him o f h i s
deceased
drawn
wife.
Act I I o f Terre de Satan he t e l l s Soeur M a r g u e r i t e :
. . . Depuis que vous etes a l a m i s s i o n , j e s u i s redevenu un e t r e a peu pres v i v a n t . . . Ce n'est pas c e t t e ressemblance, q u i n'est qu'un hasard de l a c r e a t i o n , c'est l a presence de c e t u n i v e r s de bonte, de n a i v e t e presque e n f a n t i n e q u i e s t en vous, q u i e t a i t en e l l e . . . e t dont j ' a i absolument besoin pour supporter l a v i e . . . (T X, 239-240)
363.
Thesis, p. 197.
In
- 293 -
364 I n t h e terms o f Bernard's two t r u t h s one c o u l d say t h a t Le Cormier r e j e c t s ' l a v e r i t e des f a i t s ' which the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n r e p r e s e n t s t o h i s i n t e l l e c t b u t accepts ' l a v e r i t e des coeurs' which, p r o p e r l y p r a c t i s e d , i t r e p r e s e n t s t o his emotions. S i m i l a r l y , w h i l s t b e i n g guided i n t e l l e c t u a l l y t o y i e l d a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t o the flawed, but nevertheless c o m p e l l i n g , l o g i c o f the c l e v e r l y argued i n v e r t e d moral p r i n c i p l e s o f Rouge . i n A 1' Ombre du Mai o r Lady (Fearon) S u l l i v a n , the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r i s drawn t o the benevolence of the c a r i n g C h r i s t i a n s i n Lenormand's t h e a t r e and r e p u l s e d by the pagans o r a m o r a l i s t s .
Consideration cerebral
and
emotional
representation of
those
to
conflicting
Lenormand's
o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s who b e l i e v e they
dramatic
examination
have
o r know where ' i t ' might be, and
u s i n g imagery and t e r m i n o l o g y which
Christian
5.
responses
these
o f C h r i s t i a n s paves the way f o r an
'inexpressible', claims
o f the r a t i o n a l e behind
have
found make
the their
indisputably
resonances.
- i n death A
number o f Lenormandian c h a r a c t e r s b e l i e v e , or
come
to
b e l i e v e , t h a t t h e mystery o f l i f e w i l l be r e s o l v e d i n death. At the
end
of
Tableau V
of
Le Temps e s t un Songe
Nico
tells
Saidyah t h a t he now wonders whether t h e m i s s i n g 'mot' might n o t be found i n t h e depths o f the pond (T I , 215-216).
364.
See pp. 49-50.
I n the next
- 294 -
Tableau Saidyah t e l l s Romee t h a t Nico i s s u f f e r i n g 'parce q u ' i l cherche l a v o i e ' :
ROMEE Quelle
voie?
SAIDYAH La v o i e de l a v e r i t e . . . Je s a i s ce que c ' e s t . . . J ' a i vu de s a i n t s hommes, aux Indes, q u i l u i ressemblaient. Femme, soeur, e n f a n t s , aucun e t r e n'est agreable a l e u r coeur. A l o r s , i l s p a r t e n t . . . avec un d i s c i p l e ou un boy pour mendier l e u r riz... e t i l s v o n t . . . i l s v i s i t e n t l e s v i l l e s , l e s bazars, l e s l i e u x s a i n t s . . . i l s marchent des annees. Un j o u r , i l s r e n e b n t r e n t l e Bouddah sur une montagne ou dans un c a r r e f o u r e t i l s sont heureux... Mais i l y en a q u i ne r e n c o n t r e n t pas l e Bouddah. Ceux-la se l a i s s e n t m o u r i r de f a i m au fond d'une j u n g l e . . . (Un s i l e n c e , hochant l a t e t e . ) Je ne c r o i s pas que n o t r e e n f a n t r e n c o n t r e jamais l e Bouddah... Je savais b i e n q u ' i l p a r t i r a i t un j o u r , mais j ' e s p e r a i s qu'il m'emmenerait avec l u i . Je I ' a u r a i s s u i v i p a r t o u t . . . e t j e I ' a u r a i s l a i s s e s e u l avant l a f i n . . . car i l a r r i v e que l e Bouddah se manifeste a l a derniere heure, a l a d e r n i e r e minute
(T I , 225-226)
Within 'si
an hour o f t h i s speech Nico f i n a l l y t r i e s
l a v e r i t e n'est pas au fond de I'eau... t o u t
sous
l a vase...'
whether
216), and we a r e l e f t
he i s s u c c e s s f u l 'a l a d e r n i e r e heure, a
minute...' should
(T I ,
(T I ,
Nice's
t o discover au
fond...
t o speculate l a derniere
226). I n t h i s i n s t a n c e the i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t y e a r n i n g be s a t i s f i e d on the b r i n k o f ,
or
in,
death, h i s f u l f i l m e n t c o u l d be due t o t h e m e d i a t i o n o f Buddha, but i n other plays the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a C h r i s t i a n i s mooted.
L u i o f Les Rates addresses
intermediary
the f o l l o w i n g speech t o
-
Elle's
corpse
at
dawn.
295
Its
Christian
glimmers o f hope i n an a f t e r l i f e are
overtones
and
real
unmistakable:
LUI, apres 1'avoir longuement contemplee, e t r e i n t par line emotion puissante Cherie... Tu m'as t e l l e m e n t aime... i l y a encore t a n t d'amour dans t e s yeux... j e me demande... V o i l a qu'un nouveau doute m ' a s s a i l l e . . . e t p l u s f o r m i d a b l e que tous ceux d ' a u t r e f o i s . . . Tes yeux ont I ' a i r de s a v o i r . . . de comprendre quelque chose... Si I ' e s p o i r n ' e t a i t pas a u s s i absurde que je I'ai t o u j o u r s c r u ? . . . S ' i l e t a i t p o s s i b l e que t o u t ne f u t pas encore f i n i ? . . . Revois-tu nos souffrances? Les comprends-tu? Et I ' i n f i n i , que nous avons cherche dans l a misere, dans l a boue... t ' e s t - i l e n f i n r e v e l e ? . . . (Un s i l e n c e anxieux.) Ou bien n'as-tu plus de souvenirs?... p l u s de conscience?... Es-tu seulement sur une r i v e ou a u t r e chose commence?... au p r e m i e r j o u r d'une a u t r e v i e ? (T I , 138)
When
the
p o l i c e come t o make t h e i r a r r e s t , L u i opts
d i r e c t answers t o a l l these
to
seek
questions:
LARNAUDY Vous voulez vous f a i r e t r a i n e r ? Vous n ' i r e z en p r i s o n comme un homme?
pas
LUI En prison? ( I I s o r t I'arme de s a poche et I'appuie contre s a p o i t r i n e . I I regards devant l u i avec une expression d'avide c u r i o s i t e . ) Peut-etre pas...
(T I ,
140)
Immediately a f t e r w a r d s L u i k i l l s h i m s e l f , whereupon par
la
musique any who
fenetre
ouverte,
arrive,
puissante,
'aussitot,
eclatante,
du c a r i l l o n ' , which speaks a language a l l i t s own may
choose t o charge i t w i t h s i g n i f i c a n c e (T I ,
la for
140).
- 296 -
The theme o f redemption through s u f f e r i n g and death i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n Une V i e s e c r e t e and La F o l l e du C i e l , although t h e r e i s an i n t e r e s t i n g t w i s t a t t h e very end o f t h e l a t t e r p l a y . The couple's dilemma i s r e s o l v e d as f a r as p o s s i b l e when t h e y achieve an i m p e r f e c t communion through t h e i r shared trials, and as they d i e t o g e t h e r they are as u n i t e d as they c o u l d hope t o be, g i v e n t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f another m i r a c l e . They v o i c e t h e i r a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a death and t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n process i n a warm and b r i g h t l y l i t decor t o a backing o f a p p r o p r i a t e l y . magical music. The p l a y c o u l d e a s i l y have ended a t t h i s p o i n t , b u t i t s ambiance and tone change r a d i c a l l y o n l y minutes b e f o r e t h e f i n a l C u r t a i n :
( I I retombe e t meurt. La mouette i n c l i n e l a tete e t meurt s u r son epaule. La musique cesse. Obscurite. On entend l e ricanement du T r o l l qui apparait au-dessus de l a cabane e t contemple l e s corps.)
LE TROLL Te v o i l a morte, viande a reves e t a f o l i e s ! Et maintenant, a l l e z g e l e r s u r l a greve, a cote de l a b a l e i n e . E l l e a u s s i r e v a i t p e u t - e t r e d ' a i l e s , quand e l l e e s t venue s'echouer l a , s t u p i d e montagne de chair s o r t i e •des montagnes d'eau! L'homme e t I ' o i s e a u . . . Vous ne f o r m i e z p o u r t a n t qu'une seule r a c e , quand l e monde e t a i t jeune... quand ces deserts de g l a c e e t a i e n t un p a r a d i s verdoyant. La c r u e l l e n a t u r e vous a separes... (Un s i l e n c e de meditation, puis, avec emotion.) Trop t a r d . L ' a i l e e t l e chant ne rejoindront pas l a pensee... Pauvres freres desunis... Reverez-vous t o u j o u r s I ' u n a 1'autre?
(T I X , 249)
What m o t i v a t e d Lenormand t o cap a poignant denouement w i t h t h e sneers and t a u n t s o f t h e u g l y , n i h i l i s t i c T r o l l ? Was he
simply
- '297 -
anxious t o make sure h i s audiences went away w i t h a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e symbolism o f the p l a y , as f a r as the s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y o f b o t h the i n d i v i d u a l and the male and female couple i s concerned? Or was he n o t a l s o aware t h a t the s u r e s t way o f s u s t a i n i n g b e l i e f i n the p o t e n t i a l e x i s t e n c e o f a metaphysically i n e x p r e s s i b l e 'quelque chose' i s t o challenge such a hope? Moreover, a f t e r h i s m e d i t a t i v e pause even t h e Troll i s moved t o p i t y , and h i s l a s t , q u e s t i o n i n g words, on which the f i n a l C u r t a i n f a l l s , p i c k up the note o f pathos he i n t e r r u p t e d . I n t h i s p l a y , as i n so many o t h e r s , Lenormand c o u l d n o t have done more t o m a i n t a i n the ambivalence o u t s i d e o f which the ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e * by i t s own d e f i n i t i o n cannot e x i s t .
6.
- i n l o v e o f v a r y i n g degrees o f p u r i t y As
they
inexpressible
search
consciously
'quelque chose'
o r unconsciously
i n sexual
notably
the male
romance, ones,
for some
the of
Lenormand's
characters,
ignore t h e
distinction
between love and l u s t . The o v e r a l l i m p l i c a t i o n o f
the p l a y s i s t h a t i n doing so they j e o p a r d i z e t h e i r chances o f finding
t h e ' v e r i t e ' they are seeking.
A striking
1'Homme
o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes.
He
Lenormandian p r o t a g o n i s t s who, to
be
intrigued
by
example i s
i s one o f s e v e r a l
t e m p o r a r i l y a t l e a s t , would seem
t h e age-old
belief
that
t h e 'mot de
I'enigme' i s l o c k e d i n the mystery t h a t woman has t r a d i t i o n a l l y represented
f o r man. There i s even a suggestion
unknown o r unusual and t h e r e f o r e more mysterious greater the l u r e .
t h a t the
more
the woman, t h e
'Pourquoi a u r a i t - i l aime c e t t e femme,
sinon
- 298 -
pour l e s d i s t a n c e s i n f r a n c h i s s a b l e s q u i l a s e p a r a i e n t de l u i ? ' , asks t h e V e r i f i c a t e u r w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o Ai'escha's parents (Le Simoun, T I I , 131), and de Mezzana. o f Asie t e l l s t h e Princess t h a t he may have l o v e d h e r f o r t h e 'immense charge d'inconnu' w e i g h i n g on h e r shoulders (T IX, 8 4 ) . A number o f t h e women 1'Homme pursues l o v e him, b u t f o r s p e c i a l reasons he cannot respond i n k i n d so t h a t n e i t h e r h i s nor h i s p a r t n e r s ' 'soif d ' i n f i n i ' can be even p a r t i a l l y s l a k e d by mutual love (L'Homme e t ses Fantomes, T IV, 2 5 ) . Although t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s are c o m p l i c a t e d i n t h e case o f 1'Homme, t h e p r i n c i p l e i s h i g h l i g h t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n he has w i t h I'Ami:
L'HOMME Je c r o y a i s l a s e d u i r e e t c'est e l l e q u i me s o u f f l a i t l e s mots q u i o n t e v e i l l e mon d e s i r . E l l e m'aime... E t 1'amour n'est pour e l l e qu'un moyen d'apaiser un tourment q u i n'est pas 1'amour. Du p l u s p r o f o n d de l a v o l u p t e , quelque chose, en e l l e , se refuse, me repousse, regarde a i l l e u r s . . . Ces femmes-la nous r e t i e n n e n t par 1 ' i l l u s i o n q u ' e l l e s sont porteuses d'un s e c r e t .
L'AMI Et s i e l l e s p o r t a i e n t v r a i m e n t un s e c r e t qu'on p u t v i o l e r , comprendre e t d e l a i s s e r a 1'egal de l e u r corps?
L'HOMME Non, connu.
leur
s e c r e t ne v a u t pas l a peine
L'AMI Pourquoi?
d'etre
- 299 -.
L'HOMME Parce q u ' i l s ' a p p e l l e maladie . . .
L'AMI Elle est belle.
L'HOMME Charmante aussi.
e t pitoyable,
surtout.
Dangereuse
L' AMI, soioriant Quel danger t ' a - t - e l l e f a i t c o u r i r ? C e l u i de l a fixite?
L'HOMME I I y en a d ' a u t r e s .
L'AMI Lesquels?
L'HOMME L'amour e t r a n g e r a 1'amour... l a passion e p u i s a n t e d'une chimere de femme... l a p o u r s u i t e d'un demon i n s a i s i s s a b l e .
(T I V , 24-25)
In
t h e next
relationship
Tableau
we f i n d
1'Homme
terminating h i s
w i t h Laure and e x p l a i n i n g t h e detachment
process
t o her 'avec une cruaute mesuree':
. . . L'homme q u i aime une femme l u i superpose t o u j o u r s un fantome. Un j o u r v i e n t ou ce fantome d i s p a r a i t e t f a i t p l a c e a un a u t r e fantome, que I'homme a p p e l l e r e a l i t e . Mais ce fantome-la n'a p l u s r i e n des s e d u c t i o n s de 1'autre . . . (T I V , 27)
- 300 -
L'Homme's 'chasse au mot' f a i l s c o n c o m i t a n t l y w i t h h i s 'chasse a l a femme'. Having destroyed t h e l i v e s o f A l b e r t e and Laure and taken crude advantage o f women l i k e I ' H y s t e r i q u e , 1'Homme complains t o I'Ami: 'Pas une v i e r g e , pas une matrone, pas une prude, pas une f i l l e ne m'a d i t l e mot que j e cherche... l e mot q u i r e n d r a i t mon c i e l c l a i r e t mes j o u r s p a i s i b l e s ' (T I V , 4 5 ) . At t h i s stage i n t h e p l a y 1'Homme i s s t i l l a puzzle t o h i m s e l f and t o t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r , b u t i n t h e next Tableau t h e now insane Laure h i n t s a t t h e d i a g n o s i s t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t Luc de Bronte makes o f f i c i a l l y i n Act I I I : w h i l s t he f i n d s c a r n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i n women's bodies, 1'Homme's s o u l craves f o r t h e mental, e m o t i o n a l and s p i r i t u a l a t t r i b u t e s o f a male p a r t n e r .
Although homosexuals similar
they like
are not classified
as l a t e n t ,
1'Homme, o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s
complex
stumble
s o r t o f o b s t a c l e , because, as de Mezzana
over
a
explains t o
Aimee i n A s i e , 'I'homme s ' e n i v r e d'inconnu e t se trompe sur l a nature
de ses passions.
1'amour'
ses c u r i o s i t e s
pour de
(T I X , 3 9 ) . I n Act I I o f Les T r o i s Chambres
maintains
that
tenement
secret
c'est
I I prend
Rose
'renferme
un t r e s o r
ambigu,
q u ' i l n'a pas de nom', even f o r
l e m e t i e r de t r o u v e r des noms aux choses'
Pierre
un b i e n
him, 'dont (T V I I I , 7 9 ) .
I n t h e same speech P i e r r e assures Florence t h a t , w i t h Rose, h i s 'temps
d'amour',
debauchery, play after
as opposed t o h i s l i f e
of
uncomplicated
i s j u s t b e g i n n i n g . However, t h e denouement o f
makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a succession
o f Roses
Rose, and t h a t none w i l l y i e l d up t h e 'nom' t h a t
r e a l l y i n search o f .
the
he i s
- :301 -
With r e g a r d t o the Luc de Bronte o f Le Mangeur de Reves, Fearon i n d i r e c t l y i m p l i e s t h a t he values c a r n a l pleasure w i t h women l e s s than t a k i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l advantage o f them, and she i s w e l l aware t h a t h i s p r o b i n g s f o r s o u l s e c r e t s are not as altruistically m o t i v a t e d as he cares t o b e l i e v e (T I I , 211-213). Jeannine a l s o r e a l i z e s t h a t Luc i s more anxious t o fathom her psyche f o r s e l f i s h reasons than he i s concerned w i t h her w e l l - b e i n g :
Tu aimes I'enigme i r r i t a n t e q u i se cache dans l e d e r n i e r r e p l i des consciences.
Tu t e connais s i mal, mon c h e r i . . . Tu prends t e s emotions d ' a r t i s t e pour de 1'amour.
Et j e s a i s , moi, que du j o u r ou t u auras d e c h i f f r e l e mot que j e p o r t e , t u cesseras de m'aimer. L'amour, pour t o i , ce n'est qu'un moyen de f o r c e r l e s ames...
(T I I , 251-252)
Constantly unknown
language
Michel Sarterre
driven
t o discover
i n and through
some
kind
h i s musical
o f hitherto compositions,
o f Une Vie s e c r e t e i s determined t o feed t h e
w e l l s p r i n g o f h i s c r e a t i v e genius a t any c o s t . I n the for
process,
which he i s prepared t o s a c r i f i c e a n y t h i n g and anyone, he
explores
avenues s i m i l a r t o those i n v e s t i g a t e d by 1'Homme o f
L'Homme e t ses Fantomes, and f o r some time he i s convinced t h a t his
l i f e o f debauchery
i s necessary t o achieve h i s
The d i s c e r n i n g Vera Z v i e r l o f knows how duped he i s :
objectives.
- 302 -
. . . La femelle,. pour t o i , c'est un g o u f f r e u n i f o r m e , un element dans l e q u e l t u t e . p l o n g e s , sans p l u s i d e n t i f i e r ces vagues de peau que l e nageur n ' i d e n t i f i e l e s lames q u ' i l a f f r o n t e . Tu ne m'as pas aimee une heure. Je n ' a i e t e , pour t o i , qu'un des m i l l e fantomes de l a chose que t u cherches. Des l a premiere n u i t , t u m'as a t t e i n t e e t s o u i l l e e au dela de ma c h a i r . Un d e s i r p l u s p r o f o n d que l e d e s i r demeurait en t o i , i n a p a i s e (T I I I , 212)
P r o t a g o n i s t s l i k e M i c h e l were undoubtedly i n s t r u m e n t a l i n consolidating
Lenormand's r e p u t a t i o n f o r d e p i c t i n g
'un monde
h a l l u c i n e e t h a l l u c i n a n t , ou regnent l a nevrose, I ' i n c e s t e , l e 365 m e u r t r e , t o u t e s l e s decheances e t t o u t e s l e s t u r p i t u d e s ' .
I t
is
left
worth
with
s t r e s s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a t no p o i n t are
t h e impression
course.
Lenormand
moralizing case,
t h a t they
gives
are..following
Luc de Bronte
and
an a d v i s a b l e Michel Sarterre
sounding boards: Jeannine and Fearon i n the
Therese,
Vera and Faneres
Luc's c o m f o r t i n g i l l u s i o n s , t e l l i n g him, t u cherches
c o n f i d e n c e s honteuses'
l a volupte, (T I I ,
former
i n the l a t t e r . I n t h e f i n a l
scene o f Le Mangeur de Reves, Fearon does her b e s t t o
verite;
we
dislodge
'Tu ne cherches pas l a
en p a l p a n t
lentement des
290). 'Tu es comme I ' i v r o g n e q u i
p r e t e n d t i r e r sa f o r c e de son p o i s o n ' , Therese t e l l s Michel one day,
'C'est
secrete,
365.
l e meme mensonge,
T III,
237).
Whilst
l a meme Vera's
illusion' suicide
(Une Vie
affords the
Surer, Cinquante ans, p. 136. See a l s o pp. 21-22.
- 303 -
reformed M i c h e l a breakthrough i n h i s musical search f o r a 'langage t o u t n e u f (T I I I , 262), I'Homme i s l e s s f o r t u n a t e . He wastes away i n every sense. Having f a i l e d t o f i n d the crucial 'mot' i n woman, he e v e n t u a l l y r e a l i z e s t h a t the s e c r e t o f h i s own homosexual psyche i s not the 'secret' e i t h e r . The f i n a l exchange o f the p l a y makes i t c l e a r t h a t I'Homme does not find t h e unknown, i n e x p r e s s i b l e 'quelque chose' t h i s s i d e o f death:
LE FANTOME DE LA MERE, l e dorlotant Es-tu b i e n , comme c e l a , dans mes bras?
L'HOMME Oui, mere. (Un s i l e n c e s ' a g i t e . ) Je v o u d r a i s s a v o i r . . .
apaise,
puis, i l
LE FANTOME DE LA MERE Quoi, mon c h e r i ?
L'HOMME J ' a i o u b l i e . . . I I y a quelque v o u l a i s s a v o i r , avant de m o u r i r . . .
chose
que j e
LE FANTOME DE LA MERE, souriant
moi,
Tu ne vas pas mourir. comme a u t r e f o i s .
Tu vas t ' e n d o r m i r
centre
L'HOMME, s ' a g i t a n t Je veux s a v o i r . . .
LE FANTOME DE LA MERE Ne t e tourmente pas... Ne pense a r i e n . . .
Dors.
- 304 -
L•HOMME
Savoir...
( I I meurt. Le fantome d i s p a r a i t . )
(L'Homme e t ses Fantomes, T IV, At
the
same
centredness
of
responsible
for
122)
t i m e , i t i s worth
I'Homme, their
Luc
and
excesses.
noting Michel When
that is
not
Jeannine
de Bronte
t h a t h i s 'passion l a p l u s profonde e s t
1'amour'
(Le Mangeur de Reves, T I I ,
253),
m a i n t a i n s t h a t he i s l e s s e g o i s t i c than she
the
he
self-
entirely tells
etrangere agrees,
Luc a but
suggests:
C'est v r a i , mais c e t t e passion de c o n n a i t r e que t u c r o i s s t e r i l e e t glacee, e l l e a sa source dans 1'amour, comme t o u t e passion. J'aime. J'aime 1'innocence q u i e s t au fond des crimes. Et j e me s u i s donne. A une chimere, p e u t - e t r e , mais j e me suis donne. Regarde ma v i e . Je me semble un termite enfonce dans ses g a l e r i e s s o u t e r r a i n e s . Jamais de repos, jamais d ' a i r l i b r e . Je ne peux p l u s approcher un e t r e sans e t r e obsede par l e signe indechiffrable q u i e s t grave en l u i . Je ne connais pas l e bonheur. Ou e s t l a femme que j ' a i pu c h e r i r en paix? Un homme e t e i n t ? Non pas. Un homme a l t e r e de p l e n i t u d e e t que son demon o b l i g e a passer de I'une a 1'autre, dans une ardeur p l e i n e de t r i s t e s s e . Un faux don Juan, q u i se refuse a 1'amour, pour 1'amour d'autre chose (T I I , 253-254)
We
may
would
be r e l u c t a n t t o accept t h i s s e l f - v i n d i c a t i o n , c e r t a i n l y seem t h a t Luc de Bronte,
but i t
Michel S a r t e r r e
and
366 I'Homme
are
not
debauched M i c h e l
366.
straightforward
Don Juans.
Even
shares Luc's i n v e r t e d sense o f innocence.
See pp. 272-273.
the He
- 305 -
tells
h i s wife
neuf . . , i l secrete, un
that
t o i n v e n t and speak
'langage
f a u t e t r e i n n o c e n t comme une panthere'
T III,
tout
(Une V i e
196). L a t e r , when Vera t e l l s him he i s
'comme
e n f a n t , ou comme un a n i m a l ' , he r e p l i e s 'La comparaison
m'offense
pas' (T I I I ,
innocence
o f animal
variety, says, son
a
211). Why Michel should l o o k instincts rather
than
ne
for
the
the t r a d i t i o n a l
can be e x p l a i n e d p a r t l y by the f a c t t h a t , as
Therese
'quand on ne v e u t pas l u t t e r c o n t r e son d e s i r , on d i t que p o u v o i r d ' a r t i s t e en depend' (T I I I ,
237), and p a r t l y
by
h i s b e l i e f t h a t C h r i s t i a n methods and p r i n c i p l e s a r e e f f e t e and ineffective
(T I I I ,
180-181).
a
step
away from c o n c l u d i n g t h a t M i c h e l suppresses h i s conscience
and
'sentiments humains', his
t o use Faneres's words,
'amour i n q u i e t d'un i n f i n i quelconque'
(T I I I ,
199),
Not as
partly
has l o s t
metaphysically
characters
i t s way
which would g i v e him h i s b e a r i n g s .
a l l the sexual r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n Lenormand's
de Bronte
because
and he l a c k s the d i r e c t i o n he needs t o f i n d t h e
'langage t o u t n e u f
are
From t h i s , one i s o n l y
sterile
o r Michel Sarterre. have
or gradually
as
those
o f 1'Homme,
A significant develop
theatre
number
Luc
ofhis
the conviction
that
a b s o l u t e t r u t h i s somehow bound up w i t h t h e l o v e experience. After he
spent
h i s w i f e ' s death, A l b e r t C a r o l l e s r e g r e t s the seeking
h i s 'verite a dire',
e b l o u i s s a n t e ' i n r e s e a r c h : ^^'^
367.
See p. 271.
time
h i s ' v e r i t e simple,
- 306 -
. . . Et t o u t a coup, j e me s u i s vu... Un pauvre homme ronge p a r de p e t i t e s c u r i o s i t e s , abritant derriere des recherches incoherentes les contradictions de sa n a t u r e . . . Un cerveau en desordre, un i m p u i s s a n t de l a pensee. En meme temps, j'ai compris une chose tres belle, quoique decourageante: c e t t e v e r i t e dont j e p a r l a i s , j e 1'avals tous l e s j o u r s a mes c o t e s . E l l e s ' a p p e l a i t B e r t h e . I I n'y en aura jamais d'autre pour moi . . . (L'Amour magicien, T V I , 16-17)
If find
n o t h i n g e l s e , one o r two o f Lenormand's p r o t a g o n i s t s
temporary solace t h r o u g h t h e l o v e experience.
Lui t e l l s
E l l e i n Tableau IX o f Les Rates:
Quelque chose s'est apaise en nous. Ah, me s u i s - j e assez tourmente! A i - j e assez cherche l e mot, l a v e r i t e v e r s l e s q u e l s j e me c r o y a i s pousse!
II n'y a v a i t pas de mot, pas de v e r i t e , mais seulement c e t t e fagon de nous aimer q u i e s t l a n o t r e . . . c e t t e p i t i e de nos l e v r e s pour nos l e v r e s . . . nos deux ames attachees p a r l a misere, comme l e g i b i e r encore v i v a n t qu'on p o r t e au marche
(T I , 89)
Certain
Lenormandian
protagonists
believe
that
the
experience o f human l o v e i s a.stepping-stone t o t h e i n d e f i n a b l e metaphysical T e r r e de Satan human
panacea. touches
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , explicitly
Soeur Marguerite o f
on t h e C a t h o l i c
l o v e can be a v e h i c l e o f d i v i n e grace,
p r e d i c t a b l y , Le Cormier i s l e s s sure:
idea
whilst,
that
equally
- 307 -
SOEUR MARGUERITE ... . Ce besoin de r e t r o u v e r dans un a u t r e c e l u i q u i vous a e t e enleve... i l vous conduira l o i n que l e s e t r e s .
etre plus
LE CORMIER Je ne s a i s pas.
SOEUR MARGUERITE Moi, j e s a i s . L'ame humaine, c'est un chemin. I I c o n d u i t a Dieu. Vous ne r e s t e r e z pas en r o u t e .
(T X, 240)
Vera Z v i e r l o f inkling
o f Une V i e s e c r e t e
o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f some
remissions
appears
loving
t o have
power
during her
i n t h e asylum: ' A l o r s , du fond de ce neant,
n a i s s a i t une s p r t e d'amour, de sagesse ardente... rien
an
a d i r e la-dessus'
(T I I I ,
i l
La r a i s o n n'a
281). L a t e r she expresses h e r
b e l i e f t h a t t o l o v e c o u l d w e l l be t h e key t o her s a l v a t i o n : 'Je ne pe.ux pas v i v r e sans amour... S i j e pouvais aimer, une heure, un
instant,
significant
j e s e r a i s p e u t - e t r e sauvee' (T I I I ,
288).
I t
is
t h a t Vera's emphasis here i s on t h e need f o r her t o
l o v e r a t h e r than t o be l o v e d . I t i s easy t o i n f e r from t h i s and from
similar
pointers
self-preoccupation
in
other
plays
that
the
o f Nico Van Eyden i n Le Temps e s t un Songe
could
go some way t o e x p l a i n i n g h i s f a i l u r e t o f i n d a
durable
inner
peace through h i s l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
whilst
Romee,
his
more s e l f l e s s l y
l o v i n g partner i s r e l a t i v e l y
The
Nico we see i n t h e p l a y does n o t confuse l o v e
successful. with
lust,
nor i s he as o b v i o u s l y o r c u l p a b l y e g o i s t i c as Michel S a r t e r r e ,
- 308
the
Luc de Bronte
certainly
o f Le Mangeur de Reves o r 1'Homme, b u t he
f a i l s t o achieve a balance between l o v i n g and being
l o v e d . I n the p e n u l t i m a t e Tableau Nico t e l l s Saidyah t h a t f o r a long la
t i m e he t h o u g h t o n l y Romee c o u l d g i v e him certitude'
(T I , 215),
b u t he no l o n g e r
'1'apaisement, has such
an
e x p e c t a t i o n . Romee, on t h e o t h e r hand, t e l l s Nico,
'I'entourant
de s e s b r a s ' ,
love
experienced
how she has come t o r e a l i z e
that
d i s s i p a t e s t h e anguish engendered by
fully
unanswerable
metaphysical questions:
J ' a i a p p r i s quelque chose, mon c h e r i . Tous ces tourments de l a pensee sont en nous a l a place de I'^amour... Tous, meme l a p i t i e , meme l a j u s t i c e , dont j'ai t a n t s o u f f e r t a u t r e f o i s . A present, j e suis i n d i f f e r e n t e a t o u t ce q u i n'est pas t o i . . . Tu d i s que t u m'aimes... M'aimes-tu assez? (T I , 198)
Paradoxically, his reply,
'Je t'aime jusqu'a I'angoisse', i s as
o b j e c t i v e l y f a l s e as i t i s s u b j e c t i v e l y s i n c e r e . However he may judge
h i s f e e l i n g s f o r her, Nice's l o v e f o r Romee i s
by h i s own s e l f - c e n t r e d
eclipsed
i n t r o s p e c t i o n . We are consequently n o t
s u r p r i s e d t h a t , as he goes on t o e x p l a i n , he f a i l s t o progress t h r o u g h t h e mystery o f human l o v e t o any answers beyond:
Ce l i e n q u i e s t e n t r e nous... ce p o u v o i r de t a presence... Qu'est-ce que c ' e s t ? . . . S ' i l n'y a v a i t que l e d e s i r . . . t o u t s e r a i t s i m p l e , r a s s u r a n t . . . C'est a l a t e n d r e s s e que I'enigme commence... E t i l n'y a pas de reponse. J ' a i c r u que t o n corps e n f e r m a i t une reponse... Non... J ' a i c r u qu'on p o u v a i t e c r a s e r l a pensee sur t o n coeur... Non... C'est dans t e s bras que c e t t e e x a l t a t i o n d e v i e n t l e p l u s m y s t e r i e u s e . . . La, p a r o l e s , s i l e n c e , t o u t a son v e n i n . . . Qu'est-ce que c ' e s t ? . . . (T I , 198-199)
- 309 -
Nico i s n o t alone i n f a i l i n g t o 'ecraser' h i s . mental torment on a woman's h e a r t . E l l e o f Les Rates b e l i e v e s , even q u i t e e a r l y i n t h e p l a y , t h a t t h e consuming passion o f a m u t u a l l y l o v i n g couple g e n u i n e l y assuages man's ' i n q u i e t u d e ' , w h i l s t f o r L u i i t can o n l y be a d i s t r a c t i o n from i t and a t best a stopgap:
ELLE . . . Quand on e s t p r i s , r o u l e dans une grande passion, on ne pense p l u s a s'interroger, a s ' i n q u i e t e r sans cesse! I I n'y a p l u s d'enigmes, p l u s de q u e s t i o n s . Tout ce f a t r a s e s t balaye!
LUI Oui, mais apres?
ELLE Comment, apres?
LUI L ' i n q u i e t u d e r e v i e n t forcement... l e doute. l e s q u e s t i o n s . . . Tout l e f a t r a s , comme t u d i s .
(T I , 31)
Although the
E l l e never wavers from h e r e s s e n t i a l c o n v i c t i o n
secret
with,
o f l i f e i s embedded i n , o r
the love
experience,
intimately
Lui eventually
s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e appeasement a f f o r d e d by t h e i r Whilst loving
ceases
feeling
more
i n t e l l e c t u a l i z i n g so much,
rather
than
L u i i n s i s t s on
in
connected to
be
relationship.
E l l e a t t e m p t s t o convince him t h a t t h e answer and
that
lies
thinking
in and
r e g a r d i n g t h e quest
- 310 -
f o r t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e enigma o f l i f e as a mental issue r a t h e r t h a n an emotional one. I n t h i s he takes a s i m i l a r view t o t h a t o f t h e a g n o s t i c V e r i f i c a t e u r i n Le Simoun who t e l l s Laurency, 'Je ne c r o i s r i e n , mon pauvre v i e u x , parce que j e ne s a i s r i e n . . . Personne ne s a l t r i e n . . . ' (T I I , 140), apparentlyfailing t o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t , i n t h e f i n a l i n s t a n c e , b e l i e f , by i t s v e r y d e f i n i t i o n , i s n o t knowledge-dependent. When E l l a
agrees
w i t h L u i i n Tableau I I t h a t t h e r e must be something
'a
368 trouver n'est peut
au
d e l a de n o t r e i n q u i e t u d e ' ,
she adds,
p e u t - e t r e pas une v e r i t e , une e x p l i c a t i o n
que
'Mais
1'esprit
comprendre': LUI Que v e u x - t u que ce s o i t ?
ELLE Peut-etre,... une maniere de s e n t i r . . . une d'aimer...
fagon
LUI L'amour ne peut pas donner l a reponse dont j ' a i besoin...
ELLE II me semble, a moi, que s i t u davantage... t u t e t o u r m e n t e r a i s moins.
LUI, s u r p r i s Est-ce que j e ne t'aime pas?
368.
See pp. 267-268.
ce
m'aimais
- -311
ELLE Tu n'as pas beaucoup de coeur, mon c h e r i . Tu es cerebral...
un
(Les
Another
Rates, T I , 30-31)
exchange
respect.
between
E l l e and L u i i s r e l e v a n t
in
L u i a c t u a l l y reproaches E l l e f o r b e l i e v i n g
this
that ' l a
r e a l i t e e s t dans l e s s e n t i m e n t s ' :
LUI . . .'Tu c r o i s t o u j o u r s que l a r e a l i t e e s t dans l e s s e n t i m e n t s . . . E l l e e s t dans l e s f a i t s , r i e n que dans l e s f a i t s . E t l e f a i t , c'est que nous avons... ( I I crayonne.) pas t o u t a f a i t quatre f r a n c s p a r j o u r , a l o r s q u ' i l nous en f a u d r a i t au moins v i n g t . En dehors de ce c h i f f r e , i l n ' e x i s t e r i e n pour nous!
ELLE S i , mon c h e r i . . . Je sens q u ' i l e x i s t e chose... quelque chose q u i echappe a r e a l i t e - l a , q u i I ' e c r a s e , q u i se moque d ' e l l e .
LUI,
autre cette
souriant
Je v o u d r a i s b i e n s a v o i r ce que c ' e s t .
ELLE, bas, s'evertuant a raccommoder un gant n o i r C'est en nous... t o u t au f o n d . . . p e t i t . . . depuis peu... Cela n'a pas encore de nom
ne
(T I , 44-45)
The Elle
fact from
that
'cela n'a pas encore de nom' does
approaching
inexpressible 'verite'
an
emotional
n o t prevent
awareness
of
the
t h e y a r e anxious t o f i n d . However, i t i s
a major s t u m b l i n g b l o c k t o L u i who f a i l s t o see human love as a
- 312 -
remedy f o r h i s s p i r i t u a l torment, because i t does n o t provide an i n t e l l e c t u a l answer t o h i s .questions. Les Rates i s one o f a number o f p l a y s which suggest t h a t those who i n s i s t on t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h t h e i s s u e w i t h t h e i r head have c o n s i d e r a b l e difficulty t r a c k i n g down t h e ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' , w h i l s t o t h e r s who f e e l more r e a d i l y w i t h t h e i r h e a r t would seem t o approach an awareness o f t h e a p p a r e n t l y l o v e - r e l a t e d 'quelque chose' c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y more e a s i l y .
Jeannine Felse
o f Le Mangeur de Reves t r i e s t o t e l l
Luc
de Bronte why he i s w a s t i n g h i s time p r o b i n g f o r her s e c r e t h i s way:
'On n'apprend r i e n que par 1'amour', she e x p l a i n s , 'On ne
peut
s a v o i r qu'en se donnant' (T I I ,
and
Elle,
Jeannine
believes
that
253). Like
Romee Cremers
once
inexpressible
the
'quelque chose' has been found through t h i s k i n d o f human l o v e , it
can remain i n e x p r e s s i b l e . When Luc suggests he cannot
her
because
significant:
she i s r e s i s t i n g h i s
analysis,
help
her r e p l y i s
'Je me d i s p a r f o i s que s i t u e t a i s venu a moi d'un
coeur p l u s s i m p l e , ah! t u a u r a i s t o u t devine, t o u t compris sans paroles'
(T I I ,
253).
The
resonances
of this
s t r i k i n g . As i s noted below, l i k e Bernard,
comment are
Lenormand h i g h l i g h t s
t h e way v e r b a l exchanges become r e l a t i v e l y s u p e r f l u o u s
between
369 interlocutors
whose
hearts
are i n communion.
A
similar
paradox i s t o be found i n t h e search f o r the 'mot de I'enigme': once
Lenormand's
c h a r a c t e r s experience
the 'inexpressible',
they cease t o be concerned by i t s i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y .
369.
See pp. 334-336.
- 313 -
7.
The i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' 'Don't care f o r t h e word! J ' a i besoin de l a chose' are the
cryptic
statements
of
a
jaundiced
Fearon
in
Mixture
370 (T V I I , 7 3 ) , here,
b u t s u r p r i s i n g l y t h e y have a strange
relevance
f o r t h e two Lenormandian c h a r a c t e r s who c l a i m
greatest
with
the
c o n v i c t i o n and e x p l i c i t n e s s t h a t they have found
the
'inexpressible',
namely L o l i t a o f
La Maison des Remparts
Therese S a r t e r r e o f Une V i e s e c r e t e , are much more
and
preoccupied
w i t h t h e 'chose' t h a n they are w i t h the 'word'. Indeed, i n t h e light
of
their
discovery,
both
these
women
seem
to
be
end
of
n o t i c e a b l y d i s i n c l i n e d t o f i n d a word f o r i t . Lolita
does
not convert t o C h r i s t i a n i t y a t
La Maison des Remparts.
the
E a r l i e r i n the play there i s
evidence
t o suggest she i s a l r e a d y a t l e a s t a nominal C a t h o l i c , even i f 371 she a l s o has recourse t o pagan s p i r i t s .
Recovering from
her
i l l n e s s , she t e l l s Andre t h a t 'oune chose' came t o her when she was
close
to
death
(T X, 182).
The
results
speak
themselves: i n so f a r as she was a C h r i s t i a n beforehand, is
a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f b e l i e v e r now. Whatever she has
spiritual former
life
a t t h e end o f Act I I I does n o t
smack
Lolita i n her of
escapism, and she appears t o have sloughed t h e need
n e u t r a l i z e t h e h o r r o r o f her e x i s t e n c e by i n d u l g i n g i n old
for
daydreams:
370.
See p. 342.
371.
See p. 284.
her to
certain
- 314 -
Depouis que j e l e connais, c e l o u i - l a , j ' a i pious b e s o i n de c r o i r e a l a barque espagnole. M'est egal de s a v o i r que i e r e v e r r a i pas l e Costa-Rica. Depouis que je l e c o n n a i s , mes dieux de l a - b a s , avec l e u r s ploumes e t l e u r s bees d'oisseaux, i l s peuvent pious r i e n pour moi. J ' a i pious peur de v i v r e dans l e b r o u i l l a r d , au-dessus des marecages... J ' a i pious peur de I ' h i v e r , n i dou t r a v a i l , n i de l a mort. J ' a i p i o u s peur de r i e n du t o u t . (T X, 183)
The
woman
soothing
quality
nature, makes
speaking here s t i l l has t h e s p e c i a l , of
her e s s e n t i a l l y
t h e i n d e f i n a b l e something
romantic,
inexplicably imaginative
i n her p e r s o n a l i t y
e x i s t e n c e b e a r a b l e f o r t h e o t h e r inmates o f t h e
which 'maison
des remparts' and f o r Andre (T X, 107 and 179). She i s t h e same Lolita
w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e . What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y noteworthy
in
the p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , however, i s t h a t t h e 'new' L o l i t a i s predictable is
and t r a d i t i o n a l as f a r as h e r d e i s t i c
concerned.
terminology
I t would seem t h a t she i s no l o n g e r
anything
because
the
'quelqu'un'
resembles
the unconditionally
she
has
l o v i n g God o f
less
afraid
found
of
closely
C h r i s t i a n i t y and
o t h e r major w o r l d r e l i g i o n s , and y e t a t no p o i n t i n her moving declaration
o f f a i t h - approximately t h i r t y l i n e s
interruptions
four
an
omission
cannot
fail
left
Act I I I
to
lips. have
when p r i o r t o h e r 'conversion' she uses t h e word
incident,
entirely thus
Such
times i n eleven l i n e s (T X, 135). The f a c t t h a t ,
earlier
length,
excepted - does t h e word 'Dieu' cross her
(T X, 182-183). significance
in
she
i s actually
praying
i n the
cannot
account
f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n h e r choice o f words.
One i s
w i t h t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e L o l i t a a t t h e end o f
i s more
'inexpressible'
conscious o f t h e i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e
than h i t h e r t o .
I n t r y i n g t o e x p l a i n her f r e s h
- 315. ^
i n s i g h t she uses a v a r i e t y o f terms: 'oune chose', 'oune confiance', 'oun bonheur de I'ame', and more o r l e s s s u c c i n c t paraphrases c o n t a i n i n g images t h a t h o l d a w e a l t h o f meaning f o r her: 'quelqu'un de p i o u s f o r t que tous l e s salauds q u i nous o n t passe sour l e c o r p s . . . ' (T X, 182):
. . . Ouelqu'un devant q u i nous serons t o u j o u r s poures, i n n o c e n t e s , i n t a c t e s , quelqu'un q u i nous l a i s s e r a jamais tomber, quelqu'un q u i ramassera t o u t e s l e s c r a p o u l e s de l a t e r r e - o u i , meme t o n pere, meme oun F l o r e t , meme oune P e l a g i e , - e t q u i l e u r donnera l a meme amour q u ' i l donne a ses anges (T X, 182-183)
When
Andre i n t e r r u p t s her a t one p o i n t c r y i n g
o u t 'Donne-moi
t o n Dieu, L o l i t a ! ' , she r e p l i e s 'Je t e l e donnerai' (T X, 1 8 3 ) , b u t here Andre's use o f t h e possessive a d j e c t i v e i s s i g n i f i c a n t in
itself:
unnameable primarily
Lolita
has found
and p e r s o n a l
her passionately
sensed b u t
'Dieu'; she has n o t found,
or
not
a t l e a s t , t h e d i c t i o n a r y - d e f i n e d God o f t h e h i s t o r y
books o r t h e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e . 'Est-ce que t u n'as pas devine q u ' i l t e manquait, a t o i e t a
t o n a r t , une chose n e c e s s a i r e , inconnue, mais
q u i existe,
p o u r t a n t ? ' Therese asks M i c h e l i n Une V i e s e c r e t e (T I I I , 2 4 1 ) , but
even
when
she i s p r e s s u r i z e d by h i s s c e p t i c i s m
s p e c i f i c she cannot g i v e him an a l l - e m b r a c i n g ,
t o be
straightforward
d e f i n i t i o n . L i k e L o l i t a she has t o paraphrase:
THERESE, tombant brusquement a genoux devant l u i . . . Je n ' a i pas d ' o r g u e i l e t j e ne mens pas. Je s a i s ! Je s a i s que t u ne v i s pas t o u t e l a v i e ! Je s a i s q u ' i l y a a u t r e chose!
- 316 -
SARTERRE Pas. pour moi !
THERESE, avec une c o n v i c t i o n profonde I I y a a u t r e chose!
SARTERRE Pas en moi!
THERESE En t o i comme en t o u t e t r e humain! I I e x i s t e , au-dessus de nous, une v e r i t e . Je I ' a i t r o u v e e ! Je l a possede e t j ' e n v i s .
SARTERRE Tu as t r o u v e 1 ' i l l u s i o n creee par t e s d e s i r s .
THERESE, avec une c e r t i t u d e presque extatique J ' a i t r o u v e ce q u i me rend e t e r n e l l e .
(T I I I ,
241-242)
What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e about t h e above exchange i s , on t h e one hand, Therese's a b s o l u t e c o n v i c t i o n , which she i n s i s t s amounts t o knowledge r a t h e r than b e l i e f and, on t h e o t h e r , h e r concomitant
l a c k o f concern t h a t language f a i l s h e r when she
t r i e s t o express what she knows. I t i s t h e c e r e b r a l Michel i n s i s t s on i t s b e i n g nameable:
SARTERRE Nomme-le.
who
•- 317
-
THERESE A p p e l l e - l e ame, amour, i n f i n i , peu m'importe. J ' a i t r o u v e ce q u i e x a l t e ma c h a i r miserable e t ce q u i l a sauve. J ' a i t r o u v e ce q u i e f f a c e honte e t d o u l e u r , ce q u i ouvre l e grand e s p o i r . . . Si t u t e r e v o l t e s a u s s i furieusement c o n t r e c e l a . . . c'est que c e l a e s t d e j a dans t o n coeur.
(T I I I ,
242-243)
Therese c o n t i n u e s i n t h e same v e i n when she goes on t o prophesy Sarterre's
u l t i m a t e c o n v e r s i o n t o ' c e l a ' : 'Oui, p e u t - e t r e ,
jour . . . cela s u r g i r a - t - i l tu
diras:
(T I I I ,
"Cela
phenomena
We
. . . Cela f o n d r a sur t o i . . . e t
est
vrai...
Cela
seul
existe"'
243).
Given
can
seul
un
the
traditionally
God-like
attributes
of
the
L o l i t a and Therese d e s c r i b e t o Andre and M i c h e l ,
be no a c c i d e n t t h a t n e i t h e r o f them uses the word can o n l y surmise about why
i t
'Dieu'.
they should a v o i d doing so. I s i t
s i m p l y because each i s w e l l aware t h a t her i n t e r l o c u t o r i s
not
known f o r h i s p r o - C h r i s t i a n sentiments and i s l i k e l y t o j i b a t words
like
God,
C h r i s t o r Saviour? Are
they
unhappy
about
r e f e r r i n g t o t h e i r d i v i n e b e i n g u s i n g a word t h a t has become so hackneyed, impoverished that
and bland over the years through misuse
i t would seem t o t a l l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e ? Or,
through
their
experience
o f the ' I n e f f a b l e ' , have they r e a l i z e d t h a t H e / I t i s
ineffable
and t h a t i t i s f u t i l e t o t r y t o l a b e l
circumscribe or v e r b a l l y
and
verbally
t h a t which by i t s very n a t u r e cannot be
labelled
circumscribed?
There are s e v e r a l more h i n t s i n Lenormand's drama t h a t h i s characters
are
on
the
wrong t r a c k
in
trying
to
seek the
- 318 -,
' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' t h r o u g h t h e l i n g u i s t i c a l l y e x p r e s s i b l e . Even i f Laure o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes i s l e s s s u c c e s s f u l than her d r a m a t i c s i s t e r s , Therese S a r t e r r e and L o l i t a , and even i f she never f i n d s what she views, when beset by mental i l l n e s s , as a u t o p i c l o s t w o r l d , she senses t h a t a s p e c i a l language w i l l be used t h e r e :
II y a un monde p a r f a i t comme l a musique. Un monde ou chaque p a r o l e apaise comme un accord majeur... Mais c'est un monde perdu. I I nous faudra p e u t - e t r e des annees pour l e r e t r o u v e r . (T I V , 50)
Expressing hindrance tells
t h e i d e a t h a t words can sometimes be more o f a
than a h e l p i n comprehending
people.
Vera Z v i e r l o f
Michel S a r t e r r e 'Plus j e p a r l e avec vous, moins j e vous
comprends',
whereupon he r e p l i e s ' I I s u f f i t de
musique...'
(Une V i e s e c r e t e , T I I I ,
comprendre
ma
188). I n view o f such
a
statement and Michel's p r o f e s s i o n , h i s awareness t h a t music i s likely
t o be a s u p e r i o r i n s t r u m e n t f o r g r a s p i n g
and m e t a p h y s i c a l
i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g . A c c o r d i n g l y , a t t h e end o f
Une V i e s e c r e t e , words
i t i s he who i m p l i c i t l y makes t h e p o i n t
a r e i n c a p a b l e o f e x p r e s s i n g what so many
protagonists dead
the mystical
Vera
Therese
pardon...'
Lenormandian
seek t o capture v e r b a l l y . With r e f e r e n c e l y i n g b l e e d i n g on t h e mezzanine l a n d i n g ,
' I I faut (T I I I ,
que j e l u i p a r l e . . . 298).
Understandably,
t o the he
que j e l u i Therese
that
tells demande
assumes he
i n s i s t s on g o i n g down t o h e r and t r i e s t o calm him:
SARTERRE Laisse.... J ' a i t a n t a l u i d i r e ! . . . E t des p a r o l e s absolument f r a i c h e s , neuves!... Les p a r o l e s
- .319
q u ' e l l e v o u l a i t entendre... E l l e s m'emplissent t o u t a coup!... Je ne peux p l u s l e s r e t e n i r !
( I I se l e v e . )
THERESE, suppliante Reste i c i . . .
Ne descends pas.
SARTERRE, se d i r i g e a n t v e r s l a gauche Non, non... Son corps ne peut pas m'entendre. C'est a son ame, que j e veux p a r l e r . . . Et son ame... n'a pas b e s o i n de mots... Je v a i s l u i p a r l e r . . . mon langage a moi... E l l e comprendra... Laisse-moi seul avec e l l e . . . dans l e n o i r . . . E l l e comprendra...
( I I entre dans son cabinet de t r a v a i l . . .)
. . . (On entend . . . quelques accords sombres e t l e n t s , plaques sourdement sur l e piano . . .) . . . (La musique reprend; des accords plus c l a i r s , p l u s sonores, d'ou se degage ime phrase douloureuse, suppliante . . .)
THERESE . . . V o i l a deux ans que j e n ' a i r i e n entendu de p a r e i l . . . (. . . Les phrases sombres e t angoissantes du debut s e sont d e f i n i t i v e m e n t e c l a i r c i e s , en themes chaleureux qui n a i s s e n t , se perdent, r e n a i s s e n t , se developpent, s ' a m p l i f i e n t , s'exasperent.) I I e s t sauve!
FANERES Oui. La mort a f a i t de l a v i e . C'est t o u j o u r s l e meme m i r a c l e .
- 320 -
(. . . S a r t e r r e joue toujours, enivrement c r o i s s a n t . Toute pensee de maintenant absente de son improvisation. chant de v i e e t d'amour qui s'eleve, inspire.)
(T I I I ,
dans un mort e s t C'est un ardent e t
299-301)
In s p i t e o f the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f t h e i r e f f o r t s the majority of
Lenormand's m e t a p h y s i c a l l y tormented
characters
search
in
v a i n f o r t h e 'mot de I'enigme', w h i l e a few sense t h a t i t i s t o be found somewhere i n t h e m y s t e r i e s o f death and/or l o v e .
Only
one o r two c l a i m i n a dynamic and a p p e a l i n g way t h a t they
have
encountered
t h e ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' , b u t even they
cannot
supply
t h e m i s s i n g word and have no choice b u t t o t r y and d e s c r i b e t h e phenomenon that
using
words
vague and inadequate
a r e both
appreciation
useless
and
paraphrases. unnecessary
The for
o f t h e ' i n s a i s i s s a b l e ' i s no h e l p t o those
fact their who
cannot take such a P a s c a l i a n leap o f f a i t h . Almost
a l l t h e Lenormandian c h a r a c t e r s who would seem t o
come
close t o f i n d i n g the 'inexpressible', or claim that
have
done
treatment
so, a r e women, and
i n this
o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' search
inexpressible
can
be
said
to join
respect
tend
t o be female
and
Lenormand's
f o r the metaphysically up
unexpectedly
Bernard's 'pieces s e n t i m e n t a l e s ' . Although Bernard's protagonists
they
Lenormand's
with
principal male, and
a l t h o u g h r e l i g i o u s f a i t h o r t h e l a c k o f i t i s n o t an issue f o r Bernard's c h a r a c t e r s as i t i s f o r Lenormand's, both p l a y w r i g h t s suggest t h a t women have t h e advantage over men i n t h e g r a s p i n g
- 321 -
o f t h e m y s t e r i e s o f h e a r t o r s o u l . As E l l e t r i e s t o e x p l a i n t o Lui h e r c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' i s something which has t o be f e l t t h r o u g h t h e experience o f human l o v e r a t h e r than something one understands, words a p p r o p r i a t e l y f a i l h e r so she has r e c o u r s e t o a m u s i c a l image - t h e r e b y showing an a f f i n i t y w i t h Laure o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes and w i t h t h e Michel S a r t e r r e o f t h e l a s t two scenes o f Une V i e s e c r e t e :
. . . Quand j ' e t a i s e n f a n t , i l y a v a i t une chanson q u i m ' a p a i s a i t t o u j o u r s , j e ne s a i s pourquoi; e l l e n ' a v a i t pas grand sens... Eh b i e n , ce dont j e p a r l e e s t comme e l l e . . . Cela chante t o u t a coup... e t I'heure l a plus triste, l a plus decoloree s'eclaire
Tu ne I ' a s jamais entendue, n o t r e chanson a nous?... E l l e n'a pas grand sens, non p l u s . . . Seule, une femme peut sans doute 1'entendre
(Les Rates, T I , 45)
Here
Elle
expresses his
is illustrating
the
conviction
P i e r r e Garbin
i n Bernard's one-act p l a y . La Louise, when he
hostess t h a t she can understand t h e preciousness
tells
of
love
because she i s a woman:
Oui, vous, une femme, vous pouvez comprendre. Eux, i l s ne peuvent pas. l i s sont t r o p b r u y a n t s pour entendre ces choses mysterieuses. Vous, vous l e s sentez d i r e c t e m e n t . Pas b e s o i n d ' e x p l i c a t i o n . . . (T I I I , 239)
Most
of
Lenormand's
'inexpressible' counterparts,
male
discovered precisely
characters by
because
one o r they
fail two
to of
a r e so
find
their
the female
determined t o
- 322 -
encapsulate i t v e r b a l l y , f a i l i n g t o r e a l i z e t h a t , i n so f a r as it
can be
s a i d t o e x i s t , i t has t o be
p a r o l e s ' (Le Mangeur de Reves, T I I ,
felt
directly
'sans
253) and t h a t , a p a r t
from
s i l e n c e , music i s t h e o n l y medium i n which i t i s v i a b l e . W h i l s t it
might
be
an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o i n f e r from
this
that
woman
i n d i r e c t l y h o l d s t h e p l a c e o f honour i n Lenormand's t h e a t r e she
does
evidence
discreetly has been
i n Bernard's,
i t i s hoped
g i v e n i n the l a s t
two s e c t i o n s
chapter
and, i n these c l o s i n g remarks t o r e f u t e
Jones's
s e m i - d i s m i s s a l o f Lenormand's major female
bar or
that
as
enough of
this
Robert Emmet characters
'Ai'escha, Fearon, Vera, and t h e P r i n c e s s i n A s i e ' as ' f o i l s sounding
boards
f o r t h e men
i n whose
lives
they
372 participate'. drama,
characters
Jeannine for
372.
I n a genre as i n i m i c a l t o i r r e l e v a n c i e s such as Therese S a r t e r r e , E l l e ,
say t o o much w i t h too g r e a t a c l a r i t y
t h e i r speeches t o be w r i t t e n o f f so l i g h t l y .
H.-R. Lenormand, pp. 62 and 45.
and
as
Romee and conviction
- 323 -
CHAPTER 5
THE RELATIVE INEFFICIENCY OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION
- 324 -
The f i r s t two s e c t i o n s o f t h i s chapter are g i v e n over t o Lenormand's p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the d i s r u p t i v e r o l e played i n everyday communication by the average i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s largely unknowable, s p l i t and u n r u l y psyche. The t h i r d section, e n t i t l e d Oases o f communion, c o n s t i t u t e s a k i n d o f o a s i s w i t h i n the c h a p t e r , as i t t r e a t s o f c e r t a i n i s o l a t e d i n t e r l u d e s o f p a r t i c u l a r l y harmonious d i a l o g u e which are t o be found i n Lenormand's t h e a t r e . The f o u r t h s e c t i o n i s devoted t o the playwright's exposure o f the fundamental lubricity and i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f words, and the f i f t h t o a number o f general f a c t o r s which are shown t o make them s t i l l more u n r e l i a b l e as i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication. The focus o f a t t e n t i o n then s h i f t s t o Lenormand's d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e advantages and limitations of p a r a l i n g u i s t i c , non-verbal and indirect communication s i g n a l s . His i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the u n h e l p f u l n e s s o f e x p l i c i t honesty - i n so f a r as i t i s p o s s i b l e - i s discussed i n the f i n a l s e c t i o n .
1.
The unknown and unknowable s e l f and i t s a b i l i t y t o undermine communication Lenormand
wholly
makes i t c l e a r t h a t none o f h i s
characters
known o r knowable by o t h e r s o r h i m s e l f . The
o f Asie proves t h a t even the d r a m a t i s t ' s own comment
denouement regarding
de Mezzana, ' I I se connait e t s'exprime integralement', be t a k e n l i t e r a l l y forthright dealings
cannot
(T I X , 12). Had he known how v u l n e r a b l e h i s
n a t u r e and l i v i n g again as a European made with
is
c h a r a c t e r s o f the
Princess's
him
in
i l k , de Mezzana
would never have t a k e n the r i s k o f t r u s t i n g her.
- 325 -
Some ones who, ils
o f Lenormand's p r o t a g o n i s t s resemble t h e
Bernardian
i n t h e words o f Jean de Lassus, 'se d e v i n e n t a peine;
v o u d r a i e n t p o u r t a n t l i r e en eux-memes, mais sans se
faire
373 1'aveu de c e t t e l e c t u r e ' . self-deception. propre
'C'est
A few are aware o f t h e i r scope f o r singulier
l e peu qu'on
coeur', observes E l l e i n Les Rates
salt
de
(T I , 4 5 ) .
son
Through
o t h e r s , who are l e s s ready t o make such an admission, Lenormand demonstrates how those who t h i n k they know themselves w e l l be
may
t h e most deceived. L u i o f Les Rates, f o r example, makes
an
a n a l y s i s o f E l l e which i s more a p p l i c a b l e t o h i m s e l f : . . . Tout ce q u i v i t s'elance v e r s l a j o i e . . . T o i , j e ne s a i s q u e l obscur i n s t i n c t t ' e n e l o i g n e . . . On d i r a i t que t u as peur d ' e l l e e t qu'une f o r c e s e c r e t e t ' i n c l i n e v e r s l a t r i s t e s s e . . . Tu a s p i r e s a s o u f f r i r . . . Tu esperes sourdement l e malheur. (T I , 43)
' I l l u s i o n s ? Je ne m'en
s u i s jamais f a i t ' , Fearon t e l l s
i n M i x t u r e , 'Je me connais depuis t o u j o u r s ' (T V I I , from
the
f a c t t h a t she o m i t s t o mention here
the
Monique
179). Apart revelation
made t o her by Luc de Bronte e a r l i e r i n her l i f e , has she, wonders,
since
being
' e n l i g h t e n e d ' by him, she has r e a l l y become a more whole
human
being,
ever
stopped
t o ask h e r s e l f
whether,
one
or whether she has s i m p l y used her a c q u i r e d i n s i g h t
to
s h i f t t h e n a t u r e , ratheir than t h e s i z e , o f t h e imbalance i n her personality?
373.
I n L'Homme e t ses Fantomes
i t is
a
relatively
Jean de Lassus, 'L'inquietude f r e u d i e n n e dans l e roman e t l e drame f r a n g a i s contemporains', La Grande Revue, j a n v i e r 1927, p. 413.
- 326 -
humble
Luc de Bronte
who says w i t h r e g a r d
s o n t , l e p l u s souvent, peut-etre,
comme
t o mediums, ' l i s
dupes d'eux-memes, comme vous, comme moi
t o u t l e monde!'
(T IV, 99).
I n Le Mangeur
de Reves, however, the p s y c h o l o g i s t i s very much h i s own
dupe.
'Je I ' a i r e v e l e e a elle-meme. E l l e ne se c o n n a i s s a i t pas.
Elle
m'a
with
permis,
reference Jeannine
jadis,
de
lire
t o Fearon (T I I ,
en
elle...',
220), f u l l y
t h e same s e r v i c e . . I r o n i c a l l y ,
he
boasts
intending Fearon
to
render
and Jeannine 374
analyse Luc f a r more a c c u r a t e l y than he does them. However
s e l f - a n a l y t i c a l and l u c i d Lenormand's
.characters
a r e , they a l l miss something about themselves - very o f t e n t h e most c r u c i a l aspect - which becomes submerged o r overlooked
in
t h e l a b y r i n t h o f t h e i r mind, where i t n e v e r t h e l e s s a f f e c t s what they
do
and say, f r e q u e n t l y
communicate cases
impairing
their
attempts
to
e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e i r i n t e r l o c u t o r s and i n some
having
devastating
repercussions
on
their
personal
relationships. The
case
particularly
o f Jeannine Felse o f Le Mangeur de Reves complex
one f o r which
high
standards
is a of
375 psychological this of her way
analysis
are r e q u i r e d .
What i s
relevant i n
c o n t e x t i s t h e f a c t t h a t , a p a r t from her behaviour, Jeannine's words r a i s e q u e s t i o n s because as a unconscious mind was a f f e c t e d i n a
young
particularly
by an i n c i d e n t which she can no l o n g e r remember
374.
See pp. 301, 302 and 312.
375.
See p. 424.
many child
dramatic and which,
- 327 -
on some deep l e v e l o f h e r psyche, she does n o t want t o remember. As i n Bernard's Le Printemps des A u t r e s , we a r e allowed t o sample a l i t t l e of the resultant confusion o u r s e l v e s : s i n c e t h e key t o Jeannine's p s y c h o l o g i c a l problem i s n o t r e v e a l e d u n t i l halfway through t h e n i n t h and f i n a l Scene, the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a l l t h i s c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r says can o n l y be f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e d w i t h h i n d s i g h t o r on a second r e a d i n g / v i e w i n g of the play.
As e a r l y as t h e opening Tableau o f M i x t u r e we are l e f t no
doubt
woman
in
t h a t t h e strong-minded Monique i s n o t t h e s o r t o f
one might expect t o be duped by h e r own psyche, and y e t
she
i s - f o r y e a r s . The e x t e n t o f Monique's s e l f - d e c e p t i o n i s
thrown Act I
into
r e l i e f when one c o n s i d e r s how
she
complains i n
about h e r own mother's doing t o h e r what she
do, i n a p e r n i c i o u s l y s u b t l e way, t o Poucette. competent
understanding
starts
to
She even shows a
o f the psychological
process
in
question:
. . . C'est un besoin m a l a d i f , i n c o n s c i e n t , de me v o i r a sa m e r c i , de m'entendre p l e u r e r l a n u i t dans ma chambre, de me s a v o i r p r e t e au s u i c i d e . E l l e ne s'est jamais resignee a men bonheur . . . (T V I I , 9)
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t u n t i l Poucette opens h e r mother's and
w i t h them those o f t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r , we a r e almost
oblivious
as
motivations attitude we
eyes,
Monique i s h e r s e l f t o t h e i n s i d i o u s n e s s
underlying,
and
competing
with,
over c e r t a i n t h i n g s
o f the
h e r conscious
towards h e r daughter. P r i o r t o Poucette's
can o n l y muse v a i n l y
as
disclosure
Monique does and
- 328 -
says, t h i n g s which, on a second r e a d i n g o r v i e w i n g o f the t a k e on a new s i g n i f i c a n c e .
2.
play,
The d i s r u p t i v e r o l e i n the communication process o f a s p l i t and u n r u l y psyche Lenormand r e p e a t e d l y a f f i r m s t h a t the p e r s o n a l i t y o f every
human b e i n g i s n a t u r a l l y s p l i t i n t o two enmeshed d i v i s i o n s : h i s conscious known
self
t o him,
which i s more o r l e s s moral,
d i s c i p l i n e d and
on the one hand, and h i s unconscious s e l f
i s e s s e n t i a l l y amoral, u n r u l y and unknown t o him, This
i s the c e n t r a l theme o f M i x t u r e and,
which
on the
indirectly,
other. o f the
symbolic La F o l l e du C i e l , but i t i s a l s o a r e c u r r i n g l e i t m o t i v throughout pains
the Theatre complet. Lenormand would seem t o be a t
t o a i r the i d e a t h a t no one can c l a i m he i s
lacking i n
e i t h e r o f these two s e l v e s and t h a t every s a i n t i s a
potential
s i n n e r and v i c e v e r s a . I n L'Homme e t ses Fantomes Luc de Bronte t e l l s 1'Homme, 'Les d i a b l e s voix.
Et i l s
devenus e r m i t e s entendent aussi des
y c r o i e n t fermement, comme
lis
croyaient
aux
r e a l i t e s q u ' i l s e t r e i g n i r e n t avec t a n t de v i g u e u r , pendant l e u r carriere Une
diables'
(T IV, 98). S i m i l a r l y ,
i n Act I I I o f
Vie s e c r e t e Vera Z v i e r l o f t e l l s Michel S a r t e r r e ,
qu'a
present t u t'enivres
vices... and
de
'On d i r a i t
de tes remords, comme j a d i s
de t e s
Tu as change de p o i s o n . . . Mais t u es r e s t e l e meme',
e a r l i e r i n the same p l a y M i c h e l h i m s e l f m a i n t a i n s t h a t
mystiques force'
sont
(T I I I ,
des sensuels q u i se passent 285 and 231).
l a camisole
'les de
- 329 -
Whilst essentially attention undoubtedly
the emphasis i n Bernard's t h e a t r e i s on man as an w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d being,
i n Lenormand's
greater
i s p a i d t o the e v i l aspects o f h i s n a t u r e . This helped
t o f u e l the exaggerated
accusations
has made
376 a g a i n s t Lenormand o f pessimism and unwholesomeness. the
s t r e s s Lenormand places on the double-sided
human
personality
i s i n itself
a
nature o f t h e
as o p t i m i s t i c
p e s s i m i s t i c . As Fearon c o l o u r f u l l y puts i t , 'Bah,
However,
as i t i s t o u t l e monde
l e p i e d f o u r c h u . . . e t a u s s i l e s p e t i t e s a i l e s dans l e
(Mixture,
T V I I , 180). The wise Poucette a l s o knows
dos!'
that the
p u r e s t s t r a i n o f human l o v e may be t a i n t e d but i t i s not w h o l l y impure e i t h e r : MONIQUE Je c r o y a i s que 1'amour d'une mere pour son e n f a n t , c ' e t a i t comme de I'eau pure. Qu'on n'ose p l u s en p a r l e r devant moi.
POUCETTE Quel amour e s t comme de 1'eau pure, maman? Le t i e n a p o u r t a n t f a i t de moi ce que j e s u i s . C'est p o u r t a n t a l u i que j e d o i s d ' e t r e l a , t e l l e que t u a v a l s reve que j e f u s s e . Plus sage, t r o p sage, peut-etre.
(T V I I , 160)
Indeed, t h e f a c t t h a t ' t o u t ce q u i v i e n t des hommes e s t
double'
(La F o l l e du C i e l , T IX, 185) might n o t be such a g r e a t issue.
376.
See pp. 21-22
and 302.
- 330
if
human beings a t l e a s t r e a l i z e d t h a t they are a
conflicting
impulses and d r i v e s . T a l k i n g
mixture
of
t o Monique Leoncel,
Fearon sums up t h e problem i n h e r c r u c i a l speech i n M i x t u r e :
. . . I I y a de l a peau d'eveque autour des t r i p e s des m e u r t r i e r s e t des pensees de p u r i t a i n s dans l e s c e r v e l l e s des faux-monnayeurs. Dites-moi ce q u i n'est pas melange dans l e coeur de I'homme? A l l mixed up, my dear, e m b r o u i l l e , i n c o h e r e n t , comme l e s ondes de T. S. F. q u i se c o n t r a r i e n t dans I'orage. Je connais un j u g e q u i aime qu'on l u i v o l e ses calegons e t un c a p i t a i n e de pompiers q u i tremble de j o i e , quand l e f e u e s t m a i t r e . Oh, s i c ' e t a i t mechancete, t r a i t r i s e ou h y p o c r i s i e , a l l r i g h t ! But i t ' s worse! C'est l e c o c k t a i l , l a m i x t u r e , l a l i q u e u r jaune q u i coule dans l a v e r t e . . . e t 1'orange b i t t e r q u i v i e n t b r o u i l l e r l e t o u t . Cochons! l i s ne savent meme pas q u ' i l s sont m i x t e s ! l i s se c r o i e n t t o u t g i n ou t o u t s i r o p . Pouah! C'est pour c e l a q u ' i l s ne peuvent r i e n terminer, r e u s s i r , f a i r e . . . (T V I I , 108)
I n Lenormand's e a r l i e r p l a y , Le Mangeur de Reves, Fearon makes the e s s e n t i a l p o i n t concerning
man's d u a l i t y more simply:
. . . Les choses humaines sont doubles: l e s e t r e s sont a l a f o i s i n c o n s c i e n t s e t responsables, p l e i n s de s c r u p u l e s e t de c r u a u t e , de sagesse e t d'incoherence, de l o g i q u e e t de f o l i e . . . (T I I , 294)
The
f a c t t h a t t h e human animal i s n o t ' t o u t d'une
piece, - l a
b r u t e q u i v e u t l e b i e n , ou l a b r u t e q u i veut l e mal, - t h e r e a l beast' speaks its
( M i x t u r e , T V I I , 108) and t h a t a l l t o o o f t e n he a c t s and i n ignorance o f h i s d u a l i t y , l e t alone t h e minutiae complexities,
inevitably
has
repercussions
on
of the
communication process, f o r no one can ever be sure t h a t h i s own words
or
delivered
those by
o f h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r are being
their
'responsible,
scrupulous,
selected
and
sensible
and
l o g i c a l ' s e l f o r by t h e p a r t o f them which i s ' r e c k l e s s , c r u e l .
I
331 -
i n c o n s i s t e n t and c r a z y ' . Any c e r t a i n t y i n e i t h e r r e s p e c t i s o u t of
t h e q u e s t i o n s i n c e no i n d i v i d u a l can be f u l l y aware o f h i s
own
o r o t h e r people's deep u n d e r l y i n g m o t i v a t i o n s . I n
Fearon is
Mixture
may be Lenormand's ' p o r t e - p a r o l e ' as f a r as t h e
concerned,
b u t Monique's s u b t l y treacherous
theory
treatment
of
P o u c e t t e , e s p e c i a l l y as t h e g i r l reaches adolescence and
early
adulthood,
When
the
i s a b r i l l i a n t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the
scales
are removed from her eyes,
practice.
Monique
is
genuinely
appalled:
.S'imaginer qu'on a s a c r i f i e sa v i e au bonheur d'un e t r e e t d e c o u v r i r t o u t a coup qu'une bete e s t installee en vous, q u i p o u r r i s s a i t chacune de vos pensees, s a l i s s a i t v o t r e tendresse, empoisonnait v o t r e devouement! Quelle d u p e r i e ! (T V I I , 160)
Monique i s f a r from being t h e o n l y Lenormandian to
be
duped w i t h r e g a r d t o h i s o r
her
essential
character duplicity.
L o l i t a o f La Maison des Remparts i s unusual i n b e i n g aware t h a t she i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y s p l i t and f e e l i n g s t r a n g e l y o u t o f place as
a
consequence
consciously wholeness
or by
double-sided
(T X, 7 8 ) .
unconsciously
existing
on
Certain to
protagonists
achieve
one o f the
two
a
try
semblance
planes
p e r s o n a l i t y , u n n a t u r a l l y suppressing
of
of their
the o t h e r .
W h i l s t Michel S a r t e r r e o f Une V i e s e c r e t e , f o r example, goes t o great
lengths
t o s i l e n c e h i s conscience and
to
prevent i t s
being
awoken, Soeur M a r g u e r i t e o f Terre de Satan goes
opposite
extremes i n her a t t e m p t t o e f f a c e her 'animal'
Although
many
indifferent
o f Lenormand's c h a r a c t e r s are to,
their
intrinsic
t o the self.
unaware
o f , or
ambivalence,
life's
- 332 -
circumstances e v e n t u a l l y force the
issue.
rather
one o r two o f them t o
Then, w i t h v a r y i n g degrees
unconsciousness,
unacceptable
they
of
repress
confront
consciousness,
any
forbidden
or
emotion o r impulse, o f which they have been
aware, and r e p l a c e i t w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e , speaking and in
made
behaving
such a way t h a t t h e y puzzle c e r t a i n i n t e r l o c u t o r s who
become
used
non-verbal
to
quite different
verbal,
or
have
paralinguistic
and
communication s i g n a l s . The end r e s u l t c o n f i r m s
the
message i m p l i c i t i n Bernard's A l a Recherche des Coeurs, namely that
r e l a t i v e l y sudden, r a d i c a l developments
person's
self-awareness
or
or changes
self-expression
can
in
a
cause
377 communication d i f f i c u l t i e s i n themselves. When, feelings
i n Le Simoun, Laurency begins t o suspect
that
his
f o r h i s daughter are b o r d e r i n g on the i n c e s t u o u s ,
he
i s i r r i t a b l e and c o l d w i t h her and s t a r t s t o a v o i d her, none o f which
C l o t i l d e can understand because i t d i f f e r s so much
from
his
p r e v i o u s a t t i t u d e . Whereas the p r i v i l e g e d r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r ,
the
p e r s o n a l l y m o t i v a t e d Aiescha and the wise V e r i f i c a t e u r
able
to
make
paralinguistic
sense
and
more
or
less
rapidly 378
non-verbal s i g n a l s ,
the
of
are
Laurency's
sensitive
a r t l e s s C l o t i l d e i s t o o i n n o c e n t and too i n v o l v e d t o make
but such
a d i a g n o s i s . When she q u e s t i o n s her f a t h e r on the s u b j e c t , can
only
grope her way t h r o u g h h i s o v e r t
largely inaccurate conclusion:
377.
See pp. 202 and 218-219.
378.
See pp. 358-359.
reassurances
she to
a
- 333 -
S a i s - t u ce que j e pense, de temps C'est que t u ne veux p l u s s o r t i r avec t'ennuie.
en temps? moi... Je
C'est que t u e t a i s fache c e n t r e moi.
(T I I , 98)
Ah, j e s u i s c o n t e n t e ! . . . I I y a des moments ou t u as I ' a i r de t ' e n v o u l o i r a toi-meme.
(T I I , 99)
J'ai
compris,
maintenant!
Pourquoi, p a r i n s t a n t s , t u as I ' a i r de m'en v o u l o i r . . . C'est qu'a ces i n s t a n t s - l a , j e t e r a p p e l l e maman. Tu penses a e l l e . . . e t t u ne m'aimes p l u s !
(T I I , 101)
In
t h e course o f t h e f i r s t t w e l v e Tableaux o f L'Homme e t
ses Fantomes are
Lenormand makes i t c l e a r t h a t 1'Homme
sufficiently
good
f r i e n d s t o converse
and I'Ami
openly
w i t h one
another a t some l e n g t h . However, as soon as 1'Homme i s informed by Luc de Bronte t h a t one o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r q u i r k s o f h i s mixed psyche he that
stems from a l a t e n t and complex form o f homosexuality,
i s so r e p u l s e d by t h i s a c q u i r e d element
o f self-knowledge
he r e a c t s e x c e s s i v e l y a g a i n s t h i s p l a t o n i c
relationship
w i t h I'Ami, a v o i d i n g him w i t h o u t e x p l a n a t i o n . The end r e s u l t i s
- 334 -
an amicable, embarrassing breakdown o f communication between the b e s t o f f r i e n d s (T IV, 69-70). Unable t o apprehend what h i s f r i e n d ' s own psyche cannot come t o terms w i t h , I'Ami i s l e f t t o wonder, no doubt i n d e f i n i t e l y , why t h e r e can be no f u r t h e r d i a l o g u e w i t h 1'Homme.
3.
Oases o f communion There
are
individuals
no
more examples i n
Lenormand's
theatre
communicating p e r f e c t l y on a permanent basis
of than
t h e r e are i n Bernard's. Lenormand n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p l i e s , as does Bernard, t h a t where t h e h e a r t s o f t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r s i n q u e s t i o n are f o r whatever reason c l o s e l y i n tune, i n t e r l u d e s o f communion
are
paradoxically commune
p o s s i b l e and t h a t , d u r i n g these,
genuine
words
become
redundant. Although t h e times when h i s c h a r a c t e r s
in
this
k i n d o f harmony are l i m i t e d
in
length
f r e q u e n c y , t h r o u g h them Lenormand endorses Bernard's view
and that
a common e m o t i o n a l and n o n - l i n g u i s t i c code i s such an e f f e c t i v e key
to
successful
dialogue
t h a t i t can
break
communication b a r r i e r s , a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y . of
their
tete-a-tete i n
Le Cormier
and
Act IV Scene V I I
Soeur M a r g u e r i t e meet
down
other
At the b e g i n n i n g of
the
T e r r e de Satan same
sort
communication d i f f i c u l t i e s as Louis XIV and t h e Duchess
of
turned
379 postulant Le Cormier
i n Bernard's Louise de l a V a l l i e r e . recalls
that
whereupon
in
Africa
des
explains
t h a t hers ' f u r e n t des n u i t s de p r i e r e ' (T X, 302):
See pp. 201-202.
d'amour',
nights
'etaient
379.
nuits
his wife's f i r s t
Reminiscing,
Soeur M a r g u e r i t e
- 335 -
LE CORMIER C'est l a meme chose. (L'oiseau.) Ecoutez! I I dit: "Ma v o i x e s t douce. E l l e tombe dans l e s t e n e b r e s , comme de p e t i t e s g o u t t e s d'eau."
SOEUR MARGUERITE Non, i l d i t simplement: (S'appliquant en s y l l a b e s l e s t r i l i e s de I ' o i s e a u . ) dele-deko-deko-deko-deko.
a traduire Dele-dele-
(T X, 302)
Soeur M a r g u e r i t e soon begins t o hear the language o f the
birds
with
a l e s s p e d a n t i c b i a s , u n t i l she e v e n t u a l l y concedes, '(A
voix
tres
basse.)
Oui... Vous a v i e z r a i s o n . . .
Ce
sont des
p a r o l e s d'amour' (T X, 304). As t h e scene reaches i t s p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l c l i m a x , music and s i l e n c e e v e n t u a l l y take over as surely
as t h e y
do a t t h e end o f Bernard's
au Voyage, where the s e t t i n g and circumstances
L' I n v i t a t i o n
are n e v e r t h e l e s s
380 entirely
different: LE CORMIER
Le crapaud, de ses b u l l e s c l a i r e s , creve l a vase du m a r i g o t . I I d i t : "Dans l a boue, l a douceur. C'est de l a fange que s o r t ma v o i x pure."
( T O U S l e s o r i s de l a f o r e t s'elevent a l a fois, en un p u i s s a n t crescendo qui s ' a r r e t e brusquement e t apres l e q u e l on n'entend p l u s , t r e s l o i n t a i n , que l e barrissement de 1'elephant. Puis, silence. Brusquement, Soeur Marguerite s e cache l e visage dans l a p o i t r i n e de Le Cormier,)
380.
See pp. 90-92.
- 336 -
Peur?
SOEUR MARGUERITE Non... S i I'on n'a bu que de I'eau, peut-on d i r e qu'on e s t i v r e ?
LE CORMIER Mais o u i .
SOEUR MARGUERITE Alors, j e suis i v r e .
LE CORMIER Ma bien-aimee!
SOEUR MARGUERITE Je ne s a i s p l u s . . . ce q u i e s t moi,
( l i s r e s t e n t enlaces, un long moment, pendant lequel l a symphonie animale de l a f o r e t a t t a i n t de nouveau son paroxysme. l i s se separent dans l e s i l e n c e qui s u i t . . .)
(T X, 305-306)
This
interlude
wounded couple
i s c u t s h o r t by t h e a r r i v a l
Lady S u l l i v a n ,
o f the mortally
a l i a s Fearon, and t h e
next
time t h e
are alone t o g e t h e r t h e r e l i g i o u s abyss s e p a r a t i n g
i s foregrounded once
again:
them
- 337
LE CORMIER, pres d ' e l l e , avec douceur Je v o u d r a i s que vous ne pensiez p l u s a c e t t e malheureuse... n i a Gore-Gore... n i a Satan. (Avec une emotion profonde.) Je s a u r a i vous gagner a l a vie. Je s u i s p l u s f o r t que l e f i a n c e de v o t r e adolescence... Nous s o r t i r o n s d ' i c i , - e t j e ne vous q u i t t e r a i p l u s . (Penche au-dessus d ' e l l e avec une f o i et une d e c i s i o n i n e b r a n l a b l e s . ) Vous entendez? Quoi qu'il a r r i v e , n i Dieu, n i d i a b l e , j a m a i s , ne vous a r r a c h e r o n t de ces bras d'homme!
( I I s'apergoit q u ' e l l e q u ' e l l e e s t en o r a i s o n . )
a ferme
l e s yeux e t
(T X, 314)
4.
The fundamental h o l l o w n e s s , u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f words
and i n s u f f i c i e n c y
Although the r e l a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f v e r b a l is
demonstrated i m p l i c i t l y
communication
i n h i s p l a y s , Lenormand
i s better
a b l e t h a n Bernard t o h i g h l i g h t s p e c i f i c aspects o f the explicitly
as w e l l .
protagonists loquaciously
discuss than
This
i s because
t h e deeper
a
issues
number of
Bernard's and a r e l e s s guarded
problem of his
life
more
about
what
381 they say and t o whom. Nico Van Eyden o f Le Temps e s t un Songe s p e c u l a t e s on how r e l i a b l e words can be i n a f u n d a m e n t a l l y u n r e a l w o r l d : NICO . . . Sept e t t r o i s neuf.
381.
See pp. 272-273 and 361-364.
- 338 -
Dix,
MADAME BEUNKE monsieur Nico, d i x .
NICO Pourquoi pas neuf, ou douze?
MADAME BEUNKE, interloquee Sept e t t r o i s f o n t
dix...
NICO Demontrez-le?...
MADAME BEUNKE Mais...
NICO On ne peut pas. On ne peut meme pas demontrer que deux e t deux f o n t q u a t r e . Les nombres n ' e x i s t e n t pas. C'est une c o n v e n t i o n de l a pensee... Vos comptes ne s o n t pas r e e l s . Ce ne s o n t que des signes de choses mangees, hues, d i s p e r s e e s , d e t r u i t e s . Vos comptes s e r o n t t o u j o u r s f a u x , madame Beunke.
(T I , 231-232)
Prefailles shallow
o f A 1'Ombre du Mal
clearly
recognizes
and cosmetic words can be. He t e l l s Rouge
Le Cormier
that
how
and Madame
t h e y s h o u l d n o t c o n g r a t u l a t e themselves
on
h a v i n g l o s t t h e i r ' i d e a l ' : 'Par q u o i I'avons-nous remplace? Par des
paroles.
Mon
porteur... p o r t a i t '
(T IV, 168).
A
point
s i m i l a r t o P r e f a i l l e s ' s i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h i s f i n a l statement i s made
by t h e Russian, a minor c h a r a c t e r , i n Le Lache.
he i s drunk
a t the time,
he argues,
as
does
Although
Bernard's p l a y
-
Le Roy more
de Malousie,
339
that a plethora
o f words i s
t h a n an empty cover-up, the a c t i o n which
b e i n g obscured by v e r b o s i t y
sometimes really
no
matters
itself:
. . . Tous ces gens me repugnent, avec leurs p a r o l e s . . . Est-ce l a des hommes? Non, des gueules pleines de mots! L'homme d o i t a g i r . . . Moi aussi, depuis deux ans, j e ne f a i s que p a r l e r . P a r l e r et penser... Eh bien, j'en creve, entendez-vous, bavards? J'en c r e v e ! Je ne peux p l u s s u p p o r t e r les p a r o l e s , quand I'humanite danse au m i l i e u du f e u , sur l a t e r r e trempee de sang . . . ( T V , 116)
The one
m o b i l i t y o f t r u t h and
particular
discussed
moment may
by a few
the f a c t t h a t words
spoken
at
time
are
l o s e t h e i r v a l i d i t y over
Lenormandian c h a r a c t e r s . Rose o f
Chambres t e l l s P i e r r e one
day
t h a t scrupulously
Les
Trois
uncompromising
t r u t h f u l n e s s i s impossible:
Parce que l a v e r i t e n'est pas immobile: e l l e se deplace, e l l e change t o u t l e temps. Ce q u i e t a i t v r a i h i e r ne I ' e s t p l u s ce s o i r . Ce q u i est v r a i ce soir ne l e sera p e u t - e t r e p l u s demain. (T V I I I , 42)
After
Florence's
suicide
judgement on the s u b j e c t . inspired 'Je
me
by P i e r r e ' s
Pierre
to
accept
When i n Act I I I the g i r l who
'sincerite' tells
s u i s j u r e de d i r e t o u j o u r s
recommends t h a t she
comes
him
Rose's has
been
enthusiastically,
l a v e r i t e ' , Pierre
should not make such a f u t i l e
strongly
resolution:
Eh bien, moi q u i a i s o u f f e r t , ma vie durant, pour ce m o t - l a , j ' a i 1'impression que j e n ' a i jamais pu a t t e i n d r e l a chose. Un magicien I'escamote d'un coup de b a g u e t t e , chaque f o i s que j e vais la toucher . . . (T V I I I , 103-104)
- 340 -
A d i s t r a u g h t M i c h e l S a r t e r r e o f Une Vie s e c r e t e a l s o makes t h e p o i n t t h a t words cannot have any s t a b l e communication value, t h e t h i n g s they r e f e r t o b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y i n f l u x . Having analysed a t l e n g t h t h e e f f e c t h i s w i f e , Therese, has had on him, he concludes:
. . . Et t o u t ce que j e v i e n s de d i r e e s t p e u t - e t r e f a u x , comme t o u t ce que j e rumine depuis deux ans, comme t o u t ce que I'homme a jamais c r u s a v o i r s u r lui-meme. Les mots e v e i l l e n t l a pensee, q u i p r o d u i t d ' a u t r e s mots. La pensee e s t une ogresse q u i devore ses e n f a n t s . Penser, c'est m e t t r e des mots a l a p l a c e des mots. C'est n i e r ce que j ' a f f i r m a i s 1 ' i n s t a n t d'avant. A l o r s , que p u i s - j e c r o i r e ? J ' a i dit: "Therese m'a d e t r u i t , " E t s i j e n ' a i jamais eu de genie? S i j e ne s u i s qu'un nevrose? J ' a i d i t : "C'est l a conscience." Mais qu'est-ce que c ' e s t , l a conscience? . . . (T I I I , 273-274)
Lenormand f r e q u e n t l y presents words as b e i n g open t o such a v a r i e t y o f personal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s that t h e i r s t a b i l i t y o b j e c t i v e v a l u e are c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l i m i t e d . Using an
and
everyday
i n c i d e n t as a symbol and t h e judge o f La Maison des Remparts as his
' p o r t e - p a r o l e ' , Lenormand m e t a p h o r i c a l l y suggests n o t
t h a t modern man has u n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s h i f t i n g moral by
which
t o c h a r t h i s course b u t t h a t even
statements
cannot
yardstick
against
different uttering
interpretation
t o measure being
guidelines
the simplest o f
be t r u s t e d because t h e r e i s which
no
definitive
i t s significance,
possible
only
f o r every
speaker
it:
LE JUGE • . . (Huit heures sonnent.) H u i t n ' e s t pas I'heure de l a j u s t i c e .
heures.
a
Ce
- 341 -
(Huit heures, au plomb de l a cathedrale.)
FLORET Encore h u i t
heures.
LE JUGE A l a cathedrale, cette
fois.
(Huit heures sonnent successivement a d i f f e r e n t s endroits.)
FLORET Au s e m i n a i r e .
JLE
JUGE
Au couvent.
FLORET A I ' H o t e l de V i l l e .
LE JUGE Quand i l e s t h u i t heures a d i x h o r l o g e s , en d i x i n s t a n t s d i f f e r e n t s , i l n'est n u l l e p a r t h u i t heures. II n'est jamais h u i t heures. La l o i morale e s t devenue a u s s i i n c e r t a i n e dans l e coeur de I'homme, que I'heure, d e b i t e e en s o n n e r i e s , aux c l o c h e r s de l a ville.
(T X, 173-174)
This
point
i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n an e a r l i e r p l a y .
Fearon defends h e r c o n c e p t i o n o f j u s t i c e :
Mixture,
when
- 342 -
FEARON . . . S i l e s voleuses e t l e s p r o s t i t u e e s mettent au monde de p e t i t s anges de Noel, en chemise blanche, je prends mon browning e t j e me f a i s s a u t e r . I want some j u s t i c e !
MONIQUE Comment osez-vous prononcer ce mot-la?
FEARON Don't chose.
care
f o r t h e word! J ' a i besoin
de l a
MONIQUE Et pour vous, i l s e r a i t j u s t e que mon d e v i n t a u s s i mauvaise que moi?
enfant
FEARON J u s t e q u ' e l l e passe p a r l e s memes chemins que vous. V o i l a ! Mes p a r e n t s m'ont f a i t passer par tous l e u r s p e t i t s chemins a eux. Je n ' a i r i e n centre. C ' e t a i t j u s t e . Mais j e vous promets que s i j ' a i un e n f a n t , . . . i l passera p a r mes p e t i t s chemins a moi. Les memes. Et j e l u i apprendrai a passer gaiment, comme Fearon passe. Now, t h a t ' s justice. See?
(T V I I , 73)
Writing
with
the objectivity
o f the theatre
critic,
Gerard d ' H o u v i l l e p o i n t s o u t t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e opposite o f Rouge's souffert, jamais
'these'
i n A 1'Ombre du Mai:
'Une c r e a t u r e
ayant
i n s t r u i t e du malheur e t de l a peine peut s ' e f f o r c e r a d'epargner
a
autrui
les
souffranees
qu'elle
- 343
s u p p o r t s ' . 382
Kenneth Muir
-
also
draws
attention
to
the
383 'unexpressed
corollary
though
such
c l a r i f i c a t i o n s may
of
t h e p l a y because o f
context
t o the play's
theorem'.
be, they are the
Reassuring
blurred
principal
in
protagonist's
'maniere s i s u b t i l e de t o r t u r e r l e s f a i t s ' (T IV, 158). Rouge
would
lubricity
seem t o be a c h a r a c t e r t a i l o r - m a d e t o
o f words by showing how
they can be
the
Indeed,
prove
the
manipulated
to
j u s t i f y any argument. Although P r e f a l l i e s can sense b e t t e r than he
can
pinpoint
t h e f l a w s i n Rouge's
l a t t e r i s not e a s i l y Although exposure
there
c h a l l e n g e d or
i s nothing o r i g i n a l
source
compliant words.
about
the
a number o f
of
dramatic
sometimes
t h a t , a p a r t from being
dramatic i r o n y , they throw
into
relief
and p o t e n t i a l l y treacherous m a l l e a b i l i t y
of
Thus the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r o f Le Lache i s l i k e l y
disturbed
by
the
poignantly
the
Lenormandian
are such masters o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d and
u n e t h i c a l use o f ambiguous statements rich
logic,
facile.
of deliberate oral perfidy,
protagonists
perverted
b l a c k humour
of
some
a the
spoken to of
exchanges i n i t s f i n a l Tableau: JACQUES, au Monsieur en g r i s Je vous presente ma femme.
382.
Gerard d ' H o u v i l l e , 'A 1'Ombre du Mai', 27 J a n v i e r 1933, p. "5^
Le F i g a r o ,
383.
Kenneth Muir, 'The Plays o f Henri-Rene Lenormand', Proceedings o f t h e Leeds P h i l o s o p h i c a l and L i t e r a r y S o c i e t y ( L i t e r a r y and H i s t o r i c a l S e c t i o n ) , v o l . V I , P a r t V I , November 1948, p. 388.
be the
- 344 -
LE MONSIEUR EN GRIS, saluant largement Madame, nous avons, C h a r l i e r e t moi, m i l l e excuses a .vous f a i r e . Nous enlevons v o t r e m a r i .
CHARLIER, mecaniquement Oui,
c'est un v e r i t a b l e enlevement.
THERESE Ne vous excusez pas; mon mari e s t t r o p de se l a i s s e r f a i r e .
content
(T V, 212)
Other i n c i d e n t s o f t h i s k i n d are t o be found i n Act I I I o f Asie in
t h e P r i n c e s s ' s exchanges w i t h de Mezzana and t h e c h i l d r e n
before
and a f t e r she poisons t h e
latter
(T IX, 124-125 and
384 139-140).
A number o f examples c o u l d be c i t e d i n
Le Simoun 385
where Aiescha p l a y s c r u e l v e r b a l games w i t h double meanings. Apart
from i t s obvious u n d e s i r a b i l i t y , t h e f a c t
interlocutor's unhelpful that
conscious
spin-off:
motivations
may
be
evil
sometimes people a n t i c i p a t e
was never i n t e n d e d t h e r e b y making any chance
trouble-free Jacques
communication even more remote.
o f Le Lache
becomes convinced
d i s p a r a g i n g i n t e n t behind
384.
See pp. 355-356.
385.
See pp. 381-382.
everything
that
The
a
that
an
has
an
treachery
o f genuine fear-ridden
there
i s some
t h a t i s s a i d t o him.
He
- 345 -
detects
a
gibe
in
a
servant's
harmless
unconvinced by Therese's reassurances
(TV,
gossip
by
is
134-136).
The d i s r u p t i v e r o l e p l a y e d g e n e r a l l y i n t h e process
and
the d o u b l e - s i d e d n a t u r e o f man's
communication
personality
has
386 already the
been d i s c u s s e d .
way
Lenormand's t h e a t r e a l s o
t h e e s s e n t i a l i n e f f i c i e n c y o f words
as
hints
at
vehicles
meaning
i s exacerbated by t h e presence w i t h i n t h e psyche o f
network
of
m y s t e r i o u s d r i v e s and p u l l s , many
of
which
of a
seem
monstrous when c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e l i g h t o f moral awareness,
but
are i n t r i n s i c a l l y as i n n o c e n t as t h e i n s t i n c t s foregrounded the
animal kingdom, where t h e concepts o f ' r i g h t ' and
in
'wrong'
have no sense. The v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f such a psychic realm means that
in
some circumstances c e r t a i n words can l o s e
any
value
they might o t h e r w i s e have. By the end o f Scene IX o f Le Mangeur de Reves
two
statements
can
be
made
regarding
Jeannine:
firstly,
she drew a t t e n t i o n t o her mother i n the cave and
was
t h e r e f o r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the l a t t e r ' s a b d u c t i o n , p o s s i b l e rape 387 and/or
death; secondly, she i s i n n o c e n t o f any
Similarly, sense
when
However
words
like
'innocent' and
'coupable'
a p p l i e d t o B e a t r i c e Clomber
guilty
B e a t r i c e may
wrongdoing.
of
f e e l when she i s
make
little
L'Amour magicien. told
that
her
unconscious has been m a n i p u l a t i n g the s c e n a r i o o f her
trances,
A l b e r t knows t h a t 'on peut e t r e a l a f o i s coupable e t
innocent
•de ses crimes' (T V I , 101). 386.
See pp. 330-334.
387.
See pp. 423-424.
Although the denouement o f M i x t u r e
- 346
i s n o t t r a g i c , a s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e i s i n v o l v e d . Once l i g h t been
shed
on Monique's unconscious
motivations,
i t
i m p o s s i b l e t o g i v e simple answers t o s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d such
as
' Does
consciousness
Poucette
Monique
have
a
good
a
becomes
questions
mother?' .
has done her best t o be
has
In
a l l
solicitous,
c a r i n g , good mother, p r o t e c t i n g her daughter from t h e negative aspects
o f h e r own unwholesome
adult
life,
but i n
a l l
unconsciousness she has done much t o undermine any r e s u l t s thus achieved. The
failure
o f words
i n moments
o f great
emotion,
irrespective
o f how much they might be needed a t t h e time, i s
demonstrated
e f f e c t i v e l y and i m p l i c i t l y i n Le Simoun.
seconds of
In
f o l l o w i n g t h e f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n , i n t h e conscious
the mind
f a t h e r and d a u g h t e r , o f t h e former's i n c e s t u o u s p a s s i o n , t h e
emotions outburst,
aroused a r e so s t r o n g t h a t , a f t e r Laurency's a
charged
silence
and s e p a r a t i o n
initial
a r e t h e only
p o s s i b l e response:
LAURENCY, a l l a n t a e l l e Etends-toi l a . . . (D'une voix saccadee, i n c o n s c i e n t e . ) . . . J ' a i a t e p a r l e r , ma p e t i t e Yvonne ( I I l a prend dans s e s bras.) Yvonne!
CLOTILDE, epouvantee, s e derobant Pere!
LAURENCY, d'un accent f u r i e u x e t desespere Ah!... Va-t'en!... Mais v a - t ' e n done!
- 347
(. . . C l o t i l d e , r a i d i e d'horreur, e s t appuyee au mur, l a t e t e enfouie dans ses mains. Laurency, n'entendant p l u s Axescha, l e v a l e s yeux e t s e v o l t s e a l avec C l o t i l d e . Una s o r t a de panique honteuse l a s a i s i t . I I s a r a l e v e a t s o r t par l a gauche . . .)
(T I I ,
The
158-159)
i d e a t h a t c e r t a i n emotions f a r exceed t h e scope
linguistic
signals
i s supported by an exchange i n
of their the t h i r d
Tableau o f M i x t u r e . 'Enfin vous n'aimez q u ' e l l e au monde?' t h e young man has j u s t asked Monique w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o Poucette:
MONIQUE Aimer? Oui. Ce n'est pas un mot assez f o r t .
LE JEUNE HOMME Aimer, pas assez f o r t ?
MONIQUE On peut t r e s b i e n o u b l i e r , t r a h i r , d e t e s t e r ce qu'on aime. On peut v i v r e sans ce qu'on aime. Tandis qu'elle S i c'est de 1'amour, c'est un amour qu'on ne m'a j a m a i s donne. Et p u i s , j e n'aime pas beaucoup prononcer ce mot-la en pensant a e l l e . S u r t o u t maintenant. L'amour, pour vous a u t r e s . . .
(T V I I ,
36-37)
The theme r e c u r s i n La F o l l e du C i e l , when t h e h u n t e r t e l l s t h e seagull
t h a t he adores h e r 'bien p l u s que l e s mots ne peuvent
l e l u i f a i r e comprendre':
LA MOUETTE Les dire?
mots
des hommes ne peuvent done
pas
tout
- 348 -
LE CHASSEUR
cri
Non. E t moins encore, p e u t - e t r e , que l e de l a mouette amoureuse.
simple
LA MOUETTE Ne reve p l u s a ces o r i s barbares. mots de t o n amour.
Cherche l e s
LE CHASSEUR Flamme, - v i n , - s o l e i l . . . E t non, l a flamme s ' e t e i n t , 1 ' i v r e s s e passe, l e s o l e i l d i s p a r a i t . I I n'y a pas de mots. Ou b i e n , s i pauvres que t u en rirais.
(T
5.
I X , 171-172)
General f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o poor communication It
was n o t e d
above how, a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e evidence o f
Bernard's t h e a t r e , c e r t a i n g e n e r a l f a c t o r s e i t h e r c o n t r i b u t e t o faulty
and a b o r t i v e
communication
or f a i l
noticeably
to
388 help.
Lenormand's
substantiates drawn
drama
neither
challenges nor g r e a t l y
t h e c o n c l u s i o n s Bernard's p l a y s suggest
can be
i n t h i s r e s p e c t , a l t h o u g h i t supports and complements
a
number o f them. The i m p o s s i b i l i t y i n t h i s l i f e o f l a s t i n g harmony p e r f e c t l y matched male and female soulmates, which i s in
Bernard's
L'Ame en p e i n e ,
also
finds
Lenormand's symbolic f a n t a s y La F o l l e du C i e l .
388.
See pp. 198-211.
between conveyed
expression i n
- 349 -
The
p r i n c i p a l p e r s o n a l i t y d i s t i n c t i o n shown t o
communication between
d i f f i c u l t i e s i n Bernard's t h e a t r e ,
t h e pragmatic
realists
on
t h e one
aggravate
namely hand
that
and t h e
389 i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n a r i e s on t h e o t h e r ,
i s i n evidence i n t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between de Mezzana and t h e Princess i n Asie. I t i s a l s o touched on i n La Maison des Remparts, where i t i s overcome in
one
particular
case w i t h t h e h e l p o f a
affection.
Just
understand
Francine's
cannot,
as
Michel
o f Bernard's
special
bond o f
Nationale 6
imaginative discourse
whilst
can Elisa
J u l i e i s t h e o n l y inmate o f t h e 'maison des remparts'
who can tune i n t o L o l i t a ' s c o l o u r f u l images, f a n t a s t i c and dream-infused
symbols
language: LOLITA
est une brune de v i n g t - c i n q ans, dont l e t y p e , 1'accent, l e s manieres, revelent 1'origine sud-americaine. Son langage a t sa personne degagent une poesie i n c o n s c i e n t e que ses compagnes p e r g o i v e n t dans l a mesure ou e l l e s s e n t a c c e s s i b l e s a l a v i e du r e v a . Car L o l i t a r a v e sa v i e e t 1'image q u ' e l l e en t r a c e , dans son f r a n g a i s i n c o r r e c t , seme de mots espagnols, donne p a r f o i s a Cora, a P a u l e t t e , a Maggie, 1'impression q u ' e l l e e s t f o l l e . La mere Bunel I'aime, sans chercher a l a comprendra. Seule, J u l i e , qui l a defend t o u j o u r s c e n t r e l e s moqueries de ses camarades a t l u i a voue une profonde t e n d r e s s e , presque m a t e r n e l l e , l a comprend a demi-mot.
(T X, 72-73)
Reference religious
389.
has
outlooks
See p. 205.
already which
been
made
separate
t o the
conflicting
Le Cormier and
Soeur
- 350 -
390 Marguerite
o f T e r r e de Satan.
socio-economic aggravate
c u l t u r a l differences
communication
relatively
minor
highlighted theatre.
and
However, t h i s and which
the
are
shown
d i f f i c u l t i e s i n Bernard's
compared
exclusively
w i t h the
in
racial
Lenormand's
Lenormand s t r e s s e s - even t o a
ones
more
other to
plays
are
which
are
international
somewhat
exaggerated
degree - t h e problems t h a t can a r i s e between i n t e r l o c u t o r s from two
different
r a c e s , problems which are n o t
related
to
any
incompetence i n t h e speaking o f t h e r e l e v a n t f o r e i g n
language.
Lenormand
marriages
between
would East
offspring
have
such
mixed
Although
European
des Remparts
that
and West are u n l i k e l y t o succeed
of
unbalanced.
seem t o be a t p a i n s t o argue
and and
unions
both L o l i t a Indian blood
T e r r e de Satan,
tend and in
to
and
be
that
the
erratic
and
Lady (Fearon) S u l l i v a n their
veins
(La Maison
T X, 90, 92 and 246),
the
o u t s t a n d i n g example i s t h e e x p l o s i v e Aiescha o f Le Simoun, 'une metisse
d'Arabe e t d'Espagnol'
V i n c e n t de Mezzana would
seem
hybrid of
in
(T I I , 4 1 ) . As
A s i e , even i n t h e i r
t o s u f f e r more from t h e
for
short
disadvantages
J u l i e n and lives of
having
parentage t h a n from any p o t e n t i a l advantages. I n
Lenormand's
international
tendency
to
labour
certain
they
spite
arguments
aspect o f h i s drama i s one o f t h e most
the
original
and i n t e r e s t i n g ways i n which i t complements Bernard's work. major and 390.
p o i n t , f o r example, which i s made i n n o t i n Bernard's See pp. 334-337.
i s the f a c t
Lenormand's
t h a t any meaning
A
plays
words may
- 351
have i n a g i v e n c o n t e x t can be i m p a i r e d also
n o t o n l y over time b u t
over space. P r e f a l l i e s complains t o Rouge about t h e f a c t
t h a t c e r t a i n words 'perdent l e u r p o u v o i r . . . avec l a d i s t a n c e ' , t o use t h e P r i n c e s s ' s words i n Asie (T IX, 60):
A q u o i voulez-vous c r o i r e , apres quinze ans d ' A f r i q u e e t au s o r t i r de c e t t e etuve? ( I I designe l a f o r e t . ) C i v i l i s a t i o n ? Humanite? L u t t e c e n t r e la b a r b a r i e ? Ce s o n t des mots t e l l e m e n t p l u s jeunes que I ' a i r ou i l s resonnent! La-bas, autour d'un t a p i s vert, dans l e s c o n s e i l s d'administration, i l s voulaient d i r e quelque chose. I c i , devant ces a n t i q u e s c h a r n i e r s vegetaux, i l s deviennent aussi o b s c u r s , a u s s i m y s t e r i e u x que l e c r i d'appel de I'aranran . . . (A 1'Ombre du Mai, T IV, 167)
Of
course, i t i s n o t e s s e n t i a l l y
t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e two
c o n t i n e n t s which has eroded t h e meaning o f p a r t i c u l a r words f o r P r e f a l l i e s ; t h e d i s t o r t i o n i s due r a t h e r t o t h e p h y s i c a l e f f e c t of
A f r i c a ' s g e o g r a p h i c a l landscape and t o r r i d c l i m a t e
on h i s
own p e r s o n a l i t y and t h a t o f h i s fellow-Europeans. He goes on t o say t h a t he and o t h e r c o l o n i a l i s t s ought t o be l i v i n g f o r words such as ' c i v i l i z a t i o n ' and 'humanity' b u t can no l o n g e r do so:
. . . I I f a u d r a i t p o u r t a n t v i v r e pour ces m o t s - l a . . . Je conviens q u ' i l l e f a u d r a i t . Seulement, nous n'en sommes p l u s capables. Ce pays e f f a c e tout. A f r i q u e : ga v e u t d i r e l a N o i r e , 1'Obscurcissante. Le p r o g r e s , l a bonte, l a j u s t i c e meme, pour beaucoup d ' e n t r e nous, ce s o n t de beaux s o u v e n i r s , des s o u v e n i r s d'Europe. (T IV, 167)
6.
P a r a l i n g u i s t i e , n o n - v e r b a l and i n d i r e c t communication s i g n a l s : t h e i r advantages and l i m i t a t i o n s Although t h e r o l e o f p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s
i n t h e communication process i s brought i n t o g r e a t e r r e l i e f Bernard's
drama,
Lenormand's
theatre
demonstrates
in
how some
- 352 -
accurate p e n e t r a t i o n o f innocently o r m a l i c i o u s l y erected fagades o f 'dialogue entendu' i s p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h s e n s i t i v e and c a r e f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e unspoken expressed.
Madame Le Cormier
o f A 1'Ombre du Mai does
n o t expect
Rouge's words t o e n l i g h t e n her about him d i r e c t l y and r e a l i z e s that
they
may be p o s i t i v e l y m i s l e a d i n g .
communicate following sceptical
himself exchange
t o her i n less she e x p l a i n s
She l e t s
obvious
ways.
the
man
In
the
her conclusions t o her
husband:
MADAME LE CORMIER, cherchant s a pensee Ses d u r e t e s sont comme une reponse... une reponse v o l o n t a i r e m e n t excessive a quelque injure s e c r e t e . I I e t a i t surement - i l e s t encore p a r f o i s capable de b o n t e .
LE CORMIER Lui?
MADAME LE CORMIER L'autre j o u r , i l r e v e n a i t des p l a n t a t i o n s , e p u i s e , f i e v r e u x , j u r a n t apres l e s n o i r s . Quand i l a vu que j e l u i p r e p a r a i s des boissons f r a i c h e s , une espece d'emotion s u b i t e s'est emparee de l u i . I I p l e u r a i t presque, en me r e m e r c i a n t .
LE CORMIER Oui. Les p l u s rudes eux-memes.
s'emeuvent
aisement s u r
MADAME LE CORMIER Je s a i s que sa rudesse n'est qu'une defense, une c u i r a s s e q u i a son p o i n t f a i b l e . Je s a i s qu'on peut I'atteindre.
- 353 -
LE CORMIER Je ne partage pas t e s i l l u s i o n s .
(T IV, 135)
With
h i n d s i g h t one can argue t h a t Le Cormier i s r i g h t
judgement
and Madame Le Cormier
Le Cormier's understanding
caution of
proves
Rouge
wrong.
wise,
gleaned
However,
h i s wife from
in
although
has a
what
his
good
he
'says'
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and n o n - v e r b a l l y . Her l e t h a l mistake
i s not
a
account
communication e r r o r ; she s i m p l y f a i l s t o take
that
while
into
she i s t r y i n g t o reach t h e s e n s i t i v e
Rouge, 'ses
d u r e t e s ' c o n t i n u e t o wreak havoc. In
t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t a n c e , i t i s not Lui's
words
r e a l l y h e l p E l l e and t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r t o understand
which him:
LUI I I n'y a pas un bonheur humain q u i ne s o i t sur l e dos d'une bete au visage repugnant.
bati
ELLE On d i r a i t que t u prends p l a i s i r a t e a t'abaisser.
calomnier,
LUI Bah! q u i done a u r a i t surmonte t o u t e espece de s o u f f r a n c e e t d ' o r g u e i l , s i n o n une c r a p u l e comme moi!
ELLE
Tu d i s c e l a , mais t u p l e u r e s !
(Les Rates, T I , 92)
- 354
The
seagull
i n La F o l l e du C i e l d e t e c t s
any l i e s t h e
h u n t e r might t e l l h e r by'paying c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s eyes:
LA MOUETTE . . . Tu me h a i s a u t a n t que l e v i e i l l a r d , l a jeune f i l l e q u ' i l d e s i r e sans p o u v o i r l a posseder.
LE CHASSEUR Tu deraisonnes. Pres de t o i , j e r e t r o u v e l a douceur d ' a u t r e f o i s , l a meme, c e l l e des s o i r s de tendresse dans l a cabane, pendant l a tempete...
LA MOUETTE, 1'interrompant Tu as ferme l e s yeux pour m e n t i r .
LE CHASSEUR Moi? J ' a i ,
(T I X , 219)
At
the beginning
touches
briefly
ofhis relationship
with
Laure,
on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f eye c o n t a c t
1'Homme as an
e f f e c t i v e means o f p e r s o n a l communication:
Quand l a phrase du debut e s t revenue pour l a deuxieme f o i s , j e s a v a i s que vous me r e g a r d i e z . J ' a i l e v e l e s yeux: j ' a i t o u t de s u i t e r e n c o n t r e l e s v o t r e s . . . Nous nous p a r l i o n s d e j a . Et au f o y e r , quand j'ai p r i e Luc de Bronte de me p r e s e n t e r a vous, i l m'a semble qu'un d i a l o g u e , e t o u f f e depuis deux heures, c o n t i n u a i t a v o i x haute e n t r e nous. (L'Homme e t ses Fantomes, T I V , 22)
- 355 -
In
L'Amour magicien
i t i s a gesture
which
betrays t h e
v a n i t y o f a male-conscious B e a t r i c e :
FERNANDE A l l e z done vous coucher. Mademoiselle. Je vous o b s e r v a i s pendant l e d i n e r . Vous me f a i s i e z de l a peine.
BEATRICE, i n s t i n c t i v e m e n t , touchant son visage J'etais laide?
(T V I , 33)
In
the thirteenth
questions
Clotilde
Tableau o f Le Simoun,
about
the tortoise,
when
Aiescha
the g i r l ' s
clumsy
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s make i t c l e a r t h a t she i s not
a
practised
reader/spectator
l i a r and c o n f i r m her
i n t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n t h a t she i s a
i n n o c e n t c r e a t u r e (T I I , In
interrogator
and t h e genuinely
154-155).
L'Homme e t ses Fantomes
Lenormand
touches
on t h e
communicative importance o f t e l e p a t h y , w i t h o r w i t h o u t the a i d o f p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s . A l b e r t e i s c l e a r l y
a
g r e a t b e l i e v e r i n i t , as she e x p l a i n s t o 1'Homme:
Je ne c r o i s pas aux p a r o l e s . On v i t avec peu de p a r o l e s , chez nous a u t r e s . Mais on entend l e s pensees de ceux qu'on aime. Tout a I ' h e u r e , dans l e s i l e n c e , j ' a i entendu t e s mechantes pensees . . . (T IV, 13)
The
l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s kind o f i n t u i t i o n ,
however, a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d i n Tableau IX o f Asie. The P r i n c e s s ' s statements 'a
- 356 -
double sens' are i m p e n e t r a b l e t o de Mezzana, even though he senses t h a t h i s d i a l o g u e w i t h h e r i s i n some way a d u l t e r a t e d :
( . . . On entend l e chant des r e l i g i e u s e s . )
LA PRINCESSE E l l e s s o n t heureuses... E l l e s o n t une demeure... Et r i e n de t e r r i b l e ne l e s a t t e n d .
Ne t'occupe pas de mes s o u f f r a n e e s . p r e n d r o n t f i n avant l e s t i e n n e s .
Je faire.
Elles
n ' a i b e s o i n de personne pour ce q u i r e s t e
a
(Un s i l e n c e . Sans e v e i l l e r l e s soupgons de Mezzana, l e s reponses a double sens de l a P r i n c e s s e ont determine en l u i une vague inquietude . . .)
(T IX, 124)
The
communicative
power
o f understatement
and
verbal
containment
i s w e l l conveyed i n a number o f p l a y s , b u t i t
also
t o be
shown
sensitivity
proportionate
t o t h e p e r c e p t i v e n e s s and
o f the i n t e r l o c u t o r s i n question.
The informed
r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r o f t h e f o u r t h Tableau o f Les Rates cannot f a i l
is
- 357 -
to f i n d both meaningful and humorous t h e uncomplaining r e s i g n a t i o n w i t h which the hungry and p e n n i l e s s L u i and E l l e watch Larnaudy c a s u a l l y e a t , as a stage p r o p e r t y i n a r e h e a r s a l , t h e c h o c o l a t e which was v i r t u a l l y t h e i r only remaining f o o d . S i m i l a r l y , t h e s i l e n t s u f f e r i n g o f Florence, and l a t e r Rose, i n Les T r o i s Chambres has i t s own eloquence. With r e g a r d t o h e r husband's nascent l i a i s o n w i t h Rose, Florence's c o o l l y d e l i v e r e d statement 'J'aime mieux que t u ne r e n t r e s pas i c i en s o r t a n t de chez e l l e ' (T V I I I , 37) may be r e s e r v e d and m a t t e r - o f - f a c t , b u t volumes l i e beneath i t . I n h i s review o f Les T r o i s Chambres Frangois Porche comments on t h i s ' s o r t e de r h e t o r i q u e du s i l e n c e , chaque mot e t a n t bourre d ' i n t e n t i o n s e t comme courbe sous l e poids des sous-entendus':
L'electricite dont, a u t r e f o i s , I ' o n c h a r g e a i t l a tirade, voici maintenant qu'on entreprend de I'accumuler en qi^^^ques s y l l a b e s . Par exemple, quand madame Cor.ciade, e t i r a n t ses bras nus, s o u p i r e : 'Je s u i s b r i s e e ' , a nous de s a i s i r , puisque I ' a u t e u r n'en d i t pas p l u s l o n g , que t o u t e s l e s b l a n d i c e s e p u i s a n t e ^ g ^ d'une nuit d'amour sont par l a evoquees.
Alfred Mortier's
reasons
f o r considering
Les Rates
a
'chef
d'oeuvre' a r e a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h i s c o n t e x t :
391.
Renee Corciade, t h e a c t r e s s who c r e a t e d the p a r t o f Rose.
392.
Frangois Porche, 'Le Mouvement dramatique: Les T r o i s Chambres', La Revue de P a r i s , 1 a v r i l 1931, p. 691.
358
-
II f a u t l e l i r e d ' a i l l e u r s , car j e ne p u i s analyser ici ce q u i n ' e s t pas analysable, c'est-a-dire l a senteur de l a v i e , de l a v i e i n t e n s e , fremissante, acre e t profonde, p l e i n e de larmes q u i ne coulent pas, marquee a u s s i de ce grotesque a f f l i g e a n t q u i entoure t o u t e douleur humaine e t s'y mele. Et t o u t c e l a evoque en quelques phrases, p a r f o i s en quelques mots, suggere, a peine i n d i q u e quelquefois - et p o u r t a n t d e f i n i t i f comme ces dessins, ces esquisses des m a i t r e s ou l e b r e f appui du crayon j e t e au bon e n d r o i t en d i t ^ g ^ u s qu'un immense t a b l e a u p r o l i x e e t grandiloquent.
Le Simoun r e v o l v e s around the development o f a and
one-sided
heart-to-heart considered T II,
love,
conversation
with
but, the
although
nowhere
is i t explicitly
reactions - to
expressions, Agha's
p r o p o s i t i o n , f o r example - which sooner or l a t e r t e l l
Aiescha,
discerning
instinctive
Words,
the
the
and
be
(Tableau X I I ,
verbalized.
are n o t needed. I t i s Laurency's f a c i a l
gestures,
Laurency's
V e r i f i c a t e u r can
a g i a n t c i r c u m l o c u t i o n o f the s u b j e c t
134-141),
however,
incestuous
passionate
V e r i f i c a t e u r and
the
reader/spectator
f a l l i n g i n l o v e w i t h the image i n c a r n a t e
that
Laurency
is
of
his
deceased
French w i f e . S i m i l a r s i g n a l s keep us informed o f
his
p s y c h o l o g i c a l j o u r n e y as he g r a d u a l l y becomes aware t h a t he
is
i n l o v e w i t h h i s daughter. Lenormand a l s o knew very w e l l t h a t , although t h e i r c o r r e c t interpretation remarks made
393.
i s a n y t h i n g b u t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , mistakes 'en passant'
can
sometimes
and
give c r u c i a l verbal
A l f r e d M o r t i e r , Quinze ans de t h e a t r e (1917-1932) ( P a r i s , A l b e r t Messein, 1933) p. 95.
- 359
clues
to a
helpful
c h a r a c t e r ' s subjacent
dialogue.
A
particularly
s l i p o f t h e tongue occurs i n Le Simoun the f i r s t
Laurency a c c i d e n t a l l y skilful
delineation
demonstrates
time
c a l l s C l o t i l d e Yvonne (T I I , 100). I n h i s o f h i s characters i n
Les Rates
t h e importance i n the communication
Lenormand
process o f
a p p a r e n t l y i r r e l e v a n t comments. I n Tableau V I I the duegne, t h e ingenue,
Larnaudy,
Elle
and L u i
tell
any
attentive
i n t e r l o c u t o r s and t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r much about themselves i n t h e i r spontaneous
r e a c t i o n s t o the c a t h e d r a l window:
LA DUEGNE, une v i e i l l e cabotine, deteinte, usee e t maternelle . . . T i e n s , regarde v r a i v i e u x , ga, ma f i l l e !
la verriere...
C'est du
L'INGENUE Je m'en f o u s , de t a v e r r i e r e !
(T I , 73-74)
LARNAUDY . . . (Regardant l a v e r r i e r e . ) I I e s t b i e n , l e u r v i t r a i l . . . Un peu sombre... S i on me donne l e l o c a l , j e f o u t r a i une p r o j e c t i o n rouge par d e r r i e r e . . . Hein, ga en aura une gueule?
(T I , 76-77)
ELLE, a v i s a n t l a v e r r i e r e Oh, regarde l a b e l l e
verriere!
- 360
LUI Oui. E l l e e s t b i e n moins obscure que l e s v i t r a u x du choeur.
ELLE I I y a un rayon q u i l a t r a v e r s e .
LUI
Comme on e s t p a l e , la-dessous...
(T I ,
77-78)
Indirectly
b u t s u r e l y , t h i s l a s t exchange
highlights
Elle's
optimism and L u i ' s sombre s t a t e o f mind. The way i n which t h e subconscious and unconscious of
t h e human
paralinguistic, is
also
on
the effectiveness
n o n - v e r b a l and i n d i r e c t communication
illustrated
convincingly changed
psyche i n e v i t a b l y l i m i t
L u i may account
i n Les Rates. t e l l Elle that o f her f r e s h l y
However
his attitude made
of
signals
sincerely
and
has n o t
confession,
reassurances a r e i n v a l i d a t e d t o some e x t e n t by h i s comment
elements
i n t h e opening speech o f Tableau V I
and
his
involuntary much
more
o b s c u r e l y by h i s n e x t ' r e p l i q u e ' :
A l i e n s , t u as assez p l e u r e . . . S i t u c o n t i n u e s , t u ne p o u r r a s pas t ' e n d o r m i r . . . Le t r a i n p a r t a sept heures; i l ne t e r e s t e p l u s que t r o i s heures de sommeil. Couche-toi... (Elle sanglote.) Sois r a i s o n n a b l e . Quand t u t e r e n d r a i s malade, quand t u t e donnerais l a m i g r a i n e pour deux j o u r s , e s t - c e que c e l a c h a n g e r a i t q u o i que ce s o i t ? Va, que t u p l e u r e s ou que t u dormes, r i e n de ce q u i s'est passe ne p o u r r a jamais e t r e e f f a c e . ( E l l e sanglote plus f o r t . ) Non, non; ce n'est pas ce que j e v o u l a i s d i r e . . . Je n ' a i pas v o u l u t e c h a g r i n e r . . . J ' a i d i t ga betement, pour d i r e quelque chose!
- 361 -
Que
Qu'est-ce que t u v o u d r a i s ? . . . Que j e j e t e b a t t e ? . . . Ma pauvre f i l l e . . .
t'injurie?
(T I , 66-67)
Lui
c l e a r l y c o n s i d e r s h i s own r h e t o r i c a l
questions
regarding
i n s u l t i n g and b e a t i n g E l l e r i d i c u l o u s , but i n view o f the
fact
t h a t t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what he ends up doing i t i s obvious
that
they are much more s i g n i f i c a n t than they i n i t i a l l y appear. Such an
example
reflects
the
belief
that,
in
the
words
of
Daniel-Rops, 'une phrase q u e l l e q u ' e l l e s o i t , du moment q u ' e l l e est
prononcee
obligatoire,
par
un
homme, c o n t i e n t une
part
de
e t souvent de v e r i t e p l u s v r a i e que ne
verite
soupgonne
394 c e l u i q u i l a prononce. De meme un geste accompli'.
This k i n d
of
cool
and
to
the
analysis,
objective
however,
is
only
possible
in
the
l i g h t o f h i n d s i g h t . I t i s no p r a c t i c a l h e l p
o b l i v i o u s L u i and E l l e a t t h e t i m e . 7.
The d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f a b s o l u t e Fagades
of
'dialogue entendu'
honesty are l e s s
in
Lenormand's t h e a t r e than they are i n Bernard's.
evidence
in
This i s l a r g e l y
because
a number o f Lenormandian p r o t a g o n i s t s make a p o i n t
of
tearing
and
do
394.
keeping
such screens down.
Bur l e Theatre de H.-R.
Lenormand, p.
Although they can
136.
- 362 -
nothing be
about those they p u t up unconsciously,
ruthlessly
honest
about
facts
they s t r i v e t o
and f e e l i n g s
and
often
395 encourage
others
Chambres
asks
t o be t h e same. Pierre
i f he t e l l s
When
Rose
o f Les T r o i s
h i s wife,
Florence,
' r e e l l e m e n t t o u t e l a v e r i t e ' , he c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e p l i e s , la
'Toute
v e r i t e dans l e s f a i t s . Tout ce que j e c r o i s e t r e l a v e r i t e
dans l e s s e n t i m e n t s ' unusual Fearon
(T V I I I , 16-17). That such c h a r a c t e r s are
i n respectable makes
circles i s illustrated
by a
remark
i n response t o Monique's honesty i n Act I I I o f
Mixture: FEARON Je d i s que du temps ou l e s p e r l e s nous i n t e r e s s a i e n t du p o i n t de vue p r a t i q u e , i l n'y a v a i t pas de t r i s t e s s e , p a s d e b r o u i l l a r d s u r nous. Est-ce vrai?
MONIQUE, b a i s s a n t l a tete C'est v r a i .
FEARON Hurrah! Vous n'etes pas devenue t o u t a f a i t r e s p e c t a b l e , puisque vous d i t e s encore l a v e r i t e .
(T V I I , 176)
This
observation
Francine
i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f Robert Vanier's
i n Bernard's N a t i o n a l e 6: 'Vous d i t e s
words t o
ce que vous
396 pensez?... Quel phenomene!' ( T V , 7 1 ) . The proponents o f t h e
395.
See pp. 272-273.
396.
See pp. 124-125.
- 363 -
honesty f o r honesty's sake t h e o r y a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s well represented i n Lenormand's t h e a t r e , n o t a b l y by P i e r r e o f Les T r o i s Chambres and 1'Homme o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes. Through them Lenormand r e v e a l s how unpleasant, i f less d i s h o n e s t , s o c i e t y would be w i t h o u t a veneer o f h y p o c r i s y , and demonstrates how an obsessive r e s p e c t f o r t o t a l e x p l i c i t n e s s a t all times may put pay t o c e r t a i n misunderstandings b u t prove d i s t a n c i n g and d e s t r u c t i v e o f emotional b r i d g e s . L'Homme's speech t o I ' H y s t e r i q u e i n L'Homme e t ses Fantomes, j u s t before he has sexual i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h h e r , i l l u s t r a t e s both the l o g i c behind h i s honesty c u l t and i t s u g l y consequences (T IV, 41-42). Rose reproaches P i e r r e o f Les T r o i s Chambres f o r t h e s a d i s t i c way he t a l k s c l i n i c a l l y about human beings as i f they were u n f e e l i n g o b j e c t s w i t h o u t any emotional dimensions:
II y a, dans l a fagon dont vous e t a l e z l a v e r i t e , une espece de p l a i s i r auquel i l f a u t b i e n que j e m'habitue. Vous venez de b a l a y e r Jacques de ma v i e avec une f a c i l i t e , avec une l e g e r e t e presque joyeuses... Vous e t i e z c o n t e n t de 1'avoir s i b i e n compris. Vous ne pensiez p l u s a mon c h a g r i n . (T V I I I , 29)
Rose's c o m p l a i n t p i n p o i n t s the f a c t t h a t the obsession Lenormand's in
hand
certain
some o f
c h a r a c t e r s have w i t h a b s o l u t e s i n c e r i t y goes
w i t h a p r o p e n s i t y t o analyse s e l f and/or
hand
others. I n
cases t h i s i s shown t o have a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t
on t h e
communication process. However, as i n Bernard's t h e a t r e ,
these
a t t e m p t s t o sound t h e depths o f t h e human psyche come up sooner or
later
against
the insuperable
obstacle
o f i t s essential
- 364
-
i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y , which b r i n g s t h i s chapter back t o i t s s t a r t i n g p o i n t , namely 'the unknown and unknowable s e l f and i t s a b i l i t y t o undermine communication'...
•
The how
•
•
f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s chapter should
t h e i d e a t h a t 'man
have
i s o f t e n f a l s e t o man
demonstrated
because he
cannot 397
above
a l l to
features
in
h i s own l a r g e l y Lenormand's
unknowable
t h e a t r e as
self
be
i t does
in
true' Bernard's,
a l t h o u g h the d r a m a t i s t s ' methods and emphases d i f f e r . Oases communion
of
t h e k i n d f l e e t i n g l y enjoyed
Soeur M a r g u e r i t e far
between
Bernardian
by
Le Cormier
and discussed i n s e c t i o n 3 are v e r y
in
theory
Lenormand's
theatre,
t h a t the h e a r t r a t h e r
of
but
they
than
and
few
and
echo
the
the
intellect
In
Bernard's
holds
t h e key t o t r u l y e f f e c t i v e communication.
plays
the i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words as v e h i c l e s o f
meaning
is
shown up t h r o u g h h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' d i a l o g u e and . i t s f r u i t s . I t i s rarely
h i g h l i g h t e d e x p l i c i t l y by the i n t e r l o c u t o r s .
cannot
be s a i d o f Lenormand's t h e a t r e where
are
the
g e n e r a l l y more a n a l y t i c a l and verbose than
The
same
protagonists Bernard's
and
more i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n t r i g u e d by such q u e s t i o n s . Thus, although mistakes, major
misunderstandings
and m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are
f e a t u r e o f Lenormand's drama as they are
Lenormand
nevertheless
illustrates
explicitly
how
communication
397.
personal
either i s not
of
not
Bernard's,
implicitly helped
Cf. W i l l i a m Shakespeare, Hamlet ( E d i t e d by John Dover W i l s o n , Cambridge a t the U n i v e r s i t y 1934) I . 3. 78/80, p. 21.
a
or
by the
Press,
- 365
-
r e l a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y of i t s p r i n c i p a l instruments,
especially
when t h e r e i s an added c o m p l i c a t i o n such as a p e r s o n a l i t y c l a s h or
r e l i g i o u s d i v i d e . Lenormand's t h e a t r e a l s o
support
of
Bernard's,
the
comparatively
highlights,
in
important,
i f
n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d , r o l e p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal s i g n a l s can
p l a y i n d i a l o g u e . P e c u l i a r t o Lenormand's t h e a t r e are
warning
i t paradoxically
gives
of
the
dangers
for
the the
communication process o f a b s o l u t e honesty - i n so f a r , t h a t i s , as
i t i s p o s s i b l e ; i t s d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f the sabotage t h a t
can
be d e l i b e r a t e l y
i n f l i c t e d by the unscrupulous; and i t s exposure
of
d i f f i c u l t i e s experienced
the
added
different across
by
interlocutors
races and caused by the t r a n s m i g r a t i o n
of
language
c o n t i n e n t s whose geography and c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s
disparate.
of
are
- 366 -
CHAPTER 6
THE POTENTIAL TYRANNY OF WORDS
- 367
The
same
ambivalence
registered
i n Bernard's
plays
r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f words as i n s t r u m e n t s
of
communication, versus t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , i s evident
i n Lenormand's, and i t i s w i t h an examination o f
'effectiveness
i n other respects' that t h i s f i n a l
this
chapter
is
concerned. F i r s t , t h e c r e a t i v e and d e s t r u c t i v e aspects o f words and
their
section of
t h e r a p e u t i c p o t e n t i a l are discussed.
t h e focus o f a t t e n t i o n s h i f t s t o words as
mental
sections
torment w i t h t h e power t o k i l l . deal
psychologically third
I n the
of
resistance
with
catalytic
the chapter are
Lenormand's
The
t h e need
instruments
following
presentation
power o f words.
I n the
f o r , and
examined, t o g e t h e r w i t h
next
two
of
the
remaining
possibility
t h e defence
of,
systems
Lenormand's t h e a t r e suggests are a v a i l a b l e t o man i n h i s
fight
a g a i n s t t h e p o t e n t i a l t y r a n n y o f words. •
1.
• •
The c r e a t i v e and d e s t r u c t i v e aspects o f words and t h e i r therapeutic potential The
i d e a t h a t t h e v o i c i n g o f words can
create
reality -
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o express i t - i s a
recurring
theme i n Lenormand's p l a y s . ' L ' i n j u s t i c e e t l a c o l e r e
prennent
des
in
ailes
avec
l e s p a r o l e s ' , remarks t h e Princess
Asie
(T I X , 106). S i m i l a r l y , i n Act IV o f Terre de Satan, when Soeur Marguerite tells
no l o n g e r f e e l s capable o f p r a y e r , t h e Soeur Noire
h e r , 'Que l e s mots t r a v e r s e n t l a bouche. B i e n t S t ,
de I'ame q u ' i l s v i e n d r o n t ' (T X, 3 1 2 ) . This comment i s endorsed by Soeur M a r g u e r i t e ' s
c'est shortly
i n c r e a s i n g l y ardent prayer,
in
- 368 -
t h e course o f which ' e l l e e s t s u r p r i s e par l e s larmes, puis e l l e reprend avec une ferveur plus t r a n q u i l l e ' (T X, 316).
It
i s t h r o u g h t h e denouement
Lenormand all
of
L'Amour magicien
that
i l l u s t r a t e s how something can be t r u e b u t remain
to
i n t e n t s and purposes n o n - e x i s t e n t u n t i l i t i s v o c a l i z e d .
Beatrice
must
relationship achieve being
know
unmistakable actually
the mutually
reciprocated
love
w i t h A l b e r t which she has u n c o n s c i o u s l y t r i e d
through when
that
her manipulative h a l l u c i n a t i o n s ,
he r e a l i z e s t h a t he l o v e s her and
comes
into
i n veiled
terms i n s i n u a t e s as much. However, she
to
but
does n o t
c o n s i d e r i t as e x i s t e n t , t a k i n g t h e view t h a t
i tis
only
on t h e p o i n t o f r e a l i z a t i o n , because i t has n o t y e t been
put
e x p l i c i t l y i n t o words. No doubt sensing t h a t , u n t i l i t i s
u t t e r e d , t h i s t r u t h cannot be brought t o t h e f o r e g r o u n d o f her consciousness mixture she
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o arouse a
lethally
overwhelming
o f emotions i n c l u d i n g n o x i o u s l y acute g u i l t
feelings,
pleads w i t h A l b e r t n o t t o c r e a t e a r e a l i t y t h a t w i l l
her by p u t t i n g i n t o spoken words t h e as y e t unspoken
knowledge
they b o t h now have:
BEATRICE Levez-vous. est r e e l .
Riez. Prouvez-moi
que
cet
ALBERT, s o u r i a n t I I "vaudrait mieux q u ' i l ne l e f u t pas...
BEATRICE I I ne I ' e s t p e u t - e t r e pas.
kill
instant
•- 369 -
ALBERT Que voulez-vous d i r e ? Qu'avez-vous?
BEATRICE Je ne s a i s . . . C'est quelque chose de t r o p f o r t . . . de t r o p immense... Comme s i tous l e s courants du bras de mer me t r a v e r s a i e n t e t m'emportaient... C'est p e u t - e t r e . . . ce qu'on a p p e l l e l e bonheur!
ALBERT, aprement Oui, e t t o u j o u r s , l e bonheur e s t t r o p f o r t pour nous! E t t o u j o u r s , nous sommes f a i b l e s devant l u i ! Q u e l l e misere!
BEATRICE Non. C'est mieux a i n s i . . . Parce q u ' a l o r s , j e peux m'y abandonner... J'eprouve une grande douceur a le f a i r e . . . Mais, s i c e r t a i n e s paroles etaient prononcees, s i l e v o i l e se d e c h i r a i t . . . j e sens que j e ne l e s u p p o r t e r a i s pas.
(T V I , 107-108)
P i e r r e o f Les T r o i s Chambres i n s i s t s t h a t i t i s n o t j u s t seeing words
a
t r u t h t h a t m a t t e r s b u t s a y i n g i t , as i f
themselves
substance
endowed
the r e a l i t y
t h e spoken
i n question
with
i t would n o t o t h e r w i s e have. 'C'est i n t e r e s s a n t ,
a la
v e r i t e . I I ne f a u t pas t r i c h e r . I I f a u t l a r e g a r d e r en face e t d i r e t o u t ce qu'on v o i t ' , he t e l l s Rose (T V I I I , 94).
Earlier
i n t h e p l a y , when t a l k i n g w i t h F l o r e n c e , he i s more e x p l i c i t on the
subject:
Eh b i e n , l e s a c t i o n s que j e commets, e l l e s ne me p a r a i s s e n t t o u t a f a i t r e e l l e s qu'a p a r t i r du moment ou j e t e l e s a i r a c o n t e e s . . . Jusque-la, e l l e s sont en moi comme des reves . . . (T V I I I , 32)
- 370
Here may
-
P i e r r e suggests t h a t a f a c t , however o b j e c t i v e l y t r u e i t be i n i t s e l f , i s endowed w i t h maximum substance and becomes
w h o l l y r e a l o n l y when i t i s o r a l l y communicated t o However,
Lenormand
was
no l e s s aware than
another. Bernard
that
words
can be s a i d n o t o n l y t o c r e a t e or enhance r e a l i t i e s
but
also,
paradoxically,
was
demonstrated this
in
sense
to
diminish
them.
in
images
and
and d e s t r u c t i v e i n so f a r as they douse o r 399
curb
so
words can be s a i d t o be
As
creative
in
Part I ,
d e s t r o y or
far
as they
give
birth
to
398 sensations,
people's o t h e r w i s e a c t i v e and untrammelled i m a g i n a t i o n .
Just
as Marie-Louise M a i l l y o f Bernard's L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage j i b s a t t h e use o f the word 'beguin' t o d e s c r i b e her
'romance'
with
P h i l i p p e V a l b e i l l e because i t c r e a t e s an unpoetic r e a l i t y which diminishes
her mental i m a g e , s i m i l a r l y Riemke Van Eyden
Le Temps e s t un Songe h e s i t a t e s t o t a l k w i t h pedantic
of
accuracy
about her b r o t h e r : Romee... J ' a i peur de c e r t a i n s mots. Je c r a i n s de l e s a p p l i q u e r aux e t r e s que j'aime, parce q u ' i l s c l a s s e n t , i l s d e p o e t i s e n t . I I f a u t t o u t de meme l e s prononcer q u e l q u e f o i s . . . Nico e s t malade... (T I , 203)
Riemke's
use
of
the word 'malade' c r e a t e s
destroys
other - i n
images.
398.
See
pp. 219-234.
399.
See
pp. 98-99.
400.
See
p.
220.
this
instance
more
a
reality
which
a t t r a c t i v e - mental
- 371 -
The c r e a t i v e and d e s t r u c t i v e aspects o f words a r e h i g h l i g h t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exchange between I'Ami and 1'Homme o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes. L'Ami makes the p o i n t t h a t t h e i r 'aventures' a r e endowed w i t h g r e a t e r r e a l i t y by being vocalized. L'Homme's response i m p l i e s t h a t spoken words can e x t i r p a t e unspoken t h o u g h t s , t h e mental images destroyed i n t h i s case being u n a t t r a c t i v e :
L'AMI . . . S i nous n ' e t i o n s , I'un pour 1'autre, un temoin de nos a v e n t u r e s , e l l e s p e r d r a i e n t l e u r charme e t , presque l e u r r e a l i t e . Les femmes, q u i nous r e p r o c h e r a i e n t nos confidences comme des trahisons, ne comprendront jamais qu'en nous r a c o n t a n t leurs f a i b l e s s e s , nous l e u r donnons 1'existence. Pour ma p a r t , ce que j e ne t ' a i pas avoue, c'est comme s i j e ne 1'avals pas vecu.
L'HOMME Moi a u s s i , j'aime r e v i v r e avec t o i mes n u i t s . Les mensonges ne me pesent guere, n i l e s ruses, n i les f o u r b e r i e s , n i l e s cruautes... Et p o u r t a n t , j'eprouve a t e l e s c o n f i e r comme une d e l i v r a n c e . Je ressens p a r f o i s , en pensant a c e l l e s que j e v o l s s o u f f r i r par ma f a u t e , non pas des remords, mais une espece d'ennui. J ' a i beau i g n o r e r l a s o u f f r a n e e , j e me l a r e p r e s e n t e assez b i e n . E t s i c e l a ne me r e t i e n t pas de I ' i n f l i g e r , cela s u f f i t , certains jours, a o b s c u r c i r ma j o i e . C'est comme une c o n t r a i n t e q u i r a l e n t i t l e s o u f f l e , une pesanteur q u i a l o u r d i t l e sang. Eh b i e n , quand j ' a i deverse en t o i l e s p l e u r s , l e s p l a i n t e s , l e s reproches que me vaut une r u p t u r e , j e me sens de nouveau l i b r e e t l e g e r comme a v i n g t ans! (T I V , 4-5)
I n t h i s c a t h a r t i c process 1'Homme o f f l o a d s from h i s i m a g i n a t i o n the
m a t e r i a l o r a l l y communicated t o another. Deprived o f
experience
nothing
can moderate h i s mind's
a n a l y s e , r u m i n a t e over,
and p o s s i b l y
inclination
this to
d i s t o r t o r magnify t h e
- 372
material
-
i n q u e s t i o n . As t h i s k i n d o f mental a c t i v i t y
can
be
benign o r m a l i g n a n t , t h e c a t h a r t i c p o t e n t i a l o f spoken words i s evident,
and i s r e f l e c t e d a t v a r i o u s i n t e r v a l s i n
Lenormand's 401
t h e a t r e , as i t i s , though t o a l e s s e r degree, i n Bernard's. The
idea t h a t meaningful
o r a l communication can c o n t r i b u t e
g e n e r a l l y t o an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l w e l l - b e i n g i s mooted in
Les T r o i s Chambres, where P i e r r e and Rose agree
paroles
delivrent
un peu de
Le Temps e s t un Songe however
there
1'inquietude' is
a
strong
much o f an i s l a n d t h e average man
individuals
psychological
that
'les
(T V I I I , 15). implication
may
be,
in
i n s u l a r i t y and t a c i t u r n i t y
In
that, certain can
be
b o t h a cause and a symptom o f mental i n s t a b i l i t y . At the end o f Tableau I I I
one i s l e f t w i t h the impression t h a t Nice's
total
w i t h d r a w a l i n t o h i m s e l f i s h a v i n g a very n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on h i s psyche: ROMEE, appuyant une main s u r l e f r o n t de Nico Ne cherche pas, ne c r a i n s pas, ne pense pas.
NICO Impossible.
ROMEE A l o r s , dis-moi chacune de t e s pensees, l a p l u s amere, l a p l u s maladive. Cela t e f e r a du b i e n . En ce moment, a quoi penses-tu?
401.
See
pp. 132-138.
- 373 -
NICO Nous nous aimons... e t p o u r t a n t .
ROMEE Pourtant?...
NICO, peniblement Nous... c e l a n ' e x i s t e pas... I I y a t o i . . . I I y a moi... Je s u i s s e u l . . .
(T I , 199)
An
exchange between Romee and Riemke i n t h e f o l l o w i n g Tableau
i s also relevant i n t h i s
context:
ROMEE . . . L'autre j o u r , a ce t h e , chez l e s V e r l o r e n , il y a v a i t une v i n g t a i n e d'hommes e t de femmes q u i d i s c u t a i e n t . . . Nico se t a i s a i t e t l e s r e g a r d a i t de c o t e , l e s yeux a demi fermes... I I me s e m b l a i t l e s e u l r e e l , l e s e u l sage, l e s e u l noble...
RIEMKE Qui, aussi.
l e s i l e n c e e s t noble. Le gout de l a mort
(T I , 202-203)
Riemke
apparently
senses what Romee i s r e l u c t a n t
t o admit,
namely t h a t Nico i s by now so p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y i s o l a t e d t h a t he has usual
moved
i n t o a mental realm where words do n o t have
raison d'etre,
and where they may have
their
t h e opposite
e f f e c t from t h a t f o r which they were o r i g i n a l l y c r e a t e d .
I t is
- 374 -
n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t he should g i v e t h e reasons he does f o r h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o go t o t h e van Velsens:
NICO ...
I I f a u d r a causer avec l e u r s i n v i t e s ?
RIEMKE Pourquoi pas?
NICO Mais j e n ' a i r i e n a l e u r d i r e , moi... r i e n a d i r e a personne.
j e n'ai
ROMEE A personne?
NICO, l a regarde, puis b a i s s e l a s yeux II me semble, a p r e s e n t , que chaque p a r o l e m'eloigne un peu p l u s des gens... meme de ceux que j'aime.
RIEMKE, avec t r i s t e s s e Nico!
NICO Je n'y peux r i e n .
(T I , In
220-221)
less
extreme cases t h a n Nice's, t h e need
f o r verbal
communication i s shown t o i n t e n s i f y i n moments o f c r i s i s and t o find
s a t i s f a c t i o n as best i t can. A f t e r Florence's s u i c i d e i n
Les T r o i s Chambres
P i e r r e f e e l s a desperate need t o t a l k about
- 375 -
it b u t n o t j u s t t o anyone: ' J ' e r r e d'une piece dans 1'autre avec 1'impression que j e d o i s absolument d i r e a quelqu'un ce q u i e s t a r r i v e . C'est a e l l e , que j e veux l e d i r e ! ' he t e l l s Rose (T V I I I , 9 3 ) . I n Tableau X I I o f Le Simoun Laurency seeks o u t t h e V e r i f i c a t e u r i n o r d e r t o t a l k t o him f o r c o m p e l l i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l reasons:
II f a u t que j e p a r l e a quelqu'un... Oh, qa ne changera r i e n a ce q u i e s t . . . Mais j e s u i s dans un de ces moments ou l e p i r e mecreant va t r o u v e r un p r e t r e e t se confesse... uniquement pour ne p l u s e t r e s e u l a s a v o i r ce q u ' i l s a l t . . . (T I I , 135)
Laurency
makes
a
wise
choice
o f sounding
board
i n the
V e r i f i c a t e u r , a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r , o f course, can do n o t h i n g t o help She
him. Laure o f L'Homme e t ses Fantomes i s l e s s i s drawn
t o t a l k a t some l e n g t h
distressing
abortion
plus
qu'avant'
seule
because
fortunate.
t o 1'Homme
about h e r
experience. A f t e r w a r d s she f e e l s
'bien
and experiences
no c a t h a r t i c
relief
h e r l i s t e n e r i s so abnormally
unsympathetic
(T IV,
28-30). I t i s n o t by chance t h a t t h e next time we see Laure she i s i n t h e mental asylum. Although t h e r e i s no urgency o r trauma a t i s s u e i n t h e o u t p o u r i n g s o f 1'Homme h i m s e l f , w i t h which t h i s 402 particular goes
discussion started,
t o I'Ami
Verificateur spite his
402.
i t would seem t h a t he
seeking a s i m i l a r service t o t h a t
gives
t h e tormented Laurency
often
which t h e
i n Le Simoun. I n
o f 1'Homme's d e n i a l t h a t h i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e women i n life
weighs on h i s conscience,
See p. 371.
as t h e p l a y
develops, i t
- 376 -
403 becomes q u i t e c l e a r t h a t i t l i e s h e a v i l y on h i s unconscious, and i t i s t h i s which undoubtedly accounts f o r h i s r e g u l a r use o f I'Ami as a k i n d o f c o n f e s s o r .
The
commonly
held
view
that
honest,
soul-searching
d i a l o g u e can serve a t h e r a p e u t i c purpose i s thus recognized i n Lenormand's
plays
psychoanalysis, rendered
along w i t h the value o f the p r i n c i p l e s
according
t o which noxious
thoughts
of
can be
harmless by b e i n g brought up from t h e unconscious
subconscious
or
p a r t s o f t h e mind, v e r b a l l y a i r e d , r e c e i v e d by
competent l i s t e n e r and c o n s t r u c t i v e l y acknowledged.
a
Ironically,
M i c h e l S a r t e r r e o f Une V i e s e c r e t e r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f
this
k i n d o f process i n h i s l i f e and reproaches Therese f o r her p a r t in i t :
'Et ce s e c r e t , t u me I ' a s a r r a c h e , nous I'avons disseque
ensemble. Nous I'avons assassine de p a r o l e s , d ' e x p l i c a t i o n s d'aveux'
(T I I I ,
et
271-272). Another example occurs i n M i x t u r e ,
t h e denouement o f which c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n s a l u b r i o u s 'monstres'
which
apparently
lurk
i n every
human
being's
unconscious can be s u c c e s s f u l l y e x o r c i z e d by b e i n g brought i n t o his
conscious mind w i t h t h e h e l p o f t i m e l y
delivered
and
appropriately
spoken words. Monique's immediate r e a c t i o n
to
words i s p r e d i c t a b l e :
MONIQUE S i ce que t u d i s e s t v r a i , s i j ' a i s o u h a i t e que mon e n f a n t connaisse l a misere, l e crime e t l a p r o s t i t u t i o n , t o u t ce que j ' a i connu, moi, i l v a u t certainement mieux que j e ne v i v e pas plus longtemps...
403.
See pp. 396-398.
such
- 377
-
POUCETTE, l u i c a r e s s a n t l e visage Maintenant que t u s a i s . . . Maintenant comprends... t o u t peut e t r e e f f a c e .
(T V I I ,
Although come
i s i n i t i a l l y h o r r i f i e d by the
during
Tableau V I I I , receptivity are
shown
her h e a r t - t o - h e a r t
she can
talk
truths
with
q u i c k l y r e c o v e r s so t h a t her
p l a y t h e i r c r u c i a l p a r t . The
future
happiness
is
which
Poucette openness
overall
t o be h i g h l y b e n e f i c i a l : the t h r e a t
immediate
tu
159)
Monique
out
que
removed,
to
in and
results
Poucette's
whilst
Monique
experiences not o n l y a p s y c h o l o g i c a l h e a l i n g but a p h y s i c a l
one
as w e l l . Lenormand demonstration
has of
been
the
criticized
therapeutic
with
regard
potential
of
to
his
dialogue
in
M i x t u r e on the grounds t h a t the a t t i t u d e s o f both daughter
and
mother are too good t o be t r u e . P i e r r e B r i s s o n argues t h a t
' le
personnage
the
Poucette
de of
Monique the
last
e s t un Act
artifice'
as
'douee
and tout
describes a
coup
d'une
404 clairvoyance lucid
extraordinaire'.
However, a l t h o u g h
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f her mother and
the s e n s i b l e and
way
she
c o n f r o n t s her w i t h the t r u t h may
are
in
character,
404.
as
are
her
P i e r r e Brisson,, Au Hasard des 1935) pp. 306 and 307.
Poucette's
be e x c e p t i o n a l ,
mother's
reception
mature they and
Soirees ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d ,
- 378 -
405 assimilation
o f h e r words.
Moreover,
t h e denouement o f
M i x t u r e i s n o t t h e f a c i l e one o f a mawkish f a i r y t a l e i n which the
prince
after. by
and p r i n c e s s f i n a l l y go o f f t o l i v e
happily
Lenormand makes i t c l e a r t h a t Poucette has been
those
n e g a t i v e aspects o f her u p b r i n g i n g
from
ever marked
which her
mother c o u l d n o t o r d i d n o t p r o t e c t her, and t h a t her r e s u l t a n t premature seriousness The
fact
w i l l c o l o u r h e r f u t u r e l i f e w i t h Marston.
remains t h a t b u t f o r one s a l u t a r y
conversation the
ending o f M i x t u r e might w e l l have been p o s i t i v e l y 2.
tragic.
Words as i n s t r u m e n t s o f mental torment w i t h t h e power to k i l l The
emphasis Lenormand puts on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f spoken
words as p o t e n t i a l i n s t r u m e n t s o f mental torment i s noteworthy. When Romee Cremers t a l k s about her. f o r t h c o m i n g s e p a r a t i o n Riemke Van Eyden,
the l a t t e r
h i n t s t h a t they
from
can keep any
r e l a t e d p a i n a t bay by n o t t a l k i n g about i t :
405.
From t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p l a y we know Monique i s t h e s o r t o f woman who wants t o hear t h e hard f a c t s about h e r s e l f , however unpleasant they may be. Her i n s i s t e n c e t h a t Raymond should be 'absolument, c r u e l l e m e n t s i n c e r e ' w i t h h e r (T V I I , 19) i s so i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e speed w i t h which she comes t o terms w i t h t h e t r u t h i n A c t I I I i s n o t unduly s u r p r i s i n g . Poucette's psychology i s no l e s s p l a u s i b l e . Although t h e o f f s p r i n g o f c r i m i n a l s may f o l l o w i n t h e i r p a r e n t s ' f o o t s t e p s , they sometimes r e a c t a g a i n s t such a d e s t i n y , becoming u n u s u a l l y wise and circumspect ahead o f t h e i r t i m e .
-
379
ROMEE, enlagant Riemke C'est effrayant, l e bonheur... Depuis des annees, nous n'avons pas ete un s e u l j o u r sans nous v o i r , t o i e t moi: dans quelques semaines, i l y aura q u a t r e m i l l e l i e u e s e n t r e nous... Et j e ne s u i s pas t r i s t e . . . Je ne p l e u r e pas... Je ne s o u f f r e pas...
RIEMKE Je ne p l e u r e pas non plus... p e i n e . . . I I ne f a u t pas en p a r l e r .
Je
souffre
a
(Le Temps e s t un Songe, T I , 180)
S i m i l a r l y , when sadness theatre qui
the Auteur o f Crepuscule du Theatre voices the
which
the
decline
are a r o u s i n g i n him
and
the n e g a t i v e
changes
asks the Comedienne
e s t en t r a i n de m o u r i r a u t o u r de nous?', she
doigt sur l e s l e v r e s ' , en
and
parler'
(T V I I I ,
in
the
'Qu'est-ce
replies,
'un
'Vous l e savez b i e n . Mais i l ne f a u t 120-121).
Again, when
the
Receveur
Le Simoun v o i c e s h i s homesickness, p i n i n g f o r 'les pays ou e s t v e r t . . . l e s b o i s , l e s p r e s , l e s h a i e s . . . ' , the t e l l s him
'Oui,
Towards with pas pas
mais i l ne f a u t pas
the end
a d i r e ce que
clairement terrified
penser a eux
The
'Ne
pleads prononce
. . . Ne me
j e ressens. Ne m'oblige pas
(T IX, 84-85).
tout
Verificateur
o f Tableau V o f Asie the Princess
f a i s pas
force
a le sentir
a d u l t Poucette
o f h a v i n g t o hear c e r t a i n words. She
of
Mixture
knows
t o be t o l d
any
details
trop is
vaguely
about her mother's former c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s - the t h e f t s , l e a s t - but does not want
of
en p a r l e r ' (T I I , 28).
de Mezzana not t o t a l k about the c h i l d r e n : l e u r s noms. Ne me
pas
because
at she
- 380 -
r e a l i z e s t h e power spoken words have t o p a i n t mental p i c t u r e s , w h i c h , i n some cases, may n o t s i m p l y cause p a i n a t t h e time b u t prove i n d e l i b l e , h a u n t i n g obsessions. She i s i n agony when her mother i s on t h e p o i n t o f t a l k i n g about t h e murder she committed. The stage d i r e c t i o n s which come a t t h e end o f t h e f o l l o w i n g exchange suggest t h a t even Monique's r e l a t i v e l y g e n e r a l words on t h e s u b j e c t a c t u a l l y do leave an irremovable mark on Poucette's consciousness:
POUGETTE, 1'interrompant N'en d i s pas p l u s , maman. Je ne veux pas v o i r . . . Parce q u ' i l me semble que j e ne p o u r r a i s p l u s cesser de v o i r .
MONIQUE Oui, e t t u me r e p o u s s e r a i s avec h o r r e u r ! Tu ne veux d e j a p l u s me t o u c h e r , n'est-ce pas?
POUCETTE J ' a u r a i t o u j o u r s p i t i e de t o i . S i j e t e demande de g a r d e r t o n s e c r e t , c'est pour ne pas en e t r e obsedee. Ne m'entraine pas la-dedans! Laisse-moi!
MONIQUE Ne c r a i n s r i e n . Mon s e c r e t ne d e t e i n t pas.
POUCETTE, cachant son v i s a g e dans s e s mains I I me semble que j ' a i du sang sur l a peau.
MONIQUE La boue e t l e sang, c'est pour moi s e u l e . Mais ne l e s meprise pas t r o p , c a r t u l e u r d o i s d ' a v o i r vecu.
- 381 -
(Poucette s ' e t i r e , en gemissant, comme pour echapper a I ' e t r e i n t e s e n s i b l e d'une f a t a l i t e . . .)
(T V I I ,
149-150)
Using
spoken
Le Simoun
words
as
her instruments,
takes s a d i s t i c p l e a s u r e i n evoking
Aiescha
and
images and s e n s a t i o n s i n Laurency w i t h r e g a r d t o h i s and
unquenchable
physical available.
point
s e x u a l passion f o r a c r e a t u r e o f view, i s n e v e r t h e l e s s o n l y
The r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r
e m o t i o n a l f r u s t r a t i o n and agony thusi
is left
reinforcing forbidden
who, from
as-tu
t o imagine
provoked:
remarque
a
too tauntingly
AIESCHA, amerement . . . Alfred, embellit?
of
comme
ta
fille
LAURENCY, sans l e v e r l e s yeux Qui, o u i .
AIESCHA Les c h a l e u r s l a p a l i s s e n t e t l e s o l e i l l a dore. Q u e l l e beaute!
(T n , 84)
AIESCHA . . . C'est une e n f a n t d e l i c i e u s e , e t douce, e t jolie! Dios! Quelle beaute! Je ne peux pas c r o i r e q u ' e l l e t . ' a i t degu!
the
- 382 -
. . . Tiens, l a v o i c i , l a q u e r i d a . Tache d ' e t r e un peu moins sombre avec e l l e , ou e l l e pensera que t u ne I'aimes pas!... Pourquoi d i s s i m u l e r t a tendresse? Cela d o i t e t r e s i bon, d ' a v o i r une fille a cherir! . . .
(T I I , 89)
Confirming
a
p o i n t made i m p l i c i t l y i n Bernard's
drama, t h e
v e r b a l t o r t u r e t h a t C l o t i l d e i n f l i c t s i s a l l t h e more
poignant
, 406 f o r b e i n g u n c o n s c i o u s l y and i n n o c e n t l y dispensed: CLOTILDE Oh, filles.
j ' a i mes s e c r e t s , comme t o u t e s
l e s jeunes
LAURENCY l i s doivent e t r e bien innocents!
CLOTILDE, avec une v o l u b i l i t e enjouee Je s u i s sure que l e s t i e n s ne sont pas t r e s coupables non p l u s . . . Tu es s i bon! Tu me promets que t u ne m'aimeras jamais par d e v o i r , par s e n t i m e n t f a m i l i a l ? Mais seulement parce que j e t e plais?
LAURENCY Je t e l e promets.
CLOTILDE
II
(T I I ,
406.
f a u t m'aimer comme s i t u m'avals c h o i s i e !
99-100)
See p. 226.
- 383 -
CLOTILDE, avec e x a l t a t i o n , se s e r r a n t contre l u i Mon pauvre, mon cher papa! I I f a u t que j e repare l e mal q u ' e l l e t ' a f a i t .
. . . L'amour q u ' e l l e t ' a v o l e , i l f a u t que j e t e l e rende!... Ne d i s pas que c'est i m p o s s i b l e ! Car cet amour dont e l l e nous a p r i v e s tous l e s deux, i l est en moi, t o u t neuf, p r e t a e t r e donne! Tu d i s que j e l u i ressemble, a e l l e q u i n'a jamais aime?... Non! Non! Je t e d i s , moi, que j e me sens l o u r d e de t e n d r e s s e ! . . . l o u r d e a p l e u r e r ! I I n'y a pas un e t r e au monde que j e ne puisse aimer!
(T I I , 102)
F u l l y e x p l o i t i n g h i s minor and major c h a r a c t e r s , Lenormand never
l o s e s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o s t r e s s t h a t
mental this
p a i n can k i l l fact
at their
and t h a t people i g n o r e peril.
Even
without
verbally or
inflicted
underestimate
intending
t o be
m a l i c i o u s , P e l a g i e o f La Maison des Remparts i n d i r e c t l y b u t no less
c e r t a i n l y k i l l s t h e e m o t i o n a l l y s e n s i t i v e and
physically
407 v u l n e r a b l e M i c h e l i n e w i t h words: LA MERE BUNEL E l l e p r e t e n d qu'on I ' a renvoyee Qu'est-ce q u ' e l l e a v a i t f a i t ?
407.
sans
raison.
Of course, P e l a g i e can a l s o be s a i d t o t r i g g e r o f f t h e e n t i r e t r a g e d y o f La Maison des Remparts by i n f o r m i n g Rene t h a t Andre a l s o f r e q u e n t s t h e b r o t h e l (T X, 66-67). She i s , however, l e s s c u l p a b l e than Cora, who, by t e l l i n g Rene about h i s son's planned elopement w i t h J u l i e , a r g u a b l y becomes an accomplice t o murder.
- 384 -
ANDRE P a r l e . . . Tout raconte aux e n f a n t s .
PAULETTE Aux
enfants?
(^a, c'est t r o p mechant.
ANDRE E l l e n'est pas mechante. E l l e a i m a i t ces deux p e t i t s . Mais i l a t o u j o u r s f a l l u q u ' e l l e s a l i s s e , q u ' e l l e d e t r u i s e . Quand M i c h e l i n e a su que j ' a v a l s voulu p a r t i r , e l l e e s t venue a moi e t m'a j e t e un r e g a r d que j e n ' o u b l i e r a i pas... un regard s i mur, s i desespere... un r e g a r d de femme t r a h i e . Le s o i r , l a m e n i n g i t e ,s'est d e c l a r e e . E l l e e s t morte d'avoir a p p r i s que son pere a v a i t f a i l l i 1'abandonner!
PAULETTE Les p a r o l e s , t o u t de meme! Ce q u i d'une p a r o l e ! . . .
peut
sortir
(T X, 175-176)
J u s t a f t e r l e a r n i n g t h a t Florence has committed s u i c i d e of
Les T r o i s Chambres
enfant'
t e l l s Rose, 'Nous avoris
Pierre
t u e un
petit
(T V I I I , 8 8 ) . However, w i t h o u t e x t o l l i n g deception, i t
i s more a c c u r a t e t o say t h a t P i e r r e ' s a f f a i r
w i t h Rose does n o t
k i l l F l o r e n c e , h i s t e l l i n g h e r t h a t he'loves Rose i s the m o r t a l thrust. tells her would
A t t h e end o f the l o n g speech P i e r r e F l o r e n c e t h a t he l o v e s Rose and does n o t
sexually,
when he
simply
desire
he says p r o o f o f an i n f i d e l i t y on Rose's
d r i v e him t o k i l l , adding 'Tuer! Moi q u i n ' a i jamais
v o i r s a i g n e r un p o u l e t ' . He i s so t o t a l l y that
makes
he
almost
certainly
fails
part pu
wrapped up i n h i m s e l f
to register
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s w i f e ' s unique response:
the
full
' J ' a i t o u j o u r s su
- 385
-
que t u e t a i s capable de t u e r ' (T V I I I , 8 0 ) . As the C u r t a i n falls, the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r senses no l e s s than Florence that P i e r r e i s capable o f k i l l i n g , and the n e x t Tableau immediately c o n f i r m s t h a t he has a c t u a l l y j u s t d e a l t her a l e t h a l v e r b a l blow, even i f a few days l a t e r a r e v o l v e r i s officially designated as t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f death. I n the .course o f time P i e r r e admits t h i s t o the g i r l i n Act I I I :
. . . Le drame que j e vous a i raconte h i e r , quelques mensonges, un peu de silence auraient pu I ' e v i t e r . . . E t , l e p l u s e f f r a y a n t , c'est que c e t t e s o i - d i s a n t v e r i t e , dont l a r e v e l a t i o n a tue ma premiere femme, n'etait probablement pas la verite . . . (T V I I I , 104)
3.
The p o t e n t i a l l y l e t h a l power o f words as p s y c h o l o g i c a l catalysts By f a r t h e most i m p o r t a n t way
i n which words are shown
to
c r e a t e h a r m f u l r e a l i t i e s i n Lenormand's p l a y s i s by t h e i r power as
psychological
Bernard's
catalysts
along the
lines
exemplified
t h e a t r e , t h a t i s by p l a n t i n g , t r i g g e r i n g o f f
and/or
n o u r i s h i n g t h o u g h t s . The p o t e n t i a l l y endless c h a i n r e a c t i o n thoughts,
triggering
off
words,
triggering
off
in
of
thoughts,
t r i g g e r i n g o f f f u r t h e r words, e t c . - not t o mention any a c t i o n s inspired
on
interlocutors,
route - i n is
a
exemplified
network simply
of but
any
number
of
effectively
in
La Maison des Remparts i n an exchange between J u l i e and
Floret,
who
he
i s d i s c u s s i n g the s i n o f l e c h e r y i n which he says
been l i v i n g s i n c e t h e age o f t h i r t e e n :
has
- 386 -
FLORET Quand j ' e t a i s p e n s i o n n a i r e a S a i n t - N i c o l a s , l e s f r e r e s nous en p a r l a i e n t comme du p l u s grand peche que 1'enfant puisse commettre... l i s en p a r l a i e n t trop.
JULIE Pourquoi vous p a r l a i e n t - i l s comme 5a?
FLORET Parce q u ' i l s y p e n s a i e n t . A l o r s , pensait aussi . . .
nous,
on y
(T X, 81)
In
n e a r l y a l l t h e examples Lenormand
gives
illustrating
t h e power o f spoken words as p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a t a l y s t s t h e e f f e c t is
a
negative
one. Therese S a r t e r r e ' s
awakening
o f her
husband's conscience might seem t o be an e x c e p t i o n , b u t Michel himself
considers
(Une V i e s e c r e t e ,
even
this
T III,
influence
267-274).
t o be
Sometimes
destructive
the
speaker's
motives a r e u n c o n s c i o u s l y n e f a r i o u s , a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e mechanism
a t work
exploited
by r u t h l e s s
powerful innocent, his
words
word
i n t h i s k i n d o f process characters
who
power can be. U s u a l l y ,
i s deliberately
know
precisely
however,
a
relatively
n a i v e o r u n w i t t i n g speaker has l i t t l e i d e a initiate,
encourage o r exacerbate.
He
o f what may never
r e a l i z e t h e power they have e x e r t e d , o r he may do so o n l y it
i s t o o l a t e t o r e c t i f y t h e damage done.
L'Amour magicien impresses
on
An
how
when
incident i n
i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s e f f e c t i v e l y . When h i s s i s t e r Albert
the fact
that
Beatrice's
words a r e
- 387 -
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s growing c o n v i c t i o n t h a t Berthe was t h e v i c t i m o f a death wish and was d r i v e n t o commit s u i c i d e by deep unhappiness', he p o i n t s out t o a d i s c o n c e r t e d Fernande t h a t some o f h e r own words p l a n t e d the idea i n B e a t r i c e i n t h e f i r s t place:
ALBERT En p a r c o u r a n t l e s reponses de sa mere, on pressent une p l a i e s e c r e t e , un mal i n g u e r i s s a b l e dont e l l e a du chercher l e soulagement dans l a mort.
FERNANDE Ce sont l e s i n v e n t i o n s de B e a t r i c e q u i f o n t mis c e t t e i d e e - l a en t e t e !
ALBERT Qui,, idee-la?
mais
qui I'a s o u f f l e e a
Beatrice,
cette
FERNANDE, s a i s i e Qui?
ALBERT C'est t o i . E l l e ne t e p a r a i s s a i t done pas absurde q u ' a u j o u r d ' h u i .
aussi
FERNANDE, apres un s i l e n c e C ' e t a i t une impression passagere. jamais repense depuis.
ALBERT J'y a i repense, moi.
(T V I , 75)
Je n'y a i
388
Through
-
such exchanges Lenormand's t h e a t r e
discreetly
drives
home t h e same p o i n t as Bernard's, namely t h a t a l l spoken words, however l i g h t l y
or inadvertently
they may be d e l i v e r e d ,
be
generally
can
a c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y , causing p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n s
c o n s i d e r e d a s , p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous because
h e a r e r o f which t h e i r speaker i s q u i t e The
power
catalysts
crucial
spoken
words
i s reflected,
Lenormand's
should
dramas.
can
they
i ntheir
ignorant. exert
t o varying
as
psychological
degrees,
i n most
of
I n some i t p l a y s a r e l a t i v e l y minor b u t
r o l e , i n others i t i s central t o the p l o t .
Le Mangeur
de Reves i s a case i n p o i n t . As
was
well-meaning des
Autres
Bernard
p o i n t e d o u t i n Chapters 2 and 3,
i t i s through
amateurs such as Maurice Gardier o f and
Le Printemps
Robert Darmon o f Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan
highlights
how i n t h e f i e l d o f psychology
knowledge
can be a dangerous t h i n g . ^ " ^ ^ I t
de Reves
that,
Lenormand
highlights
a
that little
i s i n Le Mangeur
the
risks
run
by
p s y c h o a n a l y s t s whose very t o o l s a r e words - t h e i r own and t h e i r patients'.
Luc de B r o n t e
proves
a t the t r a g i c
expense o f
Jeannine Felse how l e t h a l these t o o l s can be. Only i n t h e l i g h t of
t h e p l a y ' s denouement can t h e second-time
fully
appreciate
the cruel irony with
exchange i s l a t e n t l y r i n g i n g :
JEANNINE . . . Vous n'etes pas medecin?
408.
See pp. 195-197 and 231.
which
reader/spectator the
following
- 389 -
LUC Oh, a peine.
JEANNINE E n f i n , vous ne soignez pas l e s gens?
LUC Non, mais j e l e s g u e r i s
quelquefois.
JEANNINE, r i a n t Sans remedes,
j'espere.
LUC Avec l e remede l e moins couteux dangereux q u i s o i t . . . avec des p a r o l e s .
(T I I ,
In
le
plus
189)
Le Mangeur de Reves
that,
et
Lenormand i m p l i c i t l y makes
however p o t e n t i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l t h e t a l k i n g
the of
point
damaging
elements o u t , o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l system may be, a very
careful
choice o f c o n f i d a n t o r a d v i s e r has t o be made, e s p e c i a l l y
when
m e n t a l l y d i s t u r b e d o r h y p e r s e n s i t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s are concerned. In
Scene I I I Jeannine t e l l s Luc, 'Mes miseres sont
beaucoup
celles
de femmes . . . Mais i l me semble que s i j e vous
d e v o i l a i s , au l i e u de l e s a l l e g e r , vous l e s a g g r a v e r i e z . . . a t t a c h a n t t r o p d'importance' (T I I , can
understand
her
220). The
de les en y
reader/spectator
m i s g i v i n g s as he becomes
more
and
more
convinced i n the course o f t h e p l a y t h a t Luc i s n o t the s o r t o f psychologist
one
can
unprofessional
indulgence
trust
or
respect.
Apart
from
his
i n sexual r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s c l i e n t s .
- 390 -
his d i v u l g i n g t o others o f c o n f i d e n t i a l information regarding them and h i s b l i n k e r e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n on .one p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y , Luc does n o t s i m p l y f a i l t o n e u t r a l i z e Jeannine's noxious obsession, he a c t u a l l y c o n s o l i d a t e s i t w i t h t h e words he speaks and e l i c i t s .
I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases i n Lenormand's drama spoken words are
shown
planting
eventualities there
thoughts
in
people
regarding
future
as opposed t o past o r present events.
Sometimes
i s a l o n g t i m e - l a g between t h e moment t h e f a t e f u l
words
are spoken and t h e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r consequences, b u t a sum
o f dramatic evidence suggests t h a t even the
thousands
of
psychological
spoken
words
catalysts
are
which
never
actually
get
only
hundreds to
and
work
dormant
as
i n the
i n d i v i d u a l ' s subconscious o r unconscious mind, where they
wait
i n d e f i n i t e l y f o r f u r t h e r words, thoughts o r events t o f e r t i l i z e them.
I t i s - n o t by chance t h a t we l e a r n about
spoken
words
which are d i g e s t e d by
some
of
B e a t r i c e Clomber
the
i n her
c h i l d h o o d , and then o n l y have t o bide t h e i r time u n t i l the
day
her
but
repressed
effectively cousines, tells of with
f o r A l b e r t employs
i t s interest:
'Dans
them
mon
indirectly chez
mes
on ne p a r l a i t que de s o r c i e r s e t d'envoutements'
she
Anna (L'Amour magicien,
enfance,
T V I , 2 0 ) . When
La Dent Rouge t u r n s a g a i n s t C l a i r e , having her,
ammunition
409.
in
love
he f i n d s he can c a l l
on a mental
i n t h e form o f a c c u s a t i o n s
Pierre Tairraz hitherto
stock
of
sided verbal
made a g a i n s t her by h i s
For f u r t h e r comments on t h e m i s h a n d l i n g o f Jeannine's case see pp. 423-424.
- 391 -
f a m i l y and 117-119).
her
father
over
the
preceding
months
(T I I I ,
Lenormand r e p e a t e d l y shows how a h a s t i l y u t t e r e d o r casual remark
can,
catalytic became
in
role
t h e course o f t i m e ,
play
a psychologically
which would s u r p r i s e i t s speaker
aware o f i t .
I t i s no c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t
i f he
ever
Monique Leoncel
k i l l s Gregoire w i t h a s c a l p e l , when s h o r t l y b e f o r e doing so draws
her
spotted with
a t t e n t i o n back t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t
and
t o h i s f r i e n d ' s f a t e i n h i s previous
'Quelqu'un, - j e
traverser
has
already
commented on ( M i x t u r e , T V I I , 4 8 ) , t e l l i n g
reference
dream,
she
la
poitrine
ne
sais
avec
un
pas
q u i , - venait
bistouri'
he
her,
night's de l u i
(T V I I , 5 8 ) .
The
i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t when Gregoire says these words a thought i s i n e v i t a b l y sown o r c o n f i r m e d i n Monique's psyche a t some o f consciousness
level
o r unconsciousness and l i e s ready t o be t u r n e d
i n t o a c t i o n should circumstances so d i c t a t e . One can i n f e r from the
evidence
i n La Maison des Remparts t h a t
Rene
f e r t i l i z e s . w i t h i n h i m s e l f t h e seed o f an idea which
plants
or
eventually
m a t e r i a l i z e s . I n h i s r e p l y t o J u l i e ' s t a u n t i n g 'Eh b i e n , r e f a i s 1'amour, s i t u peux' t h e mental ground i s prepared f o r a which
i t s p e r p e t r a t o r has
conceived: Qui,
first-time
not
yet
' J ' a i p l u s envie de t e b a t t r e que de
quelques
herbager,
probably
ga
bons me
coups de canne f e r r e e , l a
ferait
du
reader/spectator
retrospectively,
Rene's
own
bien'
consciously te
mon
(T X, 9 6 ) . Although
the
could
be
canne
prendre. de
can o n l y a p p r e c i a t e words
crime
the
process
said t o play a
- 392 -
crucial
role
i n engendering o r r e i n f o r c i n g
a
thought
which
proves f a t h e r t o t h e deed. S u p e r s t i t i o n and s o r c e r y , which can be s a i d t o f u n c t i o n on the
power
o f words t o g i v e r i s e
t o thoughts,
subsequently
v i s u a l i z e d and a c t u a l i z e d , p l a y a prominent r o l e i n Lenormand's theatre.
Apart
from
the instances
where
characters - the
P r i n c e s s i n A s i e , f o r example - a c t on t h e words o f t h e they
b e l i e v e possesses them, a number o f p l a y s
spirit
revolve
round
t h e a r t o f prophesying t h e f u t u r e . I n so f a r as any c o n c l u s i o n on
t h i s s u b j e c t can be drawn from t h e p l a y s , i t would seem t o
hinge
on
two main
prophesied
e s t un Songe, pas
Secondly, inevitably
i f the future i s
a c c u r a t e l y , knowing t h e prophecy i n advance o f
materialization
change
principles. Firstly,
i s p o i n t l e s s . As Nico t e l l s Romee i n Le Temps ' l e s voyants n'ont jamais r i e n empeche.
I'avenir,
meme
l e connaissant'
i f t h e r e i s t h e remotest i s - that
factitious,
any
mistaken
fortune-telling
its
ne
187-188).
p o s s i b i l i t y - and t h e r e
pronouncement(s)
or
(T I ,
On
even
made
could
slightly
be
inaccurate,
o r t h e s o l i c i t i n g o f f o r e c a s t s from
t h e dead
are shown t o be h i g h l y dangerous because o f t h e v e r y potency o f the
p s y c h o l o g i c a l mechanism
triggered o f f . I n h i s article 410
'Le
Temps
e s t un
Songe
Adolphe-Jacques Dickman Rousseau's
410.
et
draws
La
Nouvelle
attention
to
Heloise', Jean-Jacques
neat summary o f t h e r i s k i n c u r r e d when a p r e d i c t i o n
Adolphe-Jacques Dickman, 'Le Temps e s t un Songe e t La Nouvelle H e l o i s e ' , P h i l o l o g i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , v o l . X, no. 2, A p r i l 1931, p. 220.
- 393 -
is
made a l o n g the l i n e s o f Romee Cremers': 'L'evenement
pas
p r e d i t parce q u ' i l a r r i v e r a ; mais i l
n'est
a r r i v e parce q u ' i l
a
e t e p r e d i t ' . ^'^'^ Although
t h e s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy i s
illustrated i n
412 Bernard's
theatre,
i t looms l a r g e r
i n Lenormand's
there
a r e numerous and v a r i e d examples o f the
work.
I n • such
hearer
phenomenon a t
instances, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f the context, the
consciously,
develops
where
subconsciously
and/or
unconsciously
mental images o f the v o i c e d event o r f a c t t o such
consistent
degree t h a t he e v e n t u a l l y predisposes
h i m s e l f and
t h e people around him t o i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n . They then s t a r t mould way does
i n t h e end the
materialize.
tuberculosis, 'II
to
and r e a c t t o t h e circumstances o f t h e i r l i v e s i n such that
vous
Madame Ystad o f Le Lache t e l l s
suggerera
temperatures
event o r f a c t i n q u e s t i o n
With r e f e r e n c e t o Muotta, a
que vous
s ' e l e v e r o n t . Vous
avez
prayers
mechanism
specialist i n t h e Demoiselle,
une r e c h u t e
recommencerez
are formulated.
p l a y s when 'Quand
on
effective, traverse
a
et
vos
tousser'
p a r passer dessous'
of
faith-inspired l e s rues
s u p p l i a n t l e bon Dieu q u ' i l vous fasse r o u l e r sous un t a x i , finit
a
actually
(T V, 1 0 ) . I r o n i c a l l y , Fearon h i g h l i g h t s the r o l e t h i s k i n d psychological
a
she p o i n t s o u t t o Monique
en on
(Mixture,
T V I I , 107).
411.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Footnote 25, L e t t r e X I , Sixieme P a r t i e , La N o u v e l l e H e l o i s e , Oeuvres completes, v o l . V ( P a r i s , Garnery, 1823) p. 365.
412.
See p. 241.
- 394;-.
Assuming one dismisses the idea t h a t B e a t r i c e Clomber o f L'Amour magicien r e a l l y i s a medium, one can argue t h a t through her t r a n c e s , manipulated i n s i d i o u s l y by her unconscious will, she l i t e r a l l y t a l k s h e r s e l f i n t o a b e l i e f which k i l l s her. S i m i l a r l y , from a c a r e f u l survey o f Le Lache one can conclude t h a t Jacques t a l k s and a c t s h i m s e l f i n and o u t o f s i c k n e s s . I t would appear t h a t by v e r b a l l y , paralinguistically and n o n - v e r b a l l y t e l l i n g everyone except h i s w i f e , who knows the t r u t h , t h a t he i s t u b e r c u l o u s , Jacques goes a l o n g way t o c o n v i n c i n g h i s own unconscious o f t h e l i e ; and/or h i s f e a r o f e v e r y t h i n g , combined w i t h h i s g u i l t which i s clamouring f o r a p u n i t i v e f a t e , i n s p i t e o f h i s conscious l o n g i n g t o l i v e , p l a y t h e i r p a r t i n undermining h i s immune system so t h a t t e m p o r a r i l y a t l e a s t he a c t u a l l y becomes what he i n i t i a l l y pretends t o be. A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s more t o Le Lache than Jacques's h e a l t h f l u c t u a t i o n s , i t i s a s i g n i f i c a n t work as f a r as the dramatic e x p o s i t i o n o f the a u t o - s u g g e s t i v e r o l e o f the spoken and the unspoken word i s concerned, because the s u b j e c t i n i t i a t e s the process and i s h o i s t w i t h , h i s own p e t a r d . I n most of Lenormand's o t h e r p l a y s the c r u c i a l s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy i s t r i g g e r e d o f f by t h e words o f another person or o t h e r people.
4.
The power o f spoken versus unspoken words as psychological catalysts There
processes
is and
of
course
beliefs
suggestion
psychological reactions
f o s t e r e d i n t h i s way. and
no
are
that
all
are t r i g g e r e d
thought off
or
C l e a r l y a l a r g e number o f t h o u g h t s , ideas
begotten
by
circumstances
or
events. The
- -395 - -
fundamental obsession o f Jeannine Felse i n Le Mangeur de Reves, f o r example, has i t s o r i g i n i n an e a r l y c h i l d h o o d experience. N e v e r t h e l e s s Lenormand's i n s i s t e n c e on t h e p o t e n t i a l catalytic power o f spoken words as i l l u s t r a t e d i n h i s drama can h a r d l y be overemphasized. The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a person's unspoken words can- a f f e c t t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s as w e l l as h i s spoken ones i s a l s o mooted.
Committing
what
Sartre
'mauvaise f o i ' , Jacques cowardice i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
was
t o designate
o f Le Lache blames
the s i n
Therese
for
of his
terms:
. . . Tu as f a i t de moi ce que j e n ' e t a i s pas: un l a c h e . Depuis deux ans, c'est t o n i n s t i n c t rebelle, c'est t a v o l o n t e n e g a t r i c e q u i d i c t e mes a c t e s . Chacune de t e s p a r o l e s , chacune de t e s pensees pese s u r moi d'un poids affreusement l o u r d . . . (T V, 142)
Again of
l i k e a number o f S a r t r i a n
protagonists,
Michel
Une V i e s e c r e t e i s a f r a i d n o t o n l y o f t h e spoken
o t h e r s b u t a l s o o f t h e i r 'regard' and t h e i r
Sarterre words o f
thoughts:
SARTERRE, passant devant e l l e , fuyant son regard avec inquietude C'est que j e n'aime pas beaucoup...
THERESE Quoi done?
SARTERRE Regarder en moi-meme... N i s u r t o u t . . . autres y regardent...
( T ' I I I , 234)
que l e s
396
I n t h e f i n a l i n s t a n c e , however, Lenormand's t h e a t r e leaves the
reader/spectator
vocalized Sarterre
expression i s convinced
disapproval
with
t h e impression
o f thoughts
that
that
counts
t h a t i t i s above a l l by
i tis most.
the Even
v o i c i n g her
and by drawing him i n t o a debate t h a t Therese has
done what he c o n s i d e r s t o be her w o r s t . 'En i n t e r v e n a n t dans ma vie,
en l a j u g e a n t , en en p a r l a n t devant moi, t u as v i o l e l e
s e c r e t de ma n a t u r e . Tu as empoisonne ma source', he when
he
(T I I I ,
accuses
269).
h e r o f h a v i n g destroyed
maintains
him as an
At one p o i n t he s t a t e s c a t e g o r i c a l l y
artist
that 'les
mots s e u l s sont dangereux':
THERESE Ah, j e t ' a u r a i s a u s s i b i e n d e t r u i t sans p a r o l e s .
SARTERRE P e u t - e t r e pas. Tant que nous nous t a i s i o n s , t u m'etais i n o f f e n s i v e . Ce sont l e s mots, l e s s y l l a b e s , ces p e t i t s signes n e f a s t e s e t menteurs de l a pensee, qui m'ont a b a t t u comme une g r e l e de plomb abat une p e r d r i x au v o l . . .
(T I I I ,
272-273)
This e s s e n t i a l c o n v i c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f S a r t e r r e i s in
t h e p l o t s and a c t i o n o f a number o f t h e p l a y s .
reflected Whatever
t e l e p a t h i c energy may r e i n f o r c e them, i t would seem t h a t people's
spoken words are more dangerous than
their
other
unspoken
ones. Even i f one opts t o g i v e credence t o the more r a t i o n a l t h e two p o s s i b l e
of
e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e events which take place
397 -
413 i n L'Homme et.ses Fantomes i n and a f t e r Tableau XV, i t might seem t h a t t h e y can be put down t o the power o f t h e unspoken r a t h e r t h a n t h e spoken word. Assuming t h a t 1'Homme i s l i t e r a l l y haunted t o death by t h e mental images he unconsciously manufactures as a r e s u l t o f h i s deep-rooted and unacknowledged g u i l t and dread o f r e t r i b u t i o n , t h e r o l e played by the spoken word may n o t be immediately obvious. I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t these f e a r f u l thoughts and imaginings have a l r e a d y been sown i n him by spoken words. I n Act I A l b e r t e d r i v e s home i n no u n c e r t a i n , terms a spoken message which, i n s p i t e o f b e i n g c o n s c i o u s l y dismissed by 1'Homme, remains logged i n t h e depths o f h i s unconscious u n t i l the seance g i v e s i t i t s opportunity t o surface:
ALBERTE . . . Ne me l a i s s e pas! S i t u p a r s , emmene-moi! S i t u ne m'emmenes pas, j e t e s u i v r a i . . . J ' i r a i a P a r i s e t , s i t u me repousses, prends garde, j e m ' a t t a c h e r a i a t o i jusqu'a t a mort e t b i e n au d e l a !
Tu l e . sauras, quand t u s e n t i r a s , dans c e t t e v i e e t dans 1 ' a u t r e , que t u n'es p l u s s e u l , q u ' i l y a une chose avec t o i , un amour repousse q u i s'est mele a t o i pour t o n tourment.
L'HOMME Laisse l a ces f o l i e s , A l b e r t e .
413.
See pp. 278 and 280-281.
- 398 -
ALBERTE, avec v i o l e n c e Je j u r e p a r mon amour que l e s ames outragees o n t p o u v o i r de vengeance, quand e l l e s o n t s a c r i f i e leur vie e t l e u r s a l u t ! ( I I r i c a n e . ) Tu ne r i r a s plus, quand t u me s e n t i r a s accrochee a t o i , sans p o i d s , sans forme e t sans v i s a g e , mais b i e n p l u s solidement, b i e n p l u s lourdement qu'avec ces f o r t e s mains.
(T I V , 13-15)
Laure's f i n a l words t o 1'Homme when he v i s i t s her i n t h e asylum are
equally
etrangler', 'Courez! dis.
chilling.
'Allez-vous-en!
J ' a i envie
she says menacingly, then chases
de vous
him away
with
Courez! Vous n ' i r e z pas l o i n , c'est moi q u i vous l e
Vous serez saigne par l e s vampires!' (T IV, 5 2 ) .
In
the
space o f t i m e s e p a r a t i n g t h e d e l i v e r y o f these speeches and t h e seance,
1'Homme
correspondingly
has grown more
psychologically
vulnerable.
The
weaker
'table's
and
words' -
'M.O.R.T.E. P.A.R. L.U.I.*, •A.L.B.E.R.T.E. ' and 'P.I.T.I.E.', for
example
seance,
(T I V , 86-87) - v o i c e d by t h e s e c r e t a r y
consequently
f a l l back on r e c e p t i v e mental
at
the
s o i l and
r a p i d l y f u e l what proves t o be a h i g h l y d e s t r u c t i v e process. In
Le Temps e s t un Songe
Riemke
fears
that
Romee has
t r a n s m i t t e d h e r h a l l u c i n a t i o n t o Nico by b e i n g obsessed w i t h i t herself:
RIEMKE Eh b i e n , j e pense que quand t u as vu c e t t e face dans I ' e t a n g , aucun danger ne menagait mon f r e r e . Ce n ' e t a i t pas une r e v e l a t i o n du passe ou de I ' a v e n i r . . . Ce n ' e t a i t qu'une h a l l u c i n a t i o n . . . Mais depuis... j e me demande s i ce d e l i r e de t o n e s p r i t ne se t r a n s f o r m e pas en r e a l i t e .
•399 r
ROMEE, r e f l e c h i s s a n t Est-ce qu'une d e v e n i r une r e a l i t e ?
pensee...
une
chimere,
peut
RIEMKE Q u e l q u e f o i s . . . C'est contagieux, l a pensee... Ce que t u as r e v e , Nico a pu l e r e v e r a son t o u r .
ROMEE Comment?
RIEMKE Tu l u i auras, sans l e s a v o i r , v i s i o n . . . .. . .
communique t a
(T I , 205-206)
The
fact
remains, however, t h a t Romee sows t h e c r u c i a l
v e r b a l l y when Nico t e l l s h e r t h a t he once attempted without jumps
mentioning
seed
suicide but
how. I n f l u e n c e d by h e r h a l l u c i n a t i o n
t o t h e wrong c o n c l u s i o n and promptly puts
into
she
Nice's
head t h e idea o f drowning h i m s e l f i n t h e pond. As i s o f t e n t h e case i n i n s t a n c e s o f t h i s k i n d i n t h e t h e a t r e o f both and
Bernard, o n l y t h e second-time r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r
appreciate although
what
i s happening i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
i t marks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a
Lenormand can
fully
conversation,
psychological
process
which w i l l t e r m i n a t e i n a man's death and i s t r i g g e r e d o f f by two
very
significant
natural pause
reader/spectator
q u e s t i o n s asked i n a l l innocence. a t t h e end o f t h e exchange, i s tempted
t o believe
the
I n the initiated
he can m e t a p h o r i c a l l y
- 400 -
'hear' t h e c a t a l y t i c r e a c t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e d i s t u r b e d man's psyche:
ROMEE Et t u as v r a i m e n t essaye de...
NICO Oui.
ROMEE Quand c e l a ?
NICO I I y a j u s t e d i x ans...
ROMEE Ou e t a i t - c e ?
NICO Ici.
ROMEE Ah?
NICO Personne ne I ' a su.
ROMEE P o u r t a n t , quelqu'un t ' a sauve?
414.
See s i m i l a r examples i n P a r t I , pp. 245-252.
- 401 -
NICO Non.
ROMEE Tu as regagne l a r i v e t o u t seul?
NICO, etonne Quelle r i v e ?
ROMEE C ' e t a i t l a , n'est-ce pas, dans I'etang?
NICO Non... Je me s u i s pendu dans l e g r e n i e r , pres de l a l u c a r n e du m i l i e u . . . Le c l o u e x i s t e encore... Au bout de quelques secondes, l a corde a casse. Je me s u i s evanoui. Je n ' a i pas recommence.
(Un s i l e n c e . )
(T I , 196-197)
To
make sure t h e f i r s t - t i m e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r does
not forget
this
c r u c i a l d i a l o g u e , Lenormand draws a t t e n t i o n t o i t l a t e r
when
he a l l o w s
t h e more o b j e c t i v e Riemke t o make
t h e same
assumption as Romee:
ROMEE J'ai commis une imprudence t e r r i b l e . I I y a quelques j o u r s , i l me p a r l a i t de sa maladie... I I me d i s a i t q u ' i l a v a i t v o u l u se t u e r , a u t r e f o i s . . .
RIEMKE Je ne s a v a i s pas.
- 402 -
ROMEE Personne ne I ' a su, mais i l a essaye.
RIEMKE I I s'est j e t e a I'eau?
ROMEE Ce f u t ma premiere pensee, a moi a u s s i . . , Que ne I ' a i - j e cachee!... Que ne me s u i s - j e t u e ! . . . J ' e t a i s si t r o u b l e e par c e t aveu, e t en meme temps s i sure d ' a v o i r t o u t compris, que j e l u i a i p a r l e de I ' e t a n g . . . Je l u i a i demande comment on I ' a v a i t secouru...
RIEMKE 'Eh bien?
ROMEE I I m'a regardee, s u r p r i s : i l ne s ' e t a i t pas j e t e a I'eau. I I s ' e t a i t pendu dans l e g r e n i e r . (Elle sanglote.) Tu a v a l s r a i s o n . . . C'est moi q u i l u i a i donne c e t t e i d e e . . . C'est moi q u i l e p e r d r a i ! . . .
(T I , 208-209)
That
Romee cannot be h e l d l e g a l l y o r m o r a l l y
responsible f o r
Nice's death does n o t a l t e r t h e f a c t t h a t h e r words p l a y a p a r t in
h i s seeking r e l e a s e from h i s torment a t t h e bottom
of
the
pond. T h i s i s y e t another p l a y where Lenormand makes t h e p o i n t t h a t , however i n d i r e c t l y , words can k i l l . In
conversation
with
t h e cure
i n Act IV Scene I I o f
La Dent Rouge C l a i r e confesses t o h a v i n g e n t e r t a i n e d thoughts:
murderous
- 403
-
. . . Une n u i t , tenez, c e l l e ou P i e r r e m'a battue, j ' e t a i s s i f u r i e u s e e t h u m i l i e e que quelque chose en moi s o u h a i t a i t sa mort. Une a u t r e p e n s a i t par ma t e t e . Moitie rageant, moitie revant, j e voulais q u ' i l r e t o u r n e a l a montagne... "Vas-y... vas-y done!... e t qu'un malheur t ' a r r i v e ! . . . Vas-y." C ' e t a i t comme une v o i x que j e ne pouvais pas f a i r e t a i r e . Je l e v o y a i s g l i s s e r sur 1 ' a r e t e e t tomber jusqu'a l a g l a c e v e r t e q u i e s t pres des grands seracs . . . (T I I I , 130)
A f t e r Pierre's f a t a l accident that
by
saying
triggered
C l a i r e r a p i d l y convinces
words s i l e n t l y i n her
o f f a psychological
have
been
telepathically, register signals
of
climactic after
is
wife's
discussion locked
anger,
between
Claire the
and
latter
a t the end o f
Pierre
in
their
Moreover,
just
the door and j u s t before he beats "her,
i n d i g n a n t C l a i r e , p a n i c - s t r i c k e n a t the
thought
i m p r i s o n e d i n a house w i t h a corpse on i t s r o o f ,
t o t a l k r a t i o n a l l y and
calmly and
s t a r t s making
Dans ce tombeau? Sous ce cadavre?
Eh b i e n , m e f i e - t o i ! Mefiez-vous tous! On ne de quoi j e s u i s capable.
Je ne l e s a i s que
trop!
of
understandable
CLAIRE
PIERRE
a
ceases
but none the l e s s w i l d t h r e a t s :
pas
to
non-verbal
resentment
Act I I I .
could
failed
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and
despondency and
she
thereby
147). Whatever c o u l d or
unlikely that
verbal,
bewildered
he has
cornered, being
his
transmitted i t
in
r e a c t i o n i n her husband
sending him t o h i s death (T I I I , not
head,
herself
salt
- 404 -
CLAIRE Je m e t t r a i l e f e u a v o t r e t a n i e r e !
PIERRE, t r a v e r s a n t a gauche A nous deux, m a l f a i s a n t e ! J ' a i pas peur... C'est pas l a premiere f o i s qu'une embarneuse e s t venue dans c e t t e maison!
(T I I I ,
120)
T h i s exchange, i n which, as even t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r has
t o a d m i t , C l a i r e speaks l i k e t h e w i t c h she i s
being,
undoubtedly
leaves P i e r r e more convinced
accused than
of
before
t h a t he i s m a r r i e d t o a s o r c e r e s s capable o f p u t t i n g a j i n x
on
him,
he
and
i t i s w i t h t h i s thought f i l e d i n h i s
mind
that
t a c k l e s the Dent Rouge. T h i s i s an a p p r o p r i a t e j u n c t u r e a t which t o make the p o i n t t h a t Lenormand's t h e a t r e i m p l i c i t l y c o n f i r m s t h e i d e a expressed covertly spoken
in words
practice
Bernard's p l a y s , namely may
they
subconscious
that,
prove t o be as p s y c h o l o g i c a l
o n l y have as much i n f l u e n c e as or
however
unconscious
mental s o i l on
powerful
catalysts, the
in
conscious,
which
they
are
dropped g i v e s them. The i n s i n u a t i o n s o f h i s f a m i l y t r i g g e r
off
a p s y c h o l o g i c a l process i n P i e r r e ' s mind and C l a i r e ' s own angry words
reinforce
i t , b u t i f any t h o u g h t
contributes
to
his
c l i m b i n g accident i t i s h i s not C l a i r e ' s . Such
an
a s s e r t i o n can be made w i t h
relative
confidence
s i n c e i t would be endorsed by Fearon o f Le Mangeur de Reves, Lenormandian
expert
on
t h e power o f
indubitably,
Fearon v e r b a l l y murders
words.
Indirectly
a
but
Jeannine w i t h what would
- 405 -
be
accepted i n a c o u r t o f law as t h e t r u t h . She
say
certain
such
a
has
Belkagem
words and she says o t h e r s , i n such a way and a t
moment i n t i m e t h a t she t r i g g e r s
o f f an
unstoppable
415 death
wish
suicide
i n her v i c t i m .
so p r e d i c t a b l e
certainly
Indeed, she makes
t h a t we f e e l
Jeannine
the l a t t e r ' s would
have done t h e deed somehow, even i f Fearon
almost had n o t
s l i p p e d a r e v o l v e r i n t o h e r hands. As soon as Jeannine has r u n off
i n t o t h e darkness, Fearon, who knows she o n l y has t o w a i t
for
a gunshot f o r t h e loose ends o f her crime t o be
says
'C'est une q u e s t i o n de s a v o i r s ' i l e s t m e i l l e u r
avec
des p a r o l e s
ou avec un
couteau'
and asks
tied
up,
de
tuer
Belkagem's
opinion: BELKACEM Chacun t i r e son p l a i s i r de 1'instrument dont i l j o u e l e mieux. Mais l e f u s i l e s t p l u s sur que t o u t . Les p a r o l e s sont comme l e couteau: bonnes pour achever.
FEARON Bonnes a u s s i pour commencer... S i un homme, avec des mots, n ' a v a i t pas r o u v e r t dans c e t t e ame une profonde b l e s s u r e , ceux que t u v i e n s de prononcer n ' a u r a i e n t pas e l a r g i l a p l a i e . . .
(T
The
I I , 286-287)
man
r e f e r r e d t o here i s the
psychologist
Luc de Bronte,
w i t h whom Fearon has a r e l a t e d d i s c u s s i o n e a r l i e r i n the At
t h a t time
415.
she makes
See pp. 423-424.
the c r u c i a l point
play.
t h a t 'on ne d e t r u i t
- 406 -
v r a i m e n t que par l a pensee' (T I I , 215). This statement c o n s i d e r e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e comments t o Belkagem quoted above i m p l i e s t h a t i n Fearon's opinion, i n instances of i n d i r e c t murder u s i n g t h e power o f words, i t i s t h e v i c t i m ' s own conscious, subconscious and/or unconscious thought processes which k i l l him, a l t h o u g h spoken words are t h e weapons w i t h which t h e 'murderer' a c t i v a t e s these and makes them f a t a l l y destructive.
5.
The need f o r and p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f e n s i v e r e s i s t a n c e Exactly
how a t h o u g h t i s b o r n , p l a n t e d , t r i g g e r e d o f f o r
f e d i n t h e psyche i s o f course unknown. However, the conscious, subconscious
and/or unconscious r e c e p t i v i t y o f t h e hearer,
which
t h e p o t e n t i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c a t a l y t i c power
would
seem t o be dependent, i s shown i n
and
of
Lenormand's
words
theatre,
t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t i n Bernard's, t o v a r y i n i t s t u r n ,
simply
with
the
particular
personal
on
circumstances
not
of
the
i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a l s o w i t h h e r e d i t a r y and e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s . Regarding
the l a t t e r , geographical surroundings
conditions their
and
p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e , and Lenormand's i n s i s t e n c e
power
to
condition
consistently
is
one o f t h e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e s o f h i s
Tableau V I
climatic
of
the
human
L'Homme e t ses Fantomes
psyche
the
generally
A l b e r t e how much t h e f o g a f f e c t s her c l i e n t s :
. . • Une brume p a r e i l l e , c'est pas mauvais. Les hommes s o n t p l u s f a c i l e s a f a i r e que p a r un beau C l a i r de
lune.
and
work.
prostitute
on
In
tells
-
407
. . . Le b r o u i l l a r d d o i t l e u r mettre du vague dans l e s c e r v e l l e s . l i s y v o i e n t des choses q u i l e u r c h a u f f e n t l e s r e i n s . l i s courent d'une femme a 1'autre. l i s sont i n q u i e t s comme des r a t s , dans ce coton-la.
(T IV,
It
33)
i s f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l reasons t h a t Luc de Bronte
recommends
Jeannine leave her Savoy guesthouse b e f o r e too l o n g :
Nous subissons 1 ' i n f l u e n c e de ce l i e u encaisse, de ces f o r e t s q u i tombent dans l a v a l l e e , de toutes ces l i g n e s descendantes. I c i , n o t r e ame r o u l e au bas de sa pente... e t e l l e f i n i t par s'y trouver bien. E l l e n'essaye p l u s de remonter. (Le Mangeur de Reves, T I I , 185)
In
the
following
comments
Le Temps e s t un Songe psyche physical
Nico
made i n
the
second
hints that this
tendency
t o be governed s i g n i f i c a n t l y by the weather surroundings
may
Tableau
be i n h e r i t e d i n g r e a t e r
of
and or
of the
one's smaller
doses:
. . passent encore de pluie...
. Ces vapeurs g r i s e s q u i passent, pendant des semaines... Cette p l u i e q u i l a brume... c e t t e brume q u i e s t deja de c e l a me desagrege...
qui est la
Ce n'est n i t r e s f o r t , n i t r e s i n t e l l i g e n t d ' e t r e a i n s i dependant d'une p l u s ou moins grande generosite de l a l u m i e r e , j e l e s a i s , mais qu'y f a i r e ? Dans l a f a m i l l e , nous sommes extremement s e n s i b l e s a ces i n f l u e n c e s .
(T I , 174)
I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t 'ces bearing
on any c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of
i n f l u e n c e s ' i n e v i t a b l y have Lenormand's
a
presentation of
- 408 -
man's
v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c a t a l y t i c power o f
spoken words. The i m p l i c a t i o n that
name
directly,
does
i s t h a t t h e simoon i n t h e p l a y o f
n o t o n l y f a n Laurency's
incestuous
passion
i t also increases h i s s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o the verbal 416
p r o v o c a t i o n t o which he i s s u b j e c t e d from v a r i o u s q u a r t e r s . Whether the
o r n o t i t s s t r e n g t h i s l i m i t e d by t h e e x t e n t
hearer's
conscious,
r e c e p t i v i t y - increased environmental
subconscious
or
diminished
or
by
of
unconscious
hereditary
and
f a c t o r s , whether o r n o t t h e speaker i s f u l l y
or
even p a r t i a l l y aware t h a t i t i s b e i n g e x e r c i s e d , .whether o r n o t it
takes e f f e c t immediately
power
o f spoken
processes
and
presented cursory
o r a f t e r a delayed
words t o i n i t i a t e
thereby
determine
or a f f e c t t h e course
reaction,
the
psychological o f events i s
as a f o r m i d a b l e r e a l i t y i n Lenormand's drama. Even examination
o f the m o r t a l i t y o f h i s characters
yields
sobering r e s u l t s i n t h i s respect: DEATHS
PLAY
Les
416.
Rates
E l l e - manslaughter Lui - suicide
Le Temps e s t un Songe
Nico - s u i c i d e
Le Simoun
C l o t i l d e - murder
Le Mangeur de Reves
Jeannine - s u i c i d e
See pp. 381-383.
a
POWER OF WORDS IMPLICATED ?
Tenuously Tenuously
Yes No
Yes
409 -
POWER OF WORDS IMPLICATED ?
PLAY
DEATHS
La Dent Rouge
Grandfather - e x e r t i o n Pierre - accident
Une V i e s e c r e t e
Vera - s u i c i d e
L'Homme e t ses Fantomes
L'Homme - ? Miscellaneous women - ?
No Possibly No Yes No Yes
A 1'Ombre du Mai Madame Le Cormier - murder Le Lache
Madame Ystad - i l l n e s s Jacques - e x e c u t i o n
L'Amour magicien
Berthe - drowned ? Beatrice - ?
L'Innocente
None
Mixture Les T r o i s Chambres Crepuscule du Theatre
Given put
No No No Yes
Tenuously Gregoire - murder Yes Florence - s u i c i d e
None Yes Yes Tenuously
Asie
J u l i e n - murder V i n c e n t - murder Princess - s u i c i d e
La F o l l e du C i e l
Hunter - ' n a t u r a l ' cause S e a g u l l - ' n a t u r a l ' cause
La Maison des Remparts
Micheline - i l l n e s s J u l i e - murder
T e r r e de Satan
Soeur M a r g u e r i t e - s u i c i d e + Miscellaneous
No No Yes Yes No No
t h e f a c t t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f o f these deaths can be down t o t h e power o f words b e i n g
exercised
deliberately,
s u b c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n w i t t i n g l y , one i s c e r t a i n l y l e d t o ask how free
t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e shown t o be t o o f f e r
r e s i s t a n c e , and
what defence systems, i f any, a r e a v a i l a b l e t o them.
- 410 -
The over In
extent
t o which people have or do n o t
have
t h e i r l i v e s i s a r e c u r r i n g i s s u e i n Lenormand's A p r i l 1928
Lenormand
d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f as
an
control theatre.
'homme
de
t h e a t r e q u i s'est donne pour mission de ranimer l e t r a g i q u e sur la
scene', adding t h a t h i s t h e a t r e represented
de
r e s u r r e c t i o n de
reintegration
des
l a tragedie,
ou
'une
plutot
un
tentative essai
elements t r a g i q u e s de I ' a n t i q u i t e
de
dans
le
drame moderne' ('Mon Theatre', p. 2 3 4 ) . I t i s o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t in
making
this
concentrated arbitrarily
on
'tentative' depicting
determined
the
dramatist
i n d i v i d u a l s whose
should
have
destiny
as t h a t o f t h e o r i g i n a l
i s as
Oedipus.
The
n e g a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f Lenormand's approach have n e v e r t h e l e s s been t h e t a r g e t o f c r i t i c s . J u s t as a number o f them have inclined
t o o v e r l o o k t h e f a c t t h a t Lenormand's
been
insistence
on
t h e ambivalence o f human n a t u r e i s a c t u a l l y as o p t i m i s t i c as i t 417 is
pessimistic,
irrespective incorporated instincts
and
of
they the
have a l s o
type
of
plot
tended and
i n h i s work, Lenormand never
to
forget
that,
characterization implies
urges w i t h which he r e p l a c e d t h e Fates
that
the
o f the
ancient
Greek d r a m a t i s t s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y h a r m f u l o r
Although
Lenormand's p l a y s leave t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r w i t h
the
o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n t h a t man enjoys a minimum o f f r e e w i l l ,
one
has
t o remember t h a t t h e average Lenormandian p r o t a g o n i s t i s
a u t o m a t i c a l l y a t a disadvantage
417.
negative.
See p. 329.
i n t h i s r e s p e c t . As Daniel-Rops
- 411 -
p o i n t s o u t , Lenormand used t h e two 'grands moyens de decouverte que
possede l a psychanalyse':
lis se r e d u i s e n t au r e s t e a c e c i : t e n t e r de d e f i n i r I'homme non p l u s par l e s gestes que c o n t r o l e sa v o l o n t e , mais au c o n t r a i r e p a r ceux qu'il accompllt lorsque cette volonte flechit . . . I I s u f f i t , pour c e l a , au dramaturge de mettre son heros dans des c i r c o n s t a n ^ j g t e l l e s que sa v o l o n t e soit momentanement a b o l i e .
Nico Van Eyden o f Le Temps e s t un Songe i s a c l a s s i c example o f such a 'heros'. H i s w i l l , i n f a c t , i s so o b l i t e r a t e d t h a t h i s u l t i m a t e s u i c i d e can be viewed as i n e x o r a b l y decreed.
However,
as t h e v i c t i m o f an e v e r - i n t e n s i f y i n g n e u r o s i s which
terminates
i n i n s a n i t y , Nico can s c a r c e l y be considered r e p r e s e n t a t i v e general stable
characters
mercy work
humanity.
Having
said t h a t ,
even
Lenormand's
of more
a r e f r e q u e n t l y presented as e x i s t i n g a t t h e
o f t h e e n t r e n c h e d , determined and a s t u t e m o t i v a t i o n s i n t h e i r unconscious. I n i t i a l l y
i t might seem
at
that the
power
o f spoken words a c t i n g more o r l e s s
independently
of
their
speaker and f r e q u e n t l y i n an o b l i v i o u s h e a r e r , helps
to
enslave
t h e conscious
examination
mind
still
further,
b u t on
closer
o f Lenormand's p l a y s - and Bernard's - i t becomes
c l e a r t h a t t h i s power i t s e l f
i s f r e q u e n t l y t h e s e r v a n t and pawn
o f man's deep-seated, amoral d r i v i n g f o r c e s and i s exacerbated by
certain
environmental
external
such
f a c t o r s . Given t h e e x i s t e n c e
i t i s easy t o l o s e
418.
influences,
sight o f the f a c t
as
hereditary
o f such
and
pressures,
that the psychologically
Sur l e Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand, pp. 136-137.
- 412 -
c a t a l y t i c p o t e n t i a l o f words can be e x p l o i t e d more o r l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y and a c t i v e l y i n a d e f e n s i v e c o u n t e r - a t t a c k - a p o i n t which t h e p l a y s a c t u a l l y endorse, a l b e i t i n d i r e c t l y o r on a secondary and n o t v e r y obvious plane.
6.
Defeatism versus
defiance
A r e f e r e n c e has a l r e a d y been made t o t h e way both of
Le Lache and M i c h e l S a r t e r r e o f Une V i e s e c r e t e
Jacques
anticipate
those S a r t r i a n a n t i - h e r o e s who t r y t o evade r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r their
choices, pleading the c u r t a i l m e n t o f t h e i r free w i l l
by
419 t h e spoken o r unspoken words o f o t h e r s . blaming
one p a r t i c u l a r
individual,
Even when he i s n o t Michel
finds
another
scapegoat, as t h e f o l l o w i n g d i a l o g u e r e v e a l s : SARTERRE Je ne s a v a i s meurtrieres.
pas que t e s p a r o l e s
etaient
THERESE Et moi q u i c r o y a i s l e sauver, en I ' e c l a i r a n t s u r lui-meme! Ah que 1'amour e s t bete e t mechant!
SARTERRE, I ' a p a i s a n t du geste Ne t'accuse pas... Je devais pencher secretement v e r s ma r u i n e , a s p i r e r sans l e s a v o i r au mal que t u m'as donne. Je p o r t e l e poids de mon temps. Je s u i s ne deux m i l l e ans t r o p t a r d .
FANERES
Pourquoi?
419.
See pp. 395-396.
- 413
SARTERRE I I y a deux m i l l e ans, c e t empoisonnement n'eut pas e t e p o s s i b l e , parce que l e poison n ' e x i s t a i t pas encore. E l l e m'a communique l e meme f l e a u que l e c h r i s t i a n i s m e au monde: l a conscience.
(T I I I ,
270) •
I n t h e end a t l e a s t Jacques o f Le Lache i s more honest w i t h h i s spouse
who happens t o be another Therese.
'N'etions-nous
t o u j o u r s d'accord? Ne t ' a i - j e pas l a i s s e l i b r e ? ' she asks:
JACQUES L i b r e ? O u i , comme l e poisson dans l a nasse, avant que l e pecheur ne l a r e l e v e . Ou e s t I'homme q u i a vecu l i b r e aupres d'une femme?
THERESE Tu es t r o p o u b l i e u x , t r o p f a i b l e e t trop i n j u s t e , a l a f i n . Tu d i s maintenant que t u t e s e r a i s b a t t u ? Mais, quand t u e t a i s a l a caserne, t u v o u l a i s t e s u i c i d e r ou d e s e r t e r . . . Maintenant que l a l i b e r t e t e pese, t u m'accuses. Tu ne peux r i e n prendre s u r t o i , pas une s o u f f r a n e e , pas une d e c e p t i o n . I I f a u t absolument que t u t ' e n decharges sur d ' a u t r e s . Tu d i s que j e t ' a i rendu l a c h e . Ce n ' e s t pas v r a i . Tu I'as t o u j o u r s e t e . Tu passes t a v i e a imaginer des p e r i l s . Tu es i c i par peur de l a mort. La peur e s t a l a base de t o u t e s t e s a c t i o n s .
(Un long s i l e n c e . I I r e f l e c h i t . )
JACQUES, t r e s calme C'est e x a c t . . . Je ne peux pas assumer l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t e de mes a c t i o n s ou de mes s e n t i m e n t s . . . II f a u t que j e l e s mette s u r l e compte de quelqu'un . . . Tu as d i t v r a i . . . E t s i j e t e rends responsable de ma l a c h e t e , c'est que j e ne supporte pas l a pensee d ' e t r e un lache
(TV,
142-144)
pas
- 414 -
At no t i m e does Jacques o r Michel show any real determination t o combat unwelcome v e r b a l i n f l u e n c e - from whatever q u a r t e r i t may come. M i c h e l even asks Faneres t o stop s e e i n g h i s w i f e i n an a t t e m p t t o d i v i d e and weaken t h e o p p o s i t i o n and minimize h i s s p e c i a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o Therese's d i s a p p r o v a l (Une V i e s e c r e t e , T I I I , 203). To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t P i e r r e T a i r r a z o f La Dent Rouge can a l s o be s a i d t o concede defeat i n t h i s k i n d o f s t r u g g l e before the b a t t l e really commences. His r e j e c t i o n o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s a t the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p l a y proves t o be b o t h s h a l l o w and s e l e c t i v e , and one wonders how much he r e s i s t s t h e arguments o f h i s fellow-villagers w i t h t h e power o f C l a i r e ' s enlightened convictions r a t h e r than h i s own. Consequently even his temporary o p p o s i t i o n and d e f i a n c e a r e o n l y apparent. He o s c i l l a t e s between t h e two poles u n t i l he f i n a l l y g i v e s up the f i g h t i n h i s family's favour, whereupon the s u p e r s t i t i o u s t h o u g h t s , which have been sown d u r i n g h i s l i f e so f a r by words from v a r i o u s sources, and have been accumulating i n h i s subconscious and unconscious mind s i n c e he was a c h i l d , r e - e x e r t themselves w i t h a vengeance.
To o f f s e t such m a l l e a b l e p r o t a g o n i s t s , s c a t t e r e d can
be
found
.characters supremacy
in
Lenormand's
theatre
of
minor
examples and
who a r e determined t o h o l d on t o the f r e e w i l l o f t h e i r conscious mind. Some o f
these
major and
individuals
use t h e i r awareness o f word power t o defend o r h e l p r a t h e r than
-
415
h i n d e r themselves. Although such c h a r a c t e r s are few i n Lenormand's
plays
do n o t i m p l y t h a t the
catalytic
number, power
words can o n l y be e x e r c i s e d d e s t r u c t i v e l y , nor do they that
the
p r i n c i p l e s which make spoken and
and
suggest
unspoken
f o r m i d a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e cannot be harnessed e x p l o i t e d f o r p o s i t i v e r a t h e r than n e g a t i v e
of
words
a
consciously ends.
Indeed
one o f the u n d e r l y i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s o f Le Lache i s n o t o n l y t h a t people can become u n h e a l t h y by t h i n k i n g , speaking and a c t i n g as i f they were so, b u t a l s o t h a t they can reverse such a by
thinking,
speaking and a c t i n g as i f they were
process
healthy
or
becoming h e a l t h i e r . One
Lenormandian c h a r a c t e r who
t r i e s to t u r n the p o t e n t i a l
of
p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c a t a l y t i c word power t o b e n e f i c i a l
is
t h e V e r i f i c a t e u r o f Le Simoun who
systematically
to
strengthen
his
account
uses i t c o n s c i o u s l y
and
will.
may
Although
he
o c c a s i o n a l l y g i v e the impression o f being e c c e n t r i c , he i s most
s t a b l e , s e n s i b l e and a s t u t e c h a r a c t e r in- t h e p l a y .
avez l e moral s o l i d e , vous', remarks Laurency (T I I ,
t h e Receveur or the Percepteur
when he needs a
makes
h i s quasi-overt confession o f
his
rather
listening
ear. Nor i s i t c o i n c i d e n t a l t h a t t h e t w e l f t h Tableau, i n Laurency
'Vous
18). I t i s
n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Laurency seeks out the V e r i f i c a t e u r than
the
which
incestuous
f e e l i n g s , begins and ends w i t h our being i n t r o d u c e d t o the s o r t of
countermeasures
nurture
and
taken
fortify
his
by the
Verificateur
psyche
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f word power (T I I ,
through
in
the
134 and 140-141).
order
to
therapeutic
- 416 -
Other more c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s a l s o challenge t h e tyranny o f words. When t h e P r i n c e s s o f Asie t e l l s de Mezzana t h a t ' l e s mots sont f o r t s ' , he r e p l i e s c a t e g o r i c a l l y , 'Les mots sont sans p o u v o i r s u r l e s s e n t i m e n t s . l i s ne peuvent n i l e s d e t r u i r e , n i l e s r a v i v e r ' (T IX, 7 9 ) . This a s s e r t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t de Mezzana has c r e a t e d h i s own immunity a g a i n s t any p o t e n t i a l l y n e g a t i v e w o r d - t r i g g e r e d o r word-exacerbated psychological processes w i t h i n h i m s e l f by r e f u s i n g t o be r e c e p t i v e t o them. He has d r a m a t i c cousins i n Madame Le Cormier o f A 1'Ombre du Mal and Romee o f Le Temps e s t un Songe. Madame Le Cormier remains f u n d a m e n t a l l y impervious t o the j a u n d i c e d n e g a t i v i s m o f Rouge's p e r v e r s e arguments, and a t t h e same time helps t o keep her husband's morale r e s i l i e n t . As f o r Romee, she i s as p o s i t i v e and r e s o l u t e as Nico i s n e g a t i v e and purposeless. Whereas h e r f i a n c e ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y i s c l e a r l y aggravated by c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s , Romee s i m p l y chooses n o t t o be a f f e c t e d i n t h i s way. 'Que vous etes d r o l e s , tous l e s deux!', she t e l l s Nico w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o h i m s e l f and Riemke, 'Toujours en t r a i n d'analyser l e temps q u ' i l f a i t . Toujours a maudire ou a b e n i r le ciel! Je ne l e regarde pas, moi, j e n'y pense pas...' (Le Temps e s t un Songe, T I , 174).
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , de Mezzana, Madame Le Cormier and Romee a l l provide positive
tragic
evidence
attitude
o f the
limitations
and s t r o n g w i l l .
Through
o f even them
their
Lenormand
d r i v e s home t h e p o i n t t h a t , w h i l s t an i n d i v i d u a l may be able t o do much t o d i c t a t e t h e processes
o f h i s own mind c o n s t r u c t i v e l y
and a t w i l l , he has no d i r e c t c o n t r o l over anyone e l s e ' s .
With
- 417 -
o n l y a few dozen spoken words de Mezzana u n w i t t i n g l y provokes the P r i n c e s s t o murder t h e i r c h i l d r e n ( A s i e , T IX, 109-110). Even i f she were aware o f i t , Madame Le Cormier o f A 1'Ombre du Mai c o u l d n o t s t o p t h e r e a c t i o n which Rouge' s spoken words and s u p p o r t i n g behaviour t r i g g e r o f f i n Maelik and which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h e r death. Romee Cremers i n s i s t s t h a t her w i l l and freedom can be used t o Nice's advantage:
. . . J'ai tenement desire q u ' i l vive! J ' a i t e n e m e n t p o u r s u i v i l e bonheur de mes pensees! Ce n ' e s t pas en v a i n . S i l e s passions e t l e s reves ne p o u v a i e n t pas c r e e r des a v e n i r s nouveaux, l a v i e ne s e r a i t qu'une d u p e r i e insensee. Autant nous enfermer dans une cage de f e r g a r n i e de p o i n t e s e t nous d i r e : "Dansez, vous e t e s l i b r e s ! " . . . La v i e n'est pas ga!... ( L ^ Temps e s t un Songe, T I , 204)
Romee's
determined
optimism
i s refreshing
and
undoubtedly
b e n e f i t s h e r own psyche, b u t i t .is i n s u f f i c i e n t l y i n f e c t i o u s t o help
Nico.
esperes, With
Riemke's
parce
r e p l y t o t h e speech
just
que t u es s a i n e ' (T I , 204),
quoted,
'Tu
i s significant.
a l l t h e w i l l i n t h e w o r l d Romee's hope and s a n i t y
cannot
compensate f o r Nice's l a c k o f b o t h and t h e r e b y save h i s l i f e . The p e r s o n a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r e n g t h o f de Mezzana,
Madame
Le Cormier and Romee Cremers i s n e v e r t h e l e s s undeniable. I t i s interesting namely be
that
t h e y should have another
characters.
o f Lenormand's
psychologically
P i e r r e o f Les T r o i s Chambres i s honest
'Je m'aime d'abord'
Une V i e s e c r e t e , extent,
i n common,
a c a p a c i t y f o r s e l f - d e n i a l . Extreme egoism i s shown t o
characteristic
admit,
trait
Jacques
(T V I I I , 18).
feeble
enough t o
Michel S a r t e r r e
o f Le Lache and, t o a
less
of
obvious
Nico Van Eyden o f Le Temps e s t un Songe c o u l d a l s o sum
- 418
-
themselves up i n the same sentence. To v a r y i n g degrees they are all c o l d and i n s e n s i t i v e towards those they are supposed t o l o v e , as i f unaware t h a t ' l e s coeurs f r o i d s ne f o n t pas les hommes f o r t s ' t o use Fearon's words t o Luc de Bronte i n Le Mangeur de Reves (T I I , 297).
It
was
theatre,
as
important
noted in
i n Chapters 4 and 5
Bernard's,
role
in
that
the h e a r t i s
overcoming,
or
in
Lenormand's
shown
to
responding
play
an
to,
the 420
i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words as i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication.
A
heart
a
p r o p e r l y used and d i r e c t e d would a l s o seem t o p r o v i d e
l i m i t e d form o f defence a g a i n s t n e g a t i v e processes t r i g g e r e d o f f or n o u r i s h e d
i n an i n d i v i d u a l ' s own
potentially psyche by the
c a t a l y t i c e f f e c t o f spoken words. This i s the i m p l i c i t of
L'Innocente. The
spoken
words,
power,
although
vulnerable
but she
message
emotions o f the Toca are c r u e l l y
hurt
she does not succumb
catalytic
would
protagonist
in
appear this
to
to be
respect:
their
Lenormand's she
is
by
most
mentally
subnormal and we are t o l d t h a t i n her ingenuousness ' e l l e c r o i t tout
ce
critic
qu'on l u i r a c o n t e '
(T V I , 122).
Marcel Ray,
theatre
o f L'Europe n o u v e l l e , e x p l a i n s her v i c t o r y i n s p i t e
these disadvantages i n the f o l l o w i n g
terms:
L'un apres 1'autre, 1'homme e t l a femme f r u s t r e s de l e u r h e r i t a g e d e p l o i e n t une a f f r e u s e d i p l o m a t i c ; i l s suggerent p l u t o t q u ' i l s ne d i s e n t l e s mots d e c i s i f s ; ils j o u e n t avec I ' I n n o c e n t e , e v e i l l e n t sa naive c o n v o i t i s e d'une b e l l e robe de s o l e , g u i d e n t son i m a g i n a t i o n f r u s t e e t c r e d u l e vers une s o r t e de conte de f e e s , decouvrent e n f i n q u ' e l l e se c r o i t aimee d'un
420.
See
pp. 320-322 and 334-336.
of
- 419 -
beau g a i l l a r d q u i a p l a i s a n t e avec e l l e ; mais ce qu'ils f o n t m u r i r e t f l e u r i r dans l a pauvre ame obscure, ce n'est pas I ' i d e e du crime, c'est l a conscience e t l a tendresse normales n a i s s a n t avec 1'amour. I l s ^ g ^ v e i l l e n t l a somnambule, e t e l l e tombe du bon c o t e .
Monique Leoncel, another
much
Lenormand's is
referring Monique, vous
needed
beacon
by of
her '^maternal encouragement
love, as
is
far
as
major c h a r a c t e r s are concerned, f o r , although
trammelled
successful
fortified
in
by
inherited
exercising
genes,
she
can
her w i l l . A t the
t o t h e i r common.'metier'
claim
end
of
i n the past,
to
e t i e z s i m a l a d r o i t e . Ah, s i I'homme p o u v a i t
be
Mixture,
Fearon
'Vous aimiez e t vous d e t e s t i e z . C'est pour
she
tells
cela
que
vouloir
une
seule chose, i l s e r a i t l e m a i t r e du monde!' (T V I I , 178). I t i s ironic few
t h a t Fearon should address t h i s comment t o one Lenormandian
single-mindedness.
protagonists Even
even i f she u n c o n s c i o u s l y
who
innocente' negative
'pour
'work',
and
j e o p a r d i z e s her own e f f o r t s u n t i l she them, Monique d e f i e s a l l
assurer a sa p e t i t e f i l l e une
(T V I I , 3 1 ) .
considerable
i f she i s clumsy a t her
i s on t h e b r i n k o f t o t a l l y undermining obstacles
show
o f the
She
simply
refuses
vie to
douce
allow
c a t a l y t i c power o f anyone's spoken words prevent
et the her
from a c h i e v i n g her c h e r i s h e d g o a l o f b r i n g i n g Poucette up t o be a r e s p e c t a b l e young woman.
421.
She i s
spared
no pressure i n t h i s
Quoted by Robert de Beauplan, 'L'Innocente au t h e a t r e A n t o i n e ' , La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 215, 13 o c t o b r e 1928, page n o t numbered.
- 420 -
regard,
however.
When
she s t a r t s o u t i t i s w i t h
Raymond
V a l a n t e ' s ominous words r i n g i n g i n her ears:
RAYMOND
qui
Eh b i e n , t u auras du mal a r e d r e s s e r l a pente e s t en t r a i n de s'accentuer sous t e s pas.
MONIQUE Pourquoi?
RAYMOND Parce qu'elle s'est creusee depuis trop longtemps, depuis p l u s longtemps que t u ne l e s a i s . E l l e e x i s t a i t avant que t u ne v i n s s e s au monde.
(T V I I , 19)
Raymond's
prophecy
proves t r u e as f a r as Monique
herself i s
concerned. One can c e r t a i n l y argue t h a t she f a i l s t o r e s i s t t h e downward s p i r a l dogging her own l i f e . However, t h i s i s n o t her prime concern. The f o r c e o f h e r w i l l goes t o s a v i n g n o t h e r s e l f but
her daughter, and by d i n t o f making
she
finally
stabilizes
Poucette
respectable
her own e x i s t e n c e , a l b e i t
a
little
r e l u c t a n t l y . The vehemence o f Monique's r e s o l v e i s expressed i n the
c l o s i n g l i n e s o f t h e opening Tableau where she takes up t h e
challenge
t o defy
any i n h e r i t e d weaknesses
liable
t o harm
P o u c e t t e , . i n terms which s e t t h e tone f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e p l a y :
Si e l l e devait devenir aussi maladroite e t d e r a i s o n n a b l e que sa mere, a u s s i chimerique e t i n c o h e r e n t e que son pere, i l v a u d r a i t mieux q u ' e l l e ne v e c u t pas. I I f a u t q u ' e l l e s o i t s a i n e , malgre nous. E t e l l e l e s e r a . Parce que sa mere l e v e u t . (T V I I , 20)
421 -
Later,
others
daughter'
t r y t o drive
home
the 'like
mother,
like
message and tempt Monique t o t a k e the l i n e o f l e a s t
r e s i s t a n c e , b u t t o no a v a i l . Fearon, whose g r e a t e s t pleasure i n l i f e i s t o ' s e d u i r e , corrompre une conscience pure' (Le Mangeur de Reves, T I I ,
214), i s as dogmatic as ever on the s u b j e c t :
MONIQUE Vous ne connaissez pas ma Poucette!
FEARON Et vous, vous ne savez pas ce que c ' e s t , l e sang. Croyez-vous que vous s e r i e z de l a p r o f e s s i o n , s i quelque chose dans v o t r e pere, ou dans v o t r e mere, n'etait pas i n c l i n e vers l a p r o f e s s i o n ? Et croyez-vous que dans v o t r e f i l l e , quelque chose n'est pas i n c l i n e v e r s l a p r o f e s s i o n , a cause de vous, ou de son pere? That's b l o o d !
( M i x t u r e , T V I I , 72)
In
view o f t h e m a t e r i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h which she i s
beset,
Monique's r e f u s a l t o l e t such words weaken her d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s an achievement i n i t s e l f .
7.
Knowledge o f . s e l f and o t h e r s : i t s importance, dangers and l i m i t a t i o n s There
can be no denying t h a t Monique's s t e a d f a s t n e s s and
indefatigable
efforts
t o achieve her
goal
with
regard t o
P o u c e t t e , i n d e f i a n c e o f t h e counter-arguments she hears, would have
been
herself
nullified,
i f she had been l e f t
and had c o n t i n u e d t o behave
i n ignorance o f
towards
h e r grown-up
daughter a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f her repressed and j e a l o u s y .
resentment
Consequently, Poucette's c o n s t r u c t i v e use o f her
- 422
of
-
superior
knowledge
Mpnique, t o g e t h e r
with
the
openness
t o i t , can be s a i d t o be the s a v i n g grace
letter's of
mother
422 and
daughter.
characters has
In
other instances,
where
ruthless,
have a g r e a t e r knowledge o f an i n d i v i d u a l
h i m s e l f , the l a t t e r i s shown t o be dangerously
t o d e s t r u c t i v e v e r b a l i n f l u e n c e s . The way exacerbates before
Laurency's
than
he
vulnerable
Aiescha o f
Le Simoun
l a t e n t incestuous f e e l i n g s
some
time
he h i m s e l f i s aware o f them i s a case i n p o i n t . As
C l o t i l d a i n t h e same p l a y , her u t t e r innocence makes her more t h a n a defenceless a
evil
game
appears
of
be
manipulative
so
little
pawn whom Aiescha manoeuvres a t w i l l i n
psychological
to
for
chess.
totally
Similarly,
unaware
of
Jeannine Felse how
maliciously
people o f Fearon's i l k can be t h a t she i s l i k e
a
lamb t o the s l a u g h t e r a t the end o f Le Mangeur de Reves. This
i s n o t t o say t h a t a c q u i r e d self-knowledge
c a r r y w i t h i n i t i t s own
does
p o t e n t i a l dangers. The f i r s t o f
not
these,
t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t o t a l knowledge o f anyone, s e l f or o t h e r s , is
summed
up
by Jeannine i n
Le Mangeur de Reves,
e x p l a i n s her l a c k o f f a i t h i n Luc's attempts t o cure
when her:
... La pleine lumiere, o u i , ce serait p e u t - e t r e l a g u e r i s o n . . . La demi-lumiere e s t p l u s dangereuse que 1'obscurite... Elle r e v e i l l e les f u r i e s q u i dormaient... Et t u ne pourras jamais f a i r e dans l e s e t r e s qu'une demi-lumiere. L'homme l e p l u s i n t e l l i g e n t ne comprend qu'a m o i t i e . (T I I , 251)
422.
See
pp. 376-378.
she
- 423 -
The second problem r e g a r d i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f self-knowledge is
t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e care t h a t i s r e q u i r e d i n the
the
bands o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n . Reference has a l r e a d y been made t o
the
denouement
o f L'Amour magicien
where
removing
Albert
ends
of
up
423 v e r b a l l y p r e c i p i t a t i n g B e a t r i c e ' s death. he
fails
He does so
t o r e a l i z e t h a t an obsession brought
unconscious
up
because
from t h e
mind i n t o t h e f u l l l i g h t o f awareness w i t h o u t t h e
most c a r e f u l h a n d l i n g can prove f a t a l . As a layman, A l b e r t
has
an excuse. As a s p e c i a l i s t i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , Luc de Bronte o f Le Mangeur de Reves has none - none, t h a t i s , which
adequately
o f f s e t s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y he shares w i t h Fearon f o r Jeannine's s u i c i d e . More t h a n t h e c o n t e n t o f Belkagem's d i s c l o s u r e , i t i s 424 Luc's p r e p a r a t o r y b l u n d e r s and t h e sudden, c r u e l manner i n which Fearon arranges f o r Jeannine t o be e n l i g h t e n e d which can 425 be s a i d t o k i l l h e r . as
he
A f t e r t h e Arab has recounted t h e f a c t s
r e c a l l s them, Fearon s c a t h i n g l y asks
Jeannine
'une e n f a n t de s i x ans e s t responsable de ses a c t e s ' ,
whether b u t she
d e s t r o y s any c o m f o r t t h i s q u e s t i o n might c o n t a i n by t h e manner i n which she p u t s i t , de cravache'
brutal
' l u i c i n g l a n t l e s r e i n s d'un coup
(T I I , 285). Moreover,
t h i s speech i s d e l i v e r e d t o
a woman who i s t e m p o r a r i l y unable t o r e g i s t e r i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , for
Jeannine's shock
423.
See pp. 368-369.
424.
See pp. 388-390.
425.
See pp. 404-406.
i s such
that
she has been
momentarily
- 424 -
transported tragedy.
back
to
her
mental s t a t e a t
the
time
Le Mangeur de Reves cannot f a i r l y be considered a g a i n s t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f self-knowledge
o f the
a
warning
o r psychoanalysis
as
such b u t r a t h e r an i n d i c t m e n t o f them when p r a c t i s e d badly. The truth
might have s e t Jeannine f r e e o f her n e u r o s i s i n s t e a d
lethally Luc if
of
c o n f i r m i n g i t , i f she had n o t been p r e c o n d i t i o n e d
by
t o judge h e r s e l f i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y g u i l t y o f m a t r i c i d e ,
and
a
s e n s i t i v e c o u n s e l l o r had g e n t l y e x p l a i n e d t o
when
her
that,
she waved her s c a r f t o t h e b a n d i t s years p r e v i o u s l y ,
intentions
were probably no more m a l i c i o u s than those
her
o f the
f o u r y e a r o l d boy s u f f e r i n g from an unconscious j e a l o u s y o f h i s father
who
ran
accidentally
e x c i t e d l y up t o t h e l a t t e r
exclaiming
to
say
'Daddy, l e t me k i l l you!'
goodbye,
instead
of
426 'Daddy, l e t me k i s s you!'. possible
that
a
Having s a i d a l l t h i s , i t i s
sufficiently
competent,
wise
and
also
humble
p s y c h i a t r i s t might have decided t h a t , i n the case o f Jeannine's complex
n e u r o s i s , deep a n a l y s i s would be dangerous and
not
be attempted
her
mentally
i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . This might
uncomfortable
mean
f o r t h e r e s t o f her l i f e ,
should leaving but a t
l e a s t she would remain a l i v e . Even individual
i f newly a c q u i r e d self-knowledge concerned
counter-productive
form
to
suicide,
does n o t d r i v e
i t
could
o f s e l f - d e p r e c a t i o n . As
beget has
the a
already
been mentioned, t h e warning which Raymond Valante g i v e s Monique 426.
C h r i s t o p h e r Badcock, E s s e n t i a l Freud (Oxford, B a s i l B l a c k w e l l L t d . , 1988) pp. 63-64.
- 425 -
about
herself
Poucette - a
and
the
warning
r i s k s she w i l l
run
i n bringing
she l i t e r a l l y asks f o r - does
n e g a t i v e consequences, on t h e c o n t r a r y
up
not
have
i t a p p a r e n t l y adds
fuel
427 to
her r e s o l u t i o n .
One wonders, however, whether
Raymond's
f r a n k n e s s might n o t have t r i g g e r e d o f f a c l a s s i c example o f t h e self-fulfilling
prophecy
i n someone w i t h l e s s
confidence
or
determination. Lastly, important shown
the
effectiveness
of
self-knowledge
a i d i n safeguarding the i n d i v i d u a l ' s free
t o be h e a v i l y dependent on t i m i n g , f o r once
triggered
off a
unhealthy
state
strong
psychological
an
will
is
words
reaction,
o f mind may s e t i n t h a t even t h e
as
have
such most
an
lucid
d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i l l be r a d i c a l l y d e b i l i t a t e d . Thus, no l e s s than Bernard, suffit
Lenormand makes t h e p o i n t t h a t i n such cases pas
de v o i r son mal pour l e g u e r i r '
' i l ne
(Les Rates,
TI ,
117) . The phenomenon o f t h e 'idee f i x e ' i l l u s t r a t e d i n Bernard's drama f i g u r e s p r o m i n e n t l y i n Lenormand's, where t h e term is
used on no l e s s t h a n t h r e e occasions
Le Temps e s t un Songe, 268).
Whilst
T I , 203;
(Mixture,
itself
T V I I , 149;
Le Mangeur de Reves,
t h e r e i s no i m p l i c a t i o n i n Lenormand's
TI I , theatre
t h a t a l l 'idees f i x e s ' a r e engendered by t h e c a t a l y t i c power o f spoken
words,
t h e o v e r a l l evidence o f
the
plays
indirectly
suggests t h a t i t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p l a n t i n g , t r i g g e r i n g o f f o r
427.
See pp. 419-420.
- 426
nourishing the
l a r g e numbers o f them and t h a t , however they
psyche,
they
can become extremely
tenacious.
enter
Once her
f a m i l y and o t h e r v i l l a g e r s have made, up t h e i r minds t h a t she i s a
witch,
Claire Tairraz realizes that nothing
their collective
will
dislodge
'idee f i x e ' :
LE CURE I I n'y a done pas moyen de l e u r f a i r e s o r t i r ces idees de l a t e t e ?
CLAIRE, soupirant Leurs t e t e s . s e r o n t q u ' e l l e s en s o r t e n t .
pleines
de
terre
avant
(La Dent Rouge. T I I I , 126)
I n A c t I o f Le Lache Jacques uses a r r e s t i n g l y v i v i d images when describing
the gestation
process
o f more
personal
'idees
fixes':
JACQUES II y a des idees q u i vous t r a v e r s e n t : d'abord, on l e s t r o u v e absurdes; e t p u i s , un m a t i n , sans qu'on sache comment, e l l e s sont l a , i n s t a l l e e s en vous, c o l l e e s a v o t r e ame comme des sangsues . . .
THERESE, i n q u i e t e , l e prenant dans ses bras Je n'aime pas a t e v o i r t e tourmenter ainsi... Je v o u d r a i s q u ' i l n'y e u t , pour t o i , que de l a l u m i e r e e t des formes.
427 -
JACQUES La pensee creuse son t r o u l a ou e l l e n'est pas ma f a u t e .
veut.
Ce
(T V, 52 and 53)
Andre Merin this
o f Bernard's Le Feu q u i reprend mal,
kind
number
o f Lenormandian r e l a t i v e s . Without
feckless respond meant
o f loss o f free w i l l p a r t i c u l a r l y
taken
magicien
has a
necessarily
t h e power o f c e r t a i n
catalytic effect.
i s a case i n p o i n t . trances
have Berthe
planted
words
A l b e r t Carolles
Once
Beatrice's
the idea
communion
with
difficult
t o e r a d i c a t e , as t h e f o l l o w i n g
sister
acutely,
they would c o n s c i o u s l y wish, t o v e r b a l
t o neutralize
feigned
suffers
being
by n a t u r e , such c h a r a c t e r s f i n d they a r e unable t o as
already
who
i s possible,
he
antidotes that
o f L'Amour unconsciously
i n h i s head finds
exchange
with h i s
FERNANDE, avec p i t i e , l e regardant . . . I I y a des gens q u i o n t perdu l a r a i s o n , pour n ' a v o i r pas su chasser l e u r s fantomes. Tache de renvoyer l e t i e n .
C'est a m o i t i e f a i t .
FERNANDE Comment?
that
i t extremely
illustrates:
ALBERT, bas, se r e l e v a n t
have
428
ALBERT Oui. I I m'est chaque j o u r p l u s d'admettre q u ' e l l e a i t revecu en B e a t r i c e .
difficile
FERNANDE, designant l e s l e t t r e s Pourquoi done a g i s - t u comme s i t u I ' a d m e t t a i s ?
ALBERT Farce que j e s u i s enferme dans absurde. Je me debats c e n t r e une ombre j ' a i cesse de c r o i r e .
un dilemme a laquelle
(T V I , 78-79)
S i m i l a r l y , once B e a t r i c e has h i n t e d t h a t Berthe was to
him w i t h Edouard, A l b e r t s t a r t s
obsessed
t o become
unfaithful
unconsciously
w i t h s u s p i c i o n s which he accepts a r e i r r a t i o n a l
denies h a v i n g :
FERNANDE . . . L ' e x i s t e n c e e s t devenue i m p o s s i b l e i c i , depuis que t u t'enfonces dans ce reve d'outre-tombe. Edouard s o u f f r e .
ALBERT De quoi?
FERNANDE De t a r e s e r v e . De t a mefiance.
ALBERT, vivement I I se trompe.
and
•-• 429 -
FERNANDE
Quelque chose, en t o i , l e soupgonne, malgre t o i .
(T V I , 79) Such confirms
examples
make
i t clear
that
Lenormand's
theatre
t h e evidence o f Bernard's: w h i l s t people are o n l y the
influence
of
others'
words
as
susceptible
to
as
they
consciously,
s u b c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y choose and
allow
themselves t o be, t h e o p e r a t i v e and a l l - i m p o r t a n t words i n t h i s conclusion
are 'subconsciously o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y ' . Lenormand's
p r o t a g o n i s t s are i n f l u e n c e d by words u n c o n s c i o u s l y , or they are conscious o f b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by them b u t are unable t o
resist
because t h e c o n f l i c t i n g impulses, i n s t i n c t i v e d r i v e s and
other
m y s t e r i o u s f o r c e s a t work i n t h e i r subconscious or mind
are
too
illustrates
strong.
both
Albert Carolles
of
processes. His freedom o f
unconscious
L'Amour magicien will
is
eroded,
a l t h o u g h he i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y weak from a p h y s i c a l , moral mental
point
characters
of
who
view.
Accordingly,
those
of
are p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y unbalanced,
or
Lenormand's disturbed
or
h y p e r s e n s i t i v e are shown t o be even more v u l n e r a b l e and t o have still
l e s s chance o f s a f e g u a r d i n g t h e i r f r e e w i l l from
attack
by t h e c a t a l y t i c power o f spoken words. I n a case as s e r i o u s as Jeannine Felse's i n Le Mangeur de Reves, f o r example, i t would be unreasonable t o suggest t h a t she should p u t pay t o her 'idee fixe'
by
t h e s o r t o f a c t o f w i l l a de Mezzana o f
Romee Cremers Jeannine
of
clearly
Le Temps e s t un Songe needs
competent
might
Asie
or
a
recommend.
psychiatric help,
and the
- 430
-
tragedy o f Le Mangeur de Reves i s p r e c i s e l y the f a c t t h a t i n s t e a d o f g e t t i n g t h i s , Luc de Bronte's words t r i g g e r o f f f u r t h e r r e a c t i o n s which h i n d e r her recovery. By the time Fearon has made up her mind t o k i l l her w i t h words Jeannine's f r e e w i l l i s so minimized t h a t i t i s n o n - e x i s t e n t and she i s u t t e r l y defenceless.
The
ambivalence o f Lenormand's p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the
t o which human beings can e x e r c i s e t h e i r f r e e w i l l
in
extent defiance
o f the power o f words goes hand i n hand w i t h the ambivalence o f his
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p o t e n t i a l l y e x i s t e n t but as y e t
unknown,
428 and t h e r e f o r e i n e x p r e s s i b l e , metaphysical As
was
factor.
p o i n t e d out above, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f
La F o l l e
du C i e l and the p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f Le Temps e s t un Songe, r a t i o n a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n can be for
a l l the seemingly o c c u l t and parapsychic
take
place
in
Lenormand's
plays,
but
given
phenomena nowhere
a
that
is
the
The
end
429 supernatural result left his
explanation
indubitably
i s t h a t ' the r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r
disproved. o f such
dramas i s never
f o r l o n g w i t h a f a c i l e , c o m f o r t i n g c e r t a i n t y t h a t he f e e t f i r m l y on the ground o f a w o r l d where
everything
has is
p r e d i c t a b l y and r e a s s u r i n g l y i n i t s p l a c e . This p o i n t i s s u b t l y reinforced minor
through
incidents:
secondary developments i n witness
penombre
dans l a q u e l l e
428.
See
Chapter 4.
429.
See
pp. 54-56 and
the way
the
action
or
'les o r i s des danseurs,
la
l i s s ' a g i t e n t furieusement,
276-282.
l a hideur
431 -
difforme mimique
des deux v i e i l l e s femmes, l e s bonds demente
paroxysmal inquietant
du
dance
Bienheureux'
i n Act I I I o f
d'une
give
desordonnes,
the
climax
La Dent Rouge
hallucination'
so
that
of
'le
the
caractere
'sans
cesser
d'appartenir a l a v i e r e e l l e , l e s personnages prennent pour moment
vm aspect fantastique e t semblent concourir a
un cauchemar' (T I I I , 104-105). Thanks t o the stage
la
un
realiser directions
at
t h e v e r y end o f A s i e , the reader i s l e f t i n no doubt as
the
P r i n c e s s ' s e a r t h l y f a t e , but t h e s p e c t a t o r u n f a m i l i a r
the
t e x t i s l e f t surmising:
to with
(Et c i n g l a n t du fouet l e s croupes qu'elle v o l t , e l l e s'elance dans l e vide. L'ayah l a cherche des yeiix, non pas sur l e s o l ou e l l e v i e n t de s'ecraser, mais dans 1'espace, parmi l e s nuages du couchant, q u ' e l l e d o i t s u r v o l e r , dans son attelage de feu.) (T IX, 147)
An
example
o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d i s p r o v i d e d by
two
seemingly
u n i m p o r t a n t exchanges i n Act I I Tableau I I I o f L'Amour magicien where,
i n t e r e s t i n g l y , i t i s not the a p p a r e n t l y more
Albert Carolles mistakes
but
the
level-headed
credulous
Edouard F e l l e t i n
who
'une barque de peche a I'ancre dans l e chenal' f o r 'un
n a v i r e de g u e r r e ' (T V I , 56 and 52). It
has
to
be
remembered t h a t i t i s
in
this
sort
of
r e a l i s t i c b u t i n t e r m i t t e n t l y s h i f t i n g or u n c e r t a i n s e t t i n g t h a t Lenormand's
t h e a t r e presents i t s overwhelming evidence o f
c o n s i d e r a b l e power t h a t words can e x e r t , e s p e c i a l l y as
the
psycho-
l o g i c a l c a t a l y s t s . Given such a b a c k c l o t h , i t would s c a r c e l y be s u r p r i s i n g i f even t h e most r a t i o n a l o f r e a d e r s / s p e c t a t o r s not
occasionally
wonder
whether spoken words
did
might n o t have
- 432 -
some k i n d o f s u p e r n a t u r a l and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y irresistible power, no l e s s mysterious than t h e numerous magical spells which a r e c a s t t h r o u g h o u t t h i s drama by v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . Or perhaps he might f e e l fleetingly d i s t u r b e d by t h e i n d i s p u t a b l e l o g i c o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n even t h e educated C l a i r e T a i r r a z reaches i n La Dent Rouge:
On ne peut n i e r que j ' a i f a i t l e mal i c i . . . Pas c e l u i q u ' i l s me r e p r o c h e n t , evidemment, mais un a u t r e mal que j e ne comprends guere moi-meme... l i s ne mentent pas t o u t a f a i t , quand i l s d i s e n t que j ' a i l a puissance. (T I I I , 129)
Indeed,
t h e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r might w e l l go on t o speculate t h a t
C l a i r e ' s mistake p r o b a b l y l i e s i n t h i n k i n g t h a t she i s unusual, for
one o f t h e i m p l i c i t messages o f Lenormand's t h e a t r e
certainly
seem
practising
t o be t h a t every human being
h e r v a r i e t y o f magic and
unwittingly,
wielding,
i s capable
of
wittingly
or
' l a puissance des mots'.'^^'^
Lenormand e x p l o r e s t h e harm t h a t spoken words can very
much
positive
more
t h a n he i l l u s t r a t e s
consequences.
demonstrated
would
Indeed,
i n Lenormand's
any
of
t h e dynamic
plays
their power
i s shown,
as
inflict possible
o f words i t is in
Bernard's, t o be p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous t o a degree which i s o u t of
a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e average human being's e x p e c t a t i o n s
what
a r e , o b j e c t i v e l y speaking, harmless v e r b a l
evidence g i v e n i n t h i s chapter
430.
symbols.
of The
i n support o f such a c o n c l u s i o n
T i t l e o f Rene Bruyez's p l a y La Puissance des Mots ( P a r i s , Les E d i t i o n s du " J o u r n a l du Peuple", 1929).
- 433
complements, Bernard's power
echoes,
drama
of
cathartic
reinforces
and
supplements
w i t h v a r i a t i o n s and s h i f t s o f
rhetoric,
for
theatre
than
Lenormand's
-
example, i t is
is of
less
that
of
emphasis.
The
feature
of
whilst
the
a
Bernard's,
and c o n c o m i t a n t l y t h e r a p e u t i c q u a l i t i e s
of
talking
are r e f l e c t e d i n Lenormand's w i t h g r e a t e r d e f i n i t i o n than are
in
Bernard's.
exacerbated
The
threatening
potential
of
i n Lenormand's drama by t h e i n f l u e n c e
they
words of
is
natural
f o r c e s such as water and a l t i t u d e , and c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s such as heat and f o g . I n comparison, environment p l a y s a minor r o l e Bernard's work. freedom, triggers
or and
Both
lack
dramatists
of i t ,
catalysts,
to but
touch on
defend the
the
himself issue
individual's
against
looms
in
verbal
larger
in
Lenormand's p l a y s because, i n t h e i r c o n t e x t , more i s a t stake.
- 434 -
CONCLUSION
- 435 -
I n o r d e r t o h i g h l i g h t c l e a r l y t h e paradox a t t h e centre o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e f i n d i n g s o f Chapters 1, 2, 4 and 5, which r e l a t e t o t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n by Bernard and Lenormand o f the relative ineffectiveness of words as instruments of communication, a r e summarized and commented upon s e p a r a t e l y from those o f Chapters 3 and 6, which are concerned w i t h the p l a y w r i g h t s ' d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e power o f words as v e h i c l e s o f i n f l u e n c e . The f i n a l paragraphs o f t h i s Conclusion draw t o g e t h e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b o t h resumes.
Bernard's p l a y s i l l u s t r a t e how people exchanging views apparently isolated being
meaningful
c o n v e r s a t i o n s can
actually
and d i v o r c e d from one another. Words
be
are
in
quite
constantly
spoken, b u t m u t u a l l y s a t i s f y i n g and maximally
efficient
communication i s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e . Bernard's drama suggests t h a t t h i s i s l a r g e l y because people have a n a t u r a l tendency t o their
inner
selves
sometimes
words
communication infallibly
themselves
subconscious
communication time,
to
process are tools
thoughts
and
their
presented in
as
unspoken
and
with
the
interfere
or do l i t t l e t o h e l p i t .
At
generally
themselves,
keep
the
same
inefficient
incapable
of
t r u s t w o r t h y v e h i c l e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and e i t h e r
being too
f e e b l e o r t o o clumsy f o r t h e work they are asked t o do. Although
Bernard
does
not overlook the
fact
that
the
communication process can be r a d i c a l l y impaired or u l c e r a t e d by lies,
t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s are n o t
m o t i v a t e d by a d e s i r e t o deceive t h e i r f e l l o w s . plays
particularly
good
material
for a
consciously
This makes h i s study
into
the
- 436
effectiveness there
are
o f words as i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication,
so
few
manipulate
words
unhelpful
or
conditions,
a
called
-
incidents with
where
a view
misleading.
to
In
making
spite
same language, none i s abnormally of
main
reason
of
artificially
these
auspicious
plays
The c h a r a c t e r s
could
be
speak
the
d e f i c i e n t from t h e l i n g u i s t i c
view b u t misunderstandings is
consciously
them
number o f Bernard's p r i n c i p a l
dramas o f m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
point
characters
since
nevertheless
implicitly
for
this
impossibility
of
establishing
communication.
The f a c t t h a t t h e g e n e t i c make-up o f a
a
shown
occur.
truly
to
common
The
be
the
code
of
person,
431 h i s p h y s i c a l s t a t e and p s y c h o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y that
person,
are p e c u l i a r
i s thrown i n t o r e l i e f by Bernard's t h e a t r e .
r e s u l t o f t h i s uniqueness t h e words an i n d i v i d u a l inevitably
have
a
meaning
which
i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y - from t h a t understood hearing/speaking Words, variety
d i f f e r s - however
by another
interlocutor
Bernard,
are
potential
carriers
process they were i n v e n t e d t o
mots
peuvent
nous t r a h i r : i l s ne v e u l e n t jamais d i r e
fait
ce
431.
of
o f mutable meanings and as such can sabotage the
(p. 48).
a
hears/speaks
communication
theatre'
As
the same words a t a g i v e n moment i n time.
insists
qu'ils
to
disent',
he w r i t e s
I t i s consequently
a
very
facilitate.
'Les
tout
a
sur
le
an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
to
in
'Reflexions
Here the term ' p s y c h o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y ' i n c l u d e s not only t h e c o g n i t i v e and emotional developments o f which the i n d i v i d u a l i s , or b e l i e v e s h i m s e l f t o be, aware, but a l s o h i s unknown and unknowable subconscious and unconscious processes.
- 437 -
speak
o f Bernard's d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e c o n f u s i o n sown i n t h e
communication
process
by
the co-existence
of a
'dialogue
432 entendu' and a 'dialogue s o u s - j a c e n t ' . in
Bernard's
The t r u t h
highlighted
work i s s t i l l more complex. Dialogue has n o t a
t w o f o l d b u t a t h r e e f o l d n a t u r e o f which t h e component p a r t s are the
unspoken,
t h e spoken
and t h e meaning
Accordingly,
i n Mon Pere T r i s t a n Bernard
referring
'ce t r i p l e langage'
to
prononcees,
o f the
spoken.
find
Bernard
we
composed
of
' l e s paroles
ce q u ' e l l e s v e u l e n t d i r e e t ce q u i ne se d i t pas'
(p. 5 4 ) . As a consequence o f t h i s v e r b a l l u b r i c i t y Bernard's
drama
suggests t h a t i t i s between people who share an empathic way o f hearing, most
a common ' s i x t h ' sense, t h a t words can be
effectively.
I t i s the irony o f ironies
exchanged
that
p r e c i s e l y between such people t h a t words cease t o be
i t
is
necessary
and s i l e n c e becomes r e p l e t e . Although i t i s p o s s i b l e t o argue, as
M i c h e l does i n N a t i o n a l e 6, t h a t i t i s 'justement quand
se
comprend
que c ' e s t agreable
logic i s equally i r r e f u t a b l e :
de
s'expliquer',
on
Francine's
'Pourquoi s ' e x p l i q u e r quand on se
comprend?' ( T V , 9 ) . The either with
conclusions
c o n f i r m o r supplement those drawn regard
Lenormandian
t o Bernard's
drama
b u t they
t h a t what i s c e n t r a l
See pp. 124-125 and 139-143.
o f Part I I
i n Chapters 1 and 2
p e r s p e c t i v e . When t h e i r evidence
i t becomes c l e a r
432.
o f t h e f i r s t two chapters
do
so
from
a
i s considered,
t o Bernard's t h e a t r e i s
- 438 -
also
of
considerable
importance
i n Lenormand's.
That
a p p a r e n t l y simple p r a c t i c e o f c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h e p r i m a r y aim which
i s t h e meaningful s h a r i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n , i s i n
complicated, from
a
i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n e f f i c i e n t and prone
v a r i e t y o f sources, can be regarded as
to a
the of fact
sabotage
significant
focus o f i n t e r e s t i n Lenormand's p l a y s . I f i t i s considered
in
combination
w i t h t h e theme discussed i n Chapter 4, namely t h e
fundamental
f a i l u r e o f human language t o supply t h e
of
vocabulary
t h a t r e a l l y counts, t h e
general
one
item
impotence
of
words and t h e weakness o f t h e communication process can be s a i d t o f e a t u r e almost as l a r g e l y i n Lenormand's drama as they do i n Bernard's.
Moreover, Lenormand's p l a y s complement Bernard's i n
t h i s r e s p e c t i n a number o f noteworthy ways. The
point
was
made
above
that
almost
a l l Bernard's
c h a r a c t e r s are f u n d a m e n t a l l y w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d , and instances o f 433 consciously be
said
certain well
d e l i b e r a t e d e c e p t i o n are r a r e .
with
regard t o
h i s colleague's
s e c t i o n s o f Lenormand's d i a l o g u e
The same
p r o t a g o n i s t s , and reveal
particularly
how words can have very d i f f e r e n t meanings
depending
whether they are b e i n g heard/spoken by someone whose motivations
are
cannot
benevolent o r e v i l . As f o r t h e
on
conscious
question
of
unconscious m o t i v a t i o n s , Lenormand's i n s i s t e n t d e p i c t i o n o f t h e mixed, s p l i t n a t u r e o f t h e psyche, u s i n g f r e q u e n t l y personalities, implicit
433.
clearly
treatment
of
See pp. 435-436.
complements
Bernard's
t h e same issue
through
unbalanced
subtler,
more
t h e medium o f
- 439 -
r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r s . Although t h e unconscious mind o f man can be s a i d t o be one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l agents i n t h e drama o f b o t h p l a y w r i g h t s , i n Bernard's t h e a t r e i t i s shown t o be a v e r y mischievous p o l t e r g e i s t and a p o t e n t i a l sower o f havoc and distress, whilst i n Lenormand's i t i s presented more e m p h a t i c a l l y as a p o t e n t i a l camping ground o f e v i l .
The
complementarity
of
the
two
playwrights'
central
p r e o c c u p a t i o n s i s e s p e c i a l l y s t r i k i n g . Whereas t h e main v e h i c l e o f d r a m a t i c i n t e r e s t i n Bernard's t h e a t r e can be s a i d t o be t h e writer's
presentation
capacity,
the
of
equivalent
how words
fail
i n their
i n Lenormand's drama
lies
consequences
o f t h e i r f a i l i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l l y . The
language
to
p r o v i d e a v e r b a l symbol f o r a much
absolute
T r u t h which i s a major p r e o c c u p a t i o n
characters
i s eschewed, i g n o r e d o r circumvented
earthly i n the
failure sought
of
of
after
Lenormand's
in
Bernard's
I n t e r - W a r drama. I n t h i s sense i t can be considered Lenormand's s p e c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n , o f f s e t t i n g those aspects o f t h e
'theatre
de I ' i n e x p r i m e ' which Bernard e x p l o r e s i n g r e a t e r depth. As f a r as we know, almost a l l Bernard's c h a r a c t e r s l i v e a t peace
w i t h t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f a i t h o r l a c k o f i t , ' and, u n l i k e
number by the
o f Lenormand's p r i n c i p a l p r o t a g o n i s t s , are n o t
o n t o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s . One wonders whether t h e Inter-War
mankind's
years
deliberately
metaphysical
avoided
anguish because he
plagued
Bernard
making
much
believed,
a
like
of of a
number o f Lenormand's female c h a r a c t e r s , t h a t t h e experience o f genuine human l o v e i s m y s t e r i o u s l y connected t o t h e l o n g e d - f o r 'inexpressible'.
Perhaps
he
told
himself,
to
use
Pierre
- 440 -
Garbin's words w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e quasi-sacred value o f love, 'C'est t r o p grand, c'est t r o p p r e c i e u x . . . En p a r l e r , ga me g e n e r a i t . . . ' (La Louise, T I I I , 239) and consequently chose t o remain as s i l e n t as p o s s i b l e on t h e core o f t h e s u b j e c t . I n t a k i n g t h i s l i n e , Bernard c o u l d never be accused o f f a i l i n g t o respect t h e i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f the ' i n e x p r e s s i b l e ' - n o r , ironically, c o u l d Lenormand. Although he tackled man's metaphysical anguish head-on, Lenormand c o u l d n o t be charged, any more than Bernard, w i t h violating the verbally ' i n s a i s i s s a b l e ' by a t t e m p t i n g t o a f f i r m o r negate i t s existence v e r b a l l y through a consensus o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' views.
Deirdre Bair repeatedly
tells
that
at
one
time,
when
asked
about t h e Godot f o r whom V l a d i m i r and Estragon
w a i t i n g , Samuel B e c k e t t would
us
have
are
'would snap " I f I knew who Godot was, I
s a i d so i n t h e p l a y , " o r , " I f Godot
were
God,
I
434 would
have
given,
the
question
same
Lenormand
s o r t o f answer t o
anyone
might
well
asking
a
have
similar
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i n e x p r e s s i b l e 'quelque chose' h i s
characters that
c a l l e d him t h a t " ' .
are seeking.
Lenormand's
I n 1968 Robert Posen makes
'refusal
t o commit h i m s e l f t o
alternative
hypotheses t h a t he presents when
supernatural
...
the
any
point
o f the
considering
the
i s , a f t e r a l l , a j u s t i f i a b l e response t o the
435 problem'.
Can one n o t argue t h a t , s t r i c t l y speaking, i t i s
434.
D e i r d r e B a i r , Samuel B e c k e t t : A Biography (London, Jonathan Cape, 1978) pp. 382-383.
435.
'Aspects, P a r t I I ' ,
p. 38.
- 441 -
the
only
justifiable
believer's
response
or non-believer's
t o t h e problem
perspective?
from
the
The n e u t r a l i t y
with
which Lenormand p r e s e n t s t h e i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f a existent of
b u t as y e t i n e x p r e s s i b l e
' h i m / h e r / i t ' i s perhaps
t h e p r i n c i p a l but l e a s t appreciated
When
the collected
dramatist's
treatment
plays
that
not
q u a l i t i e s o f h i s work.
are considered
as
a
whole, t h e
on t h e o t h e r i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
and c o n s t a n t l y ambivalent. A l l one can e s t a b l i s h i s
those
denied
one
o f b e l i e f and b e l i e v e r s on t h e one hand
and u n b e l i e f and n o n - b e l i e v e r s impartial
potentially
who
have t h e c o n v i c t i o n
o f the
'inexpressible'
most o f Lenormand-'s p r o t a g o n i s t s , grasp i t
emotionally
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y . That these f o r t u n a t e few a r e female
explain
why
theatre
b e l i e v e woman h o l d s t h e answer t o t h e i r questions. I t
is
ironic
certain
o f t h e male
characters
might
t h a t t h e s e c r e t which some women
carry
within
should
be
them, and which these men seek their
greater
intuitive
i n Lenormand's
would
appear t o
so c o g n i t i v e l y ,
awareness
that
'la
connaissance v r a i e e s t . . . un sentiment de v e r i t e p l u s encore qu'une connaissance de l a v e r i t e , e t e l l e e s t meme, comme sentiment,
en
partie
i n t r a d u i s i b l e dans
le
langage
tout de
1'intelligence'. These well
as
conclusions confirm t h a t the heart, i n t u i t i v e l y affectively
speaking, p l a y s as
crucial
a
as
role i n
Lenormand's t h e a t r e as i t does i n Bernard's. Bernard i s l a r g e l y concerned
436.
with
t h e suggestion
Mornet, H i s t o i r e , p. 108.
o f t h e ' i n e f f a b l e i n t h e human
- 442 -
437 heart',
whilst
potential
Lenormand's prime p r e o c c u p a t i o n i s
I n e f f a b l e which o n l y t h e human h e a r t can
with
grasp.
a In
s p i t e o f these d i f f e r e n c e s o f emphasis, j u d g i n g by t h e combined works
of
Bernard and Lenormand, i t would seem t h a t
response t o , and medium f o r , the e a r t h l y o r t h e inexpressible
a
viable
metaphysically
has t o be emotional o r i n t u i t i v e and
cannot
be
c e r e b r a l or l i n g u i s t i c . Before proceeding t o a review o f the f i n d i n g s discussed i n Chapters 3 and 6, above
i t should be noted
confirm
the
viability
of
that a
those
summarized
Maeterlinck-Bernard/
Lenormand-Beckett c h a i n as f a r as some i m p o r t a n t aspects o f t h e unspoken and t h e i n e x p r e s s i b l e are The beings',
concerned."^"^^
'lack
of
communication
which
is
'a
major
and
theme
understanding in
a l l of
between
Lenormand's
439 works'
is
Maeterlinck, t h a t words
also
o f c e n t r a l importance i n
Bernard
and B e c k e t t .
the
theatre
Maeterlinck's
of
observation
break down t o t a l l y when people, h e l d i n the g r i p o f
g r e a t emotions, have t r u l y i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s t o say i s r e f l e c t e d in
the
silence
work
o f Bernard and Lenormand, as i s
as a medium o f communication.
his
belief
The l a t t e r p o i n t i s
a p p l i c a b l e t o B e c k e t t , b u t s i l e n c e i s nonetheless a
matters
and t a l k i n g
Rhodes, The Contemporary French Theater, p.
438.
See pp. 61-69.
439.
Jones, H.-R.
118.
hide
f o r the sake o f i t t o
437.
Lenormand, p.
not
privileged
c o n s t i t u e n t o f h i s dramatic w o r l d . Screens o f d i a l o g u e t o what f u n d a m e n t a l l y
in
247.
- 443 -
ward o f f what would o t h e r w i s e be a t h r e a t e n i n g s i l e n c e are t o be found i n M a e t e r l i n c k , Bernard and B e c k e t t . The idea t h a t essential t r u t h s have t o be apprehended i n t u i t i v e l y or e m o t i o n a l l y r a t h e r than i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , and t h a t women would seem t o have a s p i r i t u a l advantage over men i n t h i s r e s p e c t , i s n o t a f e a t u r e o f B e c k e t t ' s t h e a t r e b u t i s common i n v a r y i n g degrees t o M a e t e r l i n c k , Bernard and Lenormand. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l does n o t f i g u r e p r o m i n e n t l y i n Bernard's Inter-War t h e a t r e as i t does i n t h e drama o f the o t h e r t h r e e . From t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o see M a e t e r l i n c k ' s characters as uncomprehending p l a y t h i n g s o f a vaguely t h r e a t e n i n g 'unknown', Lenormand's as f r u s t r a t e d b u t r e l e n t l e s s seekers o f t h i s i n e x p r e s s i b l e "Godot" and Beckett's as t h e i r successors w a i t i n g v a i n l y f o r ' h i m / h e r / i t ' .
The
findings
reviewed.
o f Chapters
3 and 6
'Le mot en s o i n'est qu'un f a i b l e
t o u t ce que nous v o u d r i o n s exprimer. qu'une
have
corde .de
o f May 1922,
'Mais
t o be
instrument
I I n'a pas p l u s de
v i o l o n au repos', observes
B u l l e t i n de l a Chimere
still
Bernard
quelles
pour valeur
i n the
resonances
p o s s i b l e s ! . . . ' (Tempignages, p. 2 6 ) . W h i l s t t h i s statement positive
as
certainly reasons
w e l l as n e g a t i v e
show which
implications,
how words can be
powerfully
Bernard's
may o r may n o t be r e l a t e d t o t h e i r
failure
o f communication. A t f i r s t i t may seem t h a t
is
r e m o t e l y novel about t h i s . A f t e r
birth
o f spoken words.
as
there
a l l , since t h e
o f t h e a t r e dramatic i n t r i g u e s have had t h e i r
the e f f e c t
plays
treacherous f o r
instruments nothing
has
origin i n
What i s much more o r i g i n a l about
- 444 -
Bernard i s t h e f a c t t h a t i n h i s drama f e e l i n g s a r e h u r t and l i v e s a r e d i s r u p t e d through t h e power o f words spoken i n a l l innocence. I n very few cases does t h e speaker o f t h e words i n question i n t e n d any harm. Only r a r e l y , moreover, does t h e speaker ever know t h e e f f e c t h i s words have had.
Whilst
p i n p o i n t i n g and b r i n g i n g i n t o r e l i e f
u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f words as i n s t r u m e n t s mention 'mot'
the
general
o f communication, n o t t o
t h e i r supreme d e f i c i e n c y i n f a i l i n g t o supply t h e t h a t would make sense o f a l l t h e r e s t and
Lenormand
highlights
psychological
no l e s s than
Bernard
life
the
one
itself,
considerable
i n f l u e n c e t h a t both spoken and unspoken words are
capable o f e x e r c i s i n g . Bernard b r i n g s i n t o r e l i e f t h e p o t e n t i a l of
spoken
cause
words t o i n f l u e n c e s e l f and o t h e r s
various
jeopardize
types
of
relationships.
psychological
negatively,
•imbalance
Lenormand does t h i s
and
and
to
more:
he
demonstrates i n no u n c e r t a i n terms t h e power t h a t spoken have
t o do f a t a l damage i n a v a r i e t y o f ways.
acts
o f v e r b a l t r e a c h e r y are represented.
to
words
Straightforward
The scheming
couple
o f L'Innocente, Aiescha o f Le Simoun and the P r i n c e s s o f
Asie,
for
their
example,
exploit
l i e s t o t h e maximum
to
achieve
u n p l e a s a n t o b j e c t i v e s . However, i t i s the more s u b t l e , b u t none the
l e s s p o t e n t i a l l y l e t h a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l power
words
are
shown
t o have which i s one o f
the
that
most
spoken striking
f e a t u r e s o f t h e d r a m a t i s t ' s work. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f b r e a k i n g t h e s t r a n g l e h o l d o f
tenacious
v e r b a l l y t r i g g e r e d r e a c t i o n s f e a t u r e s i n Bernard's t h e a t r e it
has. g r e a t e r
significance
in
Lenormand's
where
but
i t is
- 445 -
f r e q u e n t l y presented as a l i f e - a n d - d e a t h i s s u e . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f self-knowledge and t h e c a p a c i t y f o r s e l f l e s s love are i n d i r e c t l y suggested as p o s s i b l e remedies o r a n t i d o t e s . T h e i r e f f i c a c y , however, would seem t o be l i m i t e d , f o r although Lenormand's p l a y s concur w i t h Bernard's i n t h e i r implication t h a t spoken words can e x e r t o n l y as much power as t h e i r hearer p e r m i t s them t o have, t h i s 'permission' can be granted subconsciously o r unconsciously so t h a t defence i s h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c and i n some cases i m p o s s i b l e , l e a v i n g language w i t h what might appear t o be a quasi-magic p o t e n t i a l .
If
one takes i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e f i n d i n g s o f a l l
chapters Lenormand
of
this
were
thesis,
aware
i t i s evident
o f both
that
Bernard
the inefficiency
of
t h e spoken word. I n t h i s they can be
and
o f verbal
communication and t h e harm t h a t can be p e r p e t r a t e d through power
six
the
said
t o have
and
Lenormand
s p e c i a l l i n k s w i t h lonesco and S a r t r e . lonesco went v e r y much f u r t h e r than Bernard in
d e s t r o y i n g any f a i t h h i s r e a d e r s / s p e c t a t o r s might
have i n
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f words as i n s t r u m e n t s o f communication. His response
t o t h e impoverishment o f language as
a
vehicle of
meaning was r a d i c a l i n t h e extreme. At t h e same t i m e , he they
was aware o f
t h e c o n t r o l l i n g p o t e n t i a l o f words
however, and knew
c o u l d be dangerous masters. ' I I e s t entendu que l e s mots
ne d i s e n t r i e n ' , he s t a t e s i n J o u r n a l en m i e t t e s , g o i n g on w i t h i r o n i c v e r b o s i t y t o echo M a e t e r l i n c k w i t t i n g l y o r 'L'experience of
unwittingly:
profonde n'a pas de mots'. W i t h i n t h e paragraph
eighteen l i n e s
he takes
t o convey
t h i s e s s e n t i a l message
- 446 -
lonesco a l s o makes t h e p o i n t t h a t 'un mot venu on ne s a l t
d'ou'
can have i n e x p r e s s i b l e consequences, pushing whomever i t w i l l s 440 'dans
1'experience
indicible'.
Marie-Louise M a i l l y
of
Bernard's L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage i s a c l a s s i c example o f such a victim.
In
Le Mangeur de Reves
Lenormand's
v e r b a l murder; i n La Legon, t o o , a word
Fearon 441
commits
kills.
With r e g a r d t o S a r t r e , a l o n g s i d e h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f man
as
an i s l a n d whose s o l i t u d e remains e s s e n t i a l l y u n a f f e c t e d by
any
v e r b a l b r i d g e s o f communication, we f i n d w i t h i n the metaphor o f 442 Huis Clos, unspoken the
for
example,
the
spoken
expressed
and
expressed b e i n g ' l i t e r a l l y ' i n s t r u m e n t s o f
the
torture,
p h i l o s o p h e r - p l a y w r i g h t e x p l o i t i n g t o maximum advantage
capacity
dramatized 443 e a r l i e r i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s by Bernard and Lenormand. 444
out
of
words f o r i n f l i c t i n g
As
was noted above,
to
prove
nevertheless demonstrate
anything undeniable
implicitly
mental
the
torment
Bernard and Lenormand d i d n o t specific
in
their
t h a t a l a r g e number or
explicitly
their
theatre. of
I t is
their
belief
set
plays in
440.
Eugene lonesco. J o u r n a l en m i e t t e s ( P a r i s , Mercure France, 1967) p. 120.
de
441.
Eugene lonesco. Theatre I ( I n c l u d e s La C a n t a t r i c e chauve - La Legon - Les Chaises) ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , 1954).
442.
Jean-Paul S a r t r e , Theatre (Les Mouches - Huis Clos Morts sans s e p u l t u r e - La P u t a i n respectueuse) ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , 1947).
443.
See pp. 219-234 and 378-385.
444.
See pp. 69-70.
the
- 447
-
e f f i c a c y o f the spoken word. This statement made w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o Lenormand c o u l d s u r p r i s e , but i s u n l i k e l y t o appear contentious; made in respect of Bernard i t becomes controversial.
May
Daniels
1'Isle-Adam, ideas
claims
t h a t the
i n whose work 'we may
characteristic
nevertheless
of
'opposed
the
philosophy
of
Villiers
d e t e c t the germ o f
Theatre
de
de
certain
I'inexprime',
t o the ideas o f the d r a m a t i s t s
is
of
the
445 Unexpressed' 'Tout
verbe,
t o the e x t e n t t h a t i n Axel one f i n d s the dans
l e c e r c l e de son
action,
cree
lines
ce
exprime. Mesure done ce que t u accordes de v o l o n t e aux
qu'il
fictions
446 de
ton
esprit'.
This t h e s i s c o n s t i t u t e s 447
D a n i e l s ' l i n e o f argument here. the
statement
however word given
not
attaches Word', this
F i r s t i t must be noted
seem, c o n t r a d i c t the
does
then
that not,
at
'A any
Secondly, i f V i l l i e r s de 1'Isle-Adam
q u a l i f y as a d r a m a t i s t o f the importance
to
statement
i n c a p a b l e o f communicating what i t s speaker
time means by i t ' .
does
challenge
'A word c r e a t e s what i t expresses'
p a r a d o x i c a l i t may
is
a
unspoken
because
'to the i n t r i n s i c c r e a t i v e power
Bernard was n o t one e i t h e r , f o r as
t h e s i s demonstrates, Bernard's ' t h e a t r e
p r o v i d e s ample evidence t h a t a l t h o u g h
de
of
Chapter 3
he the of
I'inexprime'
'words d i s t o r t the p u r i t y
445.
Drama o f the Unspoken, pp. 34 and
40.
446.
Auguste de V i l l i e r s de 1'Isle-Adam, Oeuvres completes I I ( I n c l u d e s Axel and L'Evasion) ( P a r i s , G a l l i m a r d , B i b l i o t h e q u e de l a P l e i a d e , 1986) p. 576.
447.
The d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f V i l l i e r s on o t h e r grounds as a d r a m a t i s t o f the unspoken i s n o t a t i s s u e .
- 448 -
of
t r u t h , whose r e a l element i s s i l e n c e ' , 448
have
an
effect
of
some k i n d ,
creating,
they
invariably
i f not
literally
c r e a t u r e s or t h i n g s , a t l e a s t t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s w i t h sometimes
endless c h a i n o f t a n g i b l e
consequences.
That
this
verbal
exercised
very
frequently
oblivious
h e a r e r s makes Bernard's dramatic e x p o s i t i o n
creative
creativity
their
should
between
be
shown
unwitting
power o f words as magical as
to
speakers of
be and the
' l a puissance des mots'
449 itself. the
T h i s magic i s rendered a l l t h e more
fact
that
demonstrates words
as
instruments
of
c'est
taken
view
As
que ces mots, assez f o r t s
pour
to
the
'le
plus
paralyser
d'exprimer
une
realite'
o f the i n t e r e s t w r i t e r s
and
philosophers
throughout
this
century
in
of
Lenormand's
spoken words have e x e r t e d on him,
artiste, sont incapables s e c r e t e , T I I I , 273). In
powerlessness
communication.
by
Lenormand's -
p o i n t s o u t t o Therese, w i t h r e f e r e n c e
influence
etrange,
theatre - l i k e
i t i n tandem w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e
Michel Sarterre potent
Bernard's
bewitching
'the
un
(Une Vie
working
have of
450 language - b o t h psychological
i t s power and impotence', and
metaphysical f i n d i n g s
the
linguistic,
of t h i s thesis
448.
Drama o f t h e Unspoken, pp. 39 and 40.
449.
Bruyez, La Puissance des Mots.
450.
Andrew K. Kennedy, S i x d r a m a t i s t s i n search o f a language (London, Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1975) p. 3 1 .
have
- 449 -
value
i n t h e i r own r i g h t . I n t h e i r w e i g h t and c e r t a i n
they
command g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y when one
that
v e r y s i m i l a r and m u t u a l l y complementary
drawn
details considers
c o n c l u s i o n s are
from t h e work o f two p l a y w r i g h t s who i n many ways
scarcely
be
Bernard
and
more
different.
This
study's
conclusion
Lenormand were n o t o n l y core and
members
of
1920s-1930s,
b u t a l s o v e r y much d r a m a t i s t s 'of t h e spoken'
particular
illusions
that
significance.
about
communication
drama o f t h e unspoken
fringe
that
respectively
of
the
could
Bernard
movement
and
Lenormand
t h e inadequacy o f language
as
a
their
the is
had
no
medium' o f
but i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s alongside t h e i r
speech i s p o t e n t and t h a t words e x e r t
power
of
awareness 'mysterious
most o f t e n w i t h o u t c o n t r o l o f t h e mind', ' l i k e
a
magic
451 charm' dual that,
- sometimes dimension
unbeknown t o speaker or
o f t h e drama o f Bernard
and
listener. Lenormand
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g - o r p o s s i b l y thanks t o - t h e i r
commitment
to
'the . . . d i f f i c u l t
a r t of
This means
primary
writing 452
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , p l a i n language spoken i n r e a l l i f e ' , experiments
the
their
can be s a i d t o have pioneered o r foreshadowed
the
work o f l a t e r French p l a y w r i g h t s whether these have b e l i e v e d i n the
powerlessness
and
impoverishment o f
words,
or
in
the
potency and importance o f words, or i n b o t h . 451.
Melcher, 'The Use o f Words', pp. 473 and 475. Melcher uses these two e x p r e s s i o n s i n d i s c u s s i n g Claudel and Giraudoux r e s p e c t i v e l y .
452.
H e n r i k I b s e n i n h i s l e t t e r t o Lucie Wolf o f 25 May 1883. I b s e n : L e t t e r s and Speeches, E v e r t S p r i n c h o r n (ed.) ( C l i n t o n , Massachusetts, MacGibbon & Kee, 1965) p. 218.
450 -
APPENDIXES
451
Appendix A
D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e misunderstanding i n Act I o f Le Printemps des Autres
Without drawing any hasty c o n c l u s i o n s , C l a r i s s e
gradually
comes t o suspect from v a r i o u s t h i n g s Maurice says, and from t h e hesitant but
way he says them, t h a t he c o u l d be a t t r a c t e d
feels
woman
t o her
r a t h e r embarrassed t a k i n g an i n t e r e s t i n an
and does n o t q u i t e know how t o make h i s
older
approach.
Her
s u s p i c i o n s appear t o be c o n f i r m e d more and more as t h e dialogue progresses,
not only
paralinguistic that
he
adding
after
a
s l i g h t pause ' e n f i n s i (T I , 190).
like
vous
by h i s
f o r example,
rather
b i z a r r e . Her
voyez pas
thinking
that
for a
while
t o be alone w i t h h e r daughter
with Gilberte, Clarisse
attitude
n'y
Maurice i s c l e a r l y
b u t as he does n o t say so e x p l i c i t l y ,
friendshiphis
but also
i s g o i n g t o spend h i s few days' leave a t t h e h o t e l ,
might
longer,
Maurice's words
and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n a l s . He says,
d'inconvenient' she
by
explaining
q u i t e understandably reaction
prompts
finds another
unnaturally
s o l i c i t o u s response from Maurice: 'Je me s u i s
explique...
Je
m'en
s o l i t u d e ' (T I , 190).
voudrais
de
troubler
votre
his
desir
She notes t h e f a c t t h a t he o n l y
mal de
comments
on
h a v i n g seen her name i n t h e h o t e l r e g i s t e r . With
hindsight
we
know t h a t t h i s i s because Maurice i s s t i l l t o o nervous t o
b r i n g G i l b e r t e i n t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n even t e n t a t i v e l y . C l a r i s s e is
left
t o i n t e r p r e t i t as an
interested
i n Madame B r i e u l e s
indication
Maurice i s
s p e c i f i c a l l y . When she asks him
whether he i s m a r r i e d , he answers n o t i c e a b l y insists
that
q u i c k l y . Later
w i t h t h e same energy t h a t a 'peine de coeur'
b r i n g him t o S t r e s a
and t h a t
did
he not
he i s not w a i t i n g f o r a ' p e t i t e
- 452
-
amie' (T I , 203). He i s anxious t h a t C l a r i s s e should not e n t e r t a i n any wrong ideas about him, because he wants t o marry her daughter. She n a t u r a l l y assumes t h a t he does not want t h e r e t o be any m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o l e l y on her account. She comments on the d e t a i l w i t h which he r e c a l l s seeing her from the circle o f the F r a n g a i s , one Thursday, when she was sitting in the t e n t h row o f the s t a l l s w i t h her daughter. We l e a r n l a t e r t h a t t h i s was t h e n i g h t he f i r s t met G i l b e r t e , but C l a r i s s e probably b e l i e v e s t h a t she i s the cause o f t h i s f e a t o f memory. When she begins t o p r a i s e h i s q u a l i t i e s as a t r u s t w o r t h y confidant, Maurice, encouraged by the f a v o u r he i s c l e a r l y w i n n i n g , says 'Je s u i s heureux que vous me p a r l i e z a i n s i , oh! p l u s heureux que vous ne s a u r i e z c r o i r e . . . ' (T I , 196), t o t a l l y o b l i v i o u s t o the o v e r t o n e s t h a t t h i s acknowledgement has for Clarisse. 'Pourquoi m'ecoutez-vous avec c e t t e bonne v o l o n t e ? ' she goes on t o ask, no doubt h o p i n g and s e c r e t l y b e l i e v i n g t h a t she knows the answer (T I , 196). Maurice c o n t i n u e s t o lend a listening ear w i t h charm and s e n s i t i v i t y , n o t t o make a conquest but p a r t l y out o f n a t u r a l sympathy and p a r t l y t o please the woman who he hopes w i l l be h i s f u t u r e mother-in-law. One wonders how Clarisse c o u l d p o s s i b l y not m i s i n t e r p r e t h i s responses j u s t a f t e r she has bared her s o u l t o the p o i n t o f weeping i n f r o n t o f a r e l a t i v e s t r a n g e r (T I , 201). Each o f them p o s i t i v e l y compounds the embryonic m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g r a p i d l y t a k i n g shape i n her head. E v e n t u a l l y , h a v i n g attempted s e v e r a l times t o make Maurice c o n f i d e i n her b u t w i t h no success, she gives up t r y i n g , adding t h a t should he ever want a c o n f i d a n t i n the
453 -
future so
she w i l l honour h e r debt t o him i n t h i s r e s p e c t . He i s
r e l i e v e d , e s p e c i a l l y by t h e way she concludes, o f f e r i n g
shake
h i s hand and saying
205),
t h a t he r e a c t s o v e r e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y . I t would seem
the
' A l i e n s ! nous
sommes
amis'
warmth o f h i s response d i s p e l s any r e m a i n i n g
Clarisse
may
have
and c o n f i r m s
to
(T I , that
reservations
a l l she has h i t h e r t o
been
tempted, y e t s c a r c e l y dared, t o b e l i e v e . It
i s unfortunate
Maurice c o n c e n t r a t e s
that
throughout
this
conversation
t o o much on h i s choice o f words and on t h e
v e r b a l c o n t e n t o f C l a r i s s e ' s responses t o q u e s t i o n whether h i s own
verbal,
p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and non-verbal
misinterpreted
signals
could
o r t o r e g i s t e r t h e t e l l - t a l e signs o f a
woman
who
i s on t h e b r i n k o f f a l l i n g i n l o v e . Should he
the
t r u t h a f t e r t h e C u r t a i n f a l l s a t t h e end o f t h e p l a y ,
might
look
remember
back on h i s i n i t i a l encounter
with
ever
Clarisse
be
learn he and
exchanges l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g made j u s t a few moments
before G i l b e r t e enters:
CLARISSE, apres un s i l e n c e Le s o i r v i e n t . . . Oh! mon echarpe e s t tombee. Voulez-vous... ( I I ramasse I'echarpe. E l l a l a met s u r ses epaules.) A c e t t e heure, i l f a u t t o u j o u r s faire attention... (Machinalement, e l l e prend t r a i n e s u r l a t a b l e e t s'evente.)
MAURICE Vous vous eventez?
un
eventail
qui
- 454
rr
CLARISSE Ah! o u i , t i e n s ! Qu'est-ce que j e f a i s ?
(T I ,
Reflecting Maurice
205)
i n due
course on t h i s
incident,
an
enlightened
c o u l d w e l l be somewhat s u r p r i s e d t h a t , h a v i n g
noticed
C l a r i s s e ' s i n c o n s i s t e n c y , he d i d n o t m e n t a l l y process i t and go on
to
might
q u e s t i o n whether t h e replacement o f n o t have been a c l a s s i c dropped
unconsciously
designed
the
fallen
handkerchief
i n her c o n f u s i o n t o draw h i s
scarf
manoeuvre attention
t o her s h o u l d e r s , s i n c e she was c l e a r l y n o t f e e l i n g the c o l d .
- 455 -
Appendix B
D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e misunderstanding i n Act I I I o f N a t i o n a l e 6
Francine
t e l l s her f a t h e r t h a t Robert s a i d he
was
happy
and adds ' I I m'a p a r l e de conte de f e e s . . . ' ( T V , 8 4 ) . I n f a c t , a l t h o u g h Robert i s undoubtedly c h e e r f u l , he does n o t say he
is
happy. Moreover, when he says 'Vous savez qu'on ne s'ennuie pas chez
vous...',
i t i s 'en t r a v a i l l a n t ' (T V, 7 2 ) ,
and
i t is
c l e a r from what he goes on t o say t h a t he has a work c o n t e x t i n mind.
As
f o r t h e 'conte de f e e s ' , Robert a c t u a l l y
Francine's house, as
says
i m a g i n i n g a young a r t i s t coming one day i n t o
that their
a s k i n g her t o pose and p a i n t i n g a masterpiece w i t h
model
father
i s a 'conte de f e e s ' ( T V , 7 2 ) . Francine
that
Robert s a i d ' q u ' i l e t a i t b i e n
mieux
tells
( T V , 8 6 ) . His a c t u a l words are
n'aurions
pas t r o u v e mieux...' ( T V , 7 4 ) . This s h i f t from meaning
Robert
and
his
father,
'aux
to
her
i c i qu'aux
Indes...'
plural,
her
Indes,
the
nous the
singular,
r e f e r r i n g t o Robert i n p a r t i c u l a r , and from a work c o n t e x t t o a more
g e n e r a l one, means t h a t t h e i n d i r e c t
uses
is
intention. Robert's
f a r removed Francine
from
has
conversation
but
Robert's
difficulty retains
statement original
following isolated
Francine linguistic
one
part
of
words
such
as
'madones', 'Raphael' and t h e second s y l l a b l e o f 'trompe-1'oeil' (T V, 7 5 ) , which i s no doubt why she l a t e r r e c a l l s h i s to
her
about
her
eyes, a l t h o u g h
he
never
talking
mentions
them.
F r a n c i n e r e p o r t s t h a t Robert s a i d t h e r e were a l o t o f t h i n g s he would t e l l her l a t e r and t a l k e d o f f r i e n d s h i p , whereupon Michel adding five.
two and two t o g e t h e r gets s t i l l c l o s e r t o a
result
of
To t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a d e r / s p e c t a t o r t h e c o n t e x t o f Robert's
456 -
s t a t e m e n t s 'Un j o u r , j e vous en d i r a i p l u s . . . ' and ' I I faut l a i s s e r a I ' a m i t i e l e temps de s ' e t a b l i r ' (T V, 80) makes i t c l e a r t h a t , s u p e r f i c i a l f l i r t i n g a p a r t , Robert sees i n the i n n o c e n t Francine a p o t e n t i a l f r i e n d i n whom t o c o n f i d e h i s l o v e l i f e r a t h e r t h a n a p r o s p e c t i v e p a r t n e r . Whether o r n o t F r a n c i n e r e g i s t e r s t h e emphasis Robert puts on her n a i v e t y , she certainly fails t o r e p o r t i t t o her f a t h e r , w h i l s t she remembers t o t e l l him t h a t Robert s a i d she was 'une jolie fille' (T V, 8 6 ) . Here, Francine c o n s i d e r a b l y underplays Robert's comments. I n f a c t he i s e f f u s i v e i n h i s p r a i s e o f her beauty. He says he c o u l d n o t do j u s t i c e t o her p r e t t i n e s s i n a p o r t r a i t even i f he worked on i t f o r t e n years ( T V , 70). At one p o i n t he says 'Enfant c h e r i e , n a i v e p e t i t e p e r l e , vous etes exquise...' (T V, 7 5 ) . L a t e r , he waxes l y r i c a l b u t goes on t o make f u n o f h i m s e l f f o r d o i n g so:
. . . Je r e v i e n s a l a f i g u r e . . . Ah! quel domaine immense, q u e l l e source de j o i e s i n f i n i e s ! Je s u i s sur que chaque j o u r on en t i r e r a i t des melodies n o u v e l l e s , car c ' e s t un v i o l o n , v o t r e f i g u r e . . . Ce n'est pas -mal, ce que j e vous d i s l a , h e i n ! S i papa m'entendait, i l s e r a i t un peu epate . . . ( T V , 76)
Again
i t i s obvious t h a t Robert's words cannot
be
taken
at
t h e i r f a c e v a l u e . The modest Francine r e a l i z e s t h i s t o o . She i s fully
aware t h a t Robert i s f l a t t e r i n g her, which i s
no
doubt
one o f t h e reasons why she s i m p l y t e l l s her f a t h e r t h a t he s a i d she was p r e t t y . However, by o m i t t i n g the terms i n which she praised led
she d e p r i v e s M i c h e l o f a v i t a l c l u e which
might
him t o suspect the s h a l l o w l i g h t - h e a r t e d n e s s o f
flirtation.
Francine t e l l s
her f a t h e r
t h a t Robert
is have
Robert's s a i d they
-- 457 -
were made t o g e t on w e l l t o g e t h e r ( T V , 8 6 ) . Again she Robert's
words
with
a meaning
and emotional
charges
energy
speaker never i n t e n d e d . For Robert, who i s p r i m a r i l y
their
interested
i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f Francine's head a t the t i m e , they amount t o a banal p l a t i t u d e . Furthermore, they conclude an exchange which is
much
nothing
more
s i g n i f i c a n t , since
said
by
conversation
Robert
i t informs
i n t h e course
of
Francine the
s h o u l d be taken s e r i o u s l y : Robert t e l l s
current Francine
e x p l i c i t l y n o t t o take any n o t i c e o f what he i s s a y i n g when in
he i s w o r k i n g he i s always r a t h e r absorbed
mindless
chatter
to facilitate
that
because
and i n d u l g e s
h i s painting
(T V, 7 3 ) .
I r o n i c a l l y , F r a n c i n e , who i s a c t u a l l y hanging on Robert's every word, g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t she has taken h i s p o i n t , prompts h i s 'Tiens! Nous sommes f a i t s pour nous (T V, 7 4 ) .
which
comprendre...'
- 458 -
Appendix C
Exchange o f correspondence between Bernard and Lenormand a t t h e end o f the Second World War
T h i s study makes a p o i n t o f t r e a t i n g almost e x c l u s i v e l y o f the
playwrights'
d r a m a t i c t e x t s as opposed t o
their
private
453 lives,
a
Appendix
principle
which
is
overridden
in
this
because t h e Second World War made such an
final
impact
on
the p e r s o n a l l i v e s o f b o t h men t h a t i t r a d i c a l l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r c r e a t i v e work i n e x c e p t i o n a l ways.
The events which took place
between 1939 and 1945 and h i s response t o them r e s u l t e d i n
the
e n f o r c e d post-War c u r t a i l m e n t o f Lenormand's c a r e e r as a w r i t e r 454 of
'plays f o r p l a y e r s t o p l a y ' .
Bernard
a f t e r , t h e d e f e a t o f Germany i n 1945,
different was
This was n o t the
case
but,
reasons, he c o u l d never again be the
f o r very
playwright
on t h e eve o f France's f a l l i n 1940. Even i f one
the e f f e c t on Bernard's w r i t i n g o f h i s becoming a the
works
he
understandably ethos.
wrote
during
and
reflect
shifts
i n subject
Moreover,
whatsoever particular laying
of
after
i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o
for
ignores 455
Catholic,
the
War
matter, make
he
years
tone no
t h e e f f e c t o f the Second World War on
and
mention the
two
p l a y w r i g h t s s t u d i e d i n tandem i n t h i s t h e s i s w i t h o u t
o n e s e l f open t o t h e a c c u s a t i o n o f i n s e n s i t i v i t y i n
the
case o f Bernard and evasiveness i n t h e case o f Lenormand. The
life
journeys
o f Bernard and
d i f f e r e n t paths d u r i n g the Occupation.
Lenormand
took
Although he was
453.
See pp. 73-76.
454.
See p. 10.
455.
See pp. 68-69, i n c l u d i n g Footnote 248.
very
offered
- 459 -
asylum
in
New
York,
Bernard r e f u s e d on
principle
Paris,
where h i s a c t i v i t i e s were r u t h l e s s l y
to
c i r c u m s c r i b e d by
the
Nazis' p e r s e c u t i o n o f Jews. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a t
end
of
the
War,
et . . . a t t i t u d e
when asked t o
account
pendant
periode
la
leave
for his de
the
'activite
1'occupation
456 ennemie', letter
Lenormand t u r n e d f o r h e l p and advice t o Bernard. A
written
by Bernard i n response t o one
of
Lenormand's
457 requests
f o r s u p p o r t i s reproduced below,
because i t bears
w i t n e s s t o the s t r i k i n g p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s o f i t s a u t h o r w h i l s t shedding
l i g h t on t h e ' v e r i t e des f a i t s ' and
the
c o e u r s ' ^ ^ ^ o f Lenormand's p o s i t i o n d u r i n g the
War:
' v e r i t e des
Paris, l e 6 j u i n Mon
1945
cher Ami,
Je vous a i t o u j o u r s p a r l e avec l a p l u s grande f r a n c h i s e . Je ne vous a i jamais cache, pendant l a douloureuse p e r i o d e de 1'occupation, ce que je pensais de c e r t a i n e s e r r e u r s de jugement de v o t r e p a r t ; e t c e t t e l i b e r t e de langage, en d e p i t de l a situation dapgereuse ou j e me trouvais, vous p r o u v e r a i t d e j a ma c o n f i a n c e e t ma sympathie, sans p a r l e r de 1 ' a d m i r a t i o n que j ' a i constamment gardee a I'homme de t h e a t r e que vous e t e s .
456.
Terms quoted f r o m an o f f i c i a l source i n an undated, h a n d w r i t t e n l e t t e r which Lenormand sent t o Bernard from Sainte-Maxime and a photocopy o f which was k i n d l y donated by Monsieur N i c o l a s Bernard, Jean-Jacques Bernard's son and h e i r .
457.
With the p e r m i s s i o n o f Monsieur N i c o l a s Bernard t o whom s p e c i a l thanks are extended f o r the d o n a t i o n o f p h o t o c o p i e s o f t h i s and r e l a t e d documents.
458.
See p. 50.
- 460 -
Je s u i s done t o u t a f a i t a I ' a i s e pour vous a p p o r t e r a u j o u r d ' h u i mon temoignage. Je n ' a i pas o u b l i e qu'en septembre 1940 vous m'avez soumis ce s c r u p u l e de conscience: 'On me demande des a r t i c l e s ; croyez-vous que j e puisse en donner?'. Je vous a i repondu a l o r s : 'Si vous vous contentez de p a r l e r t h e a t r e , c e l a ne me p a r a i t pas grave'. I I e s t b i e n c e r t a i n que, quelques semaines p l u s t a r d , j e vous eusse donne un c o n s e i l d i f f e r e n t . D'une fagon generale, 1'abstention t o t a l e eut e t e preferable. Mais e n f i n i i f a u t se r a p p e l e r qu'en septembre 1940 on p o u v a i t n o u r r i r 1 ' i l l u s i o n qu'une c e r t a i n e forme de r e s i s t a n c e e t a i t p o s s i b l e dans l a presse. Cette i l l u s i o n n'a pas dure longtemps. Je t e n a i s a r a p p e l e r ce s c r u p u l e de v o t r e part. Vous vous i n t e r r o g i e z . Comme beaucoup t r o p de gens, vous avez e t e trompe par l e s coupables mirages qu'on e n t r e t e n a i t dans n o t r e pays. Mais j e s a i s que v o t r e s o u c i e t a i t de m a n i f e s t e r en presence de 1'occupant l a p e r s i s t a n c e d'une pensee f r a n g a i s e e t que vous a v i e z I ' e s p o i r de p o u v o i r defendre p a r l a plume c e r t a i n s e c r i v a i n s f r a n g a i s . Je ne pense pas qu'on p u i s s e vous f a i r e g r i e f de t e l l e s i l l u s i o n s , quand b i e n des e c r i v a i n s , que n u l ne songe a u j o u r d ' h u i a i n q u i e t e r , n ' o n t pas h e s i t e a c o l l a b o r e r aux p i r e s j ournaux. Mais s u r t o u t j e n ' o u b l i e pas qu'au cours de I ' h i v e r 1940-41 vous avez eu l e courage de f a i r e une conference au t h e a t r e de I'Oeuvre, s u r l e t h e a t r e contemporain, ou vous avez longuement p a r l e de mes ouvrages e t de ceux d'Edmond F l e g . Vous a v i e z meme songe a f a i r e d i r e des scenes de L'Ame en p e i n e . On vous en a dissuade pour e v i t e r des i n c i d e n t s . Vous avez neanmoins l u vous-meme quelques passages de c e t t e p i e c e que vous avez t o u j o u r s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t aimee e t a l a q u e l l e vous r e s t i e z f i d e l e , a l o r s que son a u t e u r e t a i t i n t e r d i t . Cette manifestation p u b l i q u e r e q u e r a i t a c e t t e epoque une v e r i t a b l e audace, on 1 ' o u b l i e p e u t - e t r e un peu maintenant. Vous n'aviez d ' a i l l e u r s pu f a i r e c e t t e conference qu'en prenant l e r i s q u e de ne pas l a soumettre a l a censure allemande. Plus t a r d vous avez p u b l i e v o t r e ouvrage sur l e s P i t o e f f . Vous y p a r l i e z encore de moi a p l u s i e u r s r e p r i s e s ; vous y p a r l i e z egalement d'Edmond F l e g . On s a l t que c e t ouvrage a e t e i n t e r d i t . Par a i l l e u r s , vous avez eu q u a t r e pieces i n t e r d i t e s , deux par l a censure de Vichy, deux par l a censure allemande, s i b i e n qu'en f i n de compte, moins f a v o r i s e que d ' a u t r e s , vous n'avez jamais pu, pendant
- 461 -
1'occupation, exercer votre metier d'auteur dramatique. I I e s t douloureux de vous v o i r toujours condamne au s i l e n c e . Je c r o i s que vous etes a u j o u r d ' h u i suffisamment p u n i des e r r e u r s de jugement dont vous vous e t e s rendu compte b i e n avant l a f i n de 1'occupation. I I s e r a i t extremement p e n i b l e que, par s u r c r o i t , un homme comme vous f u t f r a p p e d'une peine d i s p r o p o r t i o n n e e a de t e l l e s e r r e u r s , a l o r s que des gens r e e l l e m e n t coupables, dans tous l e s o r d r e s de 1 ' a c t i v i t e n a t i o n a l e , r e s t e n t encore impunis. En vous f r a p p a n t , on f r a p p e r a i t une des p l u s hautes v a l e u r s de I ' a r t dramatique f r a n g a i s , un homme q u i , depuis un q u a r t de s i e c l e , a s e r v i honnetement l e renom de l a France a 1'etranger e t dont nous pouvons avec j u s t e r a i s o n nous e n o r g u e i l l i r , Je veux esperer que c e t t e douleur nous sera epargnee e t j e vous p r i e de c r o i r e , mon cher Ami, a mes sentiments l e s p l u s f i d e l e m e n t a f f e c t u e u x .
Signe : Jean-Jacques Bernard
- 462 -
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 463 -
NOTE
The
f o l l o w i n g Select Bibliography,
which g i v e s t h e major
d r a m a t i c and non-dramatic works o f Bernard and Lenormand, would have
been rendered i m p r a c t i c a b l y l e n g t h y by t h e i n c l u s i o n o f
e x h a u s t i v e l i s t s o f t h e numerous j o u r n a l and newspaper a r t i c l e s written
by
t h e two d r a m a t i s t s .
representative
cross-section
Consequently,
o f such
only
articles
is
a
given
( s e c t i o n s I . F and I I I . G , pp. 466 and 476). A
survey o f p u b l i s h e d
and unpublished
bibliographies
of
Bernard and Lenormand was t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e reading o f c r i t i c a l m a t e r i a l i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s study. of
Bernard, about whom c o m p a r a t i v e l y
this
l i t t l e has been
process proved c o n s t r u c t i v e and r a i s e d few
However,
as
the bibliographies r e l a t i n g were
I n t h e case
noted
written,
difficulties.
t o Lenormand i n them,
were
amalgamated,
discrepancies
indicating
errors
made
a t some stage by t h e v a r i o u s
common
t o two o r t h r e e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s were o c c a s i o n a l l y
found
t o be i d e n t i c a l l y i n a c c u r a t e , making a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
given
compilers.
Entries
questionable. The
drawing up o f u p - t o - d a t e and maximally
bibliographies,
comprehensive
i n c l u d i n g p r i m a r y and secondary m a t e r i a l , f o r
b o t h Bernard and Lenormand i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s study. A decision
was consequently taken t o l i m i t t h e e n t r i e s below t o
works which I have p e r s o n a l l y c o n s u l t e d particular
use and i n t e r e s t
and which have been o f
i n the writing o f t h i s thesis.
- 464 -
I.
WORKS BY JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD
THEATRE
Theatre I (Le Feu q u i reprend mal, M a r t i n e , Le Printemps des A u t r e s , L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage), P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , l925^ Theatre I I (Le Secret d'Arvers, Denise M a r e t t e , L'Ame en p e i n e ) , P a r i s , A l b i n MicheT^ 1927. Theatre I I I (A l a Recherche des Coeurs, Les Soeurs Guedonec, La L o u i s e ) , P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1932~ Theatre IV (Jeanne de P a n t i n , Le Roy de M a l o u s i e ) , P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1934. Theatre V ( N a t i o n a l e 6, Les Conseils d'Agathe, 8 Chevaux, 4 C y l i n d r e s . . . e t pas de t r u i t e s ! , Deux Hommes), P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1936. Theatre V I (Louise de l a V a l l i e r e , Le J a r d i n i e r P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1946.
d'Ispahan),
Theatre V I I (Marie S t u a r t , Reine d'Ecosse, R i c h e l i e u ) , P a r i s , A l b l n M i c h e l , 1949. Theatre V I I I (Notre-Dame d'en haut, La Route de France), P a r i s , M b l n M i c h e l , 1952. Note t h e f o l l o w i n g E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n t o which r e f e r e n c e i s made i n t h e course o f t h e t h e s i s : The Sulky F i r e (Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d mal, M a r t i n e , Le Printemps des A u t r e s , L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage and L'Ame en p e i n e ) . T r a n s l a t e d by John L e s l i e F r i t h , London, Jonathan Cape, 1939.
B.
OTHER PLAYS
Le Voyage a Deux, P a r i s , L i b r a i r i e T h e a t r a l e , 1910. La J o i e du S a c r i f i c e i n L ' I l l u s t r a t i o n T h e a t r a l e , no. 217, 8 j u i n 1912, pp. 1-6 ( f o l l o w i n g Sacha G u i t r y ' s Jean I I I ) . La Maison epargnee, P a r i s , L i b r a i r i e T h e a t r a l e , A r t i s t i q u e e t L i t t e r a i r e , 1920.
- 465 -
L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage ( V e r s i o n n o u v e l l e ) i n Masques. Cahiers d ' A r t Dramatique, 8 c a h i e r , P a r i s , 1928. La Grande B.A., P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1930. Moliere
i n L'Age Nouveau, no. 1 1 , j a n v i e r 1939,
pp. 168-171.
La L i b r a i r i e J a l i n i n La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 16, a v r i l - j u i n 1951, pp. 51-78. La Legon de f r a n g a i s i n Le Mois T h e a t r a l , no. 230, f e v r i e r 1954, pp. 20-23^ Mon Grand Ami, 1955. I am i n d e b t e d t o Monsieur N i c o l a s Bernard f o r t h e loan o f t h e f i n a l t y p e s c r i p t o f t h i s p l a y . I n h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s - see below p. 473 - Lloyd Bishop gives t h e f o l l o w i n g p u b l i c a t i o n d e t a i l s : Le Mois T h e a t r a l , no. 242, f e v r i e r 1955. ...De Tarse, en C i l i c i e . . . , P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1961.
NOVELS
Le Roman de M a r t i n e ,
P a r i s , Flammarion, 1929.
Madeleine Landier i n Madeleine Landier & New-Chicago, P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1933. Marie e t l e Vagabond, P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1949.
D.
SHORT STORIES
L ' E p i c i e r , P a r i s , O l l e n d o r f f , 1913. Les E n f a n t s j o u e n t . . . , P a r i s , Bernard Grasset, 1919. Les
Soeurs Guedonec i n Les Annales, 19 mars 1922,
Les
Tendresses menacees, P a r i s , Flammarion, 1924.
pp. 307-309.
New-Chicago i n Madeleine Landier & New-Chicago, P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1933. Le Pain Rouge, P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1947.
- 466 -
E.
MEMOIRS, REMINISCENCES AND BIOGRAPHICAL WORKS
Temoignages i n Masques. Cahiers d ' A r t Dramatique, 25 P a r i s , 1933.
cahier,
Le Campde l a mort l e n t e (Compiegne 1941-42), P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1944. Mon Pere T r i s t a n Bernard, P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1955. Mon Ami l e T h e a t r e , P a r i s , A l b i n M i c h e l , 1958. S a i n t Paul ou l a f i d e l i t e . Tours, Maison Mame, 1962.
F.
ARTICLES, ESSAYS AND PREFACES
'Le s i l e n c e au T h e a t r e ' , La Chimere. B u l l e t i n d'Art Dramatique, no. 5, mai 1922, pp. 66-68. ' • ' 'Les S i l e n c e s de M a r t i n e ' , Le J o u r n a l , 13 mai 1922, p. 4. (Reponse a une) 'Enquete sur l a Jeune L i t t e r a t u r e - Les M a i t r e s de l a Jeune L i t t e r a t u r e - V. Les Auteurs Dramatiques', La Revue Hebdomadaire, no. 50, 16 decembre 1922, pp. 332-335. 'Sur l e Present e t 1'Avenir p r o c h a i n du Theatre en France' (Reponse a une enquete, i n t e r v i e w de Leopold Lacour), Comoedia, 30 j u i l l e t 1923, p. 1 . ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Le J o u r n a l , 23 f e v r i e r 1924, p. 4. 'Quelques p r e c i s i o n s , apres deux r e c e n t e s experiences', Comoedia, 7 a v r i l 1924, pp. 1-2. 'Le t h e a t r e d'Edmond See',
Comoedia, 20 j a n v i e r 1925, p. 1.
' L ' e v o l u t i o n dramatique - Coup d ' o e i l en a r r i e r e ' , P a r i s - S o i r , 11 mars 1925, p. 1. Note 'Avant Denise M a r e t t e ' , Le F i g a r o , 19 novembre 1925, p. 4. Note 'Avant L'Ame en p e i n e ' , Le F i g a r o , 17 mars 1926, p. 5. 'La Double Raison d'Etre de l a S o c i e t e U n i v e r s e l l e du Theatre', C h a n t e c l e r , 4 decembre 1926, p. 1. 'The New Blood i n French Drama', The Manchester 9 February 1928, p. 9.
Guardian,
- 467 -
'La r e n o v a t i o n t h e a t r a l e en France', Le Monde Nouveau, no. 3, 15 mai 1928, pp. 188-192. 'Les Auteurs d ' a u j o u r d ' h u i : m i l neuf cent t r e n t e ' . Bravo, 3 j a n v i e r 1930, p. 7. 'Education N o u v e l l e ' , Les N o u v e l l e s L i t t e r a i r e s , 30 j u i l l e t 1932, p."!"! 'L'Ame des c a p i t a l e s : Londres', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 4 mars 1933, p. 4. ~ 'Les Auteurs dramatiques e t l e p u b l i c p o p u l a i r e ' , L'Humanite, 9 f e v r i e r 1936, p. 8. 'Le J a r d i n i e r d'Ispahan n'est pas une piece persane', Le F i g a r o , 11 a v r i l 1939, p. 4. ' C o n f r o n t a t i o n s ' i n Theatre (Second c a h i e r ) Le Theatre A n g l a i s d'Hier e t d ' A u j o u r d ' h u i , ed. Paul A r n o l d , P a r i s , E d i t i o n s du Pavois, 1945, pp. 11-27. 'Les Mal Aimes', L'Aube, 11-12 mars 1945, p. 2. 'Unite de Romain R o l l a n d ' , L'Aube, 30 mars 1945, p. 2. 'Les J u i f s dans l a communaute f r a n g a i s e ' , E s p r i t , no. 114, 1^^ septembre 1945, pp. 506-509. 'Souvenir de Georges P i t o e f f ' , Opera, 19 septembre 1945, p. 1. 'La psychanalyse au t h e a t r e ' , L'Aube, 5 o c t o b r e 1945, p. 2. 'Un grand s u j e t ' , L'Aube, 15 novembre 1945, p. 2. Avant-Propos, La V i e de Tchekov, I r e n e Nemirovsky, A l b i n M i c h e l , 1946, pp. 5-13.
Paris,
'Theatre Radiophonique', La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 1, m a i - j u i n 1946, pp. 23-25. 'Une l e t t r e e t l a reponse', Claudine, no. 55, 24 j u i l l e t p. 3.
1946,
'De l a l i b e r t e ' , L'Aube, 4-5 aout 1946, p. 1. ' P l a i d o y e r pour l e t h e a t r e ' . La C r o i x , 9-10 f e v r i e r 1947, p. 3. 'Deux f a c e s : une s e u l e Allemagne', L'Aube, 25 mars 1947, pp. 1 and 4. 'Richesses d ' i n i q u i t e ' . La C r o i x , 1
-2 j u i n 1947, p. 3
- 468 -
'La " t h e o r i e du s i l e n c e " ' . La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 6, j u i n j u i l l e t - a o u t 1947, pp. 278-281. ' P a l e s t i n e ' , La C r o i x , 21-22 septembre 1947, p. 3. 'Visages de M a r t i n e ' , Opera, 24 septembre 1947, pp. 1 and 3. 'Refus du c h o i x ' , L'Aube, 13 novembre 1947, pp. 1 and 4. 'Le Drame e t l e T h e a t r e Radiophonique', The L i s t e n e r , no. 985, 11 December 1947, pp. 1013-1014. ' T r i s t a n . Bernard', La Revue de P a r i s , f e v r i e r 1948, pp. 85-93. 'De l a c o n c i s i o n ' . La C r o i x , 13-14 f e v r i e r 1949, p. 3. 'La nouvelle. b a t a i l l e d'Hernani', Adam I n t e r n a t i o n a l Review, nos. 229-230, 1952, pp. 6-7. 'Notre-Dame d'en h a u t ' , Le F i g a r o , 12 f e v r i e r 1952, p. 6. ' R e f l e x i o n s s u r . l e t h e a t r e . De l a suggestion e t de 1 ' a r t i f i c e ' , Le T h e a t r e Contemporain (Recherches e t Debats du Centre C a t h o l i q u e des I n t e l l e c t u e l s F r a n g a i s ) , n o u v e l l e s e r i e no. 2, o c t o b r e 1952, pp. 43-54. 'Gaston Baty p r d f e s s e u r d'enthousiasme', A r t s , no. 382, 24-30 o c t o b r e 1952, p. 3. 'Art and A r t i f i c e ' ( T r a n s l a t e d by Mary Glasgow), Drama, no. 27, W i n t e r 1952, pp. 14-17. 'Georges e t L u d m i l l a P i t o e f f ' , La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 27, 1954, pp. 7-16. 'Mauvaise Conscience', La C r o i x , 7-8 mars 1954, p. 3. 'Le T h e a t r e amateur'. La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 33, 1956, pp. 36-44. 'Theatre 1959', La Revue T h e a t r a l e , no. 40, 1959, pp. 6-8. 'Communication de M. Jean-Jacques Bernard' (a l a seance o r g a n i s e e par 1 ' A s s o c i a t i o n des Romanistes de I ' U n i v e r s i t e de Liege, a 1'occasion de I'annee M a e t e r l i n c k ) , Marche romane, v o l . X I I , no. 4, octobre-decembre 1962, pp"! 109-131. (See a l s o ' P r e s e n t a t i o n de M. Jean-Jacques Bernard' e t 'Remerciements', pp. 107-108 and 132.) 'Gaston Baty devant I'oeuvre dramatique', Cahiers Gaston Baty, I , 1963, pp. 7-11.
- 469 -
II. CRITICAL WORKS MAKING SIGNIFICANT REFERENCE TO JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD BUT NOT TO HENRY-RENE LENORMAND
BOOKS
Agate, James, Red L e t t e r N i g h t s , London, Jonathan Cape, 1944, pp. 153-165"^^ Agate, James, The Contemporary Theatre: 1944 and 1945, Harrap, 1946, pp. 90-92.
London,
B l a n c h a r t , P a u l , Jean-Jacques Bernard i n Masques. Cahiers d ' A r t Dramatique, 11*^ c a h i e r , P a r i s , 1928. B r a n f o r d , K e s t e r A., A Study o f Jean-Jacques Bernard's Theatre de I ' I n e x p r i m e , Romance Monographs Number 24, U n i v e r s i t y , M i s s i s s i p p i , Romance Monographs, I n c . , 1977. F i s c h e r , Max e t A l e x , Dans une b a i g n o i r e (Notes e t impressions de t h e a t r e ) , P a r i s , Flammarion, 1927, pp. 155-158 and 190-191. F r i t h , John L e s l i e , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f f i v e o f Bernard's p l a y s . The Sulky F i r e (Le Feu q u i r e p r e n d mal, M a r t i n e , Le Printemps des A u t r e s , L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage and L'Ame en p e i n e ) , London, Jonathan Cape, 1939. Gaston-Gerard, Devant l e s Treteaux, Chroniques de Comoedia 1934-1935, P a r i s , Hachette, 1936. Kane, L e s l i e , The Language o f S i l e n c e , On t h e Unspoken and t h e Unspeakable i n Modern Drama, London, A s s o c i a t e d U n i v e r s i t y Presses, 1984. Peacock, Ronald, The Poet i n t h e T h e a t r e , London, Routledge, 1946. 0 Vanderem, Fernand, Le M i r o i r des L e t t r e s (2 s e r i e ) , P a r i s , Flammarion, 1921, p. 215. Vanderem, Fernand, Le M i r o i r des L e t t r e s ( 4 s e r i e ) , P a r i s , Flammarion, 1922, pp. 147-149. Vanderem, Fernand, Le M i r o i r des L e t t r e s ( 5 s e r i e ) , P a r i s , Flammarion, 1924, pp. 160-162. Vanderem, Fernand, Le M i r o i r des L e t t r e s (7 s e r i e ) , P a r i s , Flammarion, 1929, pp. 102-105.
- 470 -
B.
JOURNALS AND NEWSPAPERS
Alceste, 'Martine', Comoedia, 14 novembre 1934, pp. 1-2. Amico, S i l v i o d', 'Le Theatre frangais a I'etranger: Autour du theatre du "Silence" e t de 1'inexperience' (Traduit en frangais de I'Idea Nazionale), Comoedia, 12 decembre 1925, p. 3. Amiel, Denys, 'Le Theatre qui v i e n t ' , Gazette des Sept Arts, no. 1, 15 decembre 1922, p. 6. Anon., 'A World o f Elusive Things' (Review o f The Sulky Fire, John Leslie F r i t h ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f Le Feu qui reprend mal, Martine, Le Printemps des Autres, L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage and L'Ame en peine). The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement, no. 1982, 27 January 1940, p. 41. Anon., 'Footnotes t o Fascism. The Camp o f Slow Death' (Review of Edward Marsh's t r a n s l a t i o n o f Bernard's Le Camp de l a mort l e n t e ) . The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement, no. 2296, 2 February 1946, p. 52. Anon., 'Obituary. M. J.-J. Bernard. Intimate The Times, 19 September 1972, p. 15.
theatre'.
Beauplan, Robert de, ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Le Theatre e t Comoedia I l l u s t r e , nouvelle serie no. 30, 15 mars 1924, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage au theatre de I'Odeon', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre, nouvelle serie no. 116, 29 mars 1924, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Le Printemps des Autres', Le Theatre et Comoedia I l l u s t r e , nouvelle serie no. 32, 15 a v r i l 1924, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Le Printemps des Autres au Theatre Femina', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre, nouvelle serie no. 125, 2 aout 1924, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Denise Marette', Le Theatre e t Comoedia I l l u s t r e , nouvelle serie no. 48, 15 Janvier 1926, p. 13. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Le Secret d'Arvers sur l a Petite Scene', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 167, 31 j u i l l e t 1926, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Les Soeurs Guedonec au Studio des Champs-Elysees', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 287, 26 decembre 1931, not paginated.
- 471 -
Beauplan, Robert de, 'Nationale 6 au theatre de I'Oeuvre', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 376, 23 novembre 1935, not paginated. Berton, Claude, 'L'Ame en peine', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 27 mars 1926, p. 7. Berton, Claude, 'Le Secret d'Arvers', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 12 j u i n 1926, p. 7. Besset, Jean-Marie, 'National Theatre de Londres. Martine de Jean-Jacques Bernard. La redecouverte du theatre de 1'inexprime', Acteurs, numeros 26-27, j u i n - j u i l l e t 1985, pp. 86-87. Bidou, Henry, 'Chronique Dramatique. Martine', Journal des Debats, no. 1473, 19 mai 1922, pp. 840-841. Blanchart, Paul, 'Jean-Jacques Bernard ou 1'intelligence de l a s e n s i b i l i t e ' , Chantecler, 28 a v r i l 1928, p. 1. Boissy, Gabriel, 'Le Feu qui reprend mal', Comoedia, 19 octobre 1929, pp. 1-2. Brisson, Pierre, 'Theatre - L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Les Annales, 2 mars 1924, p. 229. Brisson, Pierre, 'Theatre - Le Printemps des Autres', Les Annales, 30 mars 1924, p. 333. Brisson, Pierre, 'Nationals 6', Le Figaro, 20 octobre 1935, p. 5. Bruyez, Rene, ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Le Theatre et Comoedia I l l u s t r e , nouvelle serie no. 32, 15 a v r i l 1924, not paginated. Catalogne, Gerard de, 'Jean-Jacques Bernard ou l a psychanalyse au theatre', La Pensee l a t i n e , no. 53, Janvier 1925, pp. 5-10. Charpentier, John, 'Les Tendresses menacees', Mercure de France, 15 mars 1925, pp. 756-757. Chauveau, Paiul, ' Le Feu qui reprend mal' , Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 2 novembre 1929, p. 10. Cremieux, Benjamin, 'Le Theatre', La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise, 1^^ decembre 1925, pp. 745-748. Cremieux, Benjamin, 'Nationale 6 et M. Jean-Jacques Bernard', Je Suis Partout, no. 257, 26 octobre 1935, p. 4.
472 ^
Daix, Didier, 'L'ingenue devient femme', L'Intransigeant, 3 novembre 1929, p. 6. Descaves, Lucien, 'L'Ame en peine', L'Intransigeant, 20 mars 1926, p.~5; Deval, Jacques, 'A travers les theatres - Le Roy de Malousie', Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 j u i n 1928, pp. 945-946. Doumic, Rene, 'Revue Dramatique - L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 mars 1924, pp. 466-467. Dubech, Lucien, 'Le Theatre: I'Ecole du silence'. La Revue Universelle, 1^^ mai 1924, pp. 379-383. Dubech, Lucien, 'Le Theatre', La Revue Universelle, 1®^ mai 1926, pp. 382-383; Dubech, Lucien, 'Le Theatre', La Revue Universelle, 15 j u i l l e t 1926, pp. 253-256: ' Dubech, Lucien, 'Les ecoles dans I ' a r t dramatique en 1926', La Revue Universelle, 15 aout 1926, pp. 508-511. Fowles, John, 'Theatre o f the unexpressed'. The Times, 15 A p r i l 1985, p. 9. George, Andre, 'La Vie Theatrale. Denise Marette', Les Lettres, no. 1, j a n v i e r 1926, pp. 119-12'o: G s e l l , G.-Paul, ' L ' I n v i t a t i o n au Voyage', Odeon-Magazine, no. 41, 1924, pp. 9-10. Hommel, Luc, 'Le Theatre de Jean-Jacques Bernard', La Revue Generale, 15 mai 1925, pp. 592-597. Lanotte, Jacques, 'Introduction au "Theatre de 1'Inexprime"', Cahiers de L i t t e r a t u r e e t de Linguistique appliquee, no. 1, j u i n 1970, pp. 5-14. Lanotte, Jacques, 'Martine, de Jean-Jacques Bernard', Cahiers de L i t t e r a t u r e e t de Linguistique appliquee, nos. 3-4, juin-decembre 1971, pp. 31-44. Lemonnier, Leon, 'Le Theatre de M. Jean-Jacques Bernard', Choses de theatre, no. 15, mars 1923, pp. 268-272. Lemonnier, Leon, 'Le Theatre de Jean-Jacques Bernard', La Revue Mondiale, no. 15, 1®^ aout 1925, pp. 292-296. Marcel, Gabriel, 'Le Theatre - Le Feu qui reprend mal', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , l"^^ mai 1947, p. 10.
- 473 -
Marcel, Gabriel, 'Adieu a Jean-Jacques Bernard', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 25 septembre-1 octobre 1972, p. 22. Marsh, Edward Owen, I n t r o d u c t i o n to 'Le Drame e t l e Theatre Radiophonique', Jean-Jacques Bernard, The Listener, no. 985, 11 December 1947, p. 1013. Maulnier, Thierry, 'Le Theatre: De Boris Vian a Harold Pinter', La Revue de Paris, novembre 1965, pp. 134-137. Rageot, Gaston, 'Le Theatre - Une f a n t a i s i e c a r i c a t u r a l e ' , Revue Bleue, no. 11, 2 j u i n 1928, pp. 345-346. Rageot, Gaston, 'Le Theatre - La Revolution a I'Odeon', Revue Bleue, no. 23, 2 decembre 1933, pp. 728-729. Rouveyre, Andre, 'L'Ame en peine', Mercure de France, 15 a v r i l 1926, p. 421. Schneider, Louis, 'L'Ame en peine', Le Gaulois, 21 mars 1926, p. 4. Seize, Pierre, 'Nationale 6', Comoedia, 18 octobre 1935, pp. 1-2. See, Edmond, 'Le Theatre e t l a Vie', La Revue de France, 15 f e v r i e r 1934, pp. 719-720. Sorbets, Gaston, 'Le Feu qui reprend mal, au Theatre Antoine', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre, nouvelle serie no. 47, 6 aout 1921, not paginated. Sorbets, Gaston, 'Martine, au theatre des Mathurins', La Petite I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre, nouvelle serie no. 74, 22 j u i l l e t 1922, not paginated. Turpin, Frangois, 'Le Feu qui reprend mal', La Connaissance, j u i l l e t 1921, pp. 577-579,
THESES Bishop, Lloyd 0., 'The Dramatic Work of Jean-Jacques Bernard', doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n , Columbia University, 1961. Ann Arbor, Michigan, University Microfilms, 1993. Marsh, Edward, 'La "Theorie du Silence" au Theatre et I'Oeuvre Dramatique de Jean-Jacques Bernard', unpublished M.A. d i s s e r t a t i o n . University o f Birmingham, 1933.
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III.
WORKS BY HENRY-RENE LENORMAND
THEATRE Theatre complet Tome I (Les Rates, Le Temps est un Songe), Paris, G. Cres e t Cie, 1921. Theatre complet Tome I I (Le Simoun, Le Mangeur de Reves), Paris, G. Cres'et Cie, 1922. Theatre complet Tome I I I (La Dent Rouge, Une Vie secrete), Paris, G. Cres e t Cie, 1924. Theatre complet Tome IV (L'Homme e t ses Fant5mes, A 1'Ombre du Mal), Paris, G. Cres e t Cie, 1925. Theatre complet Tome V (Le Lache), Paris, G. Cres e t Cie, 1926. Theatre complet Tome V I (L'Amour magicien, L'Innocente), Paris, G. Cres e t Cie, 1930. Theatre complet Tome V I I (Mixture), Paris, G. Cres e t Cie, ISST. Theatre complet Tome V I I I (Les Trois Chambres, Crepuscule du Theatre), Paris, Albin Michel, 1935. Theatre complet Tome IX (Asie, La Folle du C i e l ) , Paris, A l b i n Michel, 1938. Theatre complet Tome X (La Maison des Remparts, Terre de Satan), Paris, A l b i n Michel, 1942. Note the f o l l o w i n g English t r a n s l a t i o n to which reference i s made i n the course o f the thesis: Three Plays by H.R. Lenormand (The Dream Doctor, Man and His Phantoms, The Coward), Translated by D.L. Orna, London, V i c t o r Gollancz Ltd., 1928.
B.
OTHER PLAYS
La Folie Blanche, Paris, Stock, 1906. Le Reveil de 1 ' I n s t i n c t , Paris, Stock, 1908. Au Desert, Paris, Ondet, 1911.
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La Grande Mort ( w r i t t e n w i t h Jean d'Aguzan) i n Je Sais Tout, 15 mars 1912, pp. 249-261. Trois Drames (Les Possedes, Terres Chaudes, Les Rates), Paris, G. Ores e t Cie, 1918.
POETRY Les Paysages d'Ame, Poemes en prose, Paris, Stock, 1905.
D. NOVELS Le Jardin sur l a Glace. Paris, Stock, 1906. Une F i l l e est une f i l l e , Paris, Flammarion, 1949. Troubles, Paris, Flammarion, 1951.
SHORT STORIES Le Penseur et l a Cretine, Paris, G. Ores et Cie, 1920. Le S a c r i f i c e d'Abraham i n Les Oeuvres Libres, no. 11, mai 1922, pp. 209-233. L'Armee secrete, F i d e l i t e , Le Juge i n t e r i e u r , Paris, Gallimard, 192^5^ Images, Paris, La Connaissance, 1925. A I ' e c a r t , Paris, Flammarion, 1926. Les Diables du Brabant i n Les Oeuvres Libres, no. 102, decembre 1929, pp. 355-381. Deserts, Paris, Albin Michel, 1944. Les Coeurs anxieux, Paris, L'Elan, 1947. L'Enfant des sables, Paris, La Couronne l i t t e r a i r e , 1950.
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F. MEMOIRS, REMINISCENCES AND BIOGRAPHICAL WORKS Un Poete au theatre. Saint-Georges de Bouhelier, Paris, Fasquelle, 1935. Les P i t o e f f , Paris, 0. L i e u t i e r , 1943. Les Confessions d'un auteur dramatique, v o l . I , Paris, A l b i n Michel, 1949. Marguerite Jamois, Paris, Calmann-Levy, 1950. Les Confessions d'un auteur dramatique, v o l . I I , Paris, A l b i n Michel, 1953.
G.
ARTICLES, INTERVIEWS AND PREFACES
'Avant-propos a Terres Chaudes', Comoedia, 12 j a n v i e r 1914, p. 2. 'Une Evolution necessaire', Comoedia, 24 octobre 1919, p. 1. 'Serons-nous Europeens?', Comoedia, 13 decembre 1919, p. 1. 'Dadaisme e t Psychologie', Comoedia, 23 mars 1920, p. 1. 'Pourquoi j ' a i e c r i t Les Rates', Le Gaulois, 3 j u i l l e t 1920, p. 3. 'Autour d'un crime', Comoedia, 22 aout 1920, p. 1. 'La Vague de s o t t i s e ' , Comoedia, 3 j a n v i e r 1921, p. 1. 'Le Secret d'Oedipe', Comoedia, 28 j u i n 1921, p. 1. 'L'Avenir de l a C r i t i q u e ' (Reponse de Lenormand a une enquete), La Connaissance, j u i l l e t 1921, p. 559. 'Les Portes fermees', Comoedia, 15 octobre 1921, p. 1. 'La Danse de Mort de Strindberg a L'Oeuvre', Choses de theatre, no. 2, novembre 1921, pp. 110-111. 'Petite Reine au Vaudeville', Choses de theatre, no. 2, novembre 1921, pp. 111-112. 'Firmin Gemier', Le Figaro, 10 novembre 1921, p. 4. 'M. H,-R. Lenormand publie son theatre complet', interview de Pierre Blanc, Comoedia, 23 novembre 1921, pp. 1-2.
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'Partage de Midi au Theatre d'Art e t d'Action', Choses de theatre, no. 3, decembre 1921, pp. 175-177. 'Pelleas e t Melisande au Theatre des Champs-Elysees', Choses de theatre, no. 4, j a n v i e r 1922, pp. 234-235. 'A Geneve, avec P i t o e f f , Choses de theatre, no. 5, f e v r i e r 1922, pp. 284-2851 'Comment j ' e c r i s une piece', Choses de theatre, no. 8, mai 1922, pp. 449-453. 'L'Inconscient dans l a l i t t e r a t u r e dramatique'. La Chimere. B u l l e t i n d'Art Dramatique, no. 5, mai 1922, pp. 74-80. 'Une Tournee de Conferences',
Comoedia, 14 f e v r i e r 1923, p. 3.
'L'Art Theatral Etranger en France', l e t t e r , Comoedia, 6 mars 1923, pp. 1-2. 'Sur l e s e u i l ' . La Chimere. B u l l e t i n d'Art Dramatique, no. 9, a v r i l 1923, pp. 138-139. 'Notes sur Loudmilla P i t o e f f ' , Choses de theatre, no. 18, j u i n 1923, pp. 468-471. 'Sur l e Present e t I'Avenir prochain du Theatre en France' (Reponse a une enquete, interview de Leopold Lacour), Comoedia, 15 j u i n 1923, pp. 1-2. 'Le theatre du monde', L'Intransigeant, 22 decembre 1923, p. 1. 'Francois de Curel e t l e Theatre d'introspection', Paris-Soir, 5 a v r i l 1924, p. 1. 'Le Secret de Don Juan', interview, Paris-Soir, 3 j u i n 1924, p. 1. Letter concerning the d i f f i c u l t i e s involved i n g e t t i n g a play considered f o r production a t the Comedie-Frangaise, Comoedia, 21 septembre 1924, p. 1. 'Aidez-moi a d e t r u i r e une legende', interview de Raymond Cogniat, Comoedia, 16 octobre 1924, p. 1. 'Note sur un sejour. de Conrad en Corse', La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise, 1 decembre 1924, pp. 666-671. 'Le Theatre Exotique', B u l l e t i n du Studio des Champs-Elysees, a v r i l 1925, pp. 26-30. 'Les Forces dramatiques nouvelles'. La Rampe, no. 405, 5 a v r i l 1925, p. 1.
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Interview.de H. W i l l e t t e , Paris Theatre, no. 6, 18 a v r i l 1925, p. 9. 'Les Auteurs Nouveaux', Le Temps, 17 aout 1925, p. 3. 'Comment i l s t r a v a i l l e n t ' , interview de Georges de Wissant, Le Soir, 7 a v r i l 1926, p. 3. 'Chroniques dramatiques' and other a r t i c l e s , Chantecler, 8 mai, 22 mai, 5 j u i n , 12 j u i n , 26 j u i n , 31 j u i l l e t , 9 octobre, 16 octobre, 23 octobre, 6 novembre, 13 novembre, 20 novembre, 11 decembre, 18 decembre, 25 decembre 1926, 1 j a n v i e r , 19 f e v r i e r , 2 a v r i l , 16 a v r i l , 14 mai, 4 j u i n , 25 j u i n , 15 octobre, 26 novembre 1927, (p)p. 1 and/or 2. 'Le Romantisme r e s u l t e d'une psycho-nevrose...', interview de Max F r a n t e l , Comoedia, 12 mai 1926, pp. 1-2. 'Le Livre "a b r u l e r " ' (Reponse a une enquete, interview de Marius Boisson), Comoedia, 22 j u i l l e t 1926, p. 1. Preface, Theatre ( I I ) d'Adolphe Orna., Paris et Bruxelles, Eugene Figuiere, 1927, pp. 7-9. 'Un Debat', Comoedia, 7 mars 1927, p. 1. 'Les auteurs dramatiques et les revues: un a r t i c l e de M. H.-R. Lenormand', Mercure de France, 15 mars 1927, pp. 762-764. 'Une l e t t r e de M. H.-R. Lenormand', Mercure de France, 15 mai 1927, p. 253. 'Theatre censure', L'Intransigeant, 29 decembre 1927, p. 1. 'Gaston Baty au Theatre de 1'Avenue', L'Intransigeant, 15 a v r i l 1928, p. 5. 'Mon Theatre', Revue Bleue, no. 8, 21 a v r i l 1928, pp. 234-235. 'Le Renouveau de I ' A r t dramatique', interview d'Armand Pierhal, Le Figaro, 5 aout 1929, p. 5. 'L'Ame obscure, par Daniel-Rops',. La Revue Hebdomadaire, 28 decembre 1929, pp. 486-490. 'Journal de l a "premiere" d'une piece frangaise donnee a B e r l i n ' , Comoedia, 31 octobre 1930, pp. 1 and 3. 'Au bord du precipice: pastiche ou melodrame', Comoedia, 15 decembre 1931, p. 1.
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Preface, P o r t r a i t dans un M i r o i r de Charles Morgan (Traduit de 1'anglais par J.G. Delamain), Paris, L i b r a i r i e Stock, 1932, pp. 7-9. 'Le Theatre d'aujourd'hui e t les Elizabethains', Cahiers du Sud, j u i n - j u i l l e t 1933, pp. 82-90. 'M. H.-R. Lenormand nous parle de 1'influence frangaise en Polynesie... d'ou i l r e v i e n t ' , interview de Raymond P e t i t , Paris-Midi, 19 septembre 1934, p. 2. 'Dire sans managements ce que j e pense de l a s i t u a t i o n du Theatre', Comoedia, 13 decembre 1934, p. 1. Interview, Le C r i de Paris, 9 aout 1935, pp. 26-27. 'La prochaine saison t h e a t r a l e ' , Paris-Soir, 17 aout 1935, p. 6. 'Comparaisons', L'Humanite, 2 f e v r i e r 1936, p. 8. Extracts from speech Lenormand made a t a lunch given i n honour of h i s promotion t o rank o f O f f i c i e r de l a Legion d'Honneur, Comoedia, 1 a v r i l 1936, pp. 1-2. 'Le cinema commence ou l e theatre f i n i t ' , interview, L'Intransigeant, 1 mai 1936, p. 9. 'Theatre populaire en Espagne', L'Humanite, 9 aout 1936, p. 8. 'Pour un Theatre du Monde', Marianne, 31 mars 1937, p. 11. 'Defense de l a Culture. Enfin... un theatre du peuple', L'Humanite, 11 septembre 1937, p. 8. Preface, Theatre d'Utopie de Carlos Larronde, Paris, Les Editions Theatrales, 1938, pp. 3-4. 'Shakespeare or not Shakespeare?', L'Intransigeant, 2 octobre 1938, p. 7. ' F i l i a t i o n s s p i r i t u e l l e s ' , Le Matin, 8 octobre 1938, p. 4. 'Demain au theatre...', L'Oeuvre, 21 f e v r i e r 1941, pp. 1-2. 'Ibsen a travers nos ages', Paris-Midi, 12 mars 1941, p. 2. 'Escale a Noumea', Paris-Midi, 3 mai 1941, p. 2. 'Alerte au censeur', Paris-Midi, 15 mai 1941, p. 2. 'Sans r e c i p r o c i t e ' , Paris-Midi, 25 j u i n 1941, p. 2. 'Fusillades radiophoniques', Paris-Midi, 6 aout 1941, p. 2.
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'Heros d'outre-mer', Paris-Midi, 19 octobre 1941, p. 2. 'Pour un Conseil de I'Ordre', La Gerbe, 13 novembre 1941, p. 11. 'La Terreur P u r i t a i n e ' , Comoedia, 15 novembre 1941., p. 1. 'L'autre d e f a i t e ' . La Gerbe, 18 decembre 1941, p. 1. 'Secrets d'une Faute', Paris-Midi, 8 mars 1942, p. 4. 'Pirandello et La Volupte de I'Honneur', Panorama, 18 f e v r i e r 1943, p. 4. Review of Jean-Paul Sartre's Huis Clos, Panorama, 22 j u i n 1944, p. 3. 'Message', La Revue Internationale du Theatre, v o l . 1, octobre-novembre-decembre 1947, p. 20. 'Position de 1'auteur dramatique'. La Revue Theatrale, no. 8, 1948, pp. 15-20. 'Rencontre avec Joseph Conrad', La Gazette des Lettres, 15 mars 1951, pp. 30-32. 'Souvenirs sur Giraudoux, s u i v i s de propos notes par Georges de Wissant', La Revue Theatrale, no. 16, a v r i l - j u i n 1951, pp. 15-23. 'Le Mirage r e v o l u t i o n n a i r e ' , La Revue de Paris, f e v r i e r 1953, pp. 51-69. 'Shakespeare et l e Mystere', La Revue Theatrale, no. 30, 1955, pp. 5-10. I n t r o d u c t i o n , La Reine morte de Henry de Montherlant, Le Livre de Poche no. 289, Paris, Gallimard, 1958, pp. 9-14.
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IV. CRITICAL WORKS MAKING SIGNIFICANT REFERENCE TO HENRY-RENE LENORMAND BUT NOT TO JEAN-JACQUES BERNARD
BOOKS Blanchart, Paul, Le Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand, apocalypse d'une societe, Paris, Masques, 1947. Brisson, Pierre, Au Hasard des Soirees, Paris, Gallimard, 1935, pp. 304-313: C r i t i c u s (Marcel Berger), Le s t y l e au microscope. I I I , Dramaturges, Paris, Calmann-Levy, 1952, pp. 237-259. Daniel-Rops, Sur l e Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand, Paris, Editions des Cahiers Libres, 1926. Dubech, Lucien, Le Theatre. 1918-1923, Paris, Plon-Nourrit, 1925, pp. 153-157. Dukes, Ashley, Foreword to D.L. Orna's English t r a n s l a t i o n o f Three Plays by H.R, Lenormand (The Dream Doctor, Man and His Phantoms, The Coward), London, Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1928. Galster, I n g r i d , Le theatre de Jean-Paul Sartre devant ses premiers c r i t i q u e s , Paris, Editions Jean-Michel Place, 1986. G i l l o i s , Andre, Qui etes-vous?, interview, emission radiophonique du 22 octobre 1950, Collection L'Air du Temps, Paris, Gallimard, 1953, pp. 34-40. Gravier, Maurice, 'L'Expressionnisme dramatique en France entre les deux guerres' i n L'Expressionnisme dans l e Theatre Europeen, Paris, C.N.R.S., 1971, pp. 285-298. ' Gsell, Paul, Gemier - Le Theatre, Paris, Grasset, 1925, pp. 222-233: Hanry-Jaunet, H.-R. Lenormand. Etude et^Documents i n Masques. Cahiers d'Art Dramatique, 3 cahier, Paris,
1926.
Jamati, Georges, La Conquete de Soi, Paris, Flammarion, 1961. Jomaron, Jacqueline, Georges P i t o e f f - Metteur en scene, C o l l e c t i o n Theatre Annees Vingt, Lausanne, Editions I'Age d'Homme, 1979, pp. 227-244.
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Jomaron, Jacqueline, 'Henri-Rene Lenormand mis en scene par Georges P i t o e f f ' i n Les Voies de l a creation theatrale, v o l . V I I , Paris, C.N.R.S., 1979, pp. 307-338. Jones, Robert Emmet, The Alienated Hero i n Modern French Drama, University o f Georgia Monographs no. 9, Athens, University o f Georgia Press, 1962. Jones, Robert Emmet, H.-R. Lenormand, Twayne's World Authors Series no. 730, Boston, Twayne Publishers, 1984. Kemp, Robert, La Vie du Theatre, Paris, Albin Michel, 1956, pp. 26-33. Lottman, Herbert R., The L e f t Bank, London, Heinemann, 1982. Martin du Card, Maurice, Carte rouge, Le Theatre e t l a Vie 1929-1930, Paris, Flammarion, 1930, pp. 222-229. Martin du Card, Maurice, Soirees de Paris, Le Theatre e t l a Vie 1930-1931, Paris, Flammarion, 1932, pp. 232-233. P i t o e f f , Georges, Notre Theatre, Paris, Messages, 1949, pp. 62-65. Radine, Serge, Anouilh, Lenormand, Salacrou, Geneve, Edition des Trois Collines, 1951, pp. 53-96. Seche, Alphonse, Dans l a Melee L i t t e r a i r e (1900-1930), Paris, Edgar Malfere, 1935. S e i l l i e r e , Ernest, La Religion Romantique et ses Conquetes, Paris, Champion, 1930, pp. 261-269. Swerling, Anthony, Strindberg's Impact i n France 1920-1960, Cambridge, T r i n i t y Lane Press, 1971. Vanderem, Fernand, Le M i r o i r des Lettres (3^ s e r i e ) , Paris, Flammarion, 1921, pp. 138-139. Vax, Louis, La Seduction de I'Etrange, Paris, Presses U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France, 1965, pp. 100-101.
B.
JOURNALS AND NEWSPAPERS
Anon., 'Le Mangeur de Reves', Mercure de France, 15 mars 1922, p. 76T: Anon., 'The Theatre. Producers i n Paris. The Plays o f Henri Lenormand', The Spectator, no. 5093, 6 February 1926, pp. 213-214.
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Anon., 'M. Lenormand's Plays', The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement, no. 1390, 20 September 1928, p. 662. Anon., 'Trench-Fright Goes Behind the Footlights', The L i t e r a r y Digest, 27 July 1935, pp. 22 and 31. Anon., 'Lenormand Dead; French Dramatist', The New York Times, 18 February 1951, p. 76. ' Anon., 'M. H.-R. Lenormand - L i t e r a t u r e o f the Subconscious', The Times, 19 February 1951, p. 8. Anon., 'Premieres oeuvres du theatre n o i r . . . Les pieces de H.-R. Lenormand seduisaient e t e f f r a y a i e n t interpretes et spectateurs', Carrefour, 20 f e v r i e r 1951, p. 5. Antoine, 'Courrier Theatral. ^a ne va toujours pas mieux', Le Journal, 24 septembre 1924, p. 4. Arnyvelde, Andre, 'Un "Theatre complet"', Le Figaro, 18 decembre 1921, p. 2. Barberet, Gene J., 'Jones, Robert Emmet. H.-R. Lenormand', The French Review, v o l . LX, no. 3, February 1987, pp. 402-403. Bauer, Gerard, 'La Dent Rouge', L'Opinion, 13 octobre 1922, pp. 209-213. Baughan, E.A., 'Unhealthy Modern Plays', John O'London's Weekly, v o l . XX, no. 497, 27 October 1928, p. 104. Beauplan, Robert de, 'L'Homme e t ses Fantomes', Le Theatre et Comoedia I l l u s t r e , nouvelle serie no. 36, 15 juin-15 septembre 1924, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Le Lache', Le Theatre e t Comoedia I l l u s t r e , nouvelle serie no. 4'8: 15 j a n v i e r 1926, pp. 2 and 12. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Le Lache au theatre des Arts', La Petite I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 158, 13 f e v r i e r 1926, no'^ paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Le Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand', L ' I l l u s t r a t i o n , no. 4328, 13 f e v r i e r 1926, p. 152. Beauplan, Robert de, 'L'Innocente au theatre Antoine', La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 215, 13 octobre 1928, not paginated. Beauplan, Robert de, 'Crepuscule du Theatre au theatre des A r t s ' , La P e t i t e I l l u s t r a t i o n , Theatre no. 362, 26 janvier 1935, not paginated.
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Behrens, Ralph, '"L'Inconnu" as Object of Desire i n the Plays of Lenormand', The French Review, v o l . XXXI, no. 2, December 1957, pp. 152-154. B e l l i , Angela, 'Lenormand's Asie And Anderson's The Wingless V i c t o r y ' , Comparative L i t e r a t u r e , v o l . XIX, no. 3, Summer 1967, pp. 226-239. Benoit, Jean-Louis, 'Un Theatre de 1'Inquietude', Programme: Les Rates au Theatre de 1'Aquarium Cartoucherie, mise en scene de Jean-Louis Benoit, du 26 septembre au 19 novembre 1995, not paginated. Beraud, Henri, 'Le Simoun', Mercure de France, 1 f e v r i e r 1921, pp. 765-767. Berton, Claude, 'L'homme et son fantome. (Le Theatre de H.-R. Lenormand)', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 27 j u i n 1925, p. 7. Berton, Claude, 'Les Visages de l a Comedie. Le Lache', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 2 j a n v i e r 1926, p. 7. Berton, Claude, 'La Femme et ses Fantomes. L'Amour magicien', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 4 decembre 1926, p. 7. Berton, Claude, 'Maternite. Mixture', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 12 novembre 1927, p. 9""! Berton, Claude, 'L'Innocente', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 19 mai 1928, p. 9. Bidou, Henry, 'La Genealogie du Roman', La Revue de Paris, 15 f e v r i e r 1925, pp. 920-922. Bidou, Henry, 'L'Armee secrete', La Revue de Paris, 1® f e v r i e r 1926, pp. 686-690. Bidou, Henry, 'La Folle du Ciel', Le Temps, 24 f e v r i e r p. 2. B i l l y , Andre, 'Les Livres, ou H.-R. Le Figaro, 11 mars 1953, p. 11.
1936,
Lenormand expose son cas',
Blanchart, Paul, 'H.-R. Lenormand: dramaturge d'apocalypse', La Revue Theatrale, no. 4, j a n v i e r - f e v r i e r 1947, pp. 9-14. Blanchart, Paul, 'Livres et revues - Les Confessions d'un auteur dramatique'. Revue d'Histoire du Theatre, I , 1950, p. 93. Blanchart, Paul, 'In Memoriam. Notes et Documents sur H.-R. Lenormand', Revue d'Histoire du Theatre, I I , 1951, pp. 167-176.
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Blanehart, Paul, 'Livres e t revues - Anouilh, Lenormand, Salacrou: Trois dramaturges a l a recherche de leur v e r i t e ' . Revue d'Histoire du Theatre, I I I , 1951, pp. 313-314. Blanchart, Paul, 'H.-R. Lenormand et son temoignage'. Arts, 23 f e v r i e r 1951, pp. 1 and 2. Blanchart, Paul, 'Lenormand', Larousse Mensuel, X I I , no. 440, a v r i l 1951, p. 636. Boissard, Maurice, 'Le Temps est un Songe', Mercure de France, 15 j a n v i e r 1920, pp. 474-478. Boissard, Maurice, 'La Dent Rouge', La Nouvelle Revue Frangaise, 1 novembre 1922, pp. 614-615. Boissard, Maurice, 'M. Lenormand Defenseur du Theatre', Mercure de France, 15 a v r i l 1927, p. 511. Boissy, Gabriel, 'De l a c r i t i q u e et de quelques reprises Les Rates',- Comoedia, 21 decembre 1928, p. 2. Boissy, Gabriel, 'L'Interpretation des Trois Chambres', Comoedia, 19 f e v r i e r 1931, p. 2. Bordeaux, Henry, 'Les Possedes', La Revue Hebdomadaire, 12 j u i n 1909, pp. 244-248. Bordeaux, Henry, 'Le Temps est un Songe', La Revue Hebdomadaire, 3 j a n v i e r 1920, pp. 70-74": Bost, Pierre, 'Une Vie secrete', La Revue Hebdomadaire, 13 a v r i l 1929, pp. 234-237. Bourdet, Edouard, 'Crepuscule du Theatre', Marianne, 16 j a n v i e r 1935, p. 11. Bourget-Pailleron, Robert, 'A travers les theatres: Crepuscule du Theatre', Revue des Deux Mondes, 1 f e v r i e r 1935, pp. 707-709. B r i e r r e , Annie, 'Troubles', Les Nouvelles L i t t e r a i r e s , 26 j u i l l e t 1951, p. 3. " B r i l l a n t , Maurice, 'Je sens deux hommes en moi...'. La Croix, 4-5 mars 1951, p. 3. Brisson, Pierre, 'L'Homme et ses Fantomes', Le Temps, 13 j u i n 1924, p. 6. Brisson, Pierre, 'Le Lache', Le Temps, 7 decembre 1925, p. 2. B r i s v i l l e , J.-C, 'Les Coeurs anxieux'. La Gazette des Lettres, 13 decembre 1947, p. 10.
- 486 -
C a r a t , J a c q u e s , 'Les C o n f e s s i o n s d'un a u t e u r d r a m a t i q u e ' , P a r u , n o . 55, n o v e m b r e 1949, p p . 92-94. C h a r p e n t i e r , J o h n , 'Revue de l a Q u i n z a i n e . L'Armee M e r c u r e de F r a n c e , 15 j u i n 1926, p p . 677-678.
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