Science Problem Solving Learning through Mobile Gaming Jaime Sánchez
Alvaro Salinas
Department of Computer Science, University of Chile Blanco Encalada 2120, Santiago, Chile 56-2-9780502
Department of Computer Science, University of Chile Blanco Encalada 2120, Santiago, Chile 56-2-9780502
[email protected]
[email protected] games and activities, demonstrating that mobile technology can help to foster collaborative effort between people.
ABSTRACT
This study presents the impact of the application of a specially tailored classroom methodology based on a problem-solving mobile game for 8th grade science class curriculum. The methodology included science classroom activities with teachers as facilitators and learning activities using interactive mobile videogames. The evaluation study focused on the development of problem solving skills. The research team evaluated videos recorded during testing sessions with group of students confronted to solve a problem. Results show important differences in problem solving skills between the groups that participated and those that did not participate in the study. The participating group was able to complete the whole problem solving cycle with a richer level of interaction and more time dedicated to the evaluation and more participation.
As Savill-Smith & Kent [21] indicate, handhelds are part of a new generation of technology that highlight mobility and connectivity; handheld computers are at the forefront of a new wave in the evolution of technology that involves very small computers and wireless connectivity that can provide for learning to anyone, anywhere, at anytime. Salinas & Sánchez [19] argue that the most important issue to explore constitutes the idea that the distinctive contribution of PDAs is their portability and lightness of use. This offers a possibility of making the boundaries of the school, so jealously guarded by traditional education, more and more permeable to the environment. Learning and relevant knowledge is not only limited to the space and time spent inside the classroom. PDAs can extend the school work to other contexts as well as make knowledge transferable to contexts where that knowledge can be made significant. Besides, mobility of handhelds provides for a more natural students learning process, because it can “give back the body” to them. In traditional education, children are seated for long hours in their chairs, and cannot talk to each other without the authorization of the teacher. Handhelds allow for learning everywhere, when walking, in the street, in the bus, etc. [13], [19]. An issue to continue exploring is the use of mobile devices to help students make decisions in place, assisted by basic information processing [24]. Some projects bet on the use of mobile devices together with wireless communications technology as a resource for visitors to museums [26] or even in a Zoo [20]. Stanton & Neale [22] presents an experience that consisted of proving the use of mobile technology in contexts as story narration, outdoor games and activities. These experiences evidence that the intersection of online learning and mobile computing—called mobile learning— holds the promise of offering frequent, integral access to applications that support learning anywhere, anytime [25].
Categories and Subject Descriptors
K.3. Computers and Education
General Terms
Design and Experimentation.
Keywords
Mobile games, problem solving, game-based learning, science learning
1. INTRODUCTION Several authors have posed the question about the pedagogical potential of mobile devices [3]. However, research in this field is recent and more full-field research studies on the impact of mobile technology in education are needed [25]. Some experiences have shown that handhelds are most often used as tools to aid in research, alternatives to paper-based tasks and group collaboration activities [4]. A research experience using handhelds in collaborative learning has been developed by taking advantage of the mobility features of the device, making learning a more natural process, and also promoting negotiation concepts in the classroom [2]. Stanton & Neale´s work [22] use mobile technology in different contexts, such as storytelling, outdoor
Authors describe the autonomy between the learning task and specialized spaces as seamless learning by seeing ubiquitous access to mobile, connected, personal, handhelds creating the potential for a new phase in the evolution of technology-enhanced learning, marked by a continuity of the learning experience across different environments [1],[25],[27]. Likewise, the capacity to be integrated in natural contexts is one of the main characteristics of ubiquitous computing. As Weiser said, it does not imply the immersion of users into a context generated by the computer (as virtual reality), but rather an immersion of the computer into the context of the user’s everyday life [28].
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. MindTrek’08, October 7-9, 2008, Tampere, Finland. Copyright 2008 ACM 978-1-60558-197-2/08/10…$5.00.
Considering the character and capacity for mobile information processing of handhelds, pervasive systems can help to solve unexpected problems, fortuitous situations and immediate
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necessities that arise in everyday life, that require data assistance, information and communication in the here and now. Besides, the access of several users to the same data and information can allow for discussion and collective interpretation of such information. This opens up new possibilities for a collective hermeneutics in the context of schools.
2.1. Description of the study
In order to prove this hypothesis, a specially tailored pedagogical methodology based on the use of mobile videogames for science learning and the development of problem solving skills was designed, implemented and evaluated in two parts. This methodology included the design of two videogames (Museum and Evolution) and a series of learning activities that the students had to perform together with their facilitators. Both mobile video games were developed by the research team and were played by learners using handheld devices.
A wide variety of studies point out the importance of the use of video games to attain learning objectives, such as the development of verbal, mathematic, visual, sensory motor as well as problem solving skills [5], [10]. Other studies show that video games can increase meaningful dialogues among students and that they have positive effects on social skills [9].
The first part of the study consisted of taking the students out on a fieldtrip to a science museum in Santiago de Chile. In this activity students had to solve a prerequisite problem that could be later used to solve the target problem of the whole video game. At this stage students interacted with a trivia software program for pocketPC called “Museum”, which guided them and presented riddles that had to be solved during the visit to the museum. The Museum software contained three distinct environments: questions to answer during their visit, multimedia information complementary to that obtained from direct observation of the exhibition, and a map showing the location of the museum. The software organized the questions so that the students had to answer randomly and each of them would take a different tour through the museum.
In spite of the rapid development of the videogame industry, only in recent years mobile hardware and software have been developed. This trend has been deepened by the availability in the market of low cost portable devices that carry gaming software (cellular phones, smart phones, PDA’s, laptops). The possibility of using video gaming for learning opens up huge opportunities to bring education closer to learners’ everyday life experiences, increasing motivation and commitment to learning, and coming around to learners’ current learning styles [9]. Many authors have analyzed the impact of video games on the development of problem solving skills. Some of them believe that video games can promote learning of a higher order, such as increasingly meaningful dialogues among learners [11]. Other studies describe the positive effects of video games on social skills [17], science [11], and classroom interaction [27].
The second part of the study consisted of using a video game called “Evolution”, designed and developed with real time strategy game features (see Figure 1). Teams of four eighthgraders from public Chilean schools had to maintain and develop three biological species during the game, each one including four animal classes, manipulating key variables for the preservation, development and evolution of each species in a changing and unknown environment. Evolution provides a highly interactive environment in which the students, personifying the role of an animal, must evolve into other animals through actions such as attacking, eating, moving or reproducing in the different areas of the virtual environment. The students could interact with several different species in diverse areas and at the same time experiencing various biological processes. In addition, the software contains graphic interfaces that mimic the graphic styles of current commercial videogames. Both games assigned different roles to the users in order to promote collaboration within the student teams. “Museum” and “Evolution” were complemented with accompanying classroom learning activities.
Numerous authors have described problem solving skills as fundamental in the learning process and crucial for the knowledge society [6],[7],[8],[14],[16]. According to O’Neil [15], problem solving has three factors: content understanding, problem-solving strategies, and self-regulation. Mayer & Wittrock [12], define problem solving as the cognitive process involved in achieving a goal when a solution method is not obvious to the problem solver. Even though some authors identify different steps involved in a problem solving cycle, most of them agree and elaborate from those proposed by Polya [18], understanding the problem, designing a strategy, putting the strategy into practice and checking the solution. Sugrue organizes problem solving methodologies according to the cognitive dimension that is emphasized and the type of test answering format (multiple-choice, open ended or hands-on). The assumption made is that the ability to solve problems in a particular domain results from the complex interaction of knowledge structure, cognitive functions, and beliefs about oneself and the task [23].
2.2. Research design
The methodological design of the study was quasi-experimental with measurements taken before and after the actual activities with the video games. We worked with two groups: one that participated in all of the activities designed for the study, including the use of mobile video games (experimental group) and another that did not participate in any of the activities, except the application of data collecting instruments (comparison group). In this way, the independent variable of the study is the methodology designed, which includes mobile videogames, specially tailored classroom activities and on-site fieldtrips.
This paper presents the results obtained after implementing a research study using mobile science video games together with a specially tailored methodology to develop and improve problem solving skills in primary school learners.
2. METHODOLOGY This research study was designed around the hypothesis that the combination of video gaming and mobility offers opportunities for the development of problem solving skills.
The process and results of the application of the video game methodology designed were evaluated using different techniques. An opinion survey was applied to the students who had participated in the experience before and after the study was
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developed problem solving skills will have a high level of participation between team members during the test, and that the group will have the ability to complete the entire cycle of four stages in the problem solving process.
completed. The sample consisted of 169 students, 114 students from three grade levels that participated in the study with the video game methodology (experimental group), plus 55 students from two grade levels that did not participate in the intervention study (control group). Using matching technology, we controlled for variables such as age, socio-economic status and level of culture, as well as educational results on standardized tests. The sample was made up eighth graders, ages between 13-14 years old, which came from lower and middle class socio-economic groups. MAIN MENU
Several differences were observed between the experimental group and the control group after applying the problem solving test. The comparative analysis of the number of student participants during the problem solving activities showed that the students in the experimental group had a higher participation during the four stages of the problem solving cycle, while the students from the control group had a lesser participation during the initial stages of the process (see Table 1). The experimental group showed a participation average of 88% of their members, while control group evidenced an average of 71%. There was not statistically significant difference between group means (t = 2,020; p > 0.05; with a non-significant Levene’s test).
ENVIRONMENT INTERFACES
Table 1. Participation of the member’s Group during the entire task Figure 1. Evolution interfaces In order to analyze the actual performance of the students on problem-solving exercises beyond just subjective perception, a performance test on problem solving was administered to 6 groups of 4 students (see Figure 2). The test consisted of identifying the shortest paths between various spots in a designed plan. Each spot was represented by geographical elements (islands, mountains, forests, and villages). Students had a limited number of bricks to build a path between these spots, considering pre-established written rules; they could not pass twice over the same spot, use a maximum number of bricks, start and end in the village, etc. Students were given 10 minutes to complete the task. Two researchers observed and video recorded the process and the results obtained by each group.
Participation
group Experimental Control
Std. Error Mean
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
9
87,92
15,17
5,06
9
71,53
19,04
6,34
Table 2. Interaction intensity during the different problem solving stages
Comprehension Design Application
Group Experimental Control Experimental Control Experimental Control
Evaluation
Experimental Control
Total interaction
Experimental Control
N 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Mean 1,67 1,11 2,06 1,44 1,56 1,14 1,70 1,59 1,74
Std. Deviation 1,00 ,93 ,63 ,88 ,53 ,33 ,73 ,70 ,41
9
1,32
,52
Std. Error Mean ,33 ,31 ,21 ,29 ,18 ,11 ,24 ,23 ,138 ,17
There was also a higher degree of intensity of the interactions within members of the experimental group during the entire problem solving process in comparison to the control group, especially during the initial stages (see Table 2). This means that the students in the experimental group tended to discuss more than the students of the control group. The intensity of the interactions was classified into 3 levels: low, medium and high, assigning 1 to 3 points. The interaction intensity was higher for the experimental group presented a higher interaction (mean = 1.7 points) than the control group (mean = 1.3 points). This difference is observed in each stage of the problem solving cycle, especially in the stages of the comprehension of the problem (mean = 1.67 points and mean = 1.11 points) and design (mean = 2.06 points and mean = 1.44 points). There was not statistically significant differences for each and total stages (comprehension t = 1.22, p > 0.05; design t = 1.68, p > 0.05; application t = 2.00, p > 0.05; evaluation t = 0.328; p > 0.05 and total t = 1.91, p > 0.05; Levene’s test was significant only for application).
Figure 2. Students during the problem solving test The videos obtained during the tests were analyzed, distinguishing four main stages in the problem-solving cycle similar to those described by Polya [18]: comprehension of the problem, design, application, and evaluation of the strategy. The variables used in the analysis were: the number of effective participants (members of the group who participate linguistically or with gestures in the problem-solving process); the density of the interactions (frequency of linguistic or corporal gestures between the participants in the group), the time spent by each group in each stage of the problem-solving process and the groups’ success in finding a satisfactory solution to the problem. Each video was analyzed by three different researchers. Punctuations assigned by researchers are analyzed in the following section.
3. RESULTS
The students from the experimental group took more time to solve the problem than their classmates in the control group: 6 minutes
The hypothesis of the study in analyzing the interactions during the problem-solving performance test were that a group that
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intervention lasted for 5 weeks, twice a week. So having attained that students completed the problem solving cycle is relevant because may mean that they reached self-regulation. Additionally, there were gains in communication and coordination of students, two of the six skills identified by O’Neil O’Neil, Herl, Chung, and Brown [15]: adaptability, coordination, decision making, interpersonal, leadership, and communication.
and 48 seconds (experimental mean), and 5 minutes and 27 seconds (control mean) (see Table 3). It was also observed that the students in the experimental group took longer time to evaluate the strategy (3:35 minutes, over 1:45 minutes in the control group). We observed that these students habitually re-read the instruction sheet, checking that they had fulfilled each one of the instructions to elaborate the proposed solution to the problem. In two comparison groups the students did not review this sheet in detail, and basically limited themselves to seeing if they fulfilled one of the initial requirements (to use a limited number of blocks). In the end, these groups finished the testing exercise without finding a satisfactory solution to the problem.
We believe that increasing the time on gaming and problem solving may improve the student’s skills. To understand more clearly the relations between variables used a new study is being implemented during twelve weeks, applying the performance test to a bigger sample and using a bigger number of judges might contribute.
Table 3. Time spent in the different problem solving stages
Comprehension
group Experimental Control
Design
Experimental Control
Application
Experimental Control
Evaluation
Experimental Control
Total
Experimental Control
N 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Mean 00:21 00:00 00:19 00:46 02:32 02:55 03:35 01:45 06:48 05:27
Std. Deviation 00:19 00:00 00:08 00:48 01:05 01:51 02:58 01:26 03:50 02:24
5. DISCUSSION
Std. Error Mean 00:10 00:00 00:05 00:27 00:37 01:04 01:43 00:49 02:13 01:23
Integrating mobile video games into education is not easy to achieve. There is an attempt to articulate playful concepts with complex concepts, quickness with reflection. Our video game integrated these concepts to a procedural level: students manipulated variables to achieve the evolution of their species. Nevertheless, the declarative level was managed by the teacher after each gaming session. To do this, the teachers organized internet searches, discussions of concepts and systematization of information with their students. We found that both students and teachers considered that the study contributed to science learning. Thus, both play and learning found a meeting space of common ground. However, one line of future study would be to find modes of better integrating declarative and procedural events.
There was not statistically significant differences for each and total stages in the time spent to solve the problem (comprehension t = 1.74, p > 0.05; design t = -0.25, p > 0.05; application t = -0.97, p > 0.05; evaluation t = 1.22; p > 0.05 and total t = 0.48, p > 0.05; Levene’s test was significant only for evaluation).
An important characteristic of our focal point in the study was that we were not centered on technology, but rather on its integration into curriculum. This implied an effort from the beginning to integrate pedagogical elements into game design. This task was not trivial because it forced software development and pedagogical design teams to work together. They had different ways of thinking and priorities. In order to solve this issue, we had to always keep on pursuing the objective of the study, that is, to develop a methodology for learning by playing video games with mobile technology.
4. CONCLUSION In this study we found that the students´ interaction with mobile videogames using a specially tailored methodology has an impact on the development of their problem solving skills. The data obtained evidenced that there are differences in problem solving skills between the experimental and control groups. Fundamentally, the experimental group was able to complete the problem solving cycle with a richer level of interaction, spending more time to the evaluation of the strategy and more participation.
We believe that the development of video games with educational purposes using mobile devices is rewarding and stimulating task. Our work has been guided by the interest of developing a video game with a logic that is closely matched to the most attractive video games on the market, but embedding it with learning content. For the near future it is necessary to continue the study of learning- embedded games, bearing in mind that good performance in the game can be possible when the contents are well learned. At the same time, providing spatial reality to learning (unbinding it to specific places such as the classroom and granting mobility to students who wish to move by nature) open new possibilities to tailor learning to the student’s natural way of being and mental models.
The capacity to complete the problem solving cycle was a critical result. Alter completing the performance test, all experimental groups verbally reviewed the work done. Many of them orally reviewed the rules of the game. Other took the instruction sheet and reviewed point by point whether or not their work fitted the requirements. As a consequence, some groups modified their work and others maintain it. Control groups behave differently. Once they identified the shortest paths between various spots in a designed plan they remained in silence waiting for instructions. This happened even when the solution did not fulfill the requirements. Other control groups modified their work after a while without interaction between group members.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was partially funded by the Project SOC 06/05- 2 and PBCT-CONICYT, Project CIE-05, University of Chile.
Even though we could not found statistically significant differences, the preliminary results obtained challenge to continue and extend the study to a more long-term study. In this study the
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