screen-reading skills and teaching

CHAPTER ELEVEN SCREEN-READING SKILLS AND TEACHING SAYIM AKTAY

The Skill Approach in Education: From Theory to Practice Edited by

and

The Skill Approach in Education: From Theory to Practice

This book first published 2018 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-1086-7 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1086-9

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE...................................................................................................... x EDITORS .................................................................................................... xii Part I: Concept of Skill Understanding Editor: Sabri Sidekli CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................. 2 Skill Based Approach and Teaching Skill

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................... 19 Lifelong Learning Skills: A Comprehensive Approach to Meaningful and Effective Learning Tanju Deveci CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................... 35 Creative Thinking Skills e Derya I CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................... 48 Comprehension Skills Sabri Sidekli CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................... 65 Measurement and Evaluation of Skill Sema Sulak Part II: Basic Skills in Education Editor: CHAPTER SIX............................................................................................. 78 Group Work Skills in the First Literacy

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CHAPTER SEVEN ....................................................................................... 93 Cursive Handwriting Skills Ruhan Karada CHAPTER EIGHT ...................................................................................... 104 Fluency Reading Skills Yasemin Ku demir CHAPTER NINE ........................................................................................ 124 The Role of Riddles in the Development of Reading Skills ad Yangil CHAPTER TEN ......................................................................................... 141 Fluent Speaking Skills O uzhan Kuru CHAPTER ELEVEN ................................................................................... 157 Screen-Reading Skills and Teaching Sayim Aktay CHAPTER TWELVE................................................................................... 172 Story Writing Skills of Children Beyhan Can Part III: Language Comprehension Skills Editor: Yusuf CHAPTER THIRTEEN ................................................................................ 188 Creative Reading Skill Nevin Akkaya CHAPTER FOURTEEN ............................................................................... 206 Creative Writing Skills Fatma Susar CHAPTER FIFTEEN ................................................................................... 229 Rapid Reading Skills Bilge Ayranc

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CHAPTER SIXTEEN .................................................................................. 247 Voice and Diction in Speech

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN ............................................................................. 268 Listening Skills

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN ................................................................................ 285 Inference Skills

CHAPTER NINETEEN ................................................................................ 297 Critical Thinking and Writing

CHAPTER TWENTY .................................................................................. 312 Problem Solving Skills in Language Education kaya Part IV: Science and Mathematics Skills Editor: Y lmaz Kara CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE .......................................................................... 326 Inquiry Skills in Science Education Nil Duban CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO ......................................................................... 340 Science Process Skills: Learning through Scientific Method Y lmaz Kara CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE ...................................................................... 359 Entrepreneurial Skills in Science Education sa Deveci CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR ........................................................................ 370 Analytical Thinking Skills in Teaching Science Murat Okur

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CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE ......................................................................... 381 Mathematical Understanding and Reading Skills Aysun CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX ........................................................................... 394 Problem-Solving Skill Neslihan Usta CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN ...................................................................... 412 Geometrical Thinking Skill ba Uygun Part V: Psychosocial and Visual Arts Skills in Education Editor: CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT ....................................................................... 424 Counselor Skills

CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE ......................................................................... 429 Gratitude Skills Training

CHAPTER THIRTY .................................................................................... 443 Space Perception Ability in Social Studies Education

CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE............................................................................ 450 Maps in Geography Education

CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO ........................................................................... 461 Visual Perception Skills in Art Education

CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE ........................................................................ 477 Art Work Reading Skills

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CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR .......................................................................... 487 Teaching Skills

Contributors ............................................................................................ 506

CHAPTER ELEVEN SCREEN-READING SKILLS AND TEACHING SAYIM AKTAY

Introduction Nowadays, technology has been developing and becoming widespread quickly. The computers that a few people held in their hands in the 1980s and 1990s are now all over the place. Additionally, the desktop and laptop computers that were relatively expensive have become purchasable for almost every budget. At the same time, new programs for computers have been developing continuously and the variety of these programs has become very rich compared to previous years. All of this has made computers gain Computers have evolved over time; they have shrunk in size, and they have been shaped in different forms. Mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets are the most important of these computers. Today, by being separated into pieces, some laptop computers can be used as tablets as well. In our day, touch-tablets and smartphones are able to compete with desktop and laptop computers with their features such as CPU and RAM. Moreover, the fact that mobile computers can be transported easily by people thanks to their small size has increased their popularity. As a matter of fact, smartphones have become devices that people always carry with them because they are also used for communication purposes. Contrary to desktop and laptop computers, tablets and smartphones can come with various hardware such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, compasses, proximity sensors and radios. Millions of paid and free applications can be downloaded easily on the mobile devices with an operating system such as Android or iOS through application markets. Mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets have the capacities of reading PDFs, visiting internet sites, reading e-mails, playing audio or video files and opening files in various formats; therefore, they meet the need for computers .

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While smartphones and tablets have been developing, e-book readers have also made a move. In particular, e-book readers, like Kindle, which was introduced and sold by the book sales company Amazon, have gained an important place in the digital book market. Because they offer a relatively affordable price and provide more comfortable reading, e-books have filled a different niche. E-book readers provide people the ability to get and read more books digitally with the support from companies like Amazon. Due to its widespread nature and the parallel, rapid development of computer technology, the Internet, one of the worlds' most important inventions, has evolved and become popular. For instance, the speed of the Internet has become quite fast with its improved infrastructures such as DSL and fibre Internet. This has also offered more affordable prices. The mobile Internet has developed in a similar way and has become very fast with technologies such as 3G and 4G. The Internet, which was very limited in terms of both its content and its opportunities two decades ago, has evolved considerably over time. In the present day, both the number of sites has increased more than the past and the content that the sites have offered has changed and become enriched. Today, for example, while the Internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia has become one of the most referenced sources, social networks such as Facebook or Twitter have become digital environments where people spend plenty of time. The development, spread and also cheapness of computer technology and the enormous amount of information resources such as the Internet have changed how people live. Tracking e-mails or following the online versions of newspapers and the magazines is now being carried out digitally. Nowadays, people can stay connected to the Internet with mobile computers constantly, reach the information they need instantly and stay in touch with other people. Thus, people are now exposed to much more digital information compared to the past, and they get the information from the screens of their electronic devices. For this reason, screen reading skills have become an increasingly important concept in human life. In this regard, having knowledge about screen-reading skills, knowing the features and the importance of screen-reading skills, being aware of their positive and negative aspects, knowing what points to consider, being able to develop screen readable content and improving these screens reading skills are among the important requirements of this age.

What is Screen-Reading? Reading can be defined basically as decoding a text that is composed of a couple of words (Baron, 2015). It dates back to painting on the stone walls

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and caves in the 3200s BC and writing on clay tablets and papyrus in the 2400s BC; then it continued with the shift to the mechanical age in 1440 AD, and it finally entered into the digital age in the 1900s (Pearson et al., 2014). Similar to reading on paper, screen-reading is an analysis and interpretation of digital texts on screens, which are then structured in the mind (Gunes, 2010). Screen-reading is now referred to in various ways, such as "reading from screen," "reading on screen," "electronic reading," "digital reading" and "hyper reading". In other words, screen-reading can be defined as reading any kind of digitally generated content on the screen. Therefore, e-books as well as the texts created in PDF files, Microsoft Word formats and so on, and the contents on websites are parts of screen-reading. As a matter of fact, the contents of social networks and messaging applications, which are widely used today, can also be read via screen reading. Screen-reading has some advantages, such as storage of several contents, being displayed on different devices, easy access and sharing, being easy to carry, being economical, not wearing away and supporting nature through lack of paper usage. Screen-reading occurs by the interaction of three components: the reader, the text and the environment. The person performing the reading carries out operations such as seeing, perceiving and verbalizing the writing, and understanding, associating and inquiring the writing, and finally structuring it in the mind. The important parts of the sentences and paragraphs are selected and re-interpreted by processes such as sorting, classification, association, inquiry Screen2009): Seeing: In this first phase of screen-reading, the visual phase, the information such as letters, words, numbers and pictures is transmitted to the brain through the sense organs in the eye. The brain processes and interprets the obtained information. Understanding: It is the step of understanding the information gathered during reading through various processes such as questioning, analysis and synthesis. Cognitive Structuring: At this stage, the reader interprets the words and the sentences, activates the preliminary knowledge, and assigns a new meaning. Finally, the meaning is stored in the mind.

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Screen-Reading vs. Paper-Reading? A great amount of research about the topics of reading on paper and reading on screens was conducted with various variables, such as reading speed and preferability. Thus, attempts have been made to determine which is more advantageous for an individual. However, the studies do not necessarily support both of the conditions simultaneously. In many studies where paper-reading and screen-reading were investigated in the early 1990s (Dillon, 1992), it was often observed that people read on screen more slowly, less accurately, and with less reading comprehension than on paper. However, when the research done over the next 15 years (Noyes & Garland, 2008) is examined, the findings started to exhibit evidence supporting screen-reading. The display technology has been constantly developed over the years, and the previously used CRT monitors have been replaced by LCD, OLED and AMOLED screens that will distract the eye less and provide more comfortable reading. Apart from that, there are now a number of screen formats which give better results, such as tablets and e-book readers, as well as desktop and laptop computers. In addition to all of these, there is now a gradual shift from paper to digital reading. The increasing content on the Internet, social media, online magazines and the newspapers, web pages and e-mails are constantly causing individuals to read on the screen. Additionally, today, the devices that can display any kind of digital content are becoming widespread. For example, the number of users with smartphones that can display digital content such as e-books, e-mail, or websites is gradually increasing. It is predicted that the number of smartphone users worldwide will outnumber the user number of mobile phones (non-smart phones), reaching 2.56 billion by 2018. The fact that the number of smartphone users worldwide in 2017 is 2.32 billion shows a steady increase in the spread of smartphones. There is a screenshot of a free e-book reading app for smartphones and tablets below (see Figure 1.).

Figure 6 A Sample E-book Reading Application: Moon+ Reader

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As it is seen in Figure 1 above, the e-book readers available for smartphones and tablets provide some useful features, even though they do not have the features of real books. For instance, the features such as the library feature of the application, where one can read the selected book from the library, and the feature of the application that shows which part the reader is on during reading, are facilitative for both transportation and status-information. Moreover, the fact that you see what page you are on within the chapter and the fact that you have seen what percentage of the book is finished also creates a sense of progress in the mind. Students of today are born and raised in an era in which they have tablets, smartphones and e-book readers; thus, they are becoming more familiar with display technologies. A study (Findahl, 2014), conducted in 2014, shows that the 57% of 2-year-old children and three quarters of 3year-old children in Sweden use the Internet. Even if it is not as high as in Sweden, this is an important finding in representing the current trends in the technology use in other countries. Considering these results, it can be proposed that the new generations are more likely to read on the screen since they get used to being in front of the screen from an early age, and they are getting raised with an increasing tendency towards technology. That people spend increasingly more time reading electronic documents changes their reading behaviour as well, and what emerges is a screen-based reading habit different from reading on paper. In a study conducted by Liu (2005), screen-reading behaviours were observed to be characterized according to the amount of reading time for skimming and scanning, selecting key-words, one-time reading, non-linear reading, and selective reading forms. It is also observed that people spend less time on in-depth reading and concentrated reading. When we look at the research conducted in recent years, we find different findings about the effectiveness of screen-reading. In a study done by Duran & Alevli (2014) with the students in the 8th grade, it was revealed that the students comprehended the material they read on the screen better than on the printed material. The female students learnt better than the male student both in terms of the printed-reading and screen-reading. Dundar and (2012) found that the primary school students did not show a difference regarding their reading performance, reading speed and reading comprehension between the conditions of reading on the tablet computers and reading on the printed books (Kusdemir, 2016). People create mental maps for the texts they read in a similar way to finding directions between geographical forms and places (Payne & Reader, 2006). Therefore, when individuals want to remember a post they read, they often try to remember it by thinking about the physical location of the post (Rothkopf, 1971).

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Consequently, it can be considered that the texts in the books are somewhat easier to remember than those on the screen, because the book has features such as a physical page amount, and a right and a left page. There might be a relationship between the screen used and reading as well. In a study conducted by Niccoli (2015) with adults, in an exam with multiple-choice and short-answer questions, there was no significant difference between those who read on paper and those who read on tablets. However, Mangen, Walgermo & Bronnick (2013), a study conducted with 10th grade students, found that the reading comprehension of the students who read a text on paper was better than the students who read digitally. In another study with 10th grade students (Tveit & Mangen, 2014), when the Sony e-book readers and printed books were compared, it was seen that most of the students preferred to read from e-book readers. It is noteworthy that male students preferred the e-book readers more.

Importance of Screen-Reading Ability Today, the amount of digital information is constantly increasing and accumulating significantly. This enormous amount of information encourages individuals to obtain this information digitally. For example, it is proposed that the Wikipedia as a virtual encyclopaedia, is now the fifth most used website in the world (Stats, 2017). This ranking is quite striking in terms of showing the interest of individuals in the world in virtual wisdom. It also displays how widespread digital content is for the social networks and messaging services today, with 1.94 billion users of social networks (Stats, 2017), and 1.2 billion users of WhatsApp messaging (Smith, 2017). In a report from 2009 (Bohn & Short, 2010), it is seen that digital reading is preferred due to the influence of the Internet and that the reading rate has tripled from the 1980s to the 2010s. It is also stated in the report that in an ordinary day, an individual read about 100,000 digital words. All these can be explained as the reasons for the shift from paper-reading towards screenreading. The preference of e-books at a rate of 40% in a survey with the college students and the faculty members in a university (Waters et al., 2014) can be shown as an example of these changing trends. According to The Guardian (e-book sales continue to fall as the younger generations drive appetite for the print, 2017), 50% of the UK's fiction book sales in 2016 were for e-books. When examining the income from e-book sales in the United States, it is also seen that the income over the decade since 2008 has increased, growing 32 times larger (Revenue from e-book sales in the United States from 2008 to 2018 (in billion U.S. dollars), 2017). Moreover,

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this increase continues in a stable manner. The corresponding graph is shown below in Figure 2.

Figure 7 Annual E-Book Sales Income in the United States (Revenue from e-book sales in the United States from 2008 to 2018 (in billion U.S. dollars), 2017)

At first, e-books were published as electronic versions of the printed books such as PDF forms that can be read on devices such as e-book readers or computers. Nowadays, this situation has been reversed. In other words, the digital versions of books are published first, then the printed versions follow them. However, e-books are now printed in the form of "digital native." That is to say that these books are designed only digitally and contain pictures and videos; and they include features such as rotating pictures, linking to web pages, providing tests to solve and giving feedback as well (Baron, 2015). E-books are also easier to access and are more economical. For example, a printed book cannot be found in every bookstore. Even if this book is bought online, it should be obtained from the store and shipped to the address; then the delivery should be taken by the buyer. However, the electronic version of the book is ready to be read as soon as it is purchased from the store. Moreover, the electronic versions of the books might be more economical. Below are the prices of the printed and electronic versions of a book in the Amazon bookstore (see Figure 3). As you can see, the electronic version of the book is six times cheaper.

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Figure 8 The Screenshot of an e-book sales on Amazon (Essentials of Internet Programming Kindle Edition, 2017).

Besides the books, the printed sources such as the news sources, newspapers, magazines, dictionaries and encyclopaedias are also available on the web these days. Now people read the related websites to get this information. Therefore, they can access instant, current and detailed information (Aktay, 2017). Consequently, it has become a must to have screen-reading skills to get information effectively and economically in the digital world we live in.

Points to Consider in Screen-Reading Screen-reading has many advantages and disadvantages in terms of reading. However, if you pay attention to the following points in screenreading, you can achieve more effective and healthy reading activities: Display quality. The choice of LCD, AMOLED or e-ink screens may be more effective than CRT monitors, which are disturbing and flickering. Blink. Winking at certain intervals can prevent dry eyes and irritation (Barthakur, 2013). Screen height. If a computer screen is used, it should be placed 1015 degrees belo Resting periods. Even though new screens are better, some health disorders such as eye problems might occur due to the screen. For this reason, having breaks at certain intervals will be beneficial for your health. For this, it is advised to look at a point 20 steps away for 20 seconds every 20 minutes (Barthakur, 2013). Display light. The color and brightness settings of the screen should be adjusted to the room (Sun, 2010).

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Room light. Antireflection screens can be used to prevent problems such as light and light reflections from the window in the room (Barthakur, 2013). Blue light and melatonin. It is known that blue light is one of the most obstructive factors for melatonin secretion. Devices such as computer displays, tablets, and smartphones emit blue light (Wood et al., 2013). The use of programs that manage these devices' abilities to emit blue light may be beneficial to health (Kimberly & James, 2009).

Developing a Screen-Readable Content In screen-reading, both the way the content on the screen is developed and the content features have importance. The features, such as how the content is created and the size and design of the text, directly affect reading comprehension and speed. For example, in a study conducted by Stoop, Kreutzer & Kircz (2013), course material was printed, and it was also digitally presented. However, the course content was not simply a PDF but 7 web pages that do not require scrolling. In addition, the mouse over the feature on the page was used to provide some helpful information. The sample questions about the text are provided by the text. As a result of the research, the students who read on the screen obtained better results than those who studied on the printed materials. How the content is generated when creating the content for the screen is important in terms of understanding and the readability of the content. As with printed materials, regardless of the type of developed digital content, it must comply with a set of design and legibility principles. The created content should be attention-grabbing, should be suitable for eye movement, and should convey both information and emotion (Golombisky & Hagen, 2010). There should be informative and pedagogical content appropriate for the target audience instead of less interactive pages that are created with tightly written texts and fewer If the created screen content is in a website format, there should be a focal point, visual hierarchy, balance, rhythm and flow. In addition, since websites are often made up of multiple pages, a consistency between the pages and a navigation experience where the readers will not lose focus should be provided (Golombisky & Hagen, 2010). Changing the characteristics of the digital content, such as the typographic form or the line height, can influence the reading speed (Dyson, 2004). Besides this, when creating digital content, line spacing should not be narrow or be rightjustified. Legible fonts should be used to create digital content, there should

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be a contrast between the characters and the background, and dull colours should be preferred over bright colours (Alderson, 2000). It is necessary to avoid some mistakes that can be made while creating content for screen-reading. These mistakes can be expressed as follows Texts should not be written in columns as they are written in newspapers. Texts with wide lines that cause confusion within the lines should be avoided. Bright and flashing texts should be avoided. Unnecessary frames should not be used.

Teaching Screen-Reading Skills Individuals have been increasingly reading digital content and have been exposed to the screen more. For this reason, improving reading skills will enable them to benefit from these skills for a long time. Moreover, the individuals who develop their screen-reading skills will be able to better understand what they read in their next reading and be more successful. Screen-reading is unlike ordinary reading and has several features that should be taken into consideration when developing screen-reading skills. Scrolling the pages from the top to the bottom and vice versa causes reading with eye movements that are different from usual. It also becomes difficult to check and compare previous information. Seeing a limited portion of the page and changing and moving pages make it difficult to use some reading techniques. It is necessary to use high-level skills such as attention, thinking, understanding, and remembering because the text appearing as fragments makes it difficult to integrate the information. The display contains information in different forms such as hypertext, sound and picture, and it is necessary to have a flexible and quick mind structure to get this information. The effect of screen-reading on the readers can be improved by making necessary changes. For example, in a study conducted by Lauterman and Ackerman (2014), although the readers who read on the screen for the first time were more unsuccessful than those who read on paper, the better test results started to be obtained with the adaptation and adjustment to the screen. It is important to develop the following abilities for effective screenreading (Toikka, 2008):

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Taking only the mandatory part as the output by reading the electronic messages and information directly on the screen. Effectively using time to the maximum extent when examining emails, the Internet or the other types of information. Using the Internet search engines effectively to reach the information you need in the shortest time and using the time effectively. Knowing a person's natural eye movements and using them for effective reading. Providing a comfortable reading environment by taking ergonomic factors into consideration. When reading e-book type content, a number of reading strategies that students can apply will enable them to understand the content better. Cavanaugh (2006) describes the strategies that e-book readers can use: Pre-Reading Strategies: The aim of these strategies is to have a general idea of the intended content and to read in depth and comprehensively. In this context, the strategies such as examining the cover and its contents, searching for a selected key in the text, and summarizing the text automatically and analysing this summary can be used. While-Reading Strategies: When the students finish their prereading strategies, they continue with the actual reading. In the reading process, they highlight the parts that they wish in the text or they take notes by interacting with the text continuously. Besides this, some activities, such as stopping between sections and guessing the rest, writing a one-sentence summary and expressing their feelings, can be done. Lastly, some other activities such as bookmarking and making a conceptual map of complicated information in the text can be carried out where it is considered necessary as well.

develop screen-reading skills as follows: Mental preparation: It is necessary to be mentally prepared before you read the digital content. Setting goals. Among the digital content with an incredible amount of information, the students should not deviate from the purpose of reading and should not be lost in this information stack. Thus, the student can control his reading by giving his attention on the text.

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Guessing: Making predictions about the content of the text and producing ideas before reading improves the reading comprehension skills. Browsing: The headings, pages, introduction and conclusion sections should be skimmed through in order to determine the structure of the text, its layout and its important parts. Comprehension & Structuring and Organizing in the Mind: While reading the text, some certain practices such as sorting, associating, revealing similarities and differences, establishing cause and effect relations, deduction, analysis and synthesis should be done. Selective Reading: When reading on the screen, the activities such as quick browsing of the content, reading the important parts, and skipping the less important parts should be performed. Evaluation: When the screen reading is complete, the student must present what s/he understands from the text, reveal the incomplete or the incorrect parts of the text, and interpret the information read by questioning it.

Conclusion Today, the technologies such as computers, tablets, smartphones and ebook readers have gained an important place in people's lives by improving and becoming cheaper. In addition, the Internet has become the most important information source of our time by developing in terms of its infrastructure, speed and content. In this context, digital resources, as well as printed resources, constitute an important proportion. Therefore, screenreading is no longer an option but a requirement. As a consequence, educating students with screen-reading skills will enable them to become effective readers in the digital world.

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