Secondary Special Education Teachers' Knowledge ...

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies Running Head: Secondary Special Education Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies

Enhancing Secondary Special Education Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies in Working with Families through Online Training Modules Kyeong-Hwa Kim University of Cumberland Mary E. Morningstar University of Kansas Final Manuscript as Accepted Final Published as: Kim, K.-H., & Morningstar, M. E. (2007). Enhancing secondary special education teachers' knowledge and competencies in working with culturally and linguistically diverse families. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 30(2), 116-128.

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Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies

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Abstract An experimental study with a pretest-posttest control group design was conducted to evaluate the knowledge and competency gains of secondary special education teachers related to working with families, including those from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds. Fifty-three practitioners were randomly assigned to either a control or an experimental group and two online training modules were used for this study as an intervention. The results of the data analyses indicated that the online training modules were effective in enabling teachers to enhance their professional knowledge of family partnerships during transition. The results also found while the experimental group teachers did not feel significantly more competent in working with families than their counterparts, they did feel more competent in working with CLD families. Finally, this study indicated that all the participants perceived collaboration with families, including those from CLD backgrounds, as very important, regardless of the online training they received.


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Enhancing Secondary Special Education Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies in Working with Families through Online Training Modules Transition from school to a quality adult life for youths with disabilities has been one of the most important topics in the field of special education and rehabilitation for over two decades (Halpern, 1993; Sitlington & Clark, 2006; Stodden, 1998; Wehman, 2001; Will, 1984). Irrespective of progress made over the past 20 years, young adults with disabilities still experience less positive postschool outcomes than their peers without disabilities (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Janiga & Costenbader, 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 2001; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005). Unfortunately, culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students with disabilities also have faced even more difficulties in moving into adulthood (American Youth Policy Forum [AYPF], 2002; Lehr, Johnson, Bremer, Cosio, & Thompson, 2004; National Council on Disability [NCD], 1999; Wagner et al., 2005). Much of the early research and literature in the field has focused on identifying essential factors that might improve the postschool outlook for young adults with disabilities. The most frequently cited effective practices in the literature have included interagency collaboration, vocational skills training, paid work experience during high school, individual transition planning, self-determination, and family involvement (Benz, Lindstrom, & Yovanoff, 2000; Benz, Yovanoff, & Doren, 1997; Kohler, 1998; Kohler, DeStefano, Wermuth, Grayson, & McGinty, 1994; Morningstar, Kleinhammer-Tramill, & Lattin, 1999; Sitlington & Clark, 2006; Wehmeyer & Sands, 1998). Of these, family involvement is increasingly seen as a critical key to successful postschool outcomes (Kohler; McNair & Rusch, 1991; Morningstar, Turnbull, & Turnbull, 1995; Pleet, 2000).


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Unfortunately, research has consistently indicated that a majority of parents still continue to play a passive role in transition-focused Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings and decision-making processes (deFur, Todd-Allen, & Getzel, 2001; Geenen, Powers, & LopezVasquez, 2001; Salembier & Furney, 1997). A variety of barriers have been suggested to explain the lack of involvement by families, including those from CLD backgrounds, including: (a) professional’s negative attitudes, (b) insensitivity and discrimination, (c) poverty and byproducts of poverty, and (d) bureaucratic barriers (Garriott, Wandry, & Snder, 2000; Geenen, Powers, Lopez-Vasquez, & Bersani, 2003; Kim & Morningstar, 2005). Among these barriers, parents have reported that good relationships and effective communication with professionals promoted their participation in the transition process (deFur et al.; Salembier & Furney; Wehmeyer, Morningstar, & Husted, 1999). Consequently, the relationships and the interactions with school professionals have been identified as a pivotal factor in parental perceptions of the quality of transition services (deFur et al.; Kim & Morningstar; McNair & Rusch, 1991). Despite the importance of professionals’ roles in promoting family involvement, special education teachers often do not have the knowledge and skills needed to collaborate with parents effectively, especially with those from CLD backgrounds (Knight & Wadsworth, 1999). One reason for the lack of information related to family involvement and cultural considerations at the secondary level is due to inadequate attention within teacher education programs (Shartrand, Weiss, Kreider, & Lopez, 1997; Szymanski, 1994). According to one study, only fifteen states required special education teachers to take parent involvement courses (Radcliffe, Malone, & Nathan, 1994). To take advantage of the benefits associated with family involvement, secondary special education teachers must have a thorough understanding of the importance of family involvement


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and be prepared to collaborate with families, including those from CLD backgrounds. However, because preservice opportunities designed specifically to develop teachers’ parental involvement skills are few in number, inservice approaches seem a potentially critical tool for constructing more comprehensive and effective parental involvement practices (Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, & Brissie, 2002). In addition, the newly emerging use of online modalities for professional development can provide the flexibility of time and location for learning for teachers who are challenged with fulfilling multiple roles and responsibilities (Meyen, Ramp, Harrod, & Bui, 2003). Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to enhance secondary special education teachers’ knowledge and competencies through online training modules in working with families, including those from CLD backgrounds, during transition planning. In addition, this study examined how the online training modules affected these teachers’ attitudes toward working with families. Method To investigate the purposes of the study, an experimental study with a pretest-posttest control group design was conducted. Recruitment Targeted participants for the present study were secondary special education teachers and transition coordinators. A power analysis using two groups and assuming a large effect size (as is typical in repeated measures designs of pre/post-test learning studies) was conducted revealing that 26 participants in each group produced a power of 80% (Borenstein, Rothstein, & Cohen, 2001). Potential participants were contacted using a statewide mailing list of all secondary special education teachers in Kansas, gaining assistance from a faculty member at the University


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of New Mexico responsible for statewide training and technical assistance for secondary special education and transition, and directly recruiting the attendees at the 2005 Council for Exceptional Children’s Division on Career Development and Transition International Conference. An email invitation was sent to potential research participants with a website link to gain informed consent. The invitation email included information about: the purpose of the study, research incentives, and assurance of confidentiality. Practitioners were asked to complete the informed consent and provide demographic information as an expression of their willingness to participate in the study. Through these intensive efforts, 102 potential participants were recruited. Eighty-five of the 102 professionals willingness to participate met the participant criteria for this study. Intervention Two online training modules developed by the Transition Coalition (www.transitioncoalition.org) were used as an intervention. These modules, “Working with Families in Planning for Transition” (Working with Families module) and “Secondary Transition and Cultural Diversity” (Cultural Diversity module) were documented for content and face validity by users both during an extensive development process and a national field test (Morningstar, 2004). Each self-directed online module utilizes a particular structure that includes three sessions with 6-8 webscreens of information embedded within each session. Throughout each of the three sessions for each module, specific user tested learning elements are included: (a) key points (e.g., “Important Points”), (b) avenues for gaining more information, (c) interactive learner activities targeting critical performance responses, (d) interactive activities requiring reflection and application (e.g., “Now It’s Your Turn”), and (e) interactive session summaries. The modules were designed as a non-instructor led inservice training session, taking approximately 3-5 hours to complete and allowing the user to complete major sessions at an


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individual rate. Therefore, the learner was able to complete the module all in one sitting or take several days. Module 1: Working with Families to Improve Transition Services for Youth with Disabilities. The goal of this training is to explore some of the unique strengths and challenges encountered when working with families and to provide a framework for supporting collaboration, overcoming barriers, and increasing mutual understanding in parent-professional partnerships. This interactive module details the family system framework and how it can be applied to transition planning. Module 2: Secondary Transition and Cultural Diversity. This online module provides comprehensive information on how culture intrinsically influences people and systems, the many ways that culture intercepts with transition services, and the differences in values and perceptions of disability that can affect how families consider services. An overview of the steps to develop culturally reciprocal relationships with CLD families is also included. Instruments Three instruments were developed for the purpose of the study. These instruments have undergone research-based procedures to ensure their reliability and validity. Content knowledge tests. A content knowledge test was developed for each module to assess specific knowledge gained. The content knowledge tests consisted of multiple choice and matching response items. Test items were developed by reviewing all learning objectives for the training and using research-based item writing rules (Frey, Peterson, Edwards, Pedrotti, & Peyton, 2004). Prior to a pilot test, the researchers consulted with an expert on teacher-made tests to ensure that all the test items were correctly developed. The pilot test for the two online training modules content knowledge tests was administered to 26 students in two graduate


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special education classes to determine the clarity of the tests (e.g., directions, questions) and to complete an item analysis process to eliminate bad items. For the pilot test, reliability was .79 for Working with Families knowledge test (Cronbach’s alpha r = .79) and .78 for Cultural Diversity knowledge test (Cronbach’s alpha r = .78). Test items were revised or eliminated if difficulty level of an item was higher than .70 (p > .70) and the discrimination value of an item was lower than .30 (D < .30). When test items were revised, a response analysis of individual items was implemented. Through this procedure and the direct feedback from the pilot test participants, tests items were revised and yielded acceptable reliability and validity for content knowledge tests (Hopkins, 1998). Working with Families (WWF) Survey. The WWF Survey was developed to evaluate perceptions of competency and attitudes toward working with families during transition. Items for the WWF Survey was developed using a content analysis data-reduction method to identify competencies most often identified as critical for secondary special education teachers. The researchers reviewed literature specifically addressing competencies needed by secondary general or special education teachers. Selected research-based articles (Epstein, Connors, & Clark-Salinas, 1993; Kohler, 1998; Pleet, 2000) and national standards (Council for Exceptional Children, 1998, 2000; Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, 2001) yielded a total of 101 competencies related to working with families. These competencies were then subjected to categorization for similar themes and reassignment and through this process, the total number of competencies reduced 21. The selection of the competencies employed a cutoff decision-process that required at least 90% agreement across sources. The 21 competencies were then refined to more accurately reflect transition practices using action

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies statements (e.g., Provide information about parent/family transition support networks or parent organizations). The survey was designed in order that for each specific competency, participants can indicate their perceived levels of competence in and attitudes toward the importance of working with families during the transition planning and services process. For every listed action statement, the participants were required to assign a 4-point Likert scale regarding, first their perceived level of competence (1 = very unprepared to 4 = very prepared), and second their attitude toward the importance of that action (1 = very unimportant to 4 = very important). Working with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Families (WCLDF) Survey. The WCLDF Survey went through a similar item generation procedure as the WWF Survey. The researchers reviewed the literature addressing the competencies needed by secondary general or special education teachers when they work with CLD families. The selected articles (Epstein et al., 1993; deFur & Williams, 2002; Geenen et al., 2003; Greene, 2003) and national standards (Council for Exceptional Children, 1998; Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, 2001) yielded a total of 51 competencies. Like the WWF Survey, competencies were then categorized and reassigned until the total number of competencies was reduced from 51 to 14. Participants indicated their perceived levels of competence in but also their attitudes towards the importance of working with CLD families during transition using the same 4-Likert scale as the WWF Survey. A pilot test was conducted to determine the appropriateness of these survey instruments and make any necessary revisions before full implementation of the study; 10 graduate students who took a required transition course in the spring of 2005 completed the pilot test. These students were asked specifically whether or not the surveys had problems with unclear or

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Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 10 confusing directions, questions that were difficult to understand, or typographical errors. A test of reliability on these survey instruments was conducted and these results are shown in Table 1. -------------------------------Insert Table 1 here -------------------------------Based on the feedback from the pilot test and the results of the reliability test, the surveys were revised. As a result, one competency indicator was added to each survey instrument, thereby resulting in 22 competencies for the WWF Survey and 15 competencies in the WCLDF Survey. Data Collection One hundred two potential participants expressed an interest in the study and agreed to participate through the online informed consent process. After selecting a username and a password, participants completed a demographic survey. The demographic survey collected information about ethnicity, current primary role, disability areas of students served, teacher certification, years of teaching, level of education, and sources of transition services professional development. Based on this demographic information, those who indicated a primary role as other than educators were removed. In the end, 85 practitioners were selected from the original pool for the participation in the study. These 85 participants were then randomly assigned to one of the two groups (i.e., experimental or control) using Quick Calcs, free online calculator for random numbers (http://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/RandMenu.cfm). To remove the effect of sequence of the two online training modules, the 43 participants assigned to the experimental group were randomly assigned again into one of the two groups (i.e., experimental group A and experimental group B) using the same software.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 11 The participants were sent an email with instructions for how to begin the study. As instructed, those in the experimental group logged to the Transition Coalition homepage, with 22 participants assigned to experimental group A completing the WWF Survey and the Working with Families knowledge pretest before being allowed to access the Working with Families module. The remaining 21 participants assigned to experimental group B completed the WCLDF Survey and the Cultural Diversity knowledge pretest prior to taking Cultural Diversity module. After completing the Working with Families module, the experimental group A participants completed the WWF Survey and the knowledge posttest, whereas the experimental group B completed the WCLDF Survey and the knowledge posttest. Then, the 22 participants in the experimental group A were asked to take the Cultural Diversity module and the necessary survey and content knowledge pre/posttests in the above-mentioned order, while the 21 experimental group B participants were required to complete theirs in the reverse order. Forty-two participants in the control group were directed to a page on the webpage requiring them to complete the WWF and WCLDF Surveys and the two online training knowledge pretests. The control group participants were not exposed to the intervention and were blocked from accessing any online training modules on the Transition Coalition website. Between two and four weeks after the completion of the pretest (approximately when the experimental group was to have completed the modules), the control group participants who completed the pretest received an email message requesting completion of the two surveys and the two knowledge posttests. Upon completion of the study, the 42 participants in the control group were given access to all of the online training modules available on the Transition Coalition website. Data Analysis

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 12 A paired samples t-test was employed to assess within group differences while a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was utilized to examine mean differences between the two groups after removing the effect of prior differences. For the ANCOVA, the targeted factor is group (i.e., control and experimental groups). The dependent variables used posttest scores obtained from the instruments (i.e., content knowledge tests, WWF Survey, and WCLDF Survey). As a covariate, pretest scores obtained from the same instruments were employed. Through a data screening process prior to the analysis, z-scores were calculated to detect the presence of univariate outliers (+ 2.56, p < .01, two-tailed; Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2005) and Mahalanobis distance was computed to identify multivariate outliers (χ2 = 13.816, p < .001; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Outliers were identified in the dependent variables, and Table 2 provides the summary of the presence of the outliers in the variables with the solutions to the problems. To reduce the impact of the outliers, transformation was employed for Research -------------------------------Insert Table 2 here -------------------------------Questions 3 since the presence of the outliers caused severely negative skewness of the dependent variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). For Research Question 2, outliers were removed because of their extremely low z scores and obvious respondent errors that could not be corrected (Judd & McClelland, 1989; Osborne & Overbay, 2004). Finally, caution should be noted regarding the data transformation process. Their use can significantly improve the precision of the normality, but the transformed scores can be difficult to interpret (Osborne & Overbay; Tabachnick & Fidell), therefore only p value was reported. Results

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 13 Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used and are reported to better understand the results of the study. Participants Participation rate. The initial sample for the study consisted of 85 secondary educators who were randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group (43 experimental group, 42 control group). Out of the 42 participants in the control group, 39 completed the pretest, and 3 did not start the study. Twenty-eight out of these 39 special education teachers completed the posttest. Therefore, the overall participation rate for the control group was 67%. For the 43 participants in the experimental group, three participants did not begin the study. Another three participants completed one of the two online training modules but not both. Another 12 started but did not finish one module. Finally, 25 participants completed the study, thereby yielding a 58 % participation rate. Participant characteristics. Of the 53 participants in the control and experimental groups (i.e., 28 for the control and 25 for the experimental), the majority of participants in each group were: White, were from Kansas, Georgia, and New Mexico, had more than 10 years of teaching experiences, had received a masters’ degree, were fully certified for their current teaching assignment, and obtained transition knowledge primarily from inservice training, conference presentations, written and online resources, and/or on the job training and help from colleagues. A summary of the demographic characteristics is presented in Table 3. -------------------------------Insert Table 3 here -------------------------------Instrument Reliability

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 14 Chronbach Coefficient Alpha (Cronbach’s alpha) was performed to estimate the reliability of the finalized version of the instruments (i.e., content knowledge tests, WWF Survey, and WCLD Survey) developed for this study. Alpha can range between 0 and 1. The higher the Alpha is, the more reliable the test is. Usually .70 and above is acceptable (Nunnally, 1978). Content knowledge tests. Reliability coefficients of internal consistency were computed with posttest scores for each online module obtained from the participants in the experimental group. The Working with Families knowledge posttest with 10 items yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .73 (r = .73), while the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the 12 item knowledge posttest of the Cultural Diversity module was .77 (r = .77). Working with Families Survey. A reliability coefficient of internal consistency for the finalized the WWF survey consisting of 22 statements was estimated from the pretest scores of the participants in both groups. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients yielded .94 on the Competence Subscale (r = .94) and .93 on the Attitude Subscale (r = .93). Working with Cultural and Linguistically Diverse Families Survey. Based on the pretest scores obtained from the participants in both groups, internal consistency reliability for the 15item WCLDF Survey was calculated. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were .93 on the Competence Subscale (r = .93) and .98 on the Attitude Subscale (r = .98) respectively. Effectiveness of Online Modules for Increasing Practitioners’ Knowledge Working with Families module. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to examine whether participants increased their knowledge after the intervention. The results indicated that there was no significant difference between the pretest (M = 5.54, SD = 1.57) and the posttest scores (M = 5.00, SD = 1.66), t(27) = 1.35, p = .19 in the control group, while the mean scores for the experimental group showed significant differences between the pretest (M = 5.96, SD =

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 15 1.43) and posttest (M = 7.32, SD = 1.97), t(24) = -3.78, p = .00 (two-tailed), d = .76. Therefore, only the experimental group increased their knowledge in working with families after taking the online training module. The one-way ANCOVA was performed to investigate whether the two groups’ scores on the posttest differed significantly from each other, after removing the effect of prior knowledge differences. The results of the ANCOVA indicated that there was a significant difference between the control (M = 5.08, SE = .33) and experimental (M = 7.24, SE = .35) groups on the posttest scores, after adjusting for their prior knowledge difference F(1, 50) = 19.99, MSE = 3.03, p = .00, partial η2 = .29. Secondary Transition and Cultural Diversity module. The results of paired samples t-tests indicated that there was no significant difference between the pretest scores (M = 5.61, SD = 1.81) and posttest scores (M = 5.39, SD = 2.35), t(27) = .53, p = .60 in the control group. For the experimental group, the mean score on the posttest (M = 9.04, SD = 2.61) was significantly higher than the mean score on the pretest (M = 5.56, SD = 2.47), t(24) = -3.48, p = .00 (twotailed), d = 1.02. The results of the ANCOVA indicated that there was a significant difference between the control (M = 5.39, SE = .46) and experimental (M = 9.05, SE = .48) groups on the posttest scores, after adjusting for their prior knowledge difference F(1, 50) = 30.56, MSE = 5.79, p = .00, partial η2 = .38. Effectiveness of Online Modules for Enhancing Practitioners’ Perceptions of Competence Working with Families module. The results of paired samples t-tests indicated that there were no significant differences in perceived levels of competence between the pretest (M = 65.54, SD = 11.39) and posttest (M = 63.32, SD = 14.34), t(27) = 1.08, p = .29 in the control group as

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 16 well as between the pretest (M = 68.29, SD = 13.76) and posttest (M = 67.92, SD = 13.58), t(23) = .13, p = .90 in the experimental group. Therefore, neither of the groups changed their perceived levels of competence after the intervention. However, it should be noted that the control group’s level of competence fell between unprepared and prepared in working with families during the study, while the experimental group felt slightly prepared to work with families. The results of the ANCOVA indicated that there was no significant difference between the control (M = 64.10, SE = 2.24) and experimental (M = 67.00, SE = 2.42) groups on the posttest scores, after adjusting for their prior knowledge difference F(1, 49) = .77, MSE = 139.08, p = .38, partial η2 = .02. Secondary Transition and Cultural Diversity module. To examine whether there were changes in perceived levels of competence between the pretests and posttests within each group, paired samples t-tests were conducted. For the control group, the results indicated that there was no significant difference in the perceived levels of competence between the pretest (M = 40.00, SD = 8.44) and the posttest scores (M = 40.29, SD = 11.29), t(27) = -.23, p = .82. The results of the experimental group showed that the mean scores on the posttest (M = 46.96, SD = 8.92) was significantly different from the mean score on the pretest (M = 43.92, SD = 9.68), t(23) = -2.18, p = .04 (two-tailed), d = -.44. Therefore, only the experimental group increased their perceived levels of competence after the intervention. The results of the ANCOVA indicated that there was no significant difference between the control (M = 41.85, SE = 1.28) and experimental (M = 45.13, SE = 1.39) groups on the posttest scores, after adjusting for their prior knowledge difference F(1, 49) = 2.94, MSE = 44.96, p = .09, partial η2 = .06. However, it should be noted that the control group’s level of competence

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 17 fell between unprepared and prepared in working with CLD families, while the experimental group felt slightly more prepared to work with these families after the intervention. Effectiveness of Online Modules for Improving Practitioners’ Attitudes Working with Families module. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to examine if there were any changes within each group in attitudes toward working with families. The results indicated that the control group did not change their attitudes between the pretest and the posttest, t(27) = 1.58, p = .13. Also, the experimental group showed no changes for their attitudes between pretest and posttest, t(24) = -.13, p = .90. The results of the ANCOVA indicated that there was not a significant difference between the two adjusted means, F(1, 50) = .23, p = .63, partial η2 = .01. In other words, both sets of teachers reported that all of the statements in the WWF Survey were either important or very important. Additionally, there was no significant difference in attitudes toward working with families between the two groups after adjusting for preexisting attitude differences. Secondary Transition and Cultural Diversity module. The results of the paired samples ttests showed that there was no significant difference in attitudes between the pretest and the posttest, t(27) = 1.56, p = .88, within the control group or the experimental group t(24) = .30, p = .77. The results of the ANCOVA indicated that there was no significant difference between the two adjusted means, F(1, 50) = .25, p = .62, partial η2 = .01, after controlling for the pretest scores. The results of these data analyses showed that participants in both the control and experimental groups scored all indicators in the WCLDF Survey as either important or very important on the pretest and posttest measures. In addition, their attitudes were not significantly different after adjusting for their preexisting attitude differences.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 18 Discussion This section discusses the attrition reasons among the participants and online training modules’ effectiveness of delivering content knowledge, improving teachers’ perceptions of competence, and enhancing their attitudes. Attrition of Study Participants The study shows that the overall participation rate was 62% (67% for the control and 58% for the experimental). Approximately 40% of the participants in the experimental group did not complete the online training modules. This was not surprising when considering a recent report in the Chronicle of Higher Education (Frankola, 2001) that institutions are seeing dropout rates that range from 20-50% for distance learners. Several additional studies have reported that the top reason for dropping an online course is lack of time (Bocchi, Eastman, & Swift, 2004; Frankola; Kim, 2005; Terry, 2001). Through ongoing email correspondence with the participants during the implementation of this study, it was also revealed that lack of the time was the main reason they brought up to explain why they could not continue working on the online training modules. These participants indicated that the online modules required more time than they anticipated, thereby they were unable to find time to finish the study due to their heavy daily workloads. Unfortunately, people have a misperception that online courses require less work than traditional courses (Bocchi et al., 2001). Additionally, Frankola pinpointed other reasons for not completing online learning such as problems with technology, lack of student support, and lack of motivation. Technical problems were an issue for some participants in this study as well; these participants indicated they lost interest when they met several technical problems or while problems were being resolved.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 19 Student motivation is identified as a dimension of online learning that determines learning success. Conversely, lack of motivation causes high dropout rate among online learners, especially in complex e-learning environments (Frankola, 2001; Kim, 2005; Pacs, Tuovinen, Merriyenboer, & Darabi, 2005; Song, 2000). Song suggested that three types of motivation can be defined in web-based instruction: (a) motivation to start; (b) motivation to persist; and (c) motivation to continue. According to Song, when learners do not have proper motivation, they either will not participate or will become nonstarters (i.e., those who registered for the online study but never started their learning). Learners who do not have proper levels of motivation to persist will drop the course or procrastinate and not finish. Finally, when learners do not have proper motivation to continue, they will go away or not recommend the course to others. In this study, these three types of lack of motivation emerged. In our study, it is clear that the participants’ initial motivation was high, given that all participants except six nonstarters began the study. Hence, it would seem that a key barrier with participation in self-directed e-learning was keeping participants motivated (Kim, 2005). Therefore, it is critical to understand what made participants change their motivation during the online training. Several studies in e-learning have indicated that interactions (i.e., instructorlearner, content-learner, learner-learner) are a crucial factor in keeping learners motivated (e.g., Frankola, 2001; Kim; Song, 2000). These studies have found that lack of human interaction has a negative influence on motivation to persist. Since the online training modules used in this study were noninstructor-led and were absent of any human interaction, this might be an important reason for why participants did not complete the study. Therefore, to address these problems, factors that impact the attrition must be identified and strategies should be considered in the development of the online training modules.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 20 Effectiveness of Delivering Content Knowledge This study found that teachers who had taken the two online training modules showed a better understanding of the professional knowledge specific to family partnership practices during transition than those who had not. This finding suggests that the presentation of the content of these online training modules was effective in enabling teachers to gain the intended content knowledge. As was described earlier, these online training modules provided the theory and rationale for family partnership practices, as well as case studies teachers may frequently encounter in school during transition. In addition, the modules included reflective questions relevant to the case studies. According to Putnam and Borko (2000), case-based learning experiences for teachers create meaningful settings for teacher learning by affording reflection and critical analysis. As with actual work experiences, cases allow teachers to explore the richness and complexity of the problem and reflect their own practices against the case. The effectiveness of online instruction in preservice and inservice teacher education has been reported extensively (e.g., Caywood & Duckett, 2003; Peterson & Bond, 2004; Smith, Smith, & Boone, 2000). This research base suggests that online instruction is an efficient tool in delivering teacher education content. Therefore, given that one of the learning goals of professional development is to have teachers obtain new and enhanced knowledge and strategies, this online training module successfully achieved this mission. Effectiveness of Enhancing the Perceived Level of Competence The findings from Working with Families module indicated that participation in the online training did not lead to increases in a sense of competency or self-efficacy in working with families. This suggests that their enhanced knowledge did not transform practitioners enough to make them feel more competent. Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, and Hoy (1998)

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 21 indicated that “teacher efficacy is the teacher’s belief in his or her capability to organize and execute a course of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context” (p.233). Guskey (1999) stated that although many professional development programs set up a goal of changing participants’ beliefs or dispositions, they seldom do, nor do they elicit strong commitment from teachers. He concludes that the process of affective change is more complex than cognitive or psychomotor change. Changes in established efficacy beliefs of inservice teachers seem more difficult to produce and sustain unless there is compelling feedback that forcefully disputes the preexisting disbelief in one’s capabilities (Bandura, 1997). Experienced teachers become committed to a new practice when they have seen it work and that experience then shapes their attitudes and beliefs (Guskey, 1999; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). During the implementation of a change, giving teachers an opportunity to engage in role playing and microteaching experiences with specific feedback can have a more powerful impact on self-perceptions of teaching competence. Such exercises more directly address the need for successful experiences (Tschannen-Moran et al.). Therefore, to build capacity of teachers through professional development, training activities should provide teachers with an opportunity to observe demonstrations of new practices and to have time to practice the strategy and receive feedback (Joyce &Showers, 2002; Lang & Fox, 2005; Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1989). In addition, teachers should be given an opportunity to explore, question, and dialogue about their practices in order to be able to integrate them into school life (Barab, MaKinster, & Schekler, 2003; Englert & Rozendal, 2004; Lang & Fox). Given this context, it is not surprising that the experimental group teachers did not change their perceptions of competence after taking the online training module. The design of the online training modules employed for this study did not include the feature of providing the participants

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 22 opportunities to demonstrate what they had learned and providing corrective feedback when attempting to replicate model practices. Research in professional development has indicated that practices that are new and unfamiliar are more likely to be accepted and retained when they are perceived as increasing one’s competence and effectiveness (Guskey, 1999; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Considering that many teachers are less knowledgeable about working with CLD families, the content knowledge acquisition through the online training module might substantially impact teachers’ perceived efficacy in working with CLD families. Even though the Cultural Diversity module shared the same instructional features as the Working with Families module, the results indicated that teachers perceived themselves to be more competent after completing this module. However, new practices and beliefs such as these are not likely to be sustained without evidence of their positive effects. Hence, specific procedures to provide feedback are essential to the success of any professional development endeavor, including those associated with these online training modules (Guskey). Because studies have demonstrated that teachers with high self-efficacy were more likely to persist in efforts to involve parents, in overcoming encountered obstacles, and increasing productive parent-child-teacher relationships (Garcia, 2004; HooverDempsey, Bassler, & Brissie, 1987; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2002), it is important that the online training module should consider into its instructional design the interactive features which enable teachers to enhance their efficacy and ultimately their collaboration with families. Effectiveness of Enhancing Attitudes The study found that the teachers perceived collaboration with families including those from CLD backgrounds as very important, regardless of the online training they received. This is consistent with one of the findings in a study conducted by Hoover-Dempsey and colleagues

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 23 (2002) indicating that their inservice program did not strengthen teacher beliefs about parent involvement, and that teachers already held positive beliefs before the program began. In another study, education staff agreed to the importance of family involvement in transition planning by identifying this practice as one of three highest needs for professional development (Lattin, Dove, Morningstar, Kleinhammer-Tramill, & Frey, 2004). It seems that teachers recognized that family involvement is a critical contributor to students’ educational and transition success. The findings are encouraging because it means that to improve teachers’ practices in family involvement, the online training modules can concentrate on improving teacher efficacy and transforming teachers’ efficacy into action. Limitations of the Study It should be acknowledged that there were some limitations to this study. First, the online training modules were offered at the beginning of the semester in which teachers are generally most busy. The study timing may have affected participation rates and responses. Also, the online training modules required intensive work to complete. Such intensity also may have caused some participants to quit or give less heed to their responses. Second, as is the nature of a self-reporting study, participants may not have reflected their true beliefs and competencies, especially given that this study dealt with some sensitive issues such as discrimination and family partnerships, which may have caused some participants to want to portray themselves in keeping with perceived cultural norms. Third, although the instruments showed high reliability coefficients of internal consistency, these instruments need to be tested by increasing the sample size in order to generate less error in the statistical analysis. Finally, the sample size of the experimental group should be increased to increase the power of a statistical test. Implications for Online Professional Development

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 24 Preservice teachers have a lack of opportunities to develop family involvement skills. Literature in family involvement has reported that their lack of preparation is the major reason why teachers fail to utilize parent involvement techniques and teacher training is an essential element in successful parent involvement programs (Knight & Wadsworth, 1999; Radcliffe et al., 1994; Shartrand et al., 1997). With the emergence of internet access to professional development, opportunities for online professional development are rapidly increasing (Meyen et al., 2003). This is advantageous because it has the potential to reach a large number of teachers across a broad geographic region (Ludlow & Spooner, 2001), thereby allowing teachers to access the instruction anytime and anywhere. To improve teachers’ practices in working with families, this study used online training modules with self-paced e-learning. The study found that the online training modules were effective in enabling teachers to acquire the intended content knowledge. Lang and Fox (2005) suggested that it is important to select a professional development strategy that matches the specific needs of the participants. Given that personnel who support students with disabilities have varied levels of expertise and experiences, online training can be configured to meet ongoing professional development needs. For teachers who need basic information and awareness about a new theory or teaching practice, workshops or training sessions such as the online training modules used in this study are appropriate. The results of this study indicated that to deliver the content knowledge, this online training module design proved very effective. However, if the goal of professional development is to change teachers’ practices, this study confirms that self-directed online training modules are not enough. Professional development providers must address not only the teachers’ knowledge but also their beliefs in

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 25 ways that will impact how teachers plan, enact, monitor, and evaluate new interventions. This is critical because what teachers take away from professional development efforts is based on their existing knowledge and beliefs (Guskey, 1999; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Finally, this study showed the concern of high teacher drop-out rates. Considering that more and more teachers are turning to the web for their learning needs due to its flexibible delivery system (Frankola, 2001; Kim, 2005), this issue must be addressed by identifying factors that impact attrition and considering strategies to help sustain adult learners’ motivation when developing the online professional development. Recommendations for Future Study This study investigated whether teachers had improved their content knowledge, perceived levels of competence, and attitudes toward the importance of family involvement through online training modules. To evaluate professional development more explicitly, a future study should also ask teachers to provide a personal estimate of the average frequency of implementing family involvement practices before and after training. Also, the follow-up study should be conducted to collect evaluation information measuring the use of the new or enhnaced knowledge and skills on the job after participants have had sufficient time to reflect on what they learned and to adapt the ideas to their relationship with families. It would also be interesting to explore what specific features or activities in the online training modules influence participants and what they attribute to the development of their efficacy beliefs through qualitative research. Since the process of affective change is more complex than other cognitive or psychomotor change, additional information should be collected. Generally, surveys rely on participants’ self-reporting, so that depending on the context, they might overestimate or

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 26 understate their competence. Thus, to corroborate the findings obtained from a survey, other instruments such as interviews and/or reflective journals could be used for future study. Finally, as suggested, when including the features such as online discourse and multimedia technology in the online training modules, a future study should investigate how effective the renewed online training modules are in improving teachers’ perceived levels of competence in working with families as well as in reducing the attrition of participants

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Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 33 involvement in the IEP/Transition planning process. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 20, 29-42. Shartrand, A., Weiss, H., Kreider, H., & Lopez, M. (1997). New skills for new schools: Preparing teachers for family involvement, Harvard Family Research Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate School of Education. Sitlington, P. L., & Clark, G. M. (2006). Transition education and service for adolescents with disabilities (4rd Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Smith, S. B., Smith, S. J., & Boone, R. (2000). Increasing access to teacher preparation: the effectiveness of traditional instructional methods in an online learning environment. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(2), 37-46. Song, S. H. (2000). Research issues of motivation in web-based instruction. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 1, 225-229. Sparks, D., & Loucks-Horsley, S. (1989). Five models of staff development for teachers. Journal of Staff Development, 10(4), 40-57. Stodden, R. A. (1998). School to work transition: Overview of disability legislation. In F. R. Rusch & J. G. Chadsey (Eds.), Beyond high school: Transition from school to work (pp. 60-76). Belmont, CA: Wadworth. Szymanski, E. M. (1994). Transition: Life-span, life-space considerations for empowerment. Exceptional Children, 60, 402-410. Terry, N. (2001). Assessing enrollment and attrition rates for the online MBA. THE Journal, 28, 64-68. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 34 U.S. Department of Education. (2001). Twenty-third annual report to Congress on implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author. Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Garza, N., & Levine, P. (2005). After high school: A first look at the postschool experiences of youth with disabilities. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Wehman, P. (2001). The family’s role in transition. In P. Wehman (Ed.), Life beyond the classroom: Transition strategies for young people with disabilities (3rd Ed). Baltimore: Brooks. Wehmeyer, M. L., Morningstar, M., & Husted, D. (1999). Family involvement in transition planning and implementation. Austin, Texas: Pro-ed. Wehmeyer, M. L., & Sands, D. J. (1998). Making it happen: Student involvement in education planning, decision making, and instruction. Baltimore: Paul. H. Brookes. Will, M. (1984). OSRS programming for the transition of youth with disabilities: Bridges from school to working life. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 35 Table 1 Reliability Coefficient of Each Subscale in the Two Survey Instruments

Survey

Subscales

Reliability Coefficient

WWF survey

Competence

.79

(21 competencies)

Attitude

.94

WCLDF survey

Competence

.81

(14 competencies)

Attitude

.88

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 36 Table 2 Summary of the Presence of Outliers with the Solutions to the Problems Module

Univariate Outliers

Multivariate Outliers

Solutions

Control Experimental Control Experimental Group

Group

Working

Competency Pretest

with

Subscale

Posttest

52

Family

Attitude

Pretest

47

Module

Subscale

Posttest 18, 19

Cultural

Competency Pretest

Group

Group Remove 52

outlier Reflect

&

Inverse Remove

Diversity Subscale

Posttest

34

outlier

Module

Attitude

Pretest

34, 47

Reflect & Log

Subscale

Posttest

34, 47

Note. * Participant number

34, 47

transformation

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 37 Table 3 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Variable

Control Group a n (%)

Ethnicity American Indian Black Hispanic White

2 ( 7.1) 3 (10.7) 2 ( 7.1) 21 (75.0)

Experimental Group b n (%)

1 ( 4.0) 2 ( 8.0) 2 ( 8.0) 20 (80.0)

State Arizona Colorado Georgia Kansas Missouri Nevada New Mexico Primary Role c Special education teacher Transition specialist Vocational coordinator Paraprofessional Other Disabilities of the Students Primarily Served Specific learning disabilities Emotional disturbance Mental retardation Severe and multiple disabilities Hearing impairment I serve students across multiple groups at a programmatic level I am not currently working directly with students Other type Highest Degree Obtained 2+ years of college Bachelor Master Doctoral

1 ( 3.6) 9 (32.1) 12 (42.9) 1 ( 3.6) 5 (17.9)

17 (60.7) 6 (21.4) 2 ( 7.1)

1 ( 4.0) 7 (28.0) 13 (52.0) 1 ( 4.0) 3 (12.0)

14 (56.0) 9 (36.0) 1 ( 4.0)

1 ( 3.8)

10 (35.7) 4 (14.3) 3 (10.7) 9 (32.1)

6 (24.0) 4 (16.0) 2 ( 8.0) 3 (12.0) 2 ( 8.0) 8 (32.0)

1 ( 3.6) 1 ( 3.6)

6 (23.1) 22 (78.6)

1 ( 4.0) 2 ( 8.0) 21 (84.0) 1 ( 4.0)

Teachers’ Knowledge and Competencies 38 Table 3 (Continued)

Variable

Control Group a n (%)

Licensure Status Fully certified for current teaching assignment Certified, not currently teaching Provisionally certified Not applicable

25 (89.3) 2 ( 7.1) 1 ( 3.6)

Type of Certification in Special Education Elementary Secondary K-12 Missing

1 ( 3.6) 7 (25.0) 20 (71.4)

Teaching Years 1-3 4-6 7-9 10+

Experimental Group b n (%)

22 (88.0) 2 ( 8.0) 1 ( 4.0)

1 ( 3.6) 7 (25.0) 2 ( 7.1) 18 (64.3)

Sources of Transition Professional Development Experiences d Inservice training 21 (75.0) 1 college course focused on a transition topic 4 (14.3) 2+ college course focused on transition topic 2 ( 7.1) College courses that weren’t specifically for 4 (14.3) transition, but covered some transition content Conference presentations 19 (67.9) Newsletters/articles/books/online resources 19 (67.9) On the job training, help from colleagues 19 (67.9) Professional association 7 (25.0) None 1 ( 3.6) Other

7 (28.0) 15 (60.0) 3 (12.0)

1 ( 4.0) 3 (12.0) 3 (12.0) 18 (72.0)

15 (60.0) 5 (20.0) 2 ( 8.0) 1 ( 4.0) 12 (48.0) 13 (52.0) 16 (64.0) 4 (16.0) 3 (12.0)

Note. a n = 28, b n = 25, c has missing cases, d This question was a multiple-response item, in which participants could choose more than one response from a list of 10 response options.