constitution addresses national security and SSR (Kenya, 2010). ...... Nairobi also has glaring economic and human developments inequalities with Northern ...
To my parents, my wife, and siblings with deepest gratitude for the moral and emotional support provided within the course of the study.
I am grateful for my supervisor, Prof. Bame Nsamenag, insightful critiques and guidance throughout the period of the study. His critical comments and useful suggestions have been very helpful in shaping the academic thoughts and analysis of research contents presented in this dissertation. I, also, acknowledge with thanks Professor Joseph Vincent Ntuda Ebode and Dr. Kiven James for their guidance during research seminars. Similar appreciation is also given to the administration of the Pan African University Institute of Governance Humanities and Social Sciences, Yaoundé, Cameroon for facilitating the success of the field work and data collection through allocation of research allowances. I extend a hand of gratitude to Dr. Mutuma Ruteere and for his facilitation in the acquisition of necessary research reports, contacts in the field and resources used in this study. I also recognize assistance from the staff at the Centre for Human Rights and Policy Studies (CHRIPS) who provided advice and facilitated data collection stages within various stages of the study. I also acknowledge the Statistician Kevin Ngugi, for his assistance in statistical analysis of primary data collected from the field using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) , STATA and Nvivo. Finally, I would also like to thank my wife Irene Maina, my parents Mr and Mrs John Moitui, and my brothers and sisters Wycliffe Makori, Eric Nyamaiyeria, Judith Moke and Ruth Nyambori.
AfDB
African Development Bank
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency
CHRIPS
Centre for Human Rights and Policy Studies
CPA
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
DFID
Department for International Development
DAC
Development Assistance Committee
EU
European Union
GBV
Gender Based Violence
GDP
Gross domestic product
GDP
Gross domestic product
GNI
Gross National Income
GNP
Gross national product
HDI
Human Development Index
IPOA
Independent Policing Oversight Authority
IG
Inspector-General
IMF
International Monetary
KANU
Kenya African Union
KDF
Kenya Defense Forces
KNHCR
Kenya National Human Rights Commission
NPSC
National Police Service Commission
NSIS
National Security Intelligence Service
NFD
Northern Frontier District
SLDF
Sabaot Land Defense Force
SSR
Security Sector Reform
SPSS
Statistical Package for Social Scientists
CDF
Chief of the Defense Forces
CIPEV
Commission of Inquiry into the Post-Election Violence
KDF
Kenya Defense Forces
NSC
National Security Council
OECD
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
TOC
Theory of Change
TI
Transparency International
UN
United Nations
UNDP
United Nations Development Program
IASSRTF
United Nations Inter-Agency Security Sector Reform Task Force
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
WPS
Witness Protection Programme
Dedication ............................................................................................................................ III Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. IV Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ V Table of Contents ................................................................................................................VII List of figures ........................................................................................................................ X List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ XI Abstract ...............................................................................................................................XII Résume .............................................................................................................................. XIII CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... - 1 1.0.
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. - 1 -
1.1.
Background of the Study ........................................................................................ - 4 -
1.2.
Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................... - 6 -
1.3.
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... - 7 -
1.4.
Objectives of the Study........................................................................................... - 7 -
1.5.
Research Questions................................................................................................. - 8 -
1.6.
Hypotheses.............................................................................................................. - 8 -
1.7.
Justification of the study ......................................................................................... - 9 -
1.8.
Significance of the study ........................................................................................ - 9 -
1.9.
Scope of the study................................................................................................. - 10 -
1.10.
Delimitations of the study ................................................................................. - 11 -
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................. - 12 2.0.
Introduction .......................................................................................................... - 12 -
2.1.
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... - 12 -
2.2.
Theoretical Literature ........................................................................................... - 16 -
2.3.
Approaches to Theory of Change in Security Sector reform ............................... - 18 -
2.3.1.
Equip................................................................................................ - 18 -
2.3.2.
Reform and Development ................................................................................. - 19 -
2.4.
Empirical Literature .............................................................................................. - 20 -
2.5.
Conceptual Framework demonstrating connectivity of Security Sector Reform . - 22 -
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. - 24 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. - 24 3.0.
Introduction .......................................................................................................... - 24 -
3.1.
Area of Study ........................................................................................................ - 24 -
3.2.
Research Design ................................................................................................... - 25 -
3.3.
Population ............................................................................................................. - 26 -
3.4.
Sample and Sampling techniques ......................................................................... - 26 -
3.5.
Research Instruments ............................................................................................ - 27 -
3.5.1.
Validity ............................................................................................................. - 29 -
3.5.2.
Reliability .......................................................................................................... - 30 -
3.6.
Procedure .............................................................................................................. - 30 -
3.7.
Plan of Data Analysis ........................................................................................... - 32 -
3.8.
Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... - 32 -
3.9.
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ - 33 -
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... - 34 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS .............................................................................. - 34 4.0.
Introduction .......................................................................................................... - 34 -
4.1.
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample ........................................................ - 34 -
4.2.
Answers to the Research Questions...................................................................... - 39 -
4.3.
Variations within the Dimensions ........................................................................ - 53 -
4.4.
Comparison with Data from Secondary Sources .................................................. - 56 -
4.5. Statistical Test of Association between the Variables to assess the relationship between Security Sector Reform, Human Development and Economic Growth ........... - 57 4.6.
Chi-square Test of Association............................................................................. - 57 -
4.7.
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ - 58 -
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. - 60 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... - 60 5.0.
Introduction .............................................................................................................. - 60 -
5.1.
Discussion of the Major Findings of the Study .................................................... - 60 -
5.2.
Theoretical and practical implications of the findings of the study ..................... - 64 -
5.3. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ - 65 5.4.
Recommendations ................................................................................................ - 66 -
5.5.
Suggestions for Further Research ......................................................................... - 68 -
References ........................................................................................................................... - 69 Appendices ...................................................................................................................... - 74 Appendix 1: Letter of Introduction ................................................................................. - 74 Appendix 2: Questionnaire for security sector personnel ............................................... - 75 Appendix 3: Questionnaire for members of the civil society organizations ................... - 81 Appendix4: Questionnaire for members of the civil society organizations .................... - 87 -
Appendix 5: Questionnaire interview for the focus groups ......................................... - 93 -
Figure 1: Theory of Change Model ..................................................................................... - 16 Figure 2: Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ - 22 Figure 3: Gender Representation among the Security Sector Respondents ........................ - 35 Figure 4: Regional Representation among the Security Sector Respondents ..................... - 35 Figure 5: Experts Academic Qualifications ........................................................................ - 37 Figure 6: Average Household Expenditure ......................................................................... - 38 Figure 7 Main Security Challenges ..................................................................................... - 39 Figure 8: Main Sources of Insecurity .................................................................................. - 42 Figure 9: Victim Vulnerability Matrix ................................................................................ - 44 Figure 10: Crime Prevalence ............................................................................................... - 45 Figure 11: Regional Variation in Crimes ............................................................................ - 46 Figure 12: Features of SSR in Kenya .................................................................................. - 48 Figure 13: Effects of SSR on Security ................................................................................ - 50 Figure 14: Variation on the Effect of SSR on Security ....................................................... - 51 Figure 15: Effects of SSR on Socioeconomic Growth ........................................................ - 52 Figure 16: Contribution of SSR to Socioeconomic Growth ............................................... - 53 Figure 17: Kenya's HDI and GDP (1980 - 2014) ................................................................ - 56 -
Table 1: Cronbach's Alpha .................................................................................................. - 30 Table 2: Age Distribution among Security Sector Respondents ......................................... - 36 Table 3: Age Distribution among Respondents from Civil Socities ................................... - 37 Table 4 Correlation between sample subsets ...................................................................... - 40 Table 5: Correlation between sample categories ................................................................. - 49 Table 6: Parameters Used to Measure Socioeconomic Growth .......................................... - 52 Table 7: Recommendations on Missing Reforms ............................................................... - 55 Table 8: Chi-square Test of Association ............................................................................. - 58 -
This study examined the relationship between Security Sector Reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. The objective was to find out whether Kenya has experienced positive economic growth and human development as a result of enacting reforms in the security sector. Primary data was collected from a sample of security experts, comprising 32 former or serving security sector personnel, 12 members of civil society organizations, eight security and economic policy experts and eight focus groups comprising of civilians only. Focus groups were engaged through interviews while the rest of the individual respondents participated by filling in open-ended questionnaires. Secondary data from national and supranational authorities w also collected through a desk research and analyzed to determine whether it corroborated with the analysis from the primary data. The Chi-square statistical test of association demonstrated that Kenya had experienced positive economic growth attributable to the enactment of the Security Sector Reform. Further, analysis of primary data also concluded that the level of human development measured by long and healthy life, decent standard living and being knowledgeable had improved since the reforms were carried out in the security sector. Similar conclusion, on the positive impact of Security Sector Reform on economic development was also plausible when secondary data was analyzed. The study was therefore able to infer from the analysis that Security Sector Reform either directly or indirectly contributed to the socioeconomic growth of Kenya. These findings point to a situation where the leadership of a country ought to factor in SSR in the socioeconomic architecture of a country and just as a governance and human rights issue.
Cette étude de base a exploré la relation entre les réformes du secteur de la sécurité (SSR) et le développement humain et la croissance économique au Kenya. L'objectif était de déterminer si le Kenya a connu une croissance économique positive et un développement humain grâce à l'adoption de réformes dans le secteur de la sécurité. Les données primaires ont été recueillies auprès d'un échantillon d'experts en sécurité comprenant 32 membres du personnel du secteur de la sécurité, 12 membres d'organisations de la société civile, huit experts en sécurité et en politique économique et huit groupes de discussion constitués uniquement de civils. Les groupes de discussion ont participé à des entrevues, tandis que les autres répondants ont participé en remplissant des questionnaires ouverts. Les données secondaires des autorités nationales et supranationales ont également été collectées par une recherche documentaire et analysées pour déterminer si elles étaient corroborées par l'analyse des données primaires. Le test statistique de Chi-carré de l'association a démontré que le Kenya avait connu une croissance économique positive attribuable à la promulgation des réformes du secteur de la sécurité. De plus, l'analyse des données primaires a également permis de conclure que le niveau de développement humain mesuré par une vie longue et saine, un niveau de vie décent et une connaissance approfondie s'était amélioré depuis que les réformes ont été menées dans le secteur de la sécurité. Une conclusion similaire sur l'impact positif des réformes du secteur de la sécurité sur le développement économique était également plausible lorsque les données secondaires ont été analysées. L'étude a donc permis de déduire de l'analyse que les réformes du secteur de la sécurité contribuaient directement ou indirectement à la croissance socio-économique du Kenya. Ces résultats indiquent une situation où la direction d'un pays devrait prendre en compte la RSS dans l'architecture socioéconomique d'un pays, tout comme une question de gouvernance et de droits de l'homme.
In terms of the security sector, Kenya faces a number of demanding challenges, which make up the overall frame of reference for discussion on reform in this sensitive area. Regionally, the country is surrounded by a host of violent conflicts witnessed in Sudan, in the North and Great Lakes region to the West and Somalia to the East. Whereas Kenya has managed to successfully quell some wars by way of active mediation, regional instability continues to exert a direct impact upon its external and internal interests. Kenya continues to provide host to approximately a quarter of a million refugees including Ugandans who have periodically crossed the border to seek livelihoods and protection from the Lord Resistance Army (LRA). With increased terrorist activities, Somali refugees are perceived as a security problem since they are often blamed for the high levels of terrorism witnessed in Garissa, Mandera, Mombasa and Nairobi. In addition, there has been consisted border violence to Somalia as ethnic clans competed over pasture, water and business opportunities leading to Kenyan authorities to increase security forces at the border. Internally, Kenya continues to grapple with peace and security challenges that hinder economic development and growth, and disproportionately affect areas that are already poor and marginalized. The key challenges are: violent extremism (terrorism and radicalisation); conflicts over natural resources (over extractives and land); and political conflicts (elections, ethnicity and devolution) affecting integration of cultures and communities. The underlying motive behind regional integration has been collaborative efforts across spatial territorial boundaries that have allowed for aggregate economic benefits and overall development (IMF, 2010). But in spite of various incessant efforts in the direction of regional integration over the years, African societies, and by enlarge societies in Kenya occupying different counties continue
persistent socio-economic inequalities and
increasing pauperization of conditions of living(Ninalowo, 2003).. But, crises of legitimation and governance have inflicted
against the
actualization of efficacious regional integration and ameliorative human development (Ninalowo, 2003). Consequently, it has been argued that key ingredients of democratic governance and concomitant processes of legitimation should be instutionalized in order to
provide routine instrumentalities for peace and stability; so as to enhance the attainment of regional integration and human centered development (Ninalowo, 2003).. In view of this, the study explores the relationship between Security Sector Reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. SSR is in this context taken as the enhancement of the effectiveness and accountability of the security sector in the execution of its mandate both to the state and its people. This represents a remarkable break from the tradition, where SSR is usually tackled in the political realms, especially as a key human rights issue. By showing that a link exist between SSR and macroeconomic conditions of a country as well as the general wellness of the citizens, the study illuminates SSR as a major factor in the socioeconomic wellbeing of a country. The prominence of Security Sector Reform started immediately after the end of the cold war, where collective engagement by countries shifted from strategic alliances based on national defense interests to strategic partnerships based on shared interests like democracy and governance (Sedra, 2010). Economically powerful nations, mainly western countries in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), take SSR as a major prerequisite in most bilateral or multilateral economic and security engagements. This new way of global engagement has propelled SSR to being a key democracy and governance issue in the world. Post-conflict countries that are transitioning to democracies have to undergo security sector reform. In Rwanda, where the 1994 genocide killed an estimated 800,000 people, SSR played an important role in the transition to democracy (Musanze, 2012). Even developed democracies regularly undertake security sector reform as a good governance principle. The Development Assistance Committee of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD/DAC) is credited for crafting the first comprehensive policy document on SSR to be adopted by its members or by countries that engage with OECD (OECD/DAC 2007). The success of SSR has led to it being adopted as a discipline within the wider governance and peace studies (Ball & Hendrickson, 2005). Indeed, there are now practitioners assisting governments, civil society and research organizations to hone and implement SSR. But the evolution of SSR has taken a somewhat peculiar turn. Despite the origins of SSR being from an economic background, SSR has grown to become a governance, peace and human rights issue. Even the majority of those who champion SSR are mainly drawn from the three fields. What is evident, however, is that the benefits of SSR are not confined to these three fields.
SSR contributes to economic growth and human development as much as it contributes to good governance, peace and human rights observance. However, while lots is known about how SSR contributes to good governance and human rights, very little is known about the relationship between SSR and economic growth and human development. While it is easy to imply that peace and good governance brought about by SSR creates a good environment for the economy to grow and the society to develop, there are lingering questions about this implied relationship. Can a country count on SSR as one of the major drivers of economic growth and human development? What is the overall net cost/benefit of implementing SSR to the economy? There are studies that have in the past tried to answer these questions. Sedra (2010) argues that the future of SSR especially in the developing countries lies incorporating SSR to the local development agenda due to the socioeconomic benefits brought about by SSR. The United Nations (UN) has created a permanent task force on SSR known as the United Nations Inter-Agency Security Sector Reform Task Force (IASSRTF), to supplement its socioeconomic development agenda. The International Monetary Fund estimates that the economy of a country shrinks by 2
2.5% when beset by security challenges (IMF, 2010).
This study joins the growing number of studies bridging the gap between SSR and socioeconomic growth. It examines the relationship between these two subjects in Kenya. The suitability of Kenya as the focus of the research topic was exemplified by a host of x years since Kenya promulgated a new constitution that brought about wholesome reforms in the security sector. This provides ample time in which analyze the socioeconomic conditions of Kenya before and after the reforms were effected. Secondly, preliminary analysis on Kenya reveals a pattern where socioeconomic conditions change whenever any major SSR measures are made. The economy of Kenya as referenced using the gross domestic output (GDP), grew steadily from 1963 up to 1981, when it shrank for the first time. Coincidentally, Kenya experienced major security challenges in that time including an abortive coup in 1982. The GDP only rose from $7.2 billion in 1980 to $ 12.7 billion in 2000. However, when major reforms in the security sector started being implemented from 2003 onwards, with the highlight being the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, the economy also grew at that period. GDP improved from $ 12.7 billion in 2000 to $ 63.4 billion in 2015. Thirdly, Kenya as a regional hub hosts an expansive and vibrant civil society communities and experts, who gave their insights on the research topic.
The security environment in Kenya can be described as mainly stable, but punctuated by periods of runaway security problems. The pace of reforms is largely determined by the government and the politics of the day. Usually, a new government tends to be pro-reforms at the beginning, only to change and engineer the security apparatus to meet its needs, including political ones. The security sector has also been used by the ruling class to reward their trusted cronies after support during elections or in anticipation of their support or influence. To counteract such acts, and ensure SSR reforms in Kenya takes root, the background of SSR was firmly anchored in the new constitution of Kenya. In particular, chapter 14 of the constitution addresses national security and SSR (Kenya, 2010). National security is defined in the new constitution along with its underlying principles, and the composition, functions and control of the security organs in the control (Kenya, 2010). Article 239 also explicitly states that that any security organ, the military included, is subordinate to civilian authority. This avoids any ambiguity that may lead to the military especially, assuming the leadership of the country. The Kenya Defence Forces, National Intelligence Service, and the National Police Service are identified as the only security organs in the country. However, within them there are other agencies, departments and formations charged with carrying out specific national security roles (Aketch, 2010). The following four principles underpin national security in Kenya, and are seen in line with the reform agenda of the new constitution. They feature in article 238 of the constitution of Kenya (Kenya, 2010). i.
Constitutional and parliamentary supremacy
national security is subjected to the
authority of the Constitution and Parliament. ii.
Democracy and rule of law
national security is supposed to be practised in
compliance with the rule of law, democracy, human rights and fundamental freedoms. iii.
Inclusiveness
the national security organs are expected to respect the diverse culture
of the communities within Kenya. iv.
Diversity
the national security organs are expected to reflect the diversity of the
Kenyan people in their composition in equitable proportions.
The National Security Council (NSC) provides civilian oversight to the operations of the national security organs. It supposed to address both homeland and national security issues and aligns the economic and political aspects to security aspects. Most of the activities of this council are either classified or not available in the public domain, a major limitation to this study given the importance of such a council to SSR. The Kenya Defence Forces are responsible for the defence and protection of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. Article 241 of the Kenyan constitution regulates the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) (Kenya, 2010). The forces comprise of three services: Kenya Army, Kenya Air Force, and Kenya Navy. KDF is custom made for external protection of the country, but in case of a major disaster or emergency, the forces maybe be deployed without the approval of the parliament to hurriedly assist, but upon completion a report has to be filed to the national assembly. However when the situation involves disruption of civil peace and instability, then before any deployment the parliament ought to approve. The National Intelligence Service is the second key security organ under the new constitution. The service has its root within the police force, and by extension has a past notoriety record as the police do (Lebishoy, 2013). NIS was founded in 1926 as part of the newly created Criminal Intelligence Division within the police force. It was known as the Special Branch, a intelligence on criminal activities. The following years, the NSIS was completely delinked from the police and stripped off the arrest authority that it previously had. Further reforms included the establishing of a tribunal to handle complaints against NSIS. NSIS offers the best example of how reforms within the security sector can be effective. Since its restructuring in 1998 and 1999, NSIS is one of the most effective security organ or formation in the country and it was commended by the Commission of Inquiry into the Post-Election Violence (CIPEV), for forewarning the government against the occurrence of port-election violence that engulfed Kenya in 2007/08. Due to its effectiveness and past reforms, no major changes to the service were occasioned by the new constitution, although its name was changed to National Intelligence Service (NIS). The National Police Service, on the other hand, was a target of major reforms is the National Police Service (NPS). The first key reform under the new constitution was to merge the two separate police divisions, Kenya Police and Administration Police, under one command. The professional standards expected from the members of the police force were also enshrined in the constitution for the first time under article 244. Extra weight is given to the professional
standards, a key police reform agenda, as they feature even before the constitution gives rise to the command structure of the police force. The National Police Service lacked independent bodies to deal with complaints against the complaints made against police officers. This in itself meant that a complaint against a police officer was effectively handled by a fellow police officer. This undermined justice and led to a culture of impunity in the police force. Within the police force itself, administrative and professional affairs were not separated, with senior police officers being in charge of both affairs. This led to an inept police force, one whose working conditions were poor and one lacking proper administrative policies such as those concerning promotion of police officers. Favoritism, tribalism, sexism and nepotism, for instance, influenced police promotions. The police reform agenda under the new constitution created two bodies, one to handle police administrative issues and one to provide civilian oversight to police activities. The NPS Commission is established under Article 246 of the Constitution of Kenya and The National Police Service Commission Act 2011 (Kenya, 2010). The Commission handles administrative issues of the police force, which can be broken down into three key roles: managing employment matters of the police, overseeing training of police officers, and monitoring the running of the police service and disciplining police officers. Secondly, the Independent Policing Oversight Authority, a body established under the Independent Policing curb abuse of power by the police. main role is investigating cases of serious police misconduct. For instance, all deaths and serious injuries occurring in police custody, or which was the result of police actions are investigated by IPOA. The body also monitors the operations of the police that affect the public, patterns of police misconduct and oversees the handling of complaints by the National Police Service Internal Affairs Unit. Based on its investigations and monitoring, it can make recommendations to improve the police or hold particular police officers accountable.
Security Sector Reform or transformation is yet to gain traction in the mainstream constitution. It remains in the periphery only advocated for by human rights and governance practitioners. The International Center for Transitional Justice Kenya (ICTJ) refers to SSR in
refers to security sector players and policymakers as being confrontational in their engagement with civil societies on matters pertaining SSR. In the international arena, even key economic bodies such as the World Bank, have been reluctant to embrace SSR in their development agenda (McFate, for professionalization of public financial management, fighting corruption and creating instruments for resource management. The bank also supports initiatives that re-integrate of ex-combatants back into the society. In response to this situation, the study has engaged in an in-depth research to find the degree of relationship between SSR and economic growth and human development in Kenya. The study engages with security and economic development experts, security personnel, members of civil societies and the general public in bid to seek more on the subject matter within the wider docket of experts and institutions involved in these reforms with justice and the rule of law, supervisory and administrative institutions and non-statutory forces as defined by Schnabel & Born (2011). This has been done in order to elevate the position of SSR as a key growth driver as envisaged by the vision 2030.
The purpose of the study was to assess the relationship between security sector reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. The fact that this study was being done in Kenya at time when Kenya had instituted new reforms after the 2007/08 post-election violence, made it possible to study the exact SSR approach that had been applied in Kenya. In These reforms were enacted during the promulgation of the new constitution in 2010. This provided an ample time for the study to audit the reforms that had been implemented since the enactment
The study seeks to determine the overall impact of SSR on human development and economic growth. To this effect, the study seeks to understand whether there is a significant effect to
human development and economic growth and in which direction, when reforms are carried out in the security sector.
i.
To assess the relationship between Security Sector Reform and human development in Kenya.
ii.
To assess the relationship between Security Sector Reform and economic growth in Kenya.
iii.
To establish the SSR approach that has been applied in Kenya.
iv.
To compare the way security sector reform
elements
affect development and
economic growth, or the security instrumental role or the way development affects security reform, or the developmental instrumental role
What is the impact of Security Sector Reform and human development and economic development?
i.
Security Sector Reform and human development in the country?
ii.
Security Sector Reform and economic development in the country?
iii.
What is the specific SSR approach that has been applied in Kenya?
Security Sector Reform (SSR) contributes positively to human development and economic growth.
H1: There is no significant relationship between SSR and human development.
H2: There is no significant relationship between SSR and economic growth.
To an extent the connection between security sector reform, human development, and economic growth have influenced policies towards each other. Policies towards security may become one part of development policy because in so far as they enhance security, they will contribute to development; and policies towards development may become part of security policies because enhanced development increases security. Hence the connections suggest a quite radical revision of both security and development policies. According to desktop research conducted, SSR has a positive relationship with socioeconomic growth and development in that, whenever radical security reforms were undertaken in a particular country, a period of bumper socioeconomic growth almost always followed. Significant progress has been realized in the effort to embed principles of SSR in national agenda as well as regional and global governance institutions in Kenya. At the national level, foreign and defense ministries and development agencies in key donor counties have embraced SSR, in some cases situated as part of the entire government approach that seeks to promote greater coherence across relevant agencies. However, it remains contested in a number of areas in several settings. The issues of what or who should be reasonably included in the security sector, what SR programmes across a variety of contexts out to consist of and how they can be better implemented for greater impact in development and economic growth of the county, remain the subject of much debate. Thus, identifying that SSR has a positive relationship with socio-economic growth and development lays the ground for quantifying the net effect that SSR has on the economy of a country. International Monetary Fund estimates that countries engaged in security problems loses 2
2.5% of the GDP annually. There needs to be a similar estimate of the lift that SSR
give to the economy of a country. In view of this, affirming that SSR has a significant impact on the socioeconomic development of a country is a step towards actionable policies for development.
The study will introduce social and economic dimensions to SSR aimed at changing how SSR is perceived by policy makers, security sector reformists, civil organizations, and academia.
county rather than an unnecessary cost With a link between SSR and socio-economic growth being mapped out, the study will open pathway for further research and studies into security as an intrinsic aspect of development. Economists and statisticians could now quantify the exact impact that SSR has on both the economy and human development. Furthermore, even the optimal amount that a country ought to invest in SSR in order to reap maximum benefits can also be calculated in further research. The study also opens up the field of the number of people agitating for SSR. Currently, civil organizations and donors are the main groups of people agitating for SSR. This group can, however, include economists, human development experts and even the investor community.
The study took Kenya as the geographical scope of the study. This was mainly driven by the fact that the country enacted cross-cutting reforms in the security sector in 2010 thereby providing a good specimen to test the research topic. Security has become a delicate issues faced by many counties, therefore the need for Kenya to enhance collaborative efforts both within and across spatial territorial borders to gain aggregative economic benefits provided by integration. The study has borrowed heavily from the theory of change to describe how reforms are undertaken. The theory describes change as comprising of three parts; a situation requiring change, an intervention plan, and a post-intervention analysis. One of the most prudent implications of the theory is that change must be accompanied by post-change analysis. This is the exact reason why the research was designed, to track SSR changes in Kenya and gauge their impact to the socioeconomic situation of the country. The research is strictly confined within the conceptualized application of this theory. This is, the research pertains SSR and socioeconomic changes alone. The methodological design of the study involves the researcher being actively engaged in all phases of the study, from desk research to presentation of the findings. The design of the study is correlational in the sense that it entails investigating the relationship between two variables, SSR and socioeconomic growth and development.
The topic of the study revolves around security which is a very sensitive topic in Kenya, and a lot of information concerning security is classified or not available in the public domain. Accessibility to some institutions which are crucial in the security sector such as the National Intelligence Service NIS) is also highly restricted. Besides, staff employed by NIS are not known in the public, making it impossible to use them as respondents in the study. The study had to use the information that is available in the public domain. To counteract the issue of unavailability and lack of accessibility, the study enlisted renowned security experts as respondents. Some of these experts are former employees to these key institutions. The study was also adversely affected by lack of cooperation and suspicion among potential respondents in the security sector. Reform agenda is at times viewed suspiciously by some the civilian population and at times sackings. As such, staff are very cautious or unwilling to participate in the study. Obtaining basic information such as the mode of operations, in for example police stations, can be at times hectic. The study had to rely on willing respondents but this is not after a great deal of giving them assurances that their confidentiality will extremely observed.
This chapter presents the literature review underpinning the study. Security Sector Reform (SSR) involves a change in the status quo of the security sector. The change transforms the security sector into a more effective and accountable institution in the execution of its mandate both to the state and its people. These changes (reforms) are well explained by the theory of change, which is presented in details under the theoretical literature review. The chapter also presents an empirical literature review, where previous studies that link SSR with socioeconomic growth are presented. The chapter is wrapped up by a conceptual framework that outlines how the theoretical framework will be applied in the study. A diagrammatic representation of the conceptual framework is provided in this section.
The concept of national security can be derived from the theories of the origin of the nations. Collective security features as one of the key reasons that led to the formation of nations. Two out of four of the most prominent theories on the creation of nations are centered on security. The force theory asserts that nations are established through the use of force, where a group of people use violence to claim control of an area (Carneiro, 1993). Security or the lack of it in this case leads to the formation of a nation. An even more compelling theory that is centered on security is the social contract theory that was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries by philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau (Friend, 2004). According to the theory, a particular population residing in a specific area enter in to a sort of social contract with a specific group giving them power to govern them. In exchange, the population receives certain services such as a secure area in which to live and have their rights protected. This leads to the formation of governments and nations. But regardless of whether the need or lack of security led to the creation of nations and governments, it is clear that one of the key roles of any government is to provide security to its people. The concept of a nation assuming the security of its people has always been practiced in history but it remained decentralized until 1947 when United States passed the National Security Act putting internal and external security firmly in the hands of the government. The
Act provided the first framework to coordinate national se core security players were formally defined and given distinct roles to play, even during situation of peace. For instance, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Council were created from this Act. This led to virtually every nation legislating on national security to define national security, and the components and the core players in national security. In Kenya for example. national security is defined by the new constitution, Kenya (2010) as
The most prevalent components of national security include: military security, political security, environmental security and more recently cyber security. Legislating national security opens up different ways for nations to define and view national security. When these discrepancies are combined with the different ways in which these laws are operationalized and how different security organs in different countries conduct themselves, the situation gets out of hand in some countries necessitating Security Sector Reform (SSR).
Security Sector Reform 2010). The longevity in period since the formalization of national security by governments up to the emergence SSR is mainly due to strategic priorities that major security and economic powers adopted during the cold war. During cold war, with the competing powers across the divide eager to build strategic relationships with ally countries, they simply supplied security and development assistance with utter disregard to governance and human rights in these counties. To make matters worse, most of the times the security aid which included latest weaponry ended on the wrong hand or being used against the civilian population (Hagopian, 2016). The focus was firmly on the cold war. The end of cold war heralded a new era where collective engagement between nations started being based on shared principles like governance and democracy, and not just the mere need for strategic alliances and influence. The priorities had shifted from the needs for allies, no matter whom they were and what they did, that existed during the cold war. The security and economic powers started pegging aid and cooperation on observance of good governance and democracy, with SSR being at the core. Britain, in particular, was the first country to use SSR as a precondition for development assistance though the Department for International
Development (DFID, 1999). At the time there was no universally accepted methodology for SSR. The defining moment came in 2004, again championed by the donor community (Sedra, 2010). The Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) agreed on SSR policy. Security sector reform was defined as SSR as a process of assessment, review and implementation as well as monitoring and evaluation led by national authorities that has its aim of enhancing the effectiveness and accountability of the security sector for the state and its people without discrimination and with full respect of human rights and the rule of the law (DAC, OECD, 2007). The policy identified five principles of SSR, which are still largely used today. They include: i.
SSR should be centered around the people, locally owned and based on democratic norms, human rights principles and the rule of law. It should also lead to freedom from fear and measurable reductions in armed violence and crime.
ii.
SSR should be viewed as a framework for providing security that integrates security and development policy and allows greater civilian involvement and oversight besides focusing on the vulnerable such as women, children and minority groups
iii.
SSR should respond to the needs of all stakeholders by adopting a multi-sectoral strategy, based upon a thorough assessment of the security and justice needs of the people and the state.
iv.
SSR ought to be developed whilst adhering to basic governance principles such as transparency and accountability.
v.
Implemented through clear processes and policies that aim to enhance the institutional and human capacity needed for security policy to function effectively and for justice to be delivered equitably
These principles form the bedrock in which further bodies such as the United Nations (UN), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) among others have also developed their policies on SSR. The United Nations (UN) also created a permanent task force on SSR known as the United Nations Inter-Agency Security Sector Reform Task Force (IASSRTF). This shows that SSR has been identified at the highest level as a mainstay that has spread from security and development assistance and is now a key prerequisite in good governance and national building.
Economic growth is the increase in the goods and services produced by a country over a long period of time. It is measured as percentage increase in real gross domestic product (GDP) which is gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for inflation. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders provide peer-to-peer comparison of the productivity between different countries since its calculation is uniform. The metric can also be used to compare the productivity growth rate from one period to another, but this usually requires that the market values be adjusted to reflect changes due to inflation. The uniformity and simplicity in GDP leads to its popularity where
normally used as the standard measure for a country to gauge its economic -
The concept of using the productivity of the economy to measure human well-being started being contended in the late 70s and 80s, with a call to use human centered approach rather than an economy centered approach (Anand, 1994). This lead to the concept of Human Development and the related metric known as Human Development Index (HDI). The concept was pioneered by economist Mahbub ul Haq and along with other economists, he published the first human development report which was adopted by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1990). The human development approach focuses on people, opportunities and choices. It focuses on ally. The approach further identifies human development as all about giving people more choice and opportunities to live lives they value. on offer. The basic capabilities that are valued by virtually everyone include: good health, access to knowledge, and a decent material standard of living. These capabilities form the basis for calculating the Human Development Index (HDI) which is also used to rank nations depending on their ability to provide people with the capability to develop and leave a meaningful life. HDI uses life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling and expected
years of schooling, and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita as the parameters to construct the index.
This section presents the theoretical literature underpinning Theory of Change (TOC). The theory describes a set of principles that explain how the need for change is analyzed, the activities needed to be done for change to take place mapped and the effects of change evaluated and monitored. Security sector reform (SSR) involves change, and can therefore be based on this theory. Specifically, in SSR there are two approaches that apply the theory of change in delivering the required reforms. The study is going to be reviewing these two approaches.
Theory of change is mainly applied by organizations or individuals to drive social change. It is triggered by the realization of an unwanted or a scenario that needs to be changed. There strategic narrative about how an intervention hopes to foster change to produce intended ere are three distinctive parts in this theory. The first part lays assumptions about the causes of the situation that ought to be changed. The second part also lays assumptions about what ought to be done to bring change and identifies corrective measures. The third part involves drawing a hypothesis, beforehand, of how the situation will be when the process is complete. The whole process can be summarized as follows:
Figure 1 above outlines elements of theory of change. It outlines that sustainable ad complex developmental change is possible through innovative planning and collaboration to have meaningful impact. The model provides a clear framework within which security sector reform can be plan and implemented through stakeholder dialogue, learn and communication of results. According to Corlazzoli & White (2013) the most distinctive aspect about this theory is the ability to distinguish between the desired and actual outcome and the determination of desired outcomes even before the corrective measures are identified. The theory therefore advocates for a reverse process where the desired outcome informs the intervention measure to be put in place. Having a desired outcome creates a testable hypothesis that can be applied during monitoring and evaluation (Schirch, 2013). The theory can be modelled to apply in SSR in a situation such as when the police force is abusive and have no respect from the general public. The desired outcome will be having a professional police force that respects human rights and has a good relationship with the general public. The practitioners applying reforms in this case may lay the following assumptions; i.
If a good governance structure within the police force is set up with an oversight control body that is led by civilians, then the police will adhere to the set code of conduct leading to respect of human rights.
ii.
If channels of communication between police and the general public are opened up, then any underlying problems can be addressed leading to mutual respect between them.
The intervention measures are then applied and the formulated hypothesis, having a professional police force that respects human rights and has a good relationship with the general public, tested. The testing procedure will reveal whether the actual outcome matches the desired outcome. This usually involves monitoring and evaluation. Rogers, (2014) emphasizes on the need to use monitoring and evaluation results to refine the Theory of Change as the evidence indicates.
Train and Equip approach is a derivative of the theory of change model where one country, usually a major economic and security power, provides training and equipment to the security forces of another country, usually a weaker strategic ally. This is usually driven by the realization that the security forces of the recipient country lack the required capability to enforce security, either internally or externally. Its main goal, and therefore the hypothesis of the model, is to restore the monopoly of power to the security forces (Schirch, 2013). The intervention comes in the form providing training and assistance. The trained and equipped forces can then be left to enforce security, and the hypothesis tested. This approach first came into prominence during the start of the cold war, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States created the Overseas Internal Security Program with a mandate to train and equip security forces of allied countries in a bid to fight against communism insurgents (Sedra, 2010). Since then the program has been used virtually all over the world with varying degrees of success. The program to train and equip the Bosnian military at the end of the Balkans wars was, for example, deemed successful and effective (Van Metre & Akan 1997). More recently in 2015, a trial to duplicate the same program in Syria floundered badly. The program, which had a budget of $500 million, only managed to train at most five rebel fighters to fight against Islamic terrorists (Ahmed, 2015). In Kenya, the program is mainly used to train wildlife protection rangers. The Train and Equip approach, though widely used, has major shortcomings. The approach is not centered around the people, but around the security forces, which is against one of the key principles of SSR (Sedra, 2013). Its main intention is the sanctification of the security forces to combat security threats. This is devoid of reforms agenda and civilian oversight. The program is also misused by global powers to influence conflicts or drive their own agenda without them being directly involved in the conflict (Doran, 2002). Training of ally is an easier alternative as compared to direct engagement which may require legislative approvals and is subject to public scrutiny. As a result global powers are quick to arm their allies, fanning conflict and leading to the proliferation of weapons. Once the conflict is over, some of these allies that are trained and armed by global powers, turn their arms against their benefactors as the case of Taliban in Afghanistan (Sedra, 2013). The program is also
frequently used to support countries with repressive governments and in which the security services are used to maintain political status quo and limit dissent. This is usually driven by having a common shared enemy such as in the case of terrorism or geopolitical interests. The US government, for instance, stopped training and equipping the Uzbekistan security forces in 2005 owing to poor human rights record and an undemocratic government. However, when the Uzbek government turned to Russians for support, the Americans restarted the program in a bid to retain an influence in the Central Asian region (Flavelle, 2009). In such cases, the program only aids in abetting human rights violations.
Reforms and Development approach is centered on civilians as opposed to Train and Equip inciple that security forces exist primarily to provide security to civilians. According to Schirch (2013), the need for change is informed by the perception that civilians have on the security forces as well as how well they relate, and the conduct of the security forces. If civilians feel oppressed rather than protected, then this points on the need to change. The same applies if the relationship between the two is shaky and the human rights record of the security services is poor. The hypothesis is that upon intervention civilians will perceive the security forces as having legitimate power that is designed to protect them. The security forces also ought to be conscious and respectful to human rights and relate well with civilians. The intervention can come in the form of enforcing civilian oversight on security forces, establishing transparent governance structure within the security forces, and initiating dialogue between security forces and the civilian population. The intervention is usually delivered through legislative measures, training and curriculum overhaul and institutional changes (Sedra, 2013). Liberia presents a perfect example where the Reform and Development approach has worked effectively. Liberia is a country that had been plagued by civil war for 14 years, 1980
2004,
where it is estimated that between 150,000 to 300,000 people were killed (Jaye, 2003). Various factions fought for power in a period marked by human rights abuses by security forces and militia groups. The public had lost confidence in security forces in such a way that the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), which led to the restoration of peace, identified SSR as one of the main action points (Griffiths, 2011). The comprehensive peace agreement called for complete restructuring of the armed forces, the police, the immigration officials and special security units in order to create forces that - observed the rule of the law and human
rights, shared the same command structure, had civilian oversight and represented all the Liberians impartially. This in essence represented the hypothesis of the program. The intervention came in the form of complete restructuring, as earlier explained, and disarming, disintegrating and reintegrating militia groups. The intervention was delivered through various legislative measures like the National Security Strategy Act, donor support and interim peacekeeping measures during the restructuring period which was provided by United Nations (UN). Whilst some of the reforms are yet to be implemented, the intervention led to restoration of peace and stability and today Liberia has a democratically elected government.
Security Sector Reform being a relatively new field suffers from one expected disadvantage there are not many past studies that research on the subject. Indeed, it is only in 2007 that the United Nations fully appreciated the impact of SSR and created the United Nations InterAgency Security Sector Reform Task Force (IASSRTF) to promote an integrated, holistic and coherent approach on SSR. Most of the past studies focus on explaining SSR, and harmonizing SSR as a discipline. But nonetheless there are still some studies, publications and other literary articles that either implicitly or explicitly point to the relationship between SSR and the socioeconomic development of a country. In this capacity, the SSR Unit coordinates monthly meetings at the expert-level as well as yearly meetings at the principal-level. In addition, the SSR Unit also maintains a Community of Practice for United Nations SSR practitioners. Between 2008 and 2011, the SSR Unit administered and managed the interm-wide United Nations IASSRTF, specifically led the development and delivery of Sensitization Briefings on the United Nations approach to SSR, undertook regional consultations on SSR in Latin America, Africa and South-East Asia, established the United Nations Roster of Senior SSR Experts, organized an Annual Interand developed a United Nations Strategic Partnership on SSR with the African Union One of the best among those is an article by the International Monetary (IMF) in 2009 about the relationship between security and economic stability (IMF, 2009). The article which references a speech by the former IMF Managing Director, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, presents security and economic stability as being entwined. For there to be economic stability, there
must be peace and vice versa. Security is pointed out as being a key enabler for trade, infrastructural development as well as the availability of financial and human capital. To quantify the effects of security on economic growth, the article asserts that a country which is engulfed in security problems for a whole year, has its economy shrink by 2
2.5%. On the
other hand, lack of economic stability makes a country prone to security problems. In the face of poverty and economic stagnation, people tend to feel that they are marginalized, they lose hope of ever making it economically and usually resort to violence. A study by the African Development Bank (AfDB) about the relationship between security and economic development done here in Africa, also points out towards the important role that security plays towards socioeconomic growth in Africa (Mbi, Wahome, Hoyos, & Pavey, 2013). SSR is identified as a key player in the socioeconomic growth too. To highlight the interdependence between economic growth and SSR, the study concludes that SSR can only -term socioeconomic development efforts. The view is supported by McFate, (2008), who uses the World Bank as his case study. The World Bank was initially reluctant to engage in security related issues due to their close connections with politics and military, both being restricted areas of engagement for the World Bank. However, the bank has since the late 90s viewed SSR as a key enabler of poverty reduction and economic growth, which are among its core objectives. Consequently, World Bank started being engaged in SSR by seeking for professionalization of public financial management, fighting corruption and creating instruments for resource management. The bank also supports initiatives that re-integrate of ex-combatants back into the society. In Kenya, SSR is also cited as a key driver of economic growth (Otieno, 2015). Otieno presents some key statistics to highlight the relationship. In the late 2014, Kenya was hit by a string of terror attacks leading to western governments issuing travel advisories to tourists visiting the country. This adversely affected the tourism sector, a sector that contributes around 2% to the GDP of Kenya. The lives of those who depend on tourism was also affected. Consequently, the third quarter of 2014 (June
September) registered a slow growth rate of
5.2 per cent compared to 6.2 per cent during the same period in 2013. According to Otieno, (2015), after the government carried out some key SSR reforms that included reorganizing the police force, the security situation improved. Economic growth also increased with the country registering improved rate of 5.5% in the next quarter.
The conceptual framework presents how the research problem will be explored. According to the theoretical literature, SSR is a derivative of Theory of Change. The study seeks to research on how the socio-economic dynamics of a country is affected after implementing SSR. Specifically, how is human development and economic growth affected by SSR. The country of Kenya is being used as a case study of how human development and economic growth are affected by SSR. The study extends towards finding out the exact SSR approach that Kenya has applied. The figure below represents the conceptual framework.
The Figure 2 above outlines the connections between security sector reform and human development in terms of rule of law, human rights promotion, oversight boidies and economic growth as whole. It distinguishes connections between security and development. The immediate impact of security/insecurity on well-being and consequently development achievements (or the way in which security forms part of the definition for human development, that is, security reform role as part of the human development objectives. It shows a connection between security sector reforms elements of development and economic growth, largely outlines as the security sector reform instrumental role. Additionally, showcases the way human development affects security, or the development instrumental
role. Human development in its broadest sense encompasses far more than the absence of violent conflict. It includes human rights, good governance, access to education and health care and ensuring that each individual has opportunities to fulfill his or her own potential, eventually resulting to economic growth.
This chapter presents the research methods and procedures. It begins by describing the overall research design adopted in the study. The design will set the tone for the entire study. The chapter also describes the area where the study took place, the target populations as well the actual sample size. The instruments used in the research are also included as well as reliability and variability testing procedure and results. The chapter concludes by specifying the data analysis plan.
The target area of study is Kenya as a country. This was mainly driven by the fact that the country enacted cross-cutting reforms in the security sector in 2010 thereby providing a good specimen to test the research topic. Kenya also has a development blueprint, vision 2030, which specifically identifies SSR as one of the main drivers of socioeconomic growth. The country, which is administratively subdivided into counties, has varied security, human development and economic profiles among the various counties. Counties with major towns such as Nairobi, Mombasa and Nakuru and those from the highland areas are more developed and wealthier that those from arid and semi-arid areas. This unequal distribution of wealth is one of the main reasons that led to security problems in Kenya. The security profile also vary in such a way that, counties with only one tribal group are relatively more secure than cosmopolitan counties. In particular, counties hosting a majority ethnic group that is indigenous to that county and a minority ethnic group that has immigrated to that county tend to have more security problems. Human development on the other hand varies from county to county and also within counties. Illiteracy, diseases and lower income tend be higher in arid and semi-arid counties as well in densely populated urban areas such as slums. This offers a good platform to study whether counties that are more secure have corresponding high socioeconomic growth and development. The research was spread out across the country in order to accommodate the diverse nature of the distribution of variables of interest to the study. The counties from where data was collected include Nairobi as the capital city and economic hub of Kenya. The county is the
most cosmopolitan in Kenya with virtually every tribal grouping residing in the county. Nairobi also has glaring economic and human developments inequalities with Northern and Western parts of the city having higher standards of living as compared to the Eastern and Southern parts. Other counties include Kisumu, which has a high concentration of civil societies and from which the targeted civil society resides, and Nakuru which is also diverse and was among the worst hit by the post-election violence of 2007/08. The researcher also targeted security and policy experts who have either worked or conducted research in remote and far flung regions such as Turkana and Mandera. The researcher also engaged focus groups from arid and semi-arid areas that are more prone to insecurity for them to have an input in the study. This ensured that the research covered most areas which are crucial to the research topic.
The first aspect of the research design was that this was a mixed methods research comprising of both qualitative and quantitative aspects. The use of mixed methods allowed for triangulation of data, thus enabling the researcher to ensure that the findings and analysis are credible, reliable and accurate. This also enhanced the level of precision. The research was mainly qualitative and quantitative involving statistical tests with the use of Chi-Square test of independence to ascertain the degree or relationship and association between the variables. A growth of respondents who have either knowledge or experience on the subject matter engaged to shed more light on the research topic. The research design also entailed an action research. The researcher was actively involved in collecting data from the target population, as well as analyzing the collected data and presenting the results. Lastly, this was a correlational research. The study explored the relationship between SSR and human development and economic growth through a correlational analysis. SSR is the independent variable while human development and economic growth are the dependent variables. The intent was to determine whether the independent and the dependent variables are related and how are they related. It did not seek to determine whether a change in independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable. As such, it did not qualify to be classified as a causative or a predictive research. The main reason behind this move is that there are a host of other factors that influence the human development and economic growth of a country and not just SSR. They may include foreign direct investment, trade flows, and economic policies among others. SSR is only a single factor among the many. SSR, as an independent variable, may also change without leading to a significant change in the socioeconomic dynamics of a
country. For example where a security problem occurs in a flash and in low magnitude and then subsides or in scenarios where there are frozen conflicts in a remote part of a country, whose economic contribution to the national economy is minimal or negative.
The study targeted a diverse population consisting of four subsets
current or former
personnel in the security sector, economic policy and security experts, members of the civil societies and civilian focus groups to be enlisted as respondents with a focus on seven counties whose total adult population is 2,428,801. The first subset included over 5000 current or former security sector personnel, who hold or held a supervisory position. The targeted organs in the security sector included the National Police Service, National Police Service Commission, Independent Police Oversight Authority, Kenya Defense Forces, National Intelligence Service and judicial bodies. Others include county government administration and security officials, and members of the community policing plan. The second subset of the population targeted 1,800 members of civil society organizations with a bias in Security Sector Reform and governance. The study also targeted a 100 seasoned experts in security matters and economic policy to give expert opinion on the research topic. Civilian focus groups were also on the scope to give a layman and actual experience about SSR on the ground. This was in a bid to make sure that the study collected diverse views ranging from policy makers, implementers up to the general public, to whom the policy is meant for.
The research applied multistage sampling in which multiple sampling techniques are used in various stages (Creswell, 2013). Stage 1 involved stratified sampling, where, population was divided into four strata (subsets), security sector personnel, members of the civil society, security matters and economic policy experts and civilian focus groups. Purposive sampling was then applied in stage 2 to sample from each stratum. Purposive sampling techniques was applied as the study sampled only participants with practical experience or knowledge on security and socioeconomic matters both before and after the promulgation of the new constitution in 2010 which brought massive Security Sector Reform in the country. In determining the sample size of this study based on the sampling requirements, the following
formula was used. (This formula is used in estimating the sample taking into consideration population size, level of confidence and margin of error.) n = Nz^2pq/( E^2(N-1)+ z^2pq) Where N=population size of the county z=confidence level (1.96) E=margin of error (8%) p=the proportion of a population with a particular characteristic (0.5) q=the proportion of a population not having this characteristic (0.5) Based on the above formula and parameters, the sample size calculation yielded the following samples of 60 for all the target counties. They included 32 current or former security sector personnel, 12 civil society organization members, 8 experts and 8 focus groups. The focus groups consisting of 10
20 members each. Majority of the respondents were drawn from the
security sector since the research topic revolves around SSR. The sample was purposively selected to contain diverse demographic characteristics. Each sample subset had its demographic characteristics recorded. For security sector personnel, the recorded demographic characteristics were age, gender and regional representation. Members anizations were characterized according to age, academic level and professional experience. Security and economic experts were characterized according to academic level and regional experience. Finally, household expenditure of the participants in the focus groups was taken as part of the demographic data. These demographic data are summarized in section 4.1.
Data from individual respondents were collected using semi-structured questionnaires. Data from focus groups were collected using questionnaire- interview method. There were three types of questionnaires, one for each population subset. The first questionnaire was designed for former or serving security sector personnel. The questionnaire comprised of three parts, Parts A, B and C. Part A introduced the respondents to the study, and informed them of their right to partake in the study according to their own free will
besides having the right to quit at any point in time as they may deem fit. Respondents were required to indicate their willingness to be part of the study by ticking in the questionnaire. A confidentiality policy will also be included in part A. Part B had questions that collected general and demographic data of the respondents. This included age, gender, and region of service. This enabled the analysis to identify patterns and variability that exists among these demographic variables. Part C comprised of the exact research questions. This included the prevalent forms of security challenges, the main victims and perpetrators of security challenges, the Security Sector Reform that have been enacted, the influence that these reforms have brought on security and socioeconomic growth, and reforms which they feel have yet to be enacted yet they are required. The second questionnaire targeted security sector experts. It was structured in the same form as the first questionnaire that targeted security sector personnel. Part A introduced the respondent to the research, notified them of their rights and expectations and sought express permission to partake in the study. Part B consisted of structured questionnaires intended to collect general and demographic data of the respondents. The targeted demographic information includes academic qualifications and regional experience. Part C will mirrors that of the first questionnaire asking the same research questions. The third questionnaire targeted members of civil society organizations. It was structured in the same form as the first two questionnaires with part A introducing the respondent to the study, part B collecting general and demographic data and part C consisting of the research questions.
The
demographic
information
that
was
collected
included
age,
regional/international experience, gender and academic qualifications. The final research instrument was questionnaire for the focus groups that was administered in form of an interview. The interview comprised of three sections. In the first section, the researcher introduced the respondents to the interview, sought their express permission to be interviewed and notified them of their rights. The second section contained specific research questions. These questions resembled the same research questions that other individual respondents will be given only that they had to be answered in a group environment. The researcher was the moderator of these discussions, taking the group through the questions, and noting down their responses. The final section consisted of a private session where the researcher collected private demographic data from each member of the focus group individually. The private session was designed for the purposes of confidentiality. Some of
the collected demographic data included general household expenditure and age. This was in a bid to identify how households having different economic profiles were affected by security and security sector reform. Research assistants were deployed to carry out key informant interviews on the dynamics of security sector reform in targeted regions. Between June and August, the research team conducted interviews with individuals from relevant CSOs, county and national government agencies and security experts. Some follow up interviews were conducted by phone after the team returned from the field.
The research was designed in such a way that it could be considered as valid, that is, it measured accurately what it purported to measure (Creswell, 2013). In particular, the design addressed the following types of validity
face validity, content validity, criterion validity
and external validity. The research involved a pilot study before engaging the respondents. This was intended to make sure that the research instruments collected data in which they were designed for, thereby ensuring face validity. The pilot study was designed in such a way that the participants came from diverse fields. This included security sector, civil societies, academicians and laymen. The correlation of the data collected from them was examined to ensure compliance with criterion validity. The study also engaged a panel of experts, including academicians and SSR experts, in order to obtain opinion from these subject matter experts whether the content in the research instruments was relevant to the research topic. Lastly, external validity was addressed through sampling. Since the geographical scope of study was Kenya as a country, the picked sample was ethnically diverse, regionally representative and comprised a fair representation of each gender. Other measures were adopted to boost the validity of the research include sticking strictly to the target population, ensuring that the respondents had the capacity to partake in the research at the time of engagement and only adopting the respondents who were willing to take part in the study without coercion.
Reliability, which concerns the extent to which the instrument yields the same results on repeated trials, is another aspect that the research sought to comply with. The study used the internal consistency method to ensure reliability. The method involves less nuisances such as engaging the respondents twice and has an added advantage in that it has an index, esearch instruments. The method was applied to the questions in the questionnaire that were deemed to have no right or wrong answer, mainly those in the third part. There were 8 such questions. lity. The estimate for
Number of items 8
0.851
The alpha coefficient for the 8 items is .839, suggesting that the items have relatively high internal consistency. This implies a measure of internal consistency, showing close relation on social science research situations.
The procedure of collecting data from respondents involved first dividing the population according to the four identified subsets: security sector personnel, security experts, civil society members and focus groups. Clustered sampling was then done where each subset was clustered according to various geographical regions in Kenya, and a sample of respondents drawn from each cluster. This geographical clusters included Nairobi, Coast, Western, Central, Eastern, Western/Lake and Northern regions. This was in a bid to ensure that the sample was representative and contained respondents from all over the country. The identified potential respondents were approached and introduced to both the researcher and the research topic. The researcher presented the research introductory letter from Pan
African University in order to gain credibility from these potential respondents. The researcher also sought research permission from specific institutions especially when interviewing staff affiliated to these institutions in their official capacity. For individual respondents, the researcher introduced the research topic, outlined the conditions for partaking in the study and more so, the right of the respondent to opt in according to their own free will, and to withdraw at any point of engagement. The respondents were given the questionnaire to skim through and familiarize themselves further with the format and the contents of the questionnaire. The researcher encouraged the respondents to raise any queries they could be having at that point. Those expressing free will to partake in the study were left with the questionnaires to fill. The filled questionnaires were to be collected after a one week period. Alternatively, the respondents could also scan and send the filled questionnaire via electronic means. The interviews with the various focus groups were modeled based on the information contained in the questionnaire. The researcher identified contacts persons on the ground through a comprehensive desk research. The contact person were requested to organize a focus group consisting of about 10
20 people. In a bid to ensure easier arrangements of the
focus groups, the researcher used people who were already in an organized set-up such as in religious organizations, self-helps groups and other communal groupings. The contact person organized for the date and venue where the focus group met for the discussion. The researcher catered for the logistical costs that was incurred by the participants together with the cost of refreshments that participants took during the discussion. These costs were drawn from the research allowance provided by the university. On the day of the discussion, the researcher moderated the discussion. Questions were floated onto the group according the prepared questionnaire, for the group to discuss. The researcher ensured that the recorded answer represented the unanimous answer of the group. In situations where a unanimous answer be reached, the researcher went with the most popular answer. The researcher also sought to make sure that the answers represented the views of the whole group and not necessarily those of the most active members. The researcher personally filled the questionnaire as the research went on. After the interview was over, the focus group was taken through what had been captured and invited to countercheck.
The researcher sought to develop a data analysis plan well before the actual analysis started. Having a well-structured analytical plan ensured that all the research questions were addressed by the analysis. The plan entailed first cleaning the data then coding and entering it easily accessible using the SPSS statistical program for further analysis. The first part of analysis involved analyzing the sample based on their demographic characteristics as outlined in section 3.4. This set the stage for analyzing the trend and variability that existed among these different demographic groups in the way they answered specific research questions. The analysis proceeded to include descriptive analysis of the answers to specific research questions. It is in these descriptive analyses that specific patterns in the answers were unraveled and variability examined. This included the variability between the sample subsets as well as the variability according to different demographic characteristics. The last part of the analysis involved comparing information from primary data with the information from secondary data. The pre-identified research hypothesis pertaining the relationship between SSR and socioeconomic hypothesis was then subjected to statistical tests to ascertain the significance in the correlation among the variables.
The research is centered on security which can be an emotive issue and sometimes associated with politics in Kenya. With this in mind, the researcher observed high ethical standards. This included observing the following principles at all times: objectivity, honesty, nondiscrimination, confidentiality, voluntary participation, informed consent and respect for intellectual property. The researcher maintained ultimate objectivity during the research. The analysis was done from the collected data alone with the results being communicated as per the findings. During the focus group discussions, where the researcher was filling the questionnaire, the participants were invited at the end of the interview to verify the responses that had been captured. The researcher was very hones in notifying the respondents about the purpose of the study. That is, first and foremost it was an academic research project geared towards the attainment Governance and Regional Integration. A research introductory letter from Pan African University was consequently shown to all the respondents. The other
principle anchoring the research was non-discrimination. The research was open to interview people of all genders, religions, regions, tribes and political standings. Diversity was actually enforced in the selection of the sample. The research ensured confidentiality first and foremost by not registering the names or identities of the participants in any part of the study. The respondents were further informed that the findings of the study may be shared, upon approval by Pan African University, with concerned parties such as policy makers, but only generalized information would be shared. The research was also based on the principal of voluntary participation. The respondents were individually notified of the right to take part in the study or the discussions at their own will. They were informed of their right to opt out at any stage. Before partaking in the study, the participants were required to give their own informed consent. Individual respondents did this in writing while the focus group discussions members consented orally before the commencement of the interviews. Lastly, the research fully respected the intellectual property of other studies by observing a no-plagiarism principle and adequately quoting any referenced work.
The research method explained the how the researcher designed and executed the research. In the end the researcher was able to engage 52 individual respondents out of an initial 63 that had expressed willingness to take part in the study. Also engaged were 8 focus groups.
This chapter presents the findings of the research. It begins by presenting the demographic characteristics of the respondents. This includes the gender, age, place of residence and household expenditure. These aspects play an important role when it comes to how specific individuals and households are affected by security. The chapter then presents the findings of the exact research questions. The findings are in the form of descriptive statistics, graphical representations and written summaries. The chapter also presents the findings of the analysis of secondary data sources. This analysis has been made in order to determine whether the information from secondary data sources do corroborate with the information from primary data sources. The chapter concludes by presenting the results of statistical tests of association between the independent and the dependent variables.
The demographic statistics presented in this section is as per the demographic characteristics of the sample as identified in section 3.4, that is, age, gender and regional representation. Security sector personnel were characterized based on gender, regional representation and age while members of the civil societies were characterized according to age, academic level and professional experience. Security and economic policy experts were characterized according to academic level and regional experience. Finally, household expenditure of the participants in the focus groups was taken as part of the demographic data. However, caution was also taken to address any biases through triangulation of their views and opinions with other data sources. Other key informants were sampled on the basis of: gaps, key issues in information arising from review of the literature; the nature of their engagement with issues of conflict and security in the targeted counties; and suggestions from other key informants.
Core security actors such as the police service, armed forces, paramilitary forces, intelligence and security services are at the centre of security sector reform (SSR) (DAC, OECD, 2007). As such the study sought to have most of its respondents coming from group. The researcher targeted 40 potential respondents through purposive sampling. 32 out of the 40 who had been
identified agreed to take part in the study, translating to an 80% success rate. Overall, 8 out of the 11 respondents who declined to take part in the study came from this group. The eight who declined cited either being bound by the oath of duty or not being comfortable with the research topic as the key reasons for not participating.
As outlined in Pie Chart Figure 3, among the 32 respondents, 66% were male, while 34% were female. As both gender was above the 30% threshold of the total population, the sample could be said to be representative in terms of gender. This implies that a cross section of security respondents were both male and female.
All the regions in Kenya were represented in the sample. Nairobi and Rift Valley regions had the most respondents with seven each. Such a representative view is important to
18-26
27-35
36-44
45-53
54-62
3
5
7
10
7
43.7
As reviewed on the Table 2 above, the age of the respondents ranged from 23
23-59
59 years. The
results reveal that security agents in Kenya, just like the rest of the civil servants, retire at 60 years of age. Adults aged 18 years and above can be recruited to the security organs. The mean age was 43.7 years with age bracket 45-53 years being the modal class. Most of the respondents, therefore, were in the middle of their scheduled security careers. Only a quarter of the respondents, 8 out of 32, can be classified as youthful, below 35 years of age.
The researcher engaged 12 respondents from the civil society. All the targeted respondents agreed to be part of the research. This could be an indicator of how well the research topic resonates with members of the civil societies. The civil societies which were engaged include Centre for Human Rights and Policy Studies (CHIRPS), an NGO that is engaged in the generation and dissemination of knowledge to facilitate the development of effective security policies in Africa, Action Aid, a global NGO whose main mandate is to work against poverty and injustice worldwide, and Oxfam which is also involved in poverty eradication worldwide. Other civil societies whose members were interviewed in the research include Saferworld and Peacenet. Of the 12 engaged respondents from the civil societies, 5 were male and 7 were female. This factors in gender representation The members came from civil societies with a nationwide reach, making it possible for the respondents to give a comparative analysis on the security and SSR situation between various regions in Kenya. Furthermore, 5 respondents indicated that they had international experience, 2 of them having international experience in SSR, specifically. One of the respondents was involved in SSR efforts in Liberia, while the other
was at one time at one time involved in SSR efforts in Indonesia bringing in comparative perspective into the study.
18-26
27-35
36-44
45-53
54-62
3
3
4
1
1
35.5
25-56
As reviewed on Table 3 above, majority of the respondents were middle-aged with a mean age 35.5 for the entire group. The youngest respondent was 25 with the oldest being 56, leading to a considerable age difference. This provides diversity in experience and perspectives between the respondents.
The study engaged eight security and economic policy experts. They were targeted on purpose to give expert analysis on the link between SSR and socioeconomic development in Kenya. Of the eight engaged, three were female while five were male. Six of the experts reside in Nairobi region, with Western/Lake and Rift Valley regions being home to the remaining two experts. Part of the demographic data collected from experts included their academic and professional levels.
Two of the respondents had PhDs in Public Policy and Advocacy, and International Relations Economics and Sociology, Security Management, International Relations and Psychology. The remaining two included one who had a Postgraduate Certificate in Conflict Resolution and had been involved in extensive conflict management including an assignment in Liberia, and a undergraduate-level journalist in conflict zones and a newspaper columnist.
The researcher, in a bid to get firsthand information on SSR, engaged eight focus groups. These groups consisted of 10
20 members. FGDs were also used to generate data for the
study. FGDs held brought together youth, women, and local elders and opinion who had consented to take part in the study. The members were mainly ordinary civilians with no expertise in SSR. It should be noted, that SSR is centered around such people.
Below $240
Between $240 $1920
Above $1920
Mean
Range
3
3
2
777.12
102-1952
The study involved groups from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds in a bid to find out how people in different socioeconomic backgrounds are affected by SSR. The mean average household expenditure among the eight focus groups was $777.12 (KES 77,712) per month. The focus group that reported the lowest average household expenditure consumed $102 per month, while the focus group with the highest household expenditure consumed $1,952 per month. The focus groups were well spread out, with each region in Kenya being represented. Nairobi region had two focus groups. Indeed, the focus group with the highest average household expenditure ($1,952) came from Nairobi as well as the focus group with the second lowest expenditure ($135). This displays the level of economic disparity in the Kenyan capital.
This section presents the answers to the specific research questions. Each research question is first stated, the findings pertaining to that question presented, and factual conclusions/ main lessons that can be drawn from the findings provided. The findings relate to the data analysis plan outlined in section 3.10. As per the plan, descriptive analysis was conducted for each research question to unravel specific patterns that may exist among the responses and the variability that may exist among the various demographic groupings or sample subsets.
The first question required the respondents to identify the most prevalent security challenge(s) that they have dealt with or encountered. In total, the researcher shortlisted 11 categories plus an additional category that allowed respondents to identify other security challenges that they had encountered and had not been categorized. The results are summarized as follows.
The figure above presents the main security challenges as identified by respondents. Terrorism was the key challenge with a fifth of the respondents identifying terrorism as their main security challenge. Political violence was also identified as a key security concern in Kenya with 11.5% of the respondents having identified political violence as their key security challenge. Other major security challenges are conflicts arising from land and cattle rustling.
These two challenges were each prioritized as the key security challenge by 10.5% of the respondents. The fact that most of the respondents were concerned about terrorism is very plausible. Kenya has borne the horrors of terrorism of late. The chief culprit in these terror attacks is the Al Shabab terror group that is domiciled the in the neighboring and lawless Somalia. Indeed, up to May 2015, Al Shabab had attacked Kenya 213 times, killing 520 people and wounding 1160 (Miller, 2015). Two of these attacks were high profile in nature, where 67 people were killed in terror attack in Westgate mall and 144 students and workers were killed in a terror attack in Garissa University. Respondents from regions hit by terror attacks more often appeared more concerned about terror as compared those from other regions. For instance, 84% of the security agents in the northern region which is prone to terror and neighbours Somalia identified terrorism as their main security challenge. Political violence also featured as a key insecurity problem. This had more to do with the time period when the research was done. The study was done in June, 2016 only one year away to the general election in Kenya, when political temperatures rise and leading to violence. For example, during the period of the study, violence erupted between opposition protesters and the police leading to the death of two people ("Kenya opposition Cord protests turn deadly in Kisumu - BBC News", 2016). Respondents from urban areas were more concerned with political violence than those from rural areas. Out of 23 from those identified as urban, 9 identified political violence as their main security challenge.
Security agents and
Security agents and
Civil societies and
Experts and focus
civil societies
focus groups
experts
groups
0.43
0.90
0.92
0.42
The most striking feature about this question is the way different sample categories varied their answers. Security agents and ordinary civilians in focus groups almost identified similar
security challenges. The categories had a correlation of 0.9. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and experts on the other hand, had an almost similar view of security challenges affecting Kenya, but a totally different view with the other two groups. Answers from respondents among the two groups had a correlation of 0.92, meaning they nearly identified the same security challenges. However, the correlation between security agents and civil societies was a partly 0.43, while that between experts and focus groups was 0.42. CSOs and experts identified terrorism, political and electoral violence as well as ethnicity as their main security challenges. On the other hand, while security agents and focus groups identified security challenges that were drawn from all across the range, the two categories identified land, cattle rustling, intra-clan violence and water categories more prominently as compared to CSOs and experts. This trend shows a situations where civil societies and experts are more alert to high level and headline grabbing security challenges such as terrorism and political violence and less conversant with other low profile security challenges such as land conflicts and cattle rustling. These low profile security challenges are the ones that affect civilians and security agents on a day-to-day basis. This schism between the security view of the two sets of groups is concerning as it may lead to experts pushing for policies that will have little effect on the day-to-day security situation on the ground. CSOs may also be active in highlighting security challenges, but not the ones which are of utmost significance to the day-to-day life of common civilians. Schnabel & Born, (2011) highlight this mismatch between policies and policy makers on one hand and actual security situation and security agents on the other hand, as a key hindrance towards security and SSR in general.
The respondents were required to identify the main parties to the security challenges. The question was structured providing respondents with a list of possible perpetrators that had been reviewed by subject experts involved during the validity stage and agreed upon during the pilot study. Nonetheless, respondents were allowed to identify other key perpetrators not on the list.
The main parties to insecurity in Kenya were identified as terrorists closely followed by gangs. Gangs appeared to be more of a problem in big urban centers, and especially in low income urban areas. From the 23 respondents identifying as from urban areas, 7 listed gangs as a main the main source of violence. Security agents were also listed as a key source of insecurity. 12.8% of the respondents indicated that security agents were a key security inconvenience. However, among the 32 security agents who were interviewed, only one indicated that security agents were a key source of insecurity. And even then, the lone agent the security agents involved in insecurity and not members of the core security organs. Terrorism had been identified as the main insecurity challenge and it is easily understandable that most of the respondents felt that terrorists are the main source of insecurity. Gangs also appeared to be a major source of insecurity as they are associated with multiple crimes such as armed robberies, murders, land conflicts and cattle rustling. They also operate in both rural and urban areas. Security agents ironically feature as a key source of insecurity. One expert even quoted an article by Pflanz, (2014), that Kenyans are five times more likely to be shot by police than by criminals, to support her conviction on why to her security agents are themselves a security menace to Kenyans.
24.3% of the respondents identified gangs as a key perpetrator of insecurity. Among these respondents, who identified gangs as a source of insecurity, an overwhelming 66% were
females. On the other hand, 78.6% of the respondents who identified security agents as a major source of insecurity were male. The table below summarizes the sources of insecurity based on gender.
Gangs
Terrorists
Security Agents
Ethnic Groups
Militia
Political goons
Others
Male
34.3%
46.2%
78.6%
46.4%
47.3%
62.7%
46.9%
Female
65.7%
53.8%
21.4%
53.6%
52.7%
37.3%
53.1%
A disproportionate number of women are fearful of gangs than men. Most these women indicated that gangs mainly targeted them to steal from them, but a few indicated that gangs sexually harassed them. This is an indicator that gangs perceive females as softer targets and hence females are twice more likely to be targeted as their male counterparts. A disproportionate number of men on the hand indicated that they considered security agents as a source of insecurity. This indicates a high level of disconnect between men and security agents.
The respondents were asked to identify whom they perceived to be the most affected by insecurity. The respondents could identify more than one group. The categories were divided in a way that mirrors the make-up of a general society, that is, men, women, children, youth, elderly, specific group such ethnic minorities, specific ethnicities or religion. The respondents were also given a leeway to add more categories whom they perceived to bear the worst of insecurity. The respondents were also grouped into various societal groupings namely men, women and youth. The respondents from the focus group were not grouped, and in essence they acted as
the control variable. The matrix below summarizes the findings on the most vulnerable victims.
12.2%
33.3%
21.6%
25.6%
2.5%
2.7%
2.1%
2.3%
56.0%
7.8%
26.2%
5.4%
1.5%
0.8%
8.5%
30.1%
25.6%
27.4%
6.1%
2.0%
0.3%
7.8%
29.4%
19.6%
26.4%
12.5%
2.3%
2.0%
9.1%
36.9%
19.1%
26.1%
4.9%
2.3%
1.6%
All the sample groups, men women, youth and focus groups, responded that women followed by children were the main victims of insecurity. On average, 36.9% of the respondents indicated that women were the main victims of insecurity while 26.1% of the respondents identified children. The vulnerability perception among women themselves was so high that 56% of the women responded that they are the main victims of insecurity. The youth were rated as the third most vulnerable with a vulnerability rating of 19.1%, when the weighted average among all the groups is considered. Only 2.3% of the respondents felt that groups rated as vulnerable were the main victims of insecurity. The situation brings out a good picture of the fear for insecurity that burdens women day-byday. The society also ubiquitously agrees that children as key victims of insecurity with only two percentage points separating the perception ratings among the various groups. MadzimaBosha, (2013) argues that in the face of conflict, men take up arms to face the perpetrators
leaving women to keep the families intact and provide for their children. These added responsibilities coupled with breakdown of social order, lead to women and children becoming prime targets. It also suffices to add that historically women have been used during times of conflict as sex slaves and human shield. Women compared to men and youth also find it harder to flee conflict zones leaving them to face the blunt of the attacks. The youth have a considerably high vulnerability rating bearing in mind that they are more fit and devoid of many responsibilities and are therefore more likely to cope with insecurity challenges better as compared to other groups. However, as the respondents indicated, the youth are the ones who are more used to orchestrate insecurity thereby putting them at risk. The youth are also identified as being the prime victims of violence orchestrated by security agents, even in times of relative security. In Kenya, young males aged between 18 and 35 are usually at a higher risk of facing violence from security agents (Waki, 2008).
The research sought to find out which crimes are committed most during periods of insecurity. Respondents were presented with a list of common crimes in Kenya to tick against. The list had been prepared from desk research and reviewed by security experts for validity. During this exercise, the exact nature of crimes was summarized to seven broad categories: Forcible displacement, murder and bodily harm, theft and looting, terrorism/violent extremism, arson, Gender Based Violence (GBV) and economic crimes. The respondents could also indicate the weapons that were mainly used during the commission of these crimes.
Murder and actual bodily harm were identified as the most prevalent crimes by 25% of the respondents. Terrorism and violent extremism was also cited as a major crime, with 18.3% of the respondents identifying terror attacks as among the most prevalent crimes. 16.7% of the respondents identified theft as the crime that they affected them most while 15% of the respondents identified Gender Based Violence (GBV). When the society is affected by security problems such as ethnic/clan based conflicts, cattle rustling, land conflicts most victims are either killed or attacked occasioning bodily harm. This explains why most of the respondents indicated murder as the most prevalent crime. Respondents identified crude weapons such as machetes and clubs are the most used weapons in ethnic/clan based conflicts, land conflicts and political violence. Guns are on the other hand the most primarily used weapons in cattle rustling, pasture and terror related attacks. The recent spate of terror attacks in Kenya meant that a sizeable number of the respondents indicated terrorism as their most prevalent crime. The fact that theft happens on a continuous basis explains why it is taken as a prevalent crime by 16.7% of the respondents. Looting, on the other hand, was identified as being intermittent mainly be carried out during periods of heightened political temperatures and civil commotions.
Respondents were classified according to their respective regions to examine crime prevalence per region. The figure below summarizes the findings.
The analysis of variation of security challenges among regions reveals a situation where crimes are not equally distributed among regions. Instead, some crimes are specific to certain regions. The only exception is Nairobi where nearly all crime categories were reported in the region. Respondents from the Northern region, for example, identified terrorism as the main security challenge bedeviling them. This is understandable given that the region borders the lawless Somalia. Forcible displacement is more prevalent in the Rift Valley region. Out of the 9.3% of the respondents who identified forcible displacement as major security concern, 6.3% were from the Rift Valley region. The vast region occupies a third of the country and is the most cosmopolitan rural region in Kenya. The region was the worst affected by the 2007/08 post-election violence where thousands of people were forcibly displaced from their homes. Genders Based Violence is more prevalent in Nairobi, with Nairobi accounting for half of the respondents who were concerned with Gender Based Violence. This might be explained by Violence is common.
The study sought to find whether the respondents had experienced any reforms within the security sector in Kenya. The study adopted the aspects of Security Sector Reform (SSR) as spelt out by DAC, OECD, (2007), which provides the backbone of SSR. These aspects include rule of law & human rights observance, security sector/civilian relationship, civilian oversight, protection of minorities and vulnerable groups, access to justice, transparency and accountability of security organs, professionalism and knowhow in the security sector, and institutional capability.
Majority of the respondents acknowledged having seen reforms across all the eight reform areas. Security sector/ civilian relationship appears to have undergone the most recognizable reforms with all the respondents answering to have noticed reforms within this category. Civilian oversight is another prominent reform feature with 97% of the respondents having taken note of civilian oversight. However, only 55% of the respondents indicated having realized reforms that enhance institutional capability. One of the most prominent initiatives instituted in Security Sector Reform of 2003 is the establishment of community based policing in Kenya. Community based policing brings together the police, civil society organization (CSOs) and the civilian community in a bid to develop local solutions to safety and security concerns. Such initiatives seem to have fostered better security sector/ civilian relationships as all the respondents confirmed by indicating having experienced improved relationship between the security sector and civilians. The new constitution brought civilian oversight to the security sector as explained in section 1.2. For instance, the National Police Service Commission is a civilian body involved in handling all administrative matters involving the police including recruitment of new police officers. The Independent Police Oversight Authority is also a civilian body responsible for handling complaints involving police officers. The high level of awareness of these civilian oversight bodies means that most Kenyans are aware of their existence and functions. Schirch (2013) explains that the success of SSR is influenced by how civilians perceive security organs. Going by this statement, the implementation of SSR in Kenya seems headed in the right direction as most respondents had experienced a positive change in all the facets
of SSR.
e trust of the institutional capability of the security organs that
The study sought to further determine whether various subsets had different experiences in the reforms carried out in the security sector. The responses of various sample subsets were analyzed to determine how the experience varied as summarized in the table below.
Security agents and
Security agents and
focus groups
civil societies
0.36
0.87
96.9% of the respondents who were either former or current security sector personnel responded having experience changes across all the eight reform aspects. However, when compared with focus comprising of civilians only, the correlation between their responses is only 0.36. The correlation of responses of security sector personnel and the members of civil societies is 0.87, indicating a high similarity in their responses. Thus while security sector personnel and members of civil societies reported experiencing a lots of reforms in the security sector, Looking back in the reforms already implemented in Kenya, most of them are high level in nature and do not therefore bring a lot of affect to the ordinary civilian. For example, only 36.7% of the respondents indicated having experienced any changes in the institutional capability of the security sector despite a lot being done. For instance, the Administration police and the Regular Police were merged under one command under the new constitution, but nothing has really changed on the ground.
The ultimate aim of SSR is to enhance the effectiveness and accountability of the security sector in providing security for the state and its people (DAC OECD, 2007). Consequently, the study sought to determine whether SSR had achieved its main purpose here in Kenya that of improving security. Respondents were required to identify whether security had either improved, worsened or remained unchanged after factoring in the reforms that had been carried out in the in the security sector mainly brought by the new constitution.
65% of the respondents reported to have experienced improvement of security after SSR efforts. 15% of the respondents indicated that security had more or less not changed while 20% indicated that security had indeed deteriorated. The general trend points to SSR being a contributor of good security environment in Kenya. The major reason provided by the respondents was that SSR led to a better working relationship between security agents and the society in general. This in turn makes it easier for security agents to obtain crucial intelligence leads from the society. The security sector was also perceived as more diverse and representative, in turn becoming more professional. This opinion was more so prevalent among the members of the CSOs. Members of the security services mainly pointed out to the change in curriculum brought about by the reforms as a key factor that enhanced their professional capacity to fight insecurity. Other reforms that were pointed out to directly contribute to improved security are better equipment for security
sector, harmonized command structure as well as improved morale brought about by better administration. Indeed, there was a remark that security services were after reforms attracting the best of brains in Kenya, further increasing their institutional capacity.
The weighted average trend for all groups points out SSR positively contributing to improved security situation. However, only slightly over a half of all security agents are of the same opinion. In actual sense, 25% of the security agents related SSR to decline in security. 12.5% of the security agents lamented that too much activism especially by CSOs was a direct contributor to insecurity. The state of security in the face of reforms is contested between security personnel on one hand and all the other sample groups in the other hand. Although majority of respondents across the divide agree that security has improved, too many security personnel differ. The major reason given was the interference of security by non-professional and more public scrutiny on security operations. This group asserted that security involved sensitive activities that needed to be carried out in confidence without too much undue pressure being exerted on the security agents. CSOs were perceived as being more vocal to tribulations concerning criminals and less concerned on those affecting police. Other reasons given included lack of cooperation among all the security players, but more so the judiciary. For example, the reformed judiciary was quoted as a key let down in the fight against terrorism as more often
terrorists are let free even when there is some evidence to warrant the security agents to be given more time to collect the usually hard-to-collect evidence.
The main dimensions of socioeconomic growth in a society and the associated variables are provided by UNDP (1990). These variables are mainly macroeconomic variables such as life expectancy and Gross National Income (GNI) Per Capita. As the study engaged on a small sample of 60 respondents, such high-level macroeconomic variables were not suitable. The study used proxy parameters adapted from the dimensions of socioeconomic growth as given by UNDP (1990). The table below summarizes these proxy parameters:
long and healthy life
Life expectancy at birth
State of healthcare
Knowledge and education
Mean and expected years
Access to education and
of schooling
learning opportunities
GNI per capita
Access to economic
Decent standard of living
opportunities The study also used the income levels as another parameter used to model the economic wellbeing. According to UNDP, (1990), gender equality, participation to political and communal life and environmental sustainability are other factors which although they do not influence human development and economic growth directly, they do have a big impact still. For instance, a society where there is a greater number of women actively involved in economic production will have a higher economic output. As such, these three important facets were incorporated in the study. Respondents were required to identify how the above parameters have been affected by the Security Sector Reform (SSR) in Kenya.
86% of the respondents reported to have experienced a positive change in their socioeconomic lives as a result of SSR. This number takes into consideration all the dimensions of human development and economic growth. This points out to SSR being a facilitator of human development and economic growth as laid out in the general hypothesis of the study (see 1.7 above). SSR was reported to have improved the overall security situation thereby offering a good business and economic environment with positive benefits to human development. Ryan, (2011) asserts that business prosperity and economic growth are only a reality when the prevailing security situation permits.
The socioeconomic dimension in which SSR has brought the most positive impact is on access to economic opportunities. 95% of the respondents indicated to have had better access to economic opportunities as a result of SSR. Three main explanations stood out among the responses that the responses indicated. First, there was a feeling that SSR had improved the general security leading to few interruptions both for businesses and workers. Second, most respondents felt that SSR had attracted more investors into their localities leading to more economic opportunities. Indeed, 32% of the respondents indicated that they were working in areas initially declared as insecure but since the operationalization of SSR, these areas had attracted investors. Finally, respondents indicated that they were now able to work in any part of the country in the knowledge that should anything happen to security agents will be able to help them. Such confidence in the security sector seems to have enabled ordinary Kenyans to expand their economic horizons. Other socioeconomic dimensions which have been uplifted by SSR are access to education and healthcare and ability to participate in communal and political life without fear of retribution. 91.7% of the respondents reported having experienced a positive change in these three dimensions as a result of SSR. For instance, CSOs reported to there being more freedoms in the political arena after the operationalization of SSR. Political dissidents and opposition groups are able to express their opinions without being haunted by security agents, and in the scenario where their freedoms are infringed, the reformed judicial system has come to their rescue. Far flung regions reported to there being more security personnel being posted to these areas than before. There are also more people from these areas being recruited into security services, some of them by affirmative action. Consequently, these regions have been become more secure and hence more attractive to healthcare workers, investors and teachers. Only 65% of the respondents indicated to be doing economically better as a result of SSR. The main reason why respondents indicated that income levels had not changed a lot was because of corruption and extortion by security agents. Corrupt security agents condoned have to spend more on their own security and that of their own businesses. Worse, security agents run extortion rings where mainly businesspeople have to pay these security agents given amounts of money periodically, or else they will have false charges fabricated against them. This perhaps explains why professionalism among the security agents is also not among the most recognizable reforms in the security sector.
The need for SSR is informed on the perceptions that civilians have for the security sector (Schirch, 2013). The civilians also ought to have a clear voice in the implementation of reforms within the security sector. Consequently, the study gave the respondents a chance to indicate which reforms they would want implemented in the security sector.
Integrity and corruption
49.2%
Facilities and equipment
20.6%
Professionalism
10.4%
Corporate governance
7.7%
Automation and digitization
5.0%
Others
7.1%
Nearly half of the respondents indicated that they were keen on having a security sector that has integrity and is not corrupt. Indeed, this is not surprising. For instance, The National Police has topped bribery rankings in Kenya since the inception of the East African Bribery Index in 2009 and is also among the most corrupt institutions in East Africa according to the Corruption Perception Index report by Transparency International (TI, 2015). The Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) soldiers were filmed looting Westgate mall while responding to a terrorist attack at the mall. 20.6% of the respondents indicated that they want the security sector to be provided with better facilities and equipment. The current facilities even those that serve security agents were said to be dilapidated and neglected. Nearly a third of the respondents who called for better facilities were concerned with sharing of rooms by security
agents and their families. The correctional facilities were also cited as congested and inhumane.
The study collected human development and economic growth data from 1980 up to 2014, in a bid to compare how the national socioeconomic growth responded with respect to the changing security and the accompanying reforms in those years.
metrics measure human development economic human The metr ric icss us used ed tto o meas assur u e hu uma m n developm pmeen pm ent and econ nom micc ggrowth rowt ro wth wt h are arre th thee hu huma man ma development index (HDI) as provided by UNDP, and gross domestic product (GDP) at the market value of good/services produced in billions of US dollars respectively. HDI increased in the 80s and reduced the 90s, to dip just below the level it was in 1980. It has been increasing since the turn of the century. GDP exhibits a near similar trend where it barely grew in the 80s and 90s, but it has grown 5-fold since the turn of the century up to 2014. On the other hand, no major SSR reform were undertaken in the 80s and 90s. The first major SSR reforms were taken before just after the turn of the century, the same time period when Kenya started experiencing increased human development and economic growth rate. Further radical reform were undertaken in 2010. This trend corroborates with the results of primary data that SSR is associated with increased human development and economic growth.
Both the results of primary data and secondary data point to there being a relationship between SSR and socioeconomic growth. In particular, there seems to be a trend in which SSR is associated with positive human development and economic growth. In order to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion that the two variables SSR and socioeconomic growth are associated, the study carried a Chi
Square test of association between the two variables
using the already developed research hypotheses. The results of this tests are presented in this section
Chi-square
test
of
association
checks
whether
two
categorical
variables
are
associated/dependent. To carry out the test, we need to identify the variables and define the null and alternative hypotheses. Security Sector Rearms (SSR) is the independent variable. Since, it is either a country implements SSR or fails, SSR can only take two values, Yes or No. The value Yes applies when reforms are carried out and No applies when reforms are not carried out. Human development and economic growth are the dependent variables. Since these two variables purely represent the socioeconomic characteristics of a country, then socioeconomic characteristics can be taken as the dependent variable. This dependent variable takes in the values of both human development and economic growth.
The research
hypotheses as presented in section 1.7 above is: H0: There is no significant relationship between SSR and socioeconomic growth. H1: There is significant positive relationship between SSR and socioeconomic growth. To conduct this test we compute a Chi-square test statistic where we compare each cell's observed count to its respective expected count. The level of significance of the test, alpha, is 0.05. We reject the null hypothesis when the p-value is less than alpha (0.05).
Given this p-value of 4.15E-05 (0.000041489) is less than alpha of 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between SSR and socioeconomic growth. We conclude that there is significant relationship between SSR and socioeconomic growth. That is, there is an association between the two variables.
This chapter has provided the results of the data collected on the research topic. The first section analyses primary data collected from respondents enlisted in the study. Consequently, findings from this analysis indicate that SSR is positively linked with human development and economic growth. Section two presents the analysis of secondary data of the research
topic. Once again, SSR is shown to be positively related with human development and economic growth. The third section tests whether this presumed relationship in statistically significant. Using Chi-square tests of association, the study has shown that statistically, SSR and human development and economic growth are positively linked. Hence from the study, we can conclude that SSR is positively related with human development and economic growth.
This chapter concludes the research. It presents the discussions to the key findings of the research. This is based on the primary and secondary data collected on the study. The researcher then presents his own conclusions about the research topic. These conclusions form the basis that the researcher uses to make practical recommendations. Part of the recommendations is the areas in which further research can be extended from this study.
86% of the respondents reported to have experienced a positive change in their socioeconomic lives as a result of SSR. This information overwhelmingly concurs that Security Sector Reform (SSR) actively contributes to human development and economic growth of a country. Looking at the main facets of human development, that is life & health, knowledge and good standards of living, SSR is a direct contributor in all of them. SSR leads to the reduction of conflicts a acceptable to both the state and the people. This in turn reduces suffering and enables people to access knowledge and learning opportunities increasing human development (Sedra, 2010). 65% of the respondents in the rift valley region reported to have experienced improvement of security after SSR efforts. 15% of the respondents indicated that security had more or less not changed while 20% indicated that security had indeed deteriorated. . Initially, security agents used to be drawn from one community and were not professional in their mandate usually taking sides during conflicts besides being actively involved in politics. However, since the enactment of reforms within the security sector, security services are now neutral, more professional and actively involved in the search for long term peace. This has driven harmonious relations between the diverse local communities and the security agents as well. In turn, residents can access economic opportunities and even investors can invest in the region. On a macroeconomic sense, the economic development of a country is only as good as its security stability. Internally, the success of economic activities largely depends on the security situation (Ball & Hendrickson, 2005). A significant percentage, 57% of respondents from the
Rift Valley region explained how they lost economically, with some of them never having recovered up to date, because of insecurity. When tribal clashes broke out shops owned by minority communities were attacked, and with forcible displacement many people were snatched off their only economic activities. In that period, infrastructure such as roads and railways were destroyed rendering some areas inaccessible and drying off economic opportunities for the local community. The economy loses in terms of lost revenue, unplanned expenditure and destruction of economic projects. Externally, insecurity perceptions have been the source of fear among tourists, foreign investors affecting the economy in the long run. The Coastal region has over the years been dependent on tourism as the main source of income for locals. Focus group discussion from the inhabitants of the coastal region narrated on how terrorist attacks had affected economic activities in the area. This is a clear example of how security is a pertinent aspect of any economic development model. A significant 65% of respondents indicated that economic conditions had accelerated as a result of security sector reforms. However, corruption and extortion by security agents was pointed out as a negative vice that derailing the security sector reform agenda. As a result of corruption, security agents condoned criminal activities cutting down on efforts made to improve security. Another Tribal violence has always been the most potent security threat facing Kenya. This is usually ribal based. For this reason, Kenya had always experienced tribal clashes in every electioneering period since 1992. The postelection violence of 2007/08, was also tribal based. But since then Kenya has not experienced any tribal clashes, not even in the 2013 general election. Instead the global terrorism menace has become the most potent security threat. The Al Shabab terror group in neighboring Somalia has sponsored many terror attacks than other grouping, whether internal or external. Up to May 2015, Al Shabab had attacked Kenya 213 times, killing 520 people and wounding 1160. The situation is made worse by the fact that Somalia has been lawless for quarter a century now, and Kenya shares a long border with Somali. Furthermore Kenya has a large ethnic Somali community, making it hard to profile Somali foreigners who may pose danger to Somalia, infiltrate through Kenya
Somalia porous border, and once they are
hard to be profiled since they blend with the local communities. From here they can launch
Technocrats in the security sector, who have a big say in policy making of security issues in the country, do not necessarily represent the immediate concerns of the ordinary citizens. In the study, technocrats such security experts and members of CSOs differed sharply with ordinary citizens and security on the security issues affecting Kenyans. While ordinary civilians and security agents on the ground were concerned with day-to-day small security challenges such as cattle rustling and fight for pasture, technocrats were more worried about high level security challenges such as political violence. There is such a disconnect between the two sets of groups in the way both prioritize security issues.
is gangs who perpetrate most criminal activities. Terrorists usually operate covertly in small cells, only striking to unsuspecting people. Gangs on the other hand operate at a closer proximity, as they live openly in the neighborhoods and villages, perpetrating a wide array of crimes on a continuous basis. This ranges from robbery, theft, cattle-rustling, and even gender based violence. Some gangs organize themselves into criminal groups, improving their effectiveness in perpetrating crimes especially in low income neighborhoods and slum areas. Women usually bear the worst of gang violence. Women are usually seen as soft targets and also as sexual objects. For this reason, women account for the majority of gang victims. This continuous bombardment of women by gangs causes women to live with immense amount of fear. From the study it became apparent nearly every woman from low income urban areas is afraid of her own security or that of their children. Such tribulations only hinders human development and economic growth in these areas. Gangs perpetrate more crimes than any other group. This explains the reason why crimes committed by gangs are the most prevalent. Gangs will most of the times steal, rob or loot and in the course of doing so cause bodily harm or kill. This leads to the two sets of crimes being the most committed. Security agents reported that the level of crime mainly depends with weapons that those gangs hold. Gangs with crude weapons such as knives, clubs and machetes normally terrorize local residents while those with advanced weaponry such as guns and get-away vehicles target businesses and rich neighborhoods.
Crime also greatly vary across regions. For instance in the northern region, the most prevalent crime is terrorism. This is mainly to do with the region bordering Somalia. Sparsely populated regions such the Eastern region on the other hand are relatively safer more than any other region. Highland areas such as the Mt. Kenya region experiences more internal land-based conflicts more than any other region. Cosmopolitan regions are the worst affected by tribal, political and electoral related violence. This has more to do with different tribal groupings having different political dimensions, and living in the same region. Consequentially, forcible displacement mainly affecting minority migrant communities arises when these tribal group clash. Examples of cosmopolitan region in Kenya is the Rift Valley and Coast regions. Urban regions experience more diverse security problems but in general rich neighborhoods are much more safer than poorer neighborhoods. The new constitution in Kenya, which was promulgated in 2010, and started being made operational in 2013 brought the most radical reforms to the security sector since independence. These reforms brought with them a new approach from the security sector in tackling insecurity. An approach that more people approve of. The standout reform is the way the security sector engages with the civilians. For instance, it was quipped that even the formerly reclusive Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) now has an active external communications department which they use to communicate to the general public. They even engage the general public using social media channels such as Twitter and Facebook. With such an engaging approach, more information can be gathered from the public and much more easily enhancing security agents in tackling insecurity. The most recognizable reform is the way the security sector now engages with civilians. More people view the security sector as more accessible than any other time in the past. This indeed shows the success of the reforms package as reform should be informed by the perceptions that the general public has for the security sector. It also shows that past measures to improve the public image of the security sector seems to have finally paid off. In 2006/07, the police department, for example, run a viral public relations campaign in a bid to improve its view from the members of the public. More people also acknowledge that the security sector has a civilian oversight. This factor is crucial in entrenching the rule of law in the security sector. The Independent Police Oversight Authority (IPOA), for example, is now widely recognized as the bodies to go to if you have any complaints against the police.
Civilian oversight is another prominent reform feature with 97% of the respondents having taken note of civilian oversight. However, only 55% of the respondents indicated having realized reforms that enhance institutional capability. The
ded
to enhance its institutional capacity have not worked. There is still a large number of people who see security services as inept and unable to respond to the ever changing security needs. More worryingly, there is also a large number of security agents among the doubters. The force is seen as poorly organized, and one that is using ad hoc and overt techniques to react to security challengers. A good case in point that was quoted when Al Shabab militants attacked Garissa University in 2014. First, the security sector never took the threat seriously even though they had been forewarned in advance. Secondly, as the attack unfolded even though the security agents has airplanes to enhance rapid deployment of security agents in emergency situations, on that given day it took 8 hours for the elite special agents to reach the area. It only later emerged that standby airplanes were being used by senior security officers in their personal family matters. In the end 144 students lost their lives. In terms of external security, the Keya Defense Forces (KDF) was quoted as to have been battling Al Shabab militants inside Somalia since 2011 without any clear improvement of the security situation inside Somalia and in Kenya. This among many other things drives Kenyans to perceive the security sector as a weak one. A majority of interviewed respondents agreed that security reforms had led to security improvement. Caution, however, needs to be observed as the view is far from being unanimous. The proponents to this view were mainly civilians and technocrats while security agents are the main opponents. Security agents viewed reforms as having brought too much civilian meddling and public scrutiny in security operations scuttling security efforts. These agents viewed some security operations on insecurity problems such as terrorism as too sensitive to be involving a lot of public scrutiny as they usually divide the society along religious lines, and this plays into the hands of terrorists. Some people associated the fight against violent religious extremists as being religious based and readily joined the quest due to religious persecution. The media and members of the public using the social media also occasionally made comments that touch on sensitive issues that sometimes flared the situation
The findings of the study provide important theoretical and practical implications:-
i.
Attention needs to be paid to the fundamental importance of the oversight component in the overall reform process, and that support must be directed at strengthening the oversight mechanisms in society.
ii.
Governance, which should include oversight component,, normative frameworks, institutional management, and operational efficiency, should be placed at the centre of the reform process
iii.
Police reforms need to be built on local ownership
iv.
Such reforms should be debated by African and local experts who work in the fields related to security and policing therefore in position to advise governments and their peers
Security Sector Reform (SSR), besides being intentioned to achieve its original aim of enhancing the effectiveness and accountability of the security sector for the benefits of the state and its people, contributes positively to human development and economic growth in a country. The contribution may be direct or indirect. It is direct in terms increased economic activities owing to the confidence that economic partners get as a result of reforms in the security sector. These economic partners range from internal investors, foreign investors, tourists to donors. The contribution may be indirect in terms of improved security and increased effectiveness of the security sector. Security is a key prerequisite of socioeconomic growth and development. This means that any undertaking that contributes positively to improved security, by implication that undertaking also contributes to the socioeconomic growth. Consequently, costs incurred in reforming the security sector should be seen not as an expenditure but as an investment not only to the security sector but to overall human development and economic growth. Kenya can cautiously consider the efforts to reform its security sector as a success so far. While lots have not been done especially pertaining to corruption, integrity and institutional capability, the foundation has already been laid. The main tenets of SSR as envisaged by the original developers of SSR, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), has been put firmly in place. The security sector now has civilian oversight and there is increased of civilian relationship in security matters. The capacity of security agents has also been improved through interventions such as curriculum change, better pay and provision of more equipment. There is also constitutional institution to enhance transparency
and accountability within the security sector and to ensure that the security sector adheres to the rule of law. Indeed, even the key indicator of the need for reforms in the public sector, instituting further reforms and especially those that touch on corruption, integrity and institutional capability.
Since peace and security are complex and sensitive issues in Kenya, there tends to be a likelihood of getting inaccurate or unreliable information from respondents. While this limitation could not be completely overcome, the study attempted to mitigate it by using a good sample size and multiple data collection methods to increase the odds of getting accurate information. Accuracy and credibility of findings and analysis has also been enhanced by using triangulation of all the data gathered through the different methods- key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions. The researcher was also keenly aware of the security sensitivities relating to conflict in the target counties, and accordingly accommodated the concerns of
of the key informants
by ensuring them that all the information they provided would not be directly attributed to them in the study report. Efforts were also made to ensure confidentiality and uphold trust. Another challenge encountered was difficulty in getting some of government officials for the key informant interviews. In other cases, some government officials had other pressing commitments and interviews tended to be rushed. This challenge was partly addressed by finding alternative respondents, such as substituting County Commissioners with their deputies.
SSR is one of the factors that positively contribute to human development and economic growth. It therefore suffices that SSR be integrated in any agenda touching on the two.
secretariat should consider any SSR project as geared towards the realization of the vision 2030 agenda.
The remaining SSR reforms should be implemented without fail. This is the only way even the already implemented reforms can also be safeguarded. More so reforms touching on corruption and integrity ought to be prioritized; as corruption and integrity can on they own wreck the whole security sector.
Vulnerable groups such as women, children and minority communities are usually affected by insecurity more than any other group. However, the economic contribution from these vulnerable groups is very crucial for the socioeconomic development of a country. Their general well-being is also important and is by extension their own human right. The Kenyan security organs should strategize on how to ensure the security of these vulnerable groups without compromising on the security of other groups as well.
Civilian oversight and inclusion in security matters ought to be entrenched in the security of any country. However, mechanisms need to be developed to ensure that the professional capability of security services is not compromised by civilian inclusion and oversight. There needs to be seamless cooperation between the civilians and the security sector in a way that ensures that civilian oversight is provided without compromising on sensitive security matters.
Every single citizen regardless of gender, social standing, economic status or place of residence should have his/her security needs guaranteed and well catered for by the state. The existence of security inequality where low income areas are insecure and almost lawless while high income areas are secure is discriminatory. The security sector should as a matter of reform revisit the issue of insecurity in low income areas to ensure that resident of these areas enjoy their constitutional right to security.
This study has been conducted at the nascent stages of the implementation of SSR in Kenya as provided by the new constitution. There needs to be follow up studies to see how SSR is being implemented and its effects to human development and economic growth. This study has succeeded in drawing a positive link between SSR and human development and economic growth. The two can be said to be positively associated. More studies need to be done to quantify the exact impact of SSR on human growth and economic growth in Kenya. For instance, it would be desirable to know the estimated economic impact of hiring and training security agents according to international best standards
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Dear Respondent, We cordially invite you to kindly take time off your busy schedule to provide answer to this questionnaire. I am a Master of Science in Governance and Regional Integration student in the Pan African University Institute of Governance Humanities and Social Sciences of the African Union mic Growth in Kenya”.
The purpose of the current study is to assess relationship between security sector reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. It seeks to understand whether there is a significant effect to human development and economic growth and in which direction, when reforms are carried out in the security sector.
We request you to fill in the questionnaire with your honest opinion and information within your knowledge. We plan to distribute this questionnaire to former or serving personnel in the security sector who would like to take part in this study. The questionnaire consists of questions about security challenges in Kenya, security sector reform (SSR) in Kenya, and your experiences on how security sector reform affects economic growth and human development. This research is for purely academic purposes and the information provided in it will be used for those purposes only. Your identity will be kept and treated confidential. Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated
a. Do not write your name on this form b. Kindly respond to all items c. Information provided should cover the period up to and including August 2016.
A) What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ]
C) Which part of Kenya do you reside? Nairobi [ ]
Coast [ ]
Western/lake [ ]
Mt. Kenya [ ]
Northern [ ],
Eastern [ ],
Rift Valley [ ]
D) Were you serving in the security sector before and after the promulgation of the new constitution? Yes [ ] No [ ]
1.
What are the most prevalent security challenges have you encountered or dealt with? [ ]
a) Inter-ethnic conflict
b) Inter clan conflict
c) Intra clan conflict
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Political
f) Electoral conflict
g) Cattle rustling
h) Land
i)
Pasture
j)
Water
k) Boundaries
l)
2.
Others
Who are the parties to the security problems? [ .?]
a) Ethnic communities
b) Militia groups
c) Gangs
d) Security sector agents
e) Political goons
f) Terrorists
g) Others
3.
Who are the people affected by the conflict?
a) Women
b) Men
c) Children
d) Youth
e) Vulnerable groups
f) Others
4.
What kinds of acts happen during these conflicts? ( )
a) Forcible displacement
b) Murder
c) Theft and looting
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Arson
f) Gender based Violence
g) Economic crimes
h) Others
5.
Have you experienced a change/ reform in the following aspects of Security Sector Management?
a) Rule of law and human rights observance b) Security sector/civilian relationship c) Civilian involvement in security matters including civilian oversight d) Protection of minorities and vulnerable groups such as women and children e) Access to justice f) Transparency and accountability of security organs g) Human capacity including professionalism and knowhow in the security sector h) Institutional capability, includes, better equipment and conditions among others
6.
How has the security situation been affected by the reforms in the security sector?
Improved Deteriorated Remain unchanged
7.
How has the Security Sector Reform affected the following dimensions of your socioeconomic situation?
Health and access to medical facilities Schooling and learning opportunities Access to economic opportunities Income generation
Access to opportunities regardless of gender Participation to political and community life Good environment
8.
What other reforms do you think should be implemented in the security sector? i. ii.
iii. iv. v.
Dear Respondent, We cordially invite you to kindly take time off your busy schedule to provide answer to this questionnaire. I am a Master of Science in Governance and Regional Integration student in the Pan African University Institute of Governance Humanities and Social Sciences of the African Union Development and Economic Growth in Kenya”.
The purpose of the current study is to assess relationship between security sector reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. It seeks to understand whether there is a significant effect to human development and economic growth and in which direction, when reforms are carried out in the security sector.
We request you to fill in the questionnaire with your honest opinion and information within your knowledge. We plan to distribute this questionnaire to members of civil society organizations (CSOs) who would like to take part in this study. The questionnaire consists of questions about security challenges in Kenya, security sector reform (SSR) in Kenya, and your experiences on how security sector reform affects economic growth and human development. This research is for purely academic purposes and the information provided in it will be used for those purposes only. Your identity will be kept and treated confidential. Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated
a. Do not write your name on this form b. Kindly respond to all items c. Information provided should cover the period up to and including August 2016.
A) What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ]
C) What is the name of the civil society organization that you are attached to?
D) What is the specialization of your civil society organization?
1.
What are the most prevalent security challenges have you encountered or dealt with? [ ]
a) Inter-ethnic conflict
b) Inter clan conflict
c) Intra clan conflict
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Political
f) Electoral conflict
g) Cattle rustling
h) Land
i)
Pasture
j)
Water
k) Boundaries
l)
2.
Others
Who are the parties to the security problems? [ .?]
a) Ethnic communities
b) Militia groups
c) Gangs
d) Security sector agents
e) Political goons
f) Terrorists
g) Others
3.
Who are the people affected by the conflict?
a) Women
b) Men
c) Children
d) Youth
e) Vulnerable groups
f) Others
4.
What kind of acts happen during these conflicts? ( )
a) Forcible displacement
b) Murder
c) Theft and looting
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Arson
f) Gender based Violence
g) Economic crimes
h) Others
5.
Have you experienced a change/ reform in the following aspects of Security Sector Management?
a) Rule of law and human rights observance b) Security sector/civilian relationship c) Civilian involvement in security matters including civilian oversight d) Protection of minorities and vulnerable groups such as women and children e) Access to justice f) Transparency and accountability of security organs g) Human capacity including professionalism and knowhow in the security sector h) Institutional capability, includes, better equipment and conditions among others 6.
How has the security situation been affected by the reforms in the security sector? Improved Deteriorated Remain unchanged
7.
How has the Security Sector Reform affected the following dimensions of your socioeconomic situation?
Health and access to medical facilities Schooling and learning opportunities Access to economic opportunities Income generation
Access to opportunities regardless of gender Participation to political and community life Good environment
8.
What other reforms do you think should be implemented in the security sector? i. ii.
iii. iv. v.
Dear Respondent, We cordially invite you to kindly take time off your busy schedule to provide answer to this questionnaire. I am a Master of Science in Governance and Regional Integration student in the Pan African University Institute of Governance Humanities and Social Sciences of the African Union Growth in Kenya”.
The purpose of the current study is to assess relationship between security sector reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. It seeks to understand whether there is a significant effect to human development and economic growth and in which direction, when reforms are carried out in the security sector.
We request you to fill in the questionnaire with your honest opinion and information within your knowledge. We plan to distribute this questionnaire to experts in security and economic policy who would like to take part in this study. The questionnaire consists of questions about security challenges in Kenya, security sector reform (SSR) in Kenya, and your experiences on how security sector reform affects economic growth and human development. This research is for purely academic purposes and the information provided in it will be used for those purposes only. Your identity will be kept and treated confidential. Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated
a. Do not write your name on this form b. Kindly respond to all items Information provided should cover the period up to and including August 2016
A) What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ]
C) Which part of Kenya do you reside? Nairobi [ ]
Coast [ ]
Western/lake [ ]
Mt. Kenya [ ]
Northern [ ],
Eastern [ ],
Rift Valley [ ]
D) What is your highest academic level?
1.
What are the most prevalent security challenges have you encountered or dealt with? [ ]
a) Inter-ethnic conflict
b) Inter clan conflict
c) Intra clan conflict
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Political
f) Electoral conflict
g) Cattle rustling
h) Land
i)
Pasture
j)
Water
k) Boundaries
l)
2.
Others
Who are the parties to the security problems? [ .?]
a) Ethnic communities
b) Militia groups
c) Gangs
d) Security sector agents
e) Political goons
f) Terrorists
g) Others
3.
Who are the people affected by the conflict?
a) Women
b) Men
c) Children
d) Youth
e) Vulnerable groups
f) Others
4.
What kind of acts happen during these conflicts? ( )
a) Forcible displacement
b) Murder
c) Theft and looting
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Arson
f) Gender based Violence
g) Economic crimes
h) Others
5.
Have you experienced a change/ reform in the following aspects of Security Sector Management?
a) Rule of law and human rights observance b) Security sector/civilian relationship c) Civilian involvement in security matters including civilian oversight d) Protection of minorities and vulnerable groups such as women and children e) Access to justice f) Transparency and accountability of security organs g) Human capacity including professionalism and knowhow in the security sector h) Institutional capability, includes, better equipment and conditions among others
6.
How has the security situation been affected by the reforms in the security sector? Improved Deteriorated Remain unchanged
7.
How has the Security Sector Reform affected the following dimensions of your socioeconomic situation?
Health and access to medical facilities Schooling and learning opportunities Access to economic opportunities Income generation
Access to opportunities regardless of gender Participation to political and community life Good environment
8.
What other reforms do you think should be implemented in the security sector? i. ii.
iii. iv. v.
Dear Respondents, We cordially invite you to kindly take time off your busy schedule to take part in this interview. I am a Master of Science in Governance and Regional Integration student in the Pan African University Institute of Governance Humanities and Social Sciences of the African Union Development and Economic Growth in Kenya”.
The purpose of the current study is to assess relationship between security sector reform (SSR), and human development and economic growth in Kenya. It seeks to understand whether there is a significant effect to human development and economic growth and in which direction, when reforms are carried out in the security sector.
We request you to participate in this interview and to give your honest opinion and information within your knowledge. We plan to hold other such interviews with other focus groups throughout the country who would like to take part in this study. The interview will consists of questions about security challenges in Kenya, security sector reform (SSR) in Kenya, and your experiences on how security sector reform affects economic growth and human development. This research is for purely academic purposes and the information provided in it will be used for those purposes only. Your identity will be kept and treated confidential. Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated
a. Do not give your name during the interview b. Kindly participate in all questions
c. Information provided should cover the period up to and including August 2016.
1.
What are the most prevalent security challenges have you encountered or dealt with? [ ]
a) Inter-ethnic conflict
b) Inter clan conflict
c) Intra clan conflict
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Political
f) Electoral conflict
g) Cattle rustling
h) Land
i)
Pasture
j)
Water
k) Boundaries
l)
2.
Others
Who are the parties to the security problems? [ .?]
a) Ethnic communities
b) Militia groups
c) Gangs
d) Security sector agents
e) Political goons
f) Terrorists
g) Others
3.
Who are the people affected by the conflict?
a) Women
b) Men
c) Children
d) Youth
e) Vulnerable groups
f) Others
4.
What kind of acts happen during these conflicts? ( )
a) Forcible displacement
b) Murder
c) Theft and looting
d) Terrorism/violent extremism e) Arson
f) Gender based Violence
g) Economic crimes
h) Others
5.
Have you experienced a change/ reform in the following aspects of Security Sector Management?
a) Rule of law and human rights observance b) Security sector/civilian relationship
c) Civilian involvement in security matters including civilian oversight d) Protection of minorities and vulnerable groups such as women and children e) Access to justice f) Transparency and accountability of security organs g) Human capacity including professionalism and knowhow in the security sector h) Institutional capability, includes, better equipment and conditions among others
6.
How has the security situation been affected by the reforms in the security sector? Improved Deteriorated Remain unchanged
7.
How has the Security Sector Reform affected the following dimensions of your socioeconomic situation?
Health and access to medical facilities Schooling and learning opportunities Access to economic opportunities Income generation
Access to opportunities regardless of gender Participation to political and community life Good environment
8.
What other reforms do you think should be implemented in the security sector? i. ii.
iii. iv. v.
What is your general household expenditure per month? Below KES 24,000 ($ 240) Between KES 24,001
192,000 ($ 240
Above KES 192,001 ($1920)
[ ] $ 1920)
[ ] [ ]
