SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Dr. Vishwanath ...

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Dr. Vishwanath Koti. Assitant Professor, Seed Science and Technology University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-560065 [email protected] Evolution of Seed

The evolution of plants has resulted in increasing levels of complexity, from the earliest algal mats, through bryophytes, lycopods, ferns to the complex gymnosperms and angiosperms of today. While the groups which appeared earlier continue to thrive, especially in the environments in which they evolved, each new grade of organisation has eventually become more "successful" than its predecessors by most measures. 1. Evidence suggests that an algal scum formed on the land 1,200 million years ago 2. To thrive and to avoid extinction, plant are made mechanisms and evolved seed plant during 200 million years ago 3. The latest major group of plants to evolve were the grasses, 40 million years ago 4. The grasses, as well as many other groups, evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low CO2 and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the last 10 million years. SEED DEVELOPMENT, MATURATION AND SEED STRUCTURE A true seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule consisting of embryo, stored food material and protective coats. The important events involved in seed development and maturation include 1. Pollination 2. Fertilization 3. Development of the fertilized ovule by cell division 4. Accumulation of reserve food material 5. Loss of moisture content. 1. Pollination The mature anthers dehisce and release pollen -grains (haploid microspores). When pollen grains are transferred from an anther to the stigma of the same flower the process is called self-

Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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pollination or autogamy. If they are transferred to the stigma of another flower, crosspollination or allogamy is said to have occurred. Self-pollination occurs in those plants where bisexual flowers achieve anther dehiscence and stigma receptivity simultaneously called as chasmogamy. The majority of angiosperms bear chasmogamous flowers. In some plants, flowers do not open before pollination such flowers are called cleistogamous, and this is the most efficient floral adaptation for promoting self-pollination. Cross-pollination is ensured in plants which bear unisexual flowers. In bisexual flowers also self-pollination may be prevented by a. Self-sterility : inability to produce viable pollen Eg:Sunflower b. Dichogamy: maturation of male and female organs at different times Eg:Bajra c. Herkogamy : where the structure of male and female sex organs proves a barrier to self pollination Eg: Lucernae d. Heterostyly :where flowers are of different types depending on the length of the style and stigma and pollination occurs only between 2 dissimilar types Eg: Brassica e. Self incompatibility: Inability to viable pollen to fertilize ovule of same flower Eg: Cole crops Self-pollinated crops: wheat, rice, barely, mungbean and cowpea Cross pollinated Crops: Maize, rye, carrot, cauliflower and onion. Often cross pollinated crops: cotton and pigeon pea where there may be 10-40 % cross pollination. Agents bring about the dissemination of pollen grains 1. Abiotic : wind (anemophily) and water (hydrophily) 2. Biotic including insects (entomophily) and bats (cheiropterophily). 2. Fertilization After landing on the stigma, the pollen grain germinates and pollen tube grows through the style. The surface of the stigma secretes substances, which may provide optimum conditions for pollen germination. The pollen tubes traversing the style pectinase which dissolves intercellular substances of the style tissue. After traversing the style, the pollen tube enters embryosac of the ovule. The embryosac consists of 8 cells. The end near the micropyle has the egg apparatus, which consists of egg cell and 2 synergids. There are 2 polar nuclei in the centre and the chalazal end has 3 antipodal cells. In angiosperms, fertilization involves the participation of 2 male nuclei (double fertilization). One fuses with the egg nucleus to form the diploid zygote and the other with 2 polar nuclei to produce a triploid nucleus, which is the primary endosperm nucleus.


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Nucellus Integuments Antipodal cells Polar Nuclei + Male Nuclei à Triploid Nucleus à Primary endosperm Nucleus Egg Cell + Male Nuclei à Zygote à Embryo

Synergid cells Micropyle

Funiculus

Diagram to Show the various parts of a fully formed ovule 3. Seed Development

Diagram to Show Development of Seed

1 Embryo Development The first division of the zygote is transverse in dicots and it results in a small apical cell and a large basal cell . Cell ca divides vertically forming 2 juxtaposed cells and cb undergoes a transverse division forming 2 superimposed cells. These results in a T-shaped, 4 celled proembryo. Cell ci divides transversely giving rise to n and n'. These 2 cells divide further resulting in a row of 3 or 4 cells, forming suspensor.


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Cell m and its derivatives undergo vertical divisions forming a group of 4 to 6 cells. This group divides by oblique-perclinal wall forming a set of inner cells and a row of outer cells. The inner cells form the initials of the root apex and the outer cells form the root cap. The 2 cells formed as a result of the division of ca again divide vertically forming quadrant. Each cell of the quadrant divides transversely and thus an octant containing 2 tiers of cell l and p is formed. The cells of the octant undergo vertical division resulting in a globular proembryo. Periclinal divisions occur in the peripheral cells of the globular proembryo that delimit an outer layer, the dermatogen. The tier l gives rise to cotyledons and shoot apex and l forms hypocotlradicle axis. Certain deviations from the above pattern of embryo development are found in different plants. Different types of embryogeny are distinguished depending on the plane of division of the apical and the extent of contribution of the basal cell towards embryo development (in some plants cb remains undivided and does not take part in embryo development at all). In monocotyledons, the cell cb remains undivided and develops into a haustorial of the suspension. Cell ca divides into 2 by a transverse division. The terminal cell of these 2 by repeated divisions in different planes gives rise to a single cotyledon. The embryo development in grasses is different from that of other monocotyledons. A dorsiventral symmetry is established as a result of the peculiar oblique position of cell walls early in the embryogeny. The single cotyledon is reduced to absorptive scutellum and additional structures like coleptile and coleorrhiza are formed. 2 Endosperm Development There are 3 types of endosperm development (a) nuclear - where the endosperm nucleus undergoes several divisions prior to cell wall formation, e.g., wheat apple, squash, (b) cellular -in which there is no free nuclear phase, and (c) helobial where the free nuclear division is preceded, and is followed by cellularization as in some monocots. During the course of seed development, reserve food materials are accumulated in the endosperm from the adjacent tissues. In endospermic dicot seeds, endosperms are retained as a permanent storage tissue. In non-endospermic dicot seeds, endosperm reserves are depleted and occluded by the developing embryo. The reserves are then reorganized in the cotyledons, which in turn act as the source of stored reserved food for embryo after germination. A part of the endosperm is depleted in cereals during embryo maturation and this lies as a layer between the starchy endosperm and scutellum. 3 Seed-coat Development Integument's of the ovule undergo marked reorganization and histological changes during maturation to form seed coats. In bitegmic ovules (which have 2 integument's), the seed coat may be derived from both the integument's or from the outer integument only; the inner integument may disintegrate.


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4 Seed Structure and Functions Seeds may be broadly classified as dicotyledons and monocotyledons, depending on the number of cotyledons. Dicotyledons seeds may be either non-endospermic (exalbuminous) e.g. chickpea, pea and bean or endospermic (albuminous) e.g., castorbean, fenugreek, etc., Monocotyledons seeds are mostly albuminous. A typical non-endospermic dicot seed is made up of seed coat and embryo. The seed coat consists of 2 layers that may be united or free, the outer layer, which is hard and made of thick walled cells is called testa and the inner thin membranous layer is called tegument. The seed coat is of considerable importance because it is the only protective barrier for the embryo from the external environment.

1. The seed coat bears a scar called hilum, marking the point at which seed is attached to stalk. 2. The funicle or the stalk forms a ridge called raphe along the margin of the seed. 3. At one end of the hilum, there is a small hole called micropyle. There is an outgrowth below the hilum in leguminous seeds, which is called strophiole. 4. Certain other seeds (castorbean, nutmeg) have outgrowths called arials. 5. Arillar contents may important in attracting animals, which aid in seed dispersal.


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The embryo consists of embyonic axis and 2 fleshy cotyledons. The axis includes embyonic root (radicle), hypocotyl to which 2 cotyledons are attached and plumule (shoot apex with first true leaves). The cotyledons of non-endospermic e.g., pea are bulky and account for over 90% of the mass of the seed. Cotyledons of epigeal, non-endopermic species become leaf like and photosynthetic after germination. In endospermic dicot seeds, the endosperm is bulky and stores food reserves. In these cases, the cotyledons are small or haustorial in nature. The nucleus of the ovary after fertilization becomes perisperm. The perisperm in the majority of seeds fails to pass beyond an incipient stage of development but in a few cases this tissue becomes the store for food reserves such as coffee. Poaceae seeds are generally enclosed in one seeded fruit called caryopsis. The seed coat is fused with fruit wall to form pericarp. The endosperm forms the main bulk of the grain and is the tissue for food storage. It is separated from the embryo by a definite layer known as epithelium. The outer most layer of the endosperm is the aleurone layer, which unlike the rest of the endosperm, is made up of living cells devoid of galactomannan reserves. This layer secretes alpha-amylase and proteolytic enzymes which hydrolyse reserves of endosperm. The embryo is very small and lies in a groove at one end of the endosperm. It consist of a shield shaped cotyledon (Scutellum) and a short axis with plumule and radicle protected by root cap. The plumule as a whole is surrounded by coleptile, a protective sheath, and similarly the radicle including the root cap is surrounded and protected by coleorrhiza. Scutellum supplies growing embryo with food material absorbed from endosperm through epithelium. The initial synthesis of alpha-amylase and certain proteolases also occurs in scutellum. 4.2 Seed Growth and Maturation Wheat and soybean representing monocots and dicots may illustrate the changes in the pattern of accumulation of reserve materials at different stages of seed maturation. In wheat, the dry weight of the seed increases rapidly in about 35 days after anthesis. The water content of the grain is maximum between 14 and 21 days after anthesis, and then it declines rapidly. The amounts of reducing sugar and sucrose are high between 7 and 14 days and decline rapidly thereafter due to conversion to starch. Since in wheat, starch is the major reserve material of the seed, the pattern of starch accumulation is similar to that of dry matter accumulation. The speed of germination is faster in wheat varieties that begin to lose water early during seed development. The seed is said to have physiologically matured only when it attains maximum dry weight, germinability and vigour. Normally the seed is harvested at field maturity,


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a stage when the moisture content is reduced to about 6-10 % in wheat. Field maturity is a crop specific character. A soybean seed attains maximum dry weight between 48 and 54 days after flowering. Oil accumulation is less during 12-18 days after fertilization; maximum oil accumulates between 24 and 42 days after flowering, after which the rate decreases. The protein content in the seed is maximum during 12-18 days after fertilization and decreases subsequently. The initial high percentage of protein may be due to the high content of non-protein nitrogen, which decreases with seed. Components of Seed Seed coat It is the outer covering of seed and gives protection. It develops from the 2 integuments of ovule. Outer layer of the seed coat which is smooth and rough is known as the testa and is formed from the outer integument. The inner layer of the seed coat is called the tegmen and is formed from inner integument. Embryo It is the mature ovule consisting of an embryonic plant together with a store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat, which gives rise to a plant similar to that of its mother. It is a miniature plant consists of plumule, radicle and cotyledon. The plumule and radical without the cotyledon is known as primary axis. Radicle Rudimentary root of a plant compressed in the embryo is the radicle, which forms the primary root of the young seedling. It is enclosed in a protective cover known as coleorhiza. Plumule It is the first terminal bud of the plant compressed in the embryo and it gives rise to the first vegetative shoot of the plant. It is enclosed in a protective cover known as coleoptile. Cotyledon Cotyledons are the compressed seed leaves. A single cotyledon (Scutellum) is present in monocots while two cotyledons are present in dicots, hence they are named as monocots and dicots, respectively. In dicots they serve as storage tissue and are well developed, while scutellum is a very tiny structure in monocots. Endosperm Endosperm develops from the endosperm nuclei which is formed by the two polar nuclei and one sperm nuclei. It stores food for the developing embryo. Appendages of seeds Some seeds will have appentages that are attached to the seed coat. They vary with kind of seed. The appendages sometimes help in dispersal of seeds or in identification of genotypes. Some of the appendages are Awn, Hilum, Caruncle, Aril, Hair and Wings. Awn : The thorn like projection at tip of the seeds. (eg) Paddy - The bract tip was elongated into the awn.


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Hilum : It is the scar mostly white in colour present on the lateral side of the seed. It represents attachment of the seed stalk to placenta of the fruit to mother plant (eg) Pulses. Micropyle : The point where the integuments meet at the nucellar apex has been referred as micropyle. Chalaza : At region of integumentary origin and attachment opposite to micropyle is called chalaza. Rapha : The area between the micropyle and chalaza is the rapha. The rapha may be visible on the seed coat of some species. Caruncle: It is the white spongy outgrowth of the micropyle seen in some species (eg) Castor, Tapioca. Aril : It is the coloured flesh mass present on the outside of the seed (eg) Nutmeg. Hairs : They are the minute thread like appendages present on the surface of the seed (eg) Cotton. Wings: It is the papery structure attached to the side of the seed coat either to a specific side of the seed coat or to all sides (eg) Moringa. SEED TECHNOLOGY -DEFINATION, OBJECTIVE AND ITS ROLEIN INCREASING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SEED TECHNOLOGY The role of seed technology is to protect the biological entity of seed and look after its welfare. COWAN, 1973: Defined Seed Technology as that “discipline of studies having to do with seed production, maintenance, quality and preservation”. FEISTRITZER, 1975: Seed technology as “the methods through which the genetic and physical characteristics of seeds could be improved. It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation and release, seed production, processing, storage and certification” Seed technology includes the development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed quality control, seed certification, seed marketing, distribution and research on seed these aspects. Seed production, seed handling based on modern botanical and agricultural sciences. NATURE: It is a multidisciplinary science encompassing a range of disciplines such as: 1. Development of superior varieties 8. Certification/quality control 2. Evaluation 9. Storage 3. Release 10. Marketing and distribution 4. Production 11. Seed pathology 5. Processing 12. Seed entomology 6. Storage 13. Seed physiology 7. Testing 14. Seed ecology


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SCOPE India is a vast country and bestowed with varied soils and has got different agro climatic zones, enabling year round cultivation of crops. By and large, most seed crops are grown during Kharif season. However most of the vegetable crops are produced in Rabi season and they posses better quality seeds than the crop grown in kharif. Indian farmers can practice with multiple cropping systems. The farmers can opt for different crops like cereals, pulses oil seeds, vegetables, fibre crops, etc., in all the three seasons viz., Kharif, Rabi and summer. With the advancement of agriculture, the government of India felt that there is a need to establish Seed Technology department in Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutes in India after the recommendations and suggestions given by National Commission on Agriculture. Accordingly, the Seed technology department was initiated throughout the country with the following main objectives. 1. To teach seed technology course. 2. Research on seed production/processing/testing. 3. To strengthen the seed technology research. 4. To give training to those who are involved in seed production, processing, testing, etc. Objectives /Goals of Seed technology 1. Rapid multiplication: To increase agricultural production. 2. Timely supply: New varieties must be available in time. 3. Assured high quality of seeds: Good vigour and viability. 4. Reasonable price: Cost of seed must be low to reach the average farmers. Role of Seed Technology Feistritzer (1975) outlined the following as roles of improved seed. • A carrier of new technologies • A basic tool of secured food supply • The principal means to secure crop yields in less favorable production areas. • A medium and rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster Status India is considered as a developed country as for as the seed sector is concerned. By volume of seed we produce and distribute, we surpass many (western) nations in this trade. The Indian seed industry at present consists of two national organizations (NSC and SFCI), 12 state seed corporation about 150 large size private seed companies, 19 state seed certification agencies and 86 notified seed testing labs.


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Area under seed production India: The estimated requirement by 2020 is 156.55 lakh quintals. The quantity of buffer stock under seed security programmes in India has been fixed as follows Certified - Self pollinated crops 5 per cent - Hybrids 10 per cent - Foundation seed 25 per cent - Breeder seed 50 per cent Karnataka: 35 lakh quintals of seeds required for Karnataka state. At present state is producing 26 field crop seeds viz., 6 cereals, 7 pulses; 9 oil seeds, 2 fibre crops and 2 commercial crops, covering an area of 25,000 ha under certified seed production. More than 50 per cent of area i.e., 11,000 ha is concentrated in Haveri, Dharwad, Bellary, Raichur as they are best-suited zones for seed production. Presently 150 seed producers, 68 registered seed processing plant and 3 official seed-testing laboratories are operating in the state. Private sector: Accounts for 50 per cent of quality seed production in cereals and 90 per cent of vegetable seed production is met out by the private sector. Craze of hybrids/hybrid vegetables gaining popularity In vegetable seed trade the craze is for F1 hybrids. At present less than 1 per cent of vegetable are covered in F1 hybrids. Hybrids in Karnataka There are many number of hybrids are available as F1 in vegetable crop, viz., Tomato, Capsicum, Brinjal, Watermelon, Okra, Chilli, Carrot, Radish, etc,.


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SEED DORMANCY It is common observations that seeds of many plants species do not germinate when freshly harvested even under favourable conditions. They need a period of rest/ storage before they become capable of germination. Inability of viable and mature seeds to resume growth immediately after harvest in an environment normally favourable for the germination of the concerned plant species is known as seed dormancy. The period of rest after harvest that is necessary for germination is referred as after ripening period. The period of dormancy varies from a few days to several years depending on the plant species. 1. True dormancy/primary dormancy/innate dormancy: due to chemicals/ anatomical features of seed. 2. Enforced dormancy/imposed dormancy/quiescence/ secondary dormancy: due to unfavourable environmental conditions. Ex: Exposure of dry barley seed to temperature of 50-900C Seven days storage of winter barley at high moisture content at 200C Placement of seed under water in dark condition for 3 days 20C Biological significance of Dormancy Advantages: 1. Storage of seeds is prolonged, it is a survival mechanism 2. Seed can pass through adverse situation /conditions 3. Prevents the insitue germination i.e., vivipary Disadvantages: 1. No uniform germination 2. Difficult to maintain plant population 3. Interferes in seed testing procedure Nikolaeva (1969 and 1977) classified dormancy into three broad class are as below; I. Exogenous Dormancy: Dormancy is due to some features of the seed located outside the embryo a. Impermeability of seed coat to water: due to seed coat structure, which is hard enough to restrict the entry of moisture into the seeds, thereby preventing seed germination. Ex: Malvaceae, Leguminoseae, Lilaceae b. Impermeability of seed coat to gases; is related to the insufficient intake of oxygen by seeds due to impermeability of seed structure enclosing embryo. Ex: Graminaceae, fruit crops & forest trees c. Mechanical resistances of seed coat: growth of embryo is checked due to extremely hard seed/fruit structure such as seed coat, endosperm per carp etc., Ex: Acacia species. d. Inhibitors present in seed coat/endosperm: biochemical substances present in seed coat or endosperm block the germination of embryo.


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Ex: Iris app- inhibitors present in the endosperm Barley- Aflotoxin Squash-Dichlobenil Tomato-Feruline and Caffeie acid All spp.- Coumarin II. Endogenous dormancy: the reason for dormancy is present within the embryo a. Incomplete embryo development: due to an incomplete development of the embryo. In such cases, germination does not occur until the embryos develop to their normal size. Ex: Palmaceae, Amgnoliaceae b. Inhibitors present within the embryo: Dormancy arises from metabolic blocks produced by biochemical substances called inhibitors present within the embryo. In such cases germination can commence only when these inhibitors are leached out of the embryo Ex: Xanthium, Fraximus III. Combined Dormancy: dormancy is produced by a combination of two or more factors which act in complementary fashion. Ex: Fraximus Methods of breaking dormancy I. Natural breaking of dormancy: in nature dormancy terminates when embryo gets suitable environment such as adequate moisture, aeration and temperature. The impermeable seed coat present in many species became permeable due to the rupturing of softening action of natural agents like micro organism, high or low temperature, humidity fiber and abrasion due to wind or digestive tracts of birds and animals which feed on these seeds. Ex: Rhizoctonia damages seed coat I. Treatments to break Dormancy: the various treatments for overcoming dormancy may be divided into the following three groups 1. Seed coat treatments: These treatments aim at making hard seed coat permeable to water or gases either cracking or softening them. The process is usually referred as scarification. These treatments are either physical or chemical in nature. a. Scarification: i. Acid scarification: treating seeds with concentrated acids like sulphuric acid, Hydrochloric acid etc., ii. Thermal scarification: the seeds are treated with different temperatures and gases iii. Mechanical scarification: The seed coat is damaged using mechanical means. Viz., - rubbing seeds on sand paper or by using mechanical scarifier as in subabul - Making small incision by piercing a needle as in bittergourd - Removing of entire seed coat as in rubber 2. Embryo treatments:


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1. Stratification: the incubation of seeds at a suitable low temperature (Usually 050C) over a moist substratum before transferring them to a temperature optimum for germination. Ex. Cherry (Prunus cerasus), Mustard and rape seeds 2. High temperature treatment: in some species, incubation at 40-500C for few hours to 1-5 days may be effective in overcoming dormancy. Ex. Rice seeds more than 15% seed moisture treated in hot water of 400C for 4-5 hours. 3. Chemical treatments: alternatively growth regulators or other chemicals may be applied to induced germination growth regulators commonly used GA3 (100ppm), kinetin (10-15ppm) and thio-urea (0.5-3%) 3. Miscellaneous approaches: i. Exposing seeds to light ii. Pressure treatment iii. Infra red radiation treatment iv. Magnetic treatment SEED GERMINATION In seed germination process, the seed’s role is that of reproductive unit; it is the thread of life that assures the survival of all plant species. Furthermore, because of its role in stand establishment, seed germination remains a key to modern agriculture. Seed would normally germinates only after they have undergone a predefined period of growth and development accumulating food reserves and finally becoming air dry. Seed germination depends on a favourable combination of several external and internal factors; in nature, seed must wait for this combination to occur for their germination. Definition: Seed germination is the resumption of active growth of the embryo that results in the rupture of the seed coat and the emergence of the young plant under favourable conditions. Types of germination: 1. Hypogeal germination: the cotyledons or storage organs do not emerges above the soil surface; only plumule emerges above the ground. Ex: Most of the monocots and pea 2. Epigeal Germination: The cotyledon or storage organs emerge above the soil surface. Ex: Most of the dicots and pine Phases of Seed Germination 1. Imbibiton: Rapid water uptake 2. Active Metabolism: Major metabolic events begin 3. Cell expansion: Seedling protrusion


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Volume

Phase-‐I

Phase-‐II Phase-‐III Initiation of Visible germination

Time

Fig. Phases of Seed Germination Factors affecting seed germination; 1. Internal factor: Seed Maturity, Mechanical damages 2. External factors: a) Water b) Oxygen c)Temperature d)Light and e) Soil Factors a. Water: Water is a basic requirement for germination. It is essential for enzyme activation, breakdown, translocation and use of reserve storage materials. b. Oxygen: atmospheric air is composed of 79.9 % Nitrogen, 20% oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide. Oxygen is required for germination of most of species. If CO2 concentration is higher than 0.03 % it retards germination. Respiration increases sharply during seed germination. Since respiration is essentially an oxidative process, an adequate supply of oxygen is a must. c. Temperature: Seed germination is a complex process involving many individual reactions and phases, each of which is affected by temperature. The effect on germination can be expressed in terms of cordial temperature i.e., minimum, optimum and maximum temperature. The optimum temperature for most of the seeds is between 15 to 30 0C. maximum temperature is between 30 to 400C. Some species will germinate even at freezing point also ex. Alpine d. Light: Some species required light for seed germination. Both light intensity (lux) and light quality (colour and wavelength) influence seed germination e. Soil factor: Soil structure, soil texture and soil temperature influences on seed germination.


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Seed Industry in India Pre Independence: In the early years of the twentieth century, as a result of the beginning of agricultural research at agricultural colleges and research station, a few improved strains of cotton, wheat, groundnut and sugarcane into existence. The state depart of agriculture adopted two methods for the distribution of seeds on improved varieties 1. Multiplication at one location and distributed over a larger area; so that the area under local varieties could be replaced by improved varieties. 2. Seeds were distributed in small packets to a maximum number of farmers and it was expected that farmers would multiply their own seed However, second methods was tried in Bengal by distributing Jute and paddy, but this did not increase coverage of new strains. Then concentrated on first method. United province (UP) started producing seeds on the farms of landlords United province in 1922- Established seed store in each Tehsil 1925: The royal commission on agriculture: examined introduction and spread of improved varieties and progress of seed distribution It made following suggestions 1. There should be separate department with agriculture to deal with seed distribution and seed testing 2. The seed distribution enterprises should be self sustaining 3. Seed distribution should be organized through co-operatives, associations, seed merchants, seed agents and agriculture department and any other agency which could be considered suitable 4. Seed merchants should be given every encouragement. Due to this GOT and state governments established several research institutes. Several improves varieties were identified, However, the work of seed multiplication and distribution did not keep pace with the research and development. After RCA several similar analysis were made notable were: John Russel (1937) ICAR (1940) Dr. Burns (1944) Famine Enquiry Commission (1944) Food Grains Policy Committee (1944). These reviews revealed that; 1. Crop botanists were involved in evaluation of improved varieties 2. The initial seed was multiplied on seed farms of agricultural department subsequent with registered growers under close supervision of agricultural department. 3. Department of agriculture purchased seed from growers and distributed to farmers at concessional price.


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1939: 2nd world war- vegetable seed importing from abroad stopped 1945: Private seed companies established and started producing temperate vegetables at Quetta and Kashmir valley 1946: The seeds men handling vegetable seeds organized themselves into an association. The All India seed growers, merchants and nurserymen’s association with the objective of ensuring the rapid development of the vegetable seed industry.

After Independence: I Five year Plan (1951-56): Greater emphasis was given by considering improved as basis for calculating the additional production potential of food grains 1952; grow more food enquiry committee- noted non availability of pure seeds to farmers 1952; ICAR formulated Expert Standing Committee As a result of these developments, the schemes for seed multiplication and distribution come into existence in all the states of India. Inspite of this, the progress was poor and seed programmes were confined primarily to seed distribution after with subsidy II Five year Plan (1956-61): Improved seed was made the basis for ten percent additional food grain production. All India co-ordinated maize programme was started. 4328 farms of 10 hectare established for seed multiplication. Establishment of Seed testing labs and Co-operative stores. 1957: AICRP on Maize In ICAR collaborated with Rock Feller Foundation can be considered as most significant turning point in Indian Agriculture. 1960: AICRP on sorghum and Bajra 1964: First hybrid sorghum was developed and released 1965: First hybrid bajra was developed and released 1959; Indo-American agricultural Team; to review food production problems given suggestions to educate the farmers about use of quality seed. STL were established 1960; Review by programme evaluation organization. They identified problems associated with seed multiplication and distribution. 1961: seed multiplication Team review. They gave recommendation on seed multiplication, distribution and maintenance of quality III Five year Plan (1961-66): Serious efforts to overcome short coming of these seed programes 1961; Release of first hybrid maize; necessary to create separate organization for seed production to exploit the full production potential of these hybrids. 1963; Central Seed Corporation (National Seed Corporation) the responsibilities were; multiplication of newly released hybrids


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Development of seed industry in India Establishment of quality control systems in India 1966: production of high yielding varieties. 9.2mha seed production area in 1968-69 was increased to 25mha in 1973-74. 1965; Private seed industry named Indo-American Hybrid seeds was established Annual Plan (1966- 69): Seed legislation was forms 1968; Seed review team was established and they gave 101 recommendations for quality seed production in the country. IV Five year Plan (1969-74): 1969 Tarai Development Corporation Ltd. with the assistance of World Bank was started. Its unique features were; 1. Involvement of G.B.Pant University of Agriculture and technology 2. Integrated development approach 3. Participation of seed growers as the share holders of the corporation 4. Compact area Approach 5. Strict quality control 6. Money back guarantee 7. Integrated approach for marketing of seeds 1970: Mini kit Programme was launched with paddy to spread new 1971; Indian Society of Seed Technologists (ISST) Provides opportunities for exchange of ideas to persons engaged in seed production. ISST publishes Journal of Seed Research and News letter Seed tech. News. V Five year Plan (1974-79): 1971: National Commission of Agriculture was established and in 1976 they submitted a report and suggested that; 1. Foreign collaboration of Seed Industry 2. Seed processing should made compulsory 3. Compulsory certification 4. Rigours enforcement of the seed act 5. GOT should be made an integral part of seed testing 1976: National seed programme was started with assistance of world bank. Phase-I State Seed Corporation was established in 4 states Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Andra Pradeah Phase II- State Seed Corporation in 5 states were started viz., Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.


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IV Five year Plan (1980-85); 1983; Seed Control order was passed and included seed as an essential commodity VII Five year Plan (1985-90); Higher targets for quality seed production was fixed. Other objectives were strengthening of Infra structure, establishment of National Seed Project Phase III; State Seed Corporation in 4 states were established Strengthening of seed technology research and training facilities were made VIII Five year plan (1992-97); Emphasis on hybrids seed production was made. Review of progress in seed certification The methods of seed certification Indian minimum seed certification standards were published Central Seed Certification Board for coordination Review of Progress in Seed Testing 96 STLs were started with the potential of testing 4 lakhs samples per year IX Five Year Plan (1998-2001) The Seed Crop Insurance Scheme was started during 2000-01, with the objective to motivate the farmers to take up the Seed Production Programme thereby increasing the availability of certified seeds. X Five year Plan (2002-2007): Maintenance of Seed Bank Scheme financial support has been provided to State Seed Corporations (SSCs), National Seeds Corporation (NSC), State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI) and State Seed Certification Agencies (SSCs). • Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) has established Seed Bank at National and State level in order to ensure that this basic input of agriculture is all the time available to the farmers in all situations. • Seed Plan Vision-2020: production of certified/quality seeds to meet at least 25% of the total seed requirement by 2020 XI Five year Plan (2007-2012): • National Food Security Mission (2007) • Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna (2007) •


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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SEED PRODUCTION Production of good quality seed is an exacting task requires high technical skills and heavy financial investments. During seed production strict attention must be given to maintain genetic purity and exploit its potentiality in next generation. In other words, seed production must be carried out under standardized and well organized condition. GENETIC PRINCIPLES Causes for Deterioration of Genetic Purity The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. Kadam (1942) listed the following important factors responsible for deterioration of varieties. 1. Developmental variations 2. Mechanical mixtures 3. Mutations 4. Natural crossing 5. Minor genetic variations 6. Selected influence of pest and diseases 7. The technique of the plant breeder 1. Developmental Variations When seed crops are grown under environments with differing soil, fertility, climate photoperiods, or at different elevations for several consecutive generation's developmental variations may set in as differential growth responses. It is therefor, preferred to grow the varieties of crops in the areas of their natural adaptation to minimize developmental shifts. 2. Mechanical Mixtures Mechanical mixtures, the most important reason for varietal deterioration, often take place at the time of sowing if more than one variety is sown with the same seed drill, through volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed field, or through different varieties grown in adjacent fields. Two varieties growing next to each other field is usually mixed during harvesting and threshing operations. The threshing equipment is often contaminated with seeds of other varieties. Similarly, the gunny bags, seed bins and elevators are also often contaminate, adding to the mechanical mixtures of varieties. Roguing the seed fields critically and using utmost care during seed production and processing are necessary to avoid such mechanical contamination. 3. Mutations Mutations do not seriously deteriorate varieties. It is often difficult to identify or detect minor mutations occurring naturally. Mutants such as 'fatuoids' in oats or 'rabbit ear' in peas may be removed by roguing from seed plots to purify the seeds. 4. Natural Crossing Natural crossing can be an important source of varietal deterioration in sexually propagated crops. The extent of contamination depends upon the magnitude of natural crosspollination. The deterioration sets in due to natural crossing with undesirable types, diseased plants, or off types. In self-pollinated crops, natural crossing is not a serious source of


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contamination unless variety is male sterile and is grown in close proximity with other varieties. The natural crossing, however, can be major source of contamination due to natural crossing. Extent of genetic contamination in seed field due to natural crossing depends up on 1. The breeding system of the species 2. Isolation distance 3. Varietal mass 4. Pollinating agent. The isolation of seed crops is the most important factor in avoiding contamination of the cross-pollinated crops. The direction of prevailing winds, the number of insects present and their activity, and mass of varieties are also important considerations is contamination by natural crossing. 5. Minor Genetic Variations Minor genetic variations can occur even in varieties appearing phenotypically uniform and homogenous when released. The variations may lost during later production cycles owing to selective elimination by the nature. The yield trials of lines propagated from plants of breeder's seed to maintain the purity of self-pollinated crop varieties can overcome these minor variations. Due care during the maintenance of nucleus and breeder's seed of cross-pollinated varieties of crop is necessary. 6. Selected Influence of Pest and Diseases New crop varieties often are susceptible to newer races of pests and diseases caused by obligate parasites and thus selectively influence deterioration. The vegetatively propagated stock also can deteriorate quickly if infected by virus, fungi or bacteria. Seed production under strict disease free conditions is therefore essential. 7. The Techniques of the Plant Breeder Serious instabilities may occur in varieties owing to cytogenetic irregularities in the form of improper assessments in the release of new varieties. Premature release of varieties, still segregating for resistance and susceptibility to diseases or other factors can cause significant deterioration of varieties. This failure can be attributed to the variety-testing programme. In addition to these factors, other heritable variations due to recombination's and polyploidization may also take place in varieties during seed production, which can be avoided by periodical selection during maintenance of the seed stock. GENETIC PURITY MAINTENANCE Hartmann and Kester (1968) & Agarwal (1980) described steps to maintain the genetic purity of variety during seed production. The following measures have been suggested to safeguard the genetic purity 1. Adoption of Crop: Growing crops only in areas of their adaptation to avoid genetic shifts. 2. Approved Class of Seeds: Use of only approved class of seed in seed multiplication and adopt generation system. 3. Preceding Crop Requirement: Inspection and approval of seed plots prior to planting


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3. Isolation: Isolation of seed crops from various sources of contamination by natural crossing or mechanical mixtures. 4. Roguing: Roguing of off types differing in characteristics from those of the seed variety. 5. Field Inspection: Qualified and experienced personnel of seed certification agency should inspect seed crops at all appropriate stages of growth and verify seed lots or purity and quality. 6. GOT: Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity AGRONOMIC PRINCIPLES Standardized seed production, besides genetic principles, involves the application of the following agronomic principles to preserve good seed quality and abundant seed yields. 1. Selection of suitable Agro-climatic region Ø The seed crops have to be grown only in areas well adapted to the photoperiodic and temperature conditions prevailing. Ø Region of moderate rainfall and humidity are much more suited to seed production than regions of high rainfall and humidity. Ø In general, regions with extreme summer heat and very cold winters should also be avoided for seed production unless particular crops are especially adapted to grow and product under these conditions. 2. Selection of seed plot Ø Seed production plot should have good texture and fertility. Ø Should be free from volunteer plants weeds and other crop plants. Ø Soil should be free from soil borne diseases and insect pests. Ø The previous crops should not be same crop. Ø The plot should get adequate isolation distance. 3. Isolation of seed crops Ø The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields from the same crop or any contaminating crop as per certification standards. Ø Time isolation could also be used in some crops. This is a must to meet the standards for genetic purity of seeds. Ø Isolation of seed production of different varieties is also necessary to avoid mechanical contamination. 4. Preparation of land: Ø The land must be prepared well. Ø Good land preparation helps in improved & uniform germination resulted in good stand establishment. 5. Selection of variety: Ø Variety should be adopted to agro-climatic condition Ø Variety should be high yielder


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Ø Variety should posses other desirable characters like disease resistance, earliness, grain quality etc 6. Selection of Seed: Ø Seed purity: The seed used for raising a seed crop should be of known purity, appropriate class and invariably obtained from authorized official agency. 7. Seed Treatment: Ø If the seed is not treated already, it should be treated with appropriate fungicides/insecticide prior to sowing. 8. Time of sowing: Ø Should be sown at their normal planting time 9. Seed rate: Ø Lower seed rate than usual to facilitate rogunig operation/seed inspection. 10. Method/depth of sowing: Ø Invariably sown in rows at right depth. 11. Rouging Ø To rouge plants (off types, pollen shedders, diseased plants, etc.,) at the earliest possible but before flowering Ø The number of rouging varies with the crop, purity of the source seed and the stage of the multiplication of the seed crops. Ø Rouging in most of the field crops may be done at - Vegetative, Pre-flowering, Flowering and Maturity stages 12. Supplementary pollination Ø In cross-pollinated crops supplementing the natural pollination is very much essential to increase the seed yield. Ø Provision of honeybees, hand pollination, floral mechanism, and rope pulling are some of the techniques used in crosspollinated crops to increase the seed set and there by seed yield. 13. Weed Control: Ø Compete with seed crop and reduces seed yield and quality Ø Presence of weed seeds at the time of harvest leads to mixing of weed seeds with crops seeds and difficult to separate during seed processing Ø Harbors pests and diseases 14. Disease and Insect management: Ø Reduces seed yield and quality Ø Infection of seeds with spores 15. Nutrition: Ø Important role for proper development of plant and seeds Ø N-Good healthy growth P-Fruiting and seed development K- flowering and seed development Ø Proper nutrition to achieve synchronization


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16. Irrigation: Ø Required for translocation of all the nutrients Ø Seed production areas should be dry regions with assured irrigation 17. Harvesting of seed crops Ø Time and method of harvesting are important. Ø Harvest when the seed is fully matured (Moisture content less than 20%) Ø Early or late harvesting affect seed quality. Ø Every effort should be made to avoid chance of mechanical mixing, mechanical injury to seeds during harvesting, threshing, cleaning drying and packing. 18. Drying of seeds Ø In order to preserve seed viability and vigour, it necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture content levels as early as possible without heaping wet seed \ pods. 19. Storage of Raw Seeds After sun drying, the seed should be filled in clean bags. Ø The bags should be dipped in 2 % Melathion, dried and cleaned before they are filled. Ø Mark the bag with name of variety and other details. Ø The bags should be stacked on wood pallets but not directly on the floors. Ø The height of the stack should not be more than 3 to 4 m for cereals, 2.5 to 3 m for other crops. Ø The godowns should be dry, cool and clean and spray with Melathion and later fumigate as and when necessary. SEED MULTIPLICATION RATIO It is nothing but the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed when it is sown and harvested. According to expert group on seeds (1989), the seed multiplication ratio for different crops are as follows. CROP SEED MULTIPLICATION RATIO Wheat 1:20 Paddy 1:80(Variety) 1:100 (Hybrids) Maize 1:100( Hybrids) 1:80 (Varieties) Sorghum 1:100 Bajra 1:200 Ragi 1:80 Gram 1:10 lack gram 1:40 Green gram 1:40 Cowpea 1:40 Horse gram 1:40


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Moth bean Red gram Colecrops Potato Ground nut Mustard and rape Soy bean Sunflower Sesame Safflower and castor Linseed Cotton Jute Mestha Sun hemp Berseem

1:40 1:100 1:433 1:4 1:8 1:100 1:16 1:50 1:250 1:60 1:50 1:50 1:100 1:40 1:30 1:10

Crops Seed Replacement Rate SRR: Seed Replacement Rate is the percentage of area sown out of total area of crop planted in the season by using certified/quality seeds other than the farm saved seed. Crop SRR (%) Crop SRR (%) Paddy

29

Cowpea

20

Jowar

23

Fieldgreen

8

Ragi

27

Bengalgram

21

Maize

30

Groundnut

13

Bajra

26

Sesamum

13

Wheat

19

Sunflower

23

Redgram

23

Soyabean

16

Horsegram

7

Safflower

17

Greengram

20

Castor

13

Blackgram

20

Cotton

15


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GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme. This basically depends upon, a. The rate of genetic deterioration b. Seed multiplication ratio and c. Total seed demand (Seed replacement rate) Based on these factors different seed multiplication models may be derived for each crop and the seed multiplication agency should decide how quickly the farmers can be supplied with the seed of newly released varieties, after the nucleus seed stock has been handed over to the concerned agency, so that it may replace the old varieties. In view of the basic factors, the chain of seed multiplication models could be., a. THREE - Generation model - Breeder seed - Foundation seed - Certified seed b. FOUR - Generation model- Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I)- Foundation seed (II) Certified seed c. FIVE - Generation model Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I)- Foundation seed (II) Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II) The chain of these models has been easily explained in the diagram. For most of the often cross pollinated and cross pollinated crops 3 & 4 generation models is usually suggested for seed multiplication .e.g. Castor, Red gram, Jute, Green gram, Rape seed, Mustard ,Sesame , Sunflower & most of the vegetable crops.


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Opel Green


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Classes of seed The four generally recognized classes of seeds are: Breeder's seed, foundation seed, registered seed and certified seed. a) Nuclus seed: The initial hand full of seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety, for the purpose of purifying and maintain that variety, by originating plant breeder. b) Breeder's seed: Progeny of Nucleus seeds, its production is directly controlled by the originating or the sponsoring breeder or institution, providing for the initial and recurring increase of foundation seed. b) Foundation seed: The Progeny of breeders or foundation seed handled to maintain specific genetic purity and identity. This seed is the source of all other certified seed classes. d) Certified seed: The progeny of foundation or certified seed that is handled so as to maintain satisfactorily genetic identity and purity and that has been approved and certified by the certifying agency. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CERTIFIED SEED AND TRUTH FUL SEED Certified seed Truthful labelled seed Certification is voluntary Truthful labelling is compulsory for notified kind of varieties Applicable to notified kinds only Applicable to both notified and released varieties It should satisfy minimum field and seed standards Tested for physical purity and germination Seed certification officer, seed inspectors can take Seed inspectors alone can take samples samples for inspection for checking MALE STERILITY The first documentation of male sterility came in Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter observed anther abortion within species and specific hybrids. Cytoplasmic male sterility has now been identified in over 150 plant species. It is more prevalent than female sterility, either because the male sporophyte and gametophyte are less protected from the environment than the ovule and embryo sac, or because it results from natural selection on mitochondrial genes which are maternally inherited and are thus not concerned with pollen production. Male sterility is easy to detect because a large number of pollen grains are produced and are easily studied. Male sterility is assayed through staining techniques (carmine, lactophenol or iodine); while detection of female sterility is detectable by the absence of seeds. Male sterility has propagation potential in nature since it can still set seed and is important for crop breeding, while female sterility does not. Male sterility can be aroused spontaneously via mutations in nuclear and/or cytoplasmic genes. Male sterility can be either cytoplasmic or cytoplasmic-genetic. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is caused by the extra nuclear genome (mitochondria or chloroplast) and shows


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maternal inheritance. Manifestation of male sterility in CMS may be either entirely controlled by cytoplasmic factors or by the interaction between cytoplasmic and nuclear factors. Genetic Male sterility Ø Also known as nuclear male sterility as this type of male sterility is controlled by nuclear geans. Ø The expression of gene is not influenced by cytoplasmic genes. Ø Inheritence is in Mendalien pattern. Ø Majority of times sterility is controlled by recessive geans. Cytoplasmic male sterility Ø Cytoplasmic male sterility, as the name indicates, is under extra nuclear genetic control. Ø They show non-Mendelian inheritance and are under the regulation of cytoplasmic factors. Ø In this type, male sterility is inherited maternally. Ø In general there are two types of cytoplasm: N (normal) and the aberrant S (sterile) cytoplasms. Cytoplasmic Genetic-male sterility The male sterility system is the result of interaction between malesterility inducing cytoplasm and nuclear fertility restorer genes.


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SEED CERTIFICATION Seed certification It is a legally sanctioned system for quality control and seed multiplication and production. It involves field inspection, pre and post control tests and seed quality tests. Objective of seed certification To maintain and make available to the farmers, high quality seeds and propagating materials of notified kind and varieties. The seeds are so grown as to ensure genetic identity and genetic purity. Eligibility for certification of crop varieties Seed of only those varieties which are notified under section 5 of the seeds Act, 1966 shall be eligible for certification. Breeder seed is exempted from certification. Foundation and certified class seeds come under certification. Breeder seed is produced by the plant breeder and seed technologist which is inspected by a monitoring team consisting of the breeder, representative of seed certification agency (Deputy Director of Agriculture), representative of State Dept of Agriculture, representative of National Seed Corporation (NSC, Deputy Manger), representative of State Seed Corporation and nominee of crop co-ordinator (S-11). The crops shall be inspected at appropriate stage. Concept of Seed Certification Concept of seed certification was originated in Sweden during twentieth century by visiting agronomist and plant breeder to the progressive farmers, who took seeds from them, primarily with the objective of educating them on how to avoid contamination. This initiated field inspection process. Seed Certification Agency Principles for forming seed cetification agency: 1. It should not involve in seed production and marketing 2. It should have autonomy 3. Seed certification procedure adopted should be uniform throughout the country 4. It should closely associated with technical institutes 5. It should operate on a no profit and no loss basis 6. It should have adequate technical staff and facilities for timely inpection of seed fields 7. It should serve the interests of seed producers and buyers PHASES OF SEED CERTIFICATION 1. Receipt and scrutiny of application 2. Verification of seed source 3. Field inspection 4. Post harvest supervision of seed crops 5. Seed sampling and testing 6. Labelling, tagging, sealing and grant of certificate.


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I. RECEIPT AND SCRUTINY OF APPLICATION a. Application for registration Any person, who wants to produce certified seed shall register his name with the concerned Assistant Director of seed certification by remitting prescribed fee per crop, per season. There are 3 seasons under certification viz., kharif (June - September), rabi (October January) and summer (February - May). b. Sowing report (Application for the registration of seed farm) The seed producer who wants to produce certified seeds shall apply to the Assistant Director of Seed Certification in the prescribed sowing report form in quadruplicate with prescribed certification fees along with other documents such as tags to establish the seed source. Separate sowing reports are required for different crop varieties, different classes, different stages and if the seed farm fields are separated by more than 50 meters. Separate sowing reports are also required if sowing or planting dates differ by more than 7 days and if the seed farm area exceeds 25 acres. The sowing report shall reach concerned Assistant Director of Agriculture Seed Certification within 35 days from the date of sowing or 15 days before flowering whichever is earlier. In the case of transplanted crops the sowing report shall be sent 15 days before flowering. The producer shall clearly indicate on the reverse of sowing report, the exact location of the seed farm in a rough sketch with direction, distances marked from a permanent mark like mile stone, building bridge, road, name of the farm if any, crops grown on all four sides of the seed farm etc., to facilitate easy identification of the seed farm by the seed certification officer. The Assistant Director, Seed Certification on receipt of the sowing report, scrutinises and register the seed farm by giving a Seed Certification number for each sowing report. Then he will send one copy of the sowing report to the Seed Certification officer, on to the Deputy Director of Seed Certification and the third to the producer after retaining the fourth copy. 2. VERFICATION OF SEED SOURCE During his first inspection of seed farm the Seed Certification officer will verify whether the seed used to raise the seed crop is from an approved source.


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3. FIELD INSPECTION OBJECTIVE The objective in conducting field inspection is to verify the factors which can cause irreversible damage to the genetic purity or seed health. INSPECTION AUTHROITY The seed certification officer authorized by the registering authority shall attend to field inspections. CROP STAGES FOR INSPECTION The number of field inspections and the stages of crop growth at which the field inspections should be conducted vary from crop to crop. It depends upon duration and nature of pollination of the seed crop. If the crop is grown for hybrid seed production, the number of field inspections during the flowering stage should be more than one in the case of self-pollinated / cross / often cross pollinated varieties. In hybrid seed production and variety seed production of cross pollinated crops the inspection during flowering should be made without any prior notice of the seed grower to judge the quality of operation undertaken by him to maintain the genetic purity of the crop. But in the case of self-pollinated crop the seed grower may be informed about the date of inspection. In the former case if prior notice is given to the seed grower, it may not be possible to detect the damage by the contaminants whereas in the latter case prior notice will lead to improvement of the quality of the seed production work and thus the quality of seed. The key points to be observed at each stage of inspection Stage of crop Key points to be observed at inspection Stage of crop Key points to be observed at inspection I. Pre flowering stage a. Verification of seed source (Vegetative Stage) b. Confirmation of acreage given in the report. c. Proceeding crop requirement d. Planting ratio e. Border rows f. Isolation distance g. Guide the grower in identification of offtypes, pollen shedder, diseased plants, shedding tassels etc., II. Flowering Stages a. Confirm the observation of plants inspection were correct. (May be II and III inspections b. Confirm whether grower had continued thorough rouging, when 50% of plants begin to after the previous inspection. flower). c. Verify the removal and occurrence of offtypes, pollen shedders, shedding tassels, objectionable weed plants and diseased plants.


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III. Inspection during post a. Confirm the correctness of observations, made in earlier flowering and pre- inspections. harvesting stage. b. Guide the grower on rouging, based on pods, earhead, seed and chaff characters such as colour, shape and size. c. Explain to the grower when and how to harvest the crop and process. IV. Inspection during a. Verify that male parent rows have been harvested separately. harvest b. Ensure complete removal of offtypes, other crops, weeds and (This is the last inspection diseased plants etc., conducted on a seed crop). c. Seal properly by the certification agency of the threshed produce after initial cleaning and drying. d. Instruct the seed growers for sage storage and transportation.


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Field counts The purpose of field inspection is to find out field standards of various factors in the seed farm. It is impossible to examine all the plants in the seed farm. Hence, to assess the field standards of various random counting is followed. Points to be observed before counting 1. All plants falling in each count must be examined for each factor 2. In hybrid seed field the prescribed number of the field counts should be taken in each parent separately. Number of counts to be taken The number of counts taken and the method employed in taking counts vary from crop to crop. It is necessary to take minimum of 5 counts upto 5 acres and an additional count for every 5 acres or part of as given below. Area of the field (in acres)

Double count In any inspection. if the first set of counts shows that the seed crop does not confirm to the prescribed standard for any factor, a second set of counts should be taken for the factor. However, when the first set of counts shows a factor more than twice the maximum permitted, it is not necessary to take a second count. On completion of double count assess the average for the two counts. It should not exceed the minimum permissible limit.

Number of plants for a count

Sources of contamination or factors to be observed


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The contaminants are 1. Physical contaminants 2. Genetical contaminants Physical contaminants are inseparable other crop plants, objectionable weed plants and diseased plants. Genetical contaminants consists off-types, pollen shedders and shedding tassels. a. Off type Plant that differs in morphological characters from the rest of the population of a crop variety. Off type may belong to same species or different species of a given variety. Plants of a different variety are also included under off types. Volunteer plants and mutants are also off types. b. Volunteer plant Volunteer plants are the plants of the same kind growing naturally from seed that remains in the fields from a previous crop. c. Pollen shedders In hybrid seed production involving male sterility, the plants of 'B' line present in 'A' line are called pollen shedders. Some times 'A' line tends to exhibit symptoms of fertile anthers in the ear heads of either on the main tiller or side tiller and these are called partials. These partials are also counted as pollen shedders. d. Shedding tassels These plants which shed or shedding pollen in female parent rows. When 5 cm or more of the entire spike, which shed or shedding are counted. e. Inseparable crop plants These are plants or different crops which have seed similar to seed crop f. Objectionable weed plants These are weeds 1. Whose seeds are difficult to be separated once mixed 2. Which are poisonous 3. Which have smothering effect on the main crop 4. Which are difficult to eradicate once established 5. Difficult to separate the seeds. These seeds cause mechanical admixtures g. Designated diseases The diseases which may reduce the yield and quality of seeds are termed as designated diseases. Inspection report The seed certification officer after taking field counts and comparing them with the minimum field standards, the observations made on the seed farm field should be reported in the prescribed proforma to 1. Deputy Director of Agriculture (Seed Certification) 2. To the Seed Producer


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3. Assistant Director of Agriculture (Seed Certification) and 4. Fourth copy retained with seed certification officer Assessment of seed crop yield It is necessary to avoid malpractice's at the final stage during harvest operation. The seed certification officer is expected to fix the approximate seed yield. Liable For Rejection Report (L.F.R) If the seed crop fails to meet with any one factor as per the standards, Liable for Rejection report is prepared and the signature of the producer is obtained and sent to Deputy Director of Agriculture Seed Certification within 24 hours. Re-inspection For the factors which can be removed without hampering the seed quality, the producer can apply for re-inspection to the concerned Deputy Director of Agriculture Seed Certification within 7 days from the date of first inspection order. For reinspection half of the inspection charge is collected. Post harvest supervision of seed crop The post harvest inspection of a seed crop covers the operations carried out at the threshing floor, transport of the raw seed produce to the processing plant, precleaning, drying, cleaning, grading, seed treatment, bagging and post processing storage of the seed lot. Pre-requisites for processing 1. Processing report should accompany the seed lot 4. Seed should be processed only in approved processing unit. 2. ODV test for paddy should be done at the time of sealing and issue of processing report or before processing. If the result exceeds 1% of the produce may be rejected. 3. It should be correlated with the estimated yield 5. Field run seed should be brought to the processing unit within the 3 months from the date of final inspection. Processing and sampling should be done within 2 months in oil seed crops and 4 months for other crops from the date of receipt in the processing unit. In cotton the kapas from the passed lot should be moved to the ginning factory within 5 days from the date of issue of processing report. The ginning should be done within 3 months from the date of final harvest inspection report. Ginned seeds should be moved to seed processing unit within in 5 days of ginning. Inspection and sampling should be done within 3 months after ginning. Intake of raw produce and lot identification The seed certification officer in-charge of the seed processing plant may, after verification of the above stated documents and total amount of seed accept the produce for processing. After verification he should be issue a receipt to the seed grower. Each seed lot has tobe allocated a separate lot number for identification. Processing of seed lot 1. It is done to remove chaff, stones, stempieces, leaf parts, soil particles etc from the raw seed lot.


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2. Grading to bring out uniformity in the seed lot. 3. Seed treatment to protect it from storage pests and diseases. Processing inspection 1. The processing should be done in the presence of concerned seed certification officer. 2. The recommended sieve size should be used for grading 3. While processing of paddy, the work of perfect processing have to be evaluated then and there. This is done by conducting a float test. Take 400 seeds from the processed seed and put in to a tumbler of water. Count the floating paddy seeds. Maximum float admissible is 5%. If the float seeds exceed the limit, adjust the air flow or feeding to perfect the processing. 4. In maize before shelling the cobs should be examined for off type and off coloured kernels. Individual cobs should be examined with reference to its vareital characters. The cobs of off types and off coloured kernels should be rejected. 5. Seed sorting in cotton. The ginned seeds will be evaluated for its quality. A maximum of 3 % for the following factors can be taken into accounts. 1. Immature seeds 2. Ill filled seeds 3. Broken seeds 4. Stained seeds and 5. Over fuzzy seeds 5. Seed sampling and testing During packaging Seed Certification officer will draw samples according to ISTA Procedure and send the sample to Assistant Director of Agriculture (See Certification) concerned within a day of sampling. The ADASC will in turn send the sample to the Seed Testing Laboratory within 3 days of receipt of the sample to testing seed standards viz., physical purity, germination, moisture content and seed health as prescribed. The Seed Testing Officer will communicate the result to the ADASC concerned within 20 days. On receipt of the analytical report the ADASC will communicate the result to the producer and Seed Certification officer. 6. Labelling, tagging, sealing and grant of certificate After receiving the seed analytical report the Seed Certification officer will get the tag from the ADASC and affixes labels (producer's label) and tags (blue for Certified Seed and White for Foundation Seeds) to the containers and seals them to prevent tampering and grants certificate fixing a validity period for 9 months. Tagging should be done within 60 days of testing. 7. Resampling and reprocessing When a seed lot does not meet the prescribed seed standards in initial test, on request of the producer Seed Certification Officer may take resample.


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If the difference in germination analysed and required is within 10, then straight away resampling can be done. If it is >10, reprocessing and resampling may be done. The producer should request the Seed Certification Officer concerned in writing within 10 days from the receipt of the result. No charge is collected for resampling. When a seed lot, fails even after free sampling reprocessing can be taken upon special permission from Deputy Director Seed Certification. For such reprocessing a fee of Rs.20/- Q and lab charges Rs.10/- Q is collected.


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Seed production in cereal crops Seed Production Techniques in Rice (Oryzae sativa. L) Paddy is the staple food of India botanically known as Oryzae sativa L. belongs to the family Poaceae. It is an economic crop of India since most of the Indians are having rice based food habits. It is also used as a raw material for cottage industries and infant food industry. The straw is fed to cattle and oil extracted from bran is used for cooking and has got high medicinal value. Important cultural Practices that maintain different seed quality characters Choice of field, Isolation, Parent seed selection, Roguing Genetic purity Fertilizer, Spacing, Insect and Disease control, Harvesting Physiological Quality Choice of field, Harvesting, Threshing, Processing Physical purity Land/Proceeding crop requirement ü It should be a fertile one. ü Saline /alkaline problem soils should be avoided ü Should have adequate irrigation facilities and drainage facilities ü Previous crops should not be other paddy (for 6months) varieties ü Clay loamy soils with pH around 6.5 are best suited Isolation Requirement: Isolate seed field by at least 3 m Source of Seed Ø Must be from authenticated source (UAS’s/KSSC) Ø Must be suitable generation class for further multiplication (Eg. BS/FS/CS) Ø Must be checked by certification officer before sowing Seed Rate Bold Varieties: 25 Kgs Medium/fine Varieties: 20-25 kg/ha Season: Kharif: June-July (Up to Aug) Summer: December-February Seed Treatment Ø Can grade using salt water (1.06 density) to separate choppy seeds Ø Dress with fungicide @ 2g /kg. (Thiram/Capton/Carbandizim) Ø If dormant soak the seed with 0.5 % KNO for 16 h 3

Seed bed (Nursery) preparation v Select the land which should be fertile & puddle for good tilth v Sunken Nursery for easy operation (2 x 50m) v 200 sq.m. Nursery is needed for planting v Let the water stand in nursery to a tune of 2-3 cm throughout the nursery period. Seed Preparation Ø Loosely pack the seed in jute (pervious container). Ø Soak in water for 24 hours (Running H O) 2


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Ø Incubate for 24 hours in dark Ø At slight radicle emergence the seed in ready for sowing Nursery Sowing v Broadcast the germinated seed on the thin film of water carefully and uniformly v After emergence irrigate and raise the level according to the seedling height v Based on the growth if needed give some fertilizer (N and P) Mainfield preparation ü Put cultivator at dry condition ü Harrow the soil to loosen the soil (fine tilth) ü Flood the field with water ü Puddle for 2-3 times using cage wheel ü Apply P and K at last puddling ü The bunds must be plastered well to have a check on weed growth and water control Transplanting v At the age 25-30 days pull out the seedlings (10-15 cm height) from the nursery bed and transfer to mainfield. v Use 25 x 20cm spacing for planting soil v Planting depth may be 3-5 cm. v Transplant the seedlings at the rate of 1-2 seedlings / hill v On growing season – standing water should be 5 cm (always). Fertilizer v Apply full dose of P and K at last puddling / ploughing st

nd

v Apply N in 2 split doses 1 at tillering phase, 2 at Panicle initiation stage. v Dosage (vary with area) (Eg.: 120:60:60 kg/ha) v Better if based on soil analysis. Weeding Ø Use pre-emergence weedicide to control weeds at early stage. Ø Hand weed the crop at 20 days after transplanting and before panicle initiation stage Ø Common weeds : Cyprus spp., Echinocloa sp. Insects and Diseases ü Apply insecticides and fungicides as recommended to the area. ü Common Diseases are : Rust, Bunt, leaf spot, Rust. ü Common insects are : Brown plant hopper, leaf roller etc. Roguing Ø Is important to maintain for maintenance of genetic purity Ø Remove all off types (deviants of the variety) and Rogues (variant of the crop) Ø “Remove when doubt” – rule. Roguing characters for paddy Ø General appearance (Tall, medium, short) Ø Leaf colour (Dark green, Pale green).


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Ø Leaf shape (Broad, narrow). Ø Panicle shape (open, close). Ø Awns (appendages) (Awned, Awnless) Ø Glume colour (Pink, green) Ø Boot leaf (Rectangle, erect) Ø Tillering (Heavy, Medium) Ø Maturity (Late, early – Uniform) Ø Grain type (long, slender, short, bold). Ø Hull colour (Dark yellow, light). Ø Kernal colour (Red, white) Field Inspection - Done by the Seed Certification Officer on registration for certification. - Done at 1. Tillering phase 2. Heading phase 3. Before harvest Field condition required at field inspection Ø The field should be free of rogues / off types at the time of inspection Ø If the percent of rogues is above the certification standards then the field is rejected (e.g. 0.2% Max. limit in India). Ø Wild rice should not be there in the field Ø The objectionable weed also should be below the maximum limit (e.g.: 0.02% India) for getting the crop certified. Ø Look for: At the times of inspection the characters of variety grown will be checked with the description of the varieties. Physiological maturity v Earheads turn golden yellow color and will droop. (Lodging should be avoided) v When 85% are so crop is ready for harvest v The moisture content will be about 18-20% Crop duration - 90-160 days highly depends on varieties specified (eg. : THANU : 130 days) Harvesting - At 85% maturity, drain the field and allow drying (field) for easy harvest. Manual Ø Harvest with straw with sickle (manual) Ø Bundle the produce. Ø Transfer to thrashing floor for thrashing and drying Mechanical ü Machine should be cleaned thoroughly to avoid mechanical mixtures ü Machin harvesting should be done at moisture content of 18-20%.


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Threshing Threshing must be done carefully in order to reduce the risks of damaging the seeds and to avoid mechanical mixtures. v M/C should be 18-23%. v Clean the threshing floor, equipments, containers to avoid genetic and physical mixture. v Produce can be threshed using tractor (with rubber tiers with deep grooves) or mechanical thresher. v Winnow immediately after threshing Drying When seeds has just been harvested, it is still moist and therefore dried, since well-dried seeds keeps longer, insect attack and fungus diseases are reduced. Ø Spread the seed in the open air for few days. Ø Avoid drying seed under hot sun. Ø Dry the seed (harvested/threshed producer) under sun to bring the m/c to 12-14% Ø Frequent stirring of material is necessary while drying. Ø Can also mechanically dried using driers (avoid high temperature to high moist seed) Seed processing ü Use air screen cleaner with oblong sieve ü At processing the certification officer will check and will take sample and will sent it the STL for seed standard verification.

Expected yield 3 – 5 tons/ha (depending upon the area and variety) Field standards for certification Class of Seed C.S. Off types (max.) 0.20 Plants affected by seed borne Nil disease Seed Standards : Class of Seed C.S. Pure seed (min.) 98 Inert matter (max.) 2 Other crop seed (max.) 20 No/kg Total weed seed (max.) 20 No/kg Other distinct variety 20 No/kg Objectionable weed seed 5 No/kg (max.) Germination % (min.) 80 % Moisture content (%)

F.S. 0.050 Nil

F.S. 98 2 10 No/kg 10 No/kg 10 No/kg 2 No/kg 80%


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(i) Ordinary container (ii) Vapour proof container Huskless grain (max.)

13% 8% 2% by number

13% 8% 2% by number

Hybrid seed production Hybrids and their parentage Hybrid Female Male KRH-1 IR58025A IR 9761 KRH-2 IR58025A KMR-3 KRH-4 CRMS32A MSN36 Rice is a self-pollinated crop, where the extent of natural out-crossing ranges from 0.3 to 3.0%. The success of hybrid seed production however demands higher out-crossing rate to obtain high seed yield. Therefore, hybrid rice seed production requires specialized techniques, which need to be thoroughly understood before embarking upon this venture. Hybrid seed production tool: CGMS a. BS or FS: Maintenance of A, B and R lines b. Certified seed production: hybrid seed production (A×R) Choice of location: As it is well known that rice hybrid seed production is a cumbersome practice, a viable seed production requires specific location having fertile field with proper irrigation and drainage system, sufficient sunshine during flowering, and no serious disease and insect problems. Therefore, while choosing location for hybrid seed production above said requirements should be considered. Favourable climatic conditions: • Overall daily mean temperature of 240– 30 ˚C • Relative humidity ranging from 70 – 80 % • The differences between day and night temperatures should not be more than 80–10 ˚C (50-7 0C is optimum). • Sufficient sunshine with moderate wind velocity (2-3m/sec). • There should not be rains continuously for three days during the period of flowering. • Yield will be adversely affected if overall daily mean temperature during flowering is below 20 ˚C and above 35 ˚C Isolation Spatial isolation: Unwanted varietal contamination in hybrid seed production can be prevented by maintaining at least 100 meter distance between hybrid seed production for certified and 200 m for foundation seed. Time isolation: Wherever it is difficult to have space isolation, a time isolation of over 21 days would also be effective. It means that the heading stage of the parental lines in hybrid seed


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production plot should be 21 days earlier or later than that of other varieties grown in the vicinity. Barrier isolation: In some places, the natural topographic features such as mountains, rivers, forests etc. can serve as the most effective barrier. A crop barrier with maize, sugarcane and Sesbania covering a distance of 30 m would also serve the purpose of isolation. Artificial barrier with polythene sheets and seed nets of about 3 m height can also be used in case of small scale seed production. Nursery management and seed rate • Prepare raised seedbeds (5-10 cm height) of 1m width of any convenient length. • Provide drainage channels (30 cm) in between seedbeds to drain excess water. • Sow pregerminated seed uniformly on the seedbed (@ of 1-2kg seed/20m2) • Use 15 kg of `A’ line seed and 5 kg of `R’ line seed to produce sufficient seedlings to grow in one hectare each. • Manage the seedbed properly for getting healthy and vigorous seedlings for transplanting. Seeding and transplanting sequence In case seed parent (A line) has 10 days longer growth duration than pollen parent (R line): Seed/pollen parent Seeding sequence Seedling age for transplanting (days) A line 0 day 25 First R line 6th day 29 Second R line 10th day 25 Third R line 14th day 21 In case seed parent (A line) has 10 days shorter growth duration than pollen parent (R line): Seed/pollen parent Seeding sequence Seedling age for transplanting (days) First R line 0 day 29 Second R line 4th day 25 Third R line 8th day 21 A line 14th day 25 In case seed parent (A line) has same growth duration as pollen parent (R line): Seed/pollen parent Seeding sequence Seedling age for transplanting (days) First R line 0 day 29 Second R line and A line 4th day 25 Third R line 8th day 21


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Transplanting • In hybrid rice seed production, the seed parent and pollen parent are planted in a certain row ratio at certain spacing • To encourage out-crossing, the rows of male and female in the seed production plot should be perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction expected at flowering time of the parents. • Planting ratio of 8:2 or 6:2 is preferred • Spacing: Male :male - 30 cm, Male :female - 20 cm Female: female -15 cm Plant :plant – 15 cm Fertilizer management: 10 t/ha FYM and 120:60:40 kg/ha NPK Out-crossing encouragement: Most of the male sterile lines based on WA cytoplasm have imperfect exsertion of panicle. As a result, as much as 15-20% spikelets remain enclosed in the flag leaf and are not exposed for out crossing. By adopting following methods, the exsertion of the panicles can be promoted to a great extent. Application of gibberellic acid (GA3): It is an efficient and effective plant growth regulator, which stimulates the cell elongation, thus can be used to enhance panicle exsertion in CMS line. Besides, GA3 has the following favorable effects: • Increases the duration of floret opening • Increases stigma exsertion and receptivity • Promotes plant height • Influences flowering and hence flowering in parental lines can be adjusted • Widens the flag leaf angle • Promotes exsertion and growth rate of secondary and tertiary tillers. In hybrid seed production plots of rice, 8-10% panicle emergence stage is most appropriate for first spraying (40%) and the remaining 60% of GA3 should be sprayed on the following day. Flag leaf clipping: Normally the flag leaves are erect and longer than the panicles and they come on the way of easy pollen dispersal thus affecting the out-crossing rate. The clipping of flag leaf helps in free movement and wide dispersal of pollen grains to give higher seed production. The flag leaves should be clipped when the main culms are in booting stage. Only half or two-third portion of flag leaf should be removed. However, flag leaf cutting is not advisable in the plots infested with diseases as this operation may spread the disease further. Supplementary pollination: Rice is basically a self-pollinated crop and hence in order to enhance the extent of out-crossing there is a need to go for supplementary pollination. Supplementary pollination is a technique of shaking the pollen parent so that the pollen is shed and effectively dispersed over the A line plants. Supplementary pollination can be done either by rope pulling or by shaking the pollen parent with the help of two bamboo sticks. Timing and Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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frequency of supplementary pollination is very important. The first supplementary pollination should be done at peak anthesis time i.e. 8.30 a.m. to 10.30 a.m. when 30-40 % of the spikelets are opened. This process is repeated 3–4 times during the day at an interval of 30 minutes. Supplementary pollination has to be done for 7-10 days during the flowering period. Field Inspection: A minimum of four inspections shall be made (1st before flowering, 2nd and 3rd during flowering and 4th during maturity) Stages of rouging Stages Off types Characters Vegetative stage Based on plant characters like plant height, leaf color, leaf size, leaf shape and pigmentation color on stem. Flowering stage Differences in days of flowering, panical type and awenness, any plant on a line row having complete panicle exertion with yellow plumpy anthers ,flower color. Free harvesting stage Based on grain color ,grain size any disease affected plants. Harvesting: All R line rows are to be harvested first. The R line harvest is to be removed and kept in a safe place separately. The left over R line panicles in the field should also be removed. After R line harvesting, a final roguing in seed parent has to be done carefully, removing the plants showing more than 70% seed setting. Then the seed parent plants are to be harvested. Threshing: During threshing, the `A’ line parent and `R’ line parent harvests must be kept separate from each other. The A and R lines should be threshed separately. Before starting threshing, all the threshing equipment, threshing floor and tarpaulin to be thoroughly cleaned. Grading: Seed yield: 6-8 q ha-1

Seed production techniques in wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) belongs to family Poaceae. It is staple food od many Indian communities Land/Proceeding crop requirement ü It should be a fertile one. ü Saline /alkaline problem soils should be avoided ü Should have adequate irrigation facilities and drainage facilities ü Previous crops should not be wheat Isolation Requirement ü Highly is mainly self pollinated crop and cross pollination varies from 0.1 to 4.0 per cent. ü Isolate seed field by at least 3 m ü Fields of wheat, triticale and rye with infection of Loose smut (Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Jens.) disease in excess of 0.10% and 0.50% in case of Foundation and Certified seed, respectively the isolation distance will be 150 m respectively


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Source of Seed Ø Must be from authenticated source (UAS’s/KSSC) Ø Must be suitable generation class for further multiplication (Eg. BS/FS/CS) Ø Must be checked by certification officer before sowing Seed Rate: 140-150Kg/ha Season: Middle October to first week November Seed Treatment: Dress with fungicide @ 2g /kg. (Thiram/Capton/Carbandizim) Method of sowing v Prepare the land to fine tilth v Seeds are sown in rows of 20cm with help of seed drill or behinf plough the plough in furrow v Depth of sowing should not more than 5cm Fertilizer v Apply 7.5 tonns of FYM v 50:75:50=N:P:K/ha v Top dressing 30DAS v Zinc 20Kg/ha Igrrigation Ø 8-10 days for sandy loam Ø Once in 15 days for heavy soils Weeding Ø Post emergent weedicide to control weeds at early stage. Ø Hand weed the crop at 30 days after transplanting and before panicle initiation stage Ø Common weeds : Convolvulus arvensis, Lathrys spp and Vicia spp Insects and Diseases ü Common Diseases are : Rust, leaf blight and smut ü Common insects are : Termite, stem borer, Stink bug, Aphid, Plant hopper and Root grub Roguing Ø Remove all off types (deviants of the variety) and Rogues (variant of the crop) Ø Remove inseparable crops plants like barley, oats, triticle and gram Ø “Remove when doubt” – rule. Roguing characters for wheat Ø General appearance (Tall, medium, short) Ø Leaf colour (Dark green, Pale green). Ø Leaf shape (Broad, narrow). Ø Awns (appendages) (Awned, Awnless) Ø Boot leaf (Rectangle, erect) Ø Tillering (Heavy, Medium) Ø Maturity (Late, early – Uniform)


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Ø Kernal colour (Red, white) rouguing should be done as and when required from the beginning upto last (Harvest) Field Inspection - Done by the Seed Certification Officer on registration for certification. - Done at 1. Tillering phase 2. Before harvest Physiological maturity v Earheads turn golden yellow colour v The moisture content will be about 18-20% Harvesting and threshing soon after maturity - Delay- pre harvest sprouting - MC (%) should be 16% Drying, cleaning and Bagging - In north India harvesting at 9-10% MC - To maintain good quality clean/process/treat and bag the seeds before monsoon Yield: 30-40qtls/ha Seed standards

Seed Standards : Class of Seed Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.) Other crop seed (max.) Total weed seed (max.) Objectionable weed seed (max.) Germination % (min.) Moisture content (%) (i) Ordinary container (ii) Vapour proof container

C.S. 98 2 20 No/kg 20 No/kg 5 No/kg

F.S. 98 2 10 No/kg 10 No/kg 2 No/kg

85 %

85%

12% 8%

12% 8%


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Hybrid Seed Production in Maize (Zea mays)

Scientific name : Zea mays Family : Poaceae Maize (Zea mays) is one of the most important cereal crop in the world grown over an area of 132 Mha with a production of 570m.t. It is the crop with the highest productivity. Maize is serving as staple food for vulnerable segment of the population and it rank first in importance as feed crop and also important source of raw material used in numerous industrial materials. Floral biology • The monoecious corn plant has female flowers that develop on the side of the plant and emerge from the leaf node. • The inflorescence is unisexual and monoecious. • Staminate inflorescence is terminal and known as tassel and pistillate is axillary and called as cob Anthesis and Pollination ü Maize is an example for protandry. ü Pollen shedding begins 1-3 days before the silks emerge from the cob. ü It is estimated that a normal tassel produces 2,50,00,000 pollen grains. ü Pollen is viable for 12-18 hours. Silk remains receptive for 8-10 days. ü Anthesis continues up to 2 weeks In maize, in addition to varieties and hybrids, composites and synthetics are also available. Synthetics and composites seed production Varieties: Vijay, Vikram, Amber, Sona, NAC-6002, NAC-6004 and shakthi Climatic requirement • Maize grown in wide range of environmental conditions • About 85 % of total acreage under maize is grown during monsoon because of the fact that crops stops growing if the night temperature falls below 15 ˚C • Its needs bright sunny days for its accelerated photosynthetic activity and rapid growth of plants • Prolonged cloudy period is harmful to the crop • Maize is cultivated during June – July, September- October and January - February seasons Land requirement: Loamy soil with high organic matter with neutral pH is the best for maize. The land should meet preceding crop requirement Isolation: Since maize is a cross pollinated crop, it is necessary to isolate seed field from maize crops of any other variety. The seed field must be isolated at least by 400 meters for foundation and 200 metres for certified class seed from seed of other varieties of maize. Field preparation and sowing ü Plough the field five to six times to get fine tilth.


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ü Spread 10 tons of FYM ha-1 or composted coir pith and apply ten packets of Azospirillum in the field. ü Prepare ridges and furrows with 45 cm spacing. ü For sowing one ha of certified seed field, 6 kg of foundations seed is needed ü To control seed borne pathogens of downy mildew (fungal disease) treat the seed with metalaxyl or ridomil at 4g kg-1 seed ü Sow the seeds at @ 60×30 cm spacing Spacing: Fertilizer application Apart from FYM applied before ploughing apply inorganic fertilizers 150:75:40 kg N: P: K. In addition to this we need apply 10 kg of zinc sulphate. Weeding • Two to three weeding is necessary following which the crop is earthed up to provide for better standability • No weeding is required after earthing up • Effective weeding can be obtained by spraying simazine or atrazine (@1.25 kg/ha) Irrigation • It has been estimated that maize crop requires about 50 per cent of its water requirement in a short period of 30-35 days after teaseling • Critical stages of crop growth is during flowering and post flowering particularly during grain filling stage Roguing Generally roguing is done three times in maize. § First roguing should be done during vegetative stage, based on the height of the plant, colour of petiole and colour of leaf. § During flowering stage, second roguing is done based on colour of tassel and silk. § Finally, before harvest, based on colour of seed and cob characteristics, roguing can be done. § During drying of the cobs, roguing of cob based on seed colour Harvest and threshing ü Harvest the crop when the outer cover of the cob turns from green to white colour ü At the time of harvest, moisture content of the seed will be around 25 per cent Shelling: Cobs are shelled either mechanically or manually @ 15-18 % moisture content Drying: seeds are to be dry to 12 % moisture content Seed yield: 15 q/acre Post harvest operations a. Dehusking At threshing floor, the husk of the cob is to be removed either mechanically using maize dehusker or manually. b. Cob sorting: Remove sheath and check for kernel colour, shank colour, diseased cobs, kernel arrangement etc.


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Xenia: Effect of kernel colour due to foreign pollen on the some generation Matezenia : Effect of kernel colour due to foreign pollen in next generation Seed standards Factor Foundation Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% Other crop seeds (maximum) 10/kg Other distinguishable varieties based on kernel 10/kg colour and texture (maximum) Weed seeds (maximum) None Germination (minimum) 80% Moisture (maximum) 12.0% For vapour-proof containers (maximum) 8.0%

Certified 98.0% 2.0% 5/kg 20/kg None 90% 12.0% 8.0%

Hybrid seed production Single cross: hybrid seed produced by controlled crossing between two selected inbreds (A×B) Double cross: Hybrid seed produced by crossing between two certified single crosses (A×B) × (C×D) Three way cross: Hybrid seed produced by crossing between an inbred used as male and certified single cross hybrid as female parent [(A×B) × C] Top cross: hybrid seed produced by crossing of inbred line with a certified open pollinated variety Double top cross: Hybrid seed produced by crossing between a certified single cross and a certified open pollinated variety Hybrids released in India with their parentage Hybrid Parentage Single cross DMH-2 CI-4×KDMI-10 NAH-2049 (Nithyashree) NAI-147×MAI 105 NAH-1137 (Hema) NAI-137×MAI-105 Double cross hybrids DHM 105 (CM 119 X CM 120) X (CM 211 X CM 131) Ganga-1 (CM 101×CM 102) × (CM 200×CM202) Deccan (CM 104×CM 105) × (CM 202×CM201) Three way cross hybrid Trishulatha (CM 131×CM 211) × CM 120 Different classes of seeds for different types of hybrids Types of hybrid Class Particulars Single cross Breeder seed Multiplication of two inbreds


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Three-way crosses

Top cross hybrid

Double cross

Foundation seed Certified seed Breeder seed Foundation seed Certified seed Breeder seed Foundation seed Certified seed Breeder seed Foundation seed Certified seed

Multiplication of two inbreds Production of hybrid seed (A×B) Multiplication of three inbred lines Multiplication of one inbred (C) and production of one F1 i.e. (A×B) Production of three way hybrid (A×B) × C Multiplication of one inbred line and OPV Multiplication of one inbred line and OPV Production of top cross hybrid A×OPV Multiplication of four inbreds Production of two F1 (A×B) and (C×D) Production of double cross hybrid seed (A×B)× (C×D)

Isolation distance Contaminants

Meters

Fields of any maize with same kernel colour and texture

200

Fields of any maize with different kernel colour and texture, and teosinte

300

Fields of the same hybrid (code designation) not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification

200

Fields of the other hybrids having common male parent and not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification

200

Sowing: during sowing, a planting ratio of 4 female lines and 2 male lines (4:2) or 6 female line and 2 (6:2) male lines should be followed. Seed rate Female: 10 kg ha-1 Male: 4 kg ha-1 Spacing: Female: 60 x 30 Male: 45 x 30 cm Synchronization of flowering In the maize seed production female and male parents are so selected, the female plant flowers 23 days earlier than male line. Drought conditions hasten tasseling and delay silking. Water logging upset flowering. Hence, care should be taken to avoid such conditions. Detasseling and its technique ü Seed parent must be detasseled before tassels shed the pollen so that silks of the seed parent lines receive pollen from other parent. ü Tassels will be protruding 2-3 days earlier to silking and spread over 2-3 weeks. ü Therefore from the time first tassel appears detasseling work will has to be continuously done without fail until the last tassel on female line is removed. Procedure of detasseling ü It should be done when the tassel is fully out of the leaf sheath but before anthesis


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ü Don’t break or damage the leaves, as its reduces yield ü Grasp the entire tassel and pull it completely so that all pollen bearing parts are completely removed otherwise the left over spiklets may emerge later on and shed the pollen ü Don’t hold the tassel too low on the stalk to prevent pulling out of the plant ü Detasseling should be done continuously at a fixed time until it completes ü Mark out male plants properly so that no detasseling is done on these plants ü The removed tassels should be buried at the same place itself. don’t carry them in hands as it may contaminate the silk in female plants Roguing § Check for shedding tassel § Check for receptive silk § Check for Off types § Check for Rogues § Check for Diseased plants Number of inspection: Four (Seed certification officers) : One : Before flowering : Three: During flowering Harvest ü Harvest the male and female parental lines separately. ü First, the male lines should be harvested fully, after the removal of cobs of male lines from the field; the female lines should be harvested. ü The seeds harvested from the female line are the hybrid seed. Seed yield: 15 q per acre Seed standards Factor Foundation Certified Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0% Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0% Other crop seeds (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg Other distinguishable varieties based on kernel 5/kg 10/kg colour and texture (maximum) Weed seeds (maximum) None None Germination (minimum) 80% 90% Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0% For vapour-proof containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%


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Seed production in sorghum Botanical Name: Sorghum bicolor Family: Poaceae Inflorescence: Compact / loose panicle • Each panicle bears spiklets in pairs, out of that one is sessile (bisexual) and one pedicelate (male or sterile). • Sessile spikelet bears 3 stamens and ovary is single styled and feathery stigma • Pediccelate spiklets bears 3 anthers which are sterile and rarely produce functional ovary Type of Pollination: Often cross pollination. Flowering of panicle: 2-4 days after panicle emergence Flowering pattern: From tip proceeds downwards Duration of flowering: 7 days (within panicle) Pollen viability: 10-20 minutes Pollen colour: Lemon yellow, older pollen turn orange. Stigma receptivity: Initiates 2 days before flower opening and remains for several days. Flower anthesis: 2.00 AM to 8.00AM Selfing technique: Bagging Crossing technique: Emasculation High yielding varieties: CSV-15, DSV-6, Maldandi Climatic requirement • Area where the temperature during flowering ranges from 27-32 ˚C is best for seed production • Night temperature should not fall below the 11˚ C for longer period since it affects seed development • Flowering stage should not coincide with rains it causes pollen loss and grain mold deteriorate the seed quality • Best season suited for sorghum seed production is rabi season Isolation: 200 m for FS and 100 m for CS. If surrounding field infested with Johnson grass isolation distance will be 400 m for FS and CS. Soil requirement: Soil should be well drained and problematic soils are not suited for seed production. In the previous season the same crop should not be grown and field should be free from Johnson grass plants Seeds and sowing: • Seeds should be obtained from authenticated source with tag and bill • Seed rate is 10 kg per ha • Seed treatment: Seeds can be treated with corbofuron to control shoot fly incidence • Seeds will be sown on ridges and furrows at rate of 45×15 cm spacing Fertilizer application: 80:40:40 N:P:K


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Irrigation: protective irrigation should be given once in 8 days depending on soil characteristics. The critical stages are flower primordial initiation, boot leaf, flowering and grain development stage. Weed control: use weedicide like Atrazine 400 gm in 300 lit of water 3 days after sowing. Rouging: it has to be carried out during before flowering, flowering and maturity stage based on plant, flower characteristics. Field Inspection: A minimum of three inspections shall be made (1st during vegetative, 2nd during flowering and 3rd during maturity) Harvesting: Formation of dunken layer on seed is indication of physiological maturity. Ear heads has to be harvested at mc of 20-25 % and threshed either manually or through machines. Later seeds has to be dried to 12-13 % moisture content and these seeds are processed through 74.75 (r) and 2.10 (r) mm screens. Seed yield: Hybrid seed production Hybrids and their parentage Hybrid Female Male CSH-1 MSCK60A IS84 CSH-2 MSCK 60 A IS 3691 CSH-5 MS296A CS3541 CSH-3 MS2077A CS3541 Tool: CGMS method Breeder or foundation seed production Breeder seed production includes the multiplication of A, B and R lines in three isolated fields. A line • Multiplications of A line are done by interplanting rows of the B line and A line in a isolated crossing blocks. • The planting ratio of 4:2 may be followed • To ensure proper seed setting on A line plants four boarder rows of B line should be planted around the whole plot. • Allow open pollination taken place between A line and B line, pollen produced by B line fertilizes the male sterile line (A line) • Rouging of all undesirable plants, pollen shedder, even doubtfull plants are rigorously done at vegetative, flowering and maturity stages. • Harvest the maintainer line first then later harvest the female line. R line and B line • The restore line and maintainer lines are self fertile and have bisexual florets • It can be multiplied as pure line varieties • B and R lines are multiplied in isolated field • Rouging is rigorous and any plant appearing different from true to type are to removed Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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• Allow self pollination to occur • Harvest the lines at the time of maturity Certified seed production (A×R) • Hybrid seed production (A×R) commonly known as certified seed production • Hybrid seed is produced by growing the designated male sterile (A line) and restorer (R line) lines of the hybrid together in an isolated filed and allowing for cross pollination. • For perfect seed setting female and male lines should be synchronized Isolation: 300 m for FS and 200 m for CS. If the niebhouring field infested with Johnson grass Provide 400 m isolation distance. Method of planting: Planting ratio (4:2 or 6:2) Seed rate: 7.5 kg ha-1 female and 5 kg ha-1 male seeds is required Synchronization: 1. If the parents differ in their days to 50 percent flowering by more than three days, staggering of sowing is necessary. 2. In case of difference, giving the additional dose of nitrogen to the soil followed by foliar application to early the flowering 3. If male is advanced, cut the alaternate plants to allow the tillers to come up. 4. With hel one irrigation in advancing parent Field inspections: A minimum of four inspections shall be made (1st at vegetative stage, 2nd and 3rd during flowering and 4th during harvesting stage) Harvesting and threshing Male rows are generally harvested first and remove away from the field later female plants has to be harvest. Seed yield: 15-20 q ha-1

Field standards for certification Class of Seed C.S. Off types (max.) 0.10 Plants affected by seed borne Nil disease Seed Standards : Class of Seed C.S. Pure seed (min.) 98 Inert matter (max.) 2 Other crop seed (max.) 10 No/kg Total weed seed (max.) 10 No/kg Other distinct variety 20 No/kg Germination % (min.) 75 % Moisture content (%) 13%

F.S. 0.050 Nil

F.S. 98 2 5 No/kg 5 No/kg 10 No/kg 75%


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Hybrid seed production in Bajra Floral structure Inflorescence is known as false spike and consists of spikelet’s. Each spikelet’s consists of two florets, one is sessile (Male flower) and another is pedicillate (bisexual). It consists of three stamens and feathery red colour stigma. The stigma receptive for 12-24 hours and pollen viability will be for two hours. Anthesis takes place between 8 am to 2 pm. Hybrids and their parentage Hybrid Female Male HB-3 Tift 23 A J 104 HB-4 Tift 23A K-560 HHB-223 ICMA9455 HBL11 Hybrid seed production tool: CGMS method a. BS or FS production: Maintenance of A, B and R lines b. Certified seed production: production of hybrid seed (A×R) Certified seed production (A×R) Climate and soil condition: Best suited for 150-600 mm rainfall and drought tolerant crop. Temperature requirement is 28-35 ˚C. It grows in variety of soils except water logged condition. Grow well in light loamy and sandy soils. The land should meet preceding crop requirement. Isolation: 1000 m for FS and 200 m for CS. Method of planting: Planting ratio method (6:2 or 4:2) Seeds and sowing: A line: 6 kg ha-1 and R line 2 kg ha-1 Sowing: seeds are sown on ridges and furrows @ 60×30 cm or 45×20 cm spacing Fertilizer: 100:50:50 kg N: P: K is required and 10 tons of FYM. Irrigation: tillering and flowering are critical stages for irrigation Synchronization: achieve through staggered sowing, application of urea and with hold the irrigation to late parent. Rouging: it has to be carried out during vegetative, flowering and harvesting stage. Remove off types, pollen shedders and diseased plants. Jerking: 30-40 days after sowing, early formed ear heads of all first tillers are removed so that physiological changes occur in plant and flowering of all the tillers will occur evenly. Field inspections: A minimum of four inspections shall be made (1st before flowering, 2nd and 3rd during flowering and 4th during harvesting stage). Harvesting and threshing Formation of dunken layer at the point of attachment of panicle indicate the maturity. Male rows harvested before the female rows to avoid mechanical mixture. Threshing can be done at 15-18 % moisture content by manually or mechanically. Grade the seeds using 3.2 (r) top and 1.3 (s) mm bottom screens. Seed yield: 15 q ha-1


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Field and seed standards Field standards Off-types Pollen shedder Seed standards Pure seed (minimum) Inert matter (maximum) Other crop seeds (maximum) Weed seeds Germination (minimum) Moisture (maximum) For vapour-proof containers (maximum)

Foundation

Certified

0.050 0.050

0.10 0.10

98 2 10/kg 10/kg 75 12 8

98 2 20/kg 20/kg 75 12 8


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Seed production techniques in pulses Seed production techniques in green gram and blackgram High yielding varieties: Greengram: KKM-3 (65-70 days) and Pusa bysaki (65-70 days) Blackgram: Rashmi (70-75 days) and T-9 (75-80 days) Land requirement • It can be successfully grown in light and well drained loam as well as red and black soils. • Land should be free of volunteer plants. • The previous crop should not be the same variety or other varieties of the same crop. • It can be the same variety if it is certified as per the procedures of certification agency Isolation For foundation and certified seed production leave a distance of 10 and 5 m all around the field from the same and other varieties of the crop for both greengram and blackgram. Pre-sowing seed treatment • Remove all discoloured seeds and use only normal coloured seeds (olive green in greengram). • Do not select bruchid infested seeds for sowing. • If the presence of hard seed percentage exceeds more than 10 %, scarify the seeds with commercial H2SO4 for 2 min. • Treat the seeds with rhizobium @ 500 g per ha and PSB 500 gm per ha Sowing Seed rate: Greengram 15-20 kg ha-1, Blackgram 20-25 kg ha-1 Seeds have to sown using seed drill at 30×10 cm spacing Fertilizer Greengram : NPK @ 25 : 50 : 50 kg / ha Blackgram : NPK @ 25 : 50 : 25 kg / ha Foliar application • Spray 2% DAP at the time of first appearance of flowers and a second spray 15 days after first spray for enhanced seed set. • Spray NAA 40 ppm at first flowering and a second spray after a fortnight to reduce the flower drop.NAA can be mixed with insecticides and fungicides. Field inspection: one at flowering and 2nd at flowering and fruiting stage Harvest • Harvest the pods 30 days after the 50 per cent flowering for greengram and blackgram • At this stage the colour of majority of the pods (80%) will be black in blackgram and brown in greengram. • The pod moisture content will be about 17 – 18%. • Harvest the pods as pickings if the flowering period is longer. • Dry the pods to 13 to 15 per cent moisture content Threshing Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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Thresh the pods either with pliable bamboo stick or pulse thresher

•

Drying Dry the seeds to 8 - 9 per cent moisture content Seed grading • Grade the seeds using 5.50 mm (r) top screen and 2.80 (s) mm bottom screen in greengram • Grade the seeds using 5.00 mm (r) top screen and 2.80 (s) mm bottom screen in blackgram • Do not select the discoloured and broken seeds for seed Seed yield: 10-12 q per ha in green gram and 5-10 q per ha in blackgram •

Seed production techniques in Chickpea Is a predominantly self pollinated crop and extent of out crossing remain below 5 %. Flowers being cliestogamous, typical of subfamily papilionoidae the reproductive parts enclosed in the keel. High yielding varieties: Annigere-1 (95-100 days), JG-11 (95-100) Land requirement • The previous crop should not be the same variety or other varieties of the same crop. Isolation: 10 m for F/S and 5 m for C/S Spacing: 30×10 cm Seed rate: 62.5 kg ha-1 for desi varities and 75 kg ha-1 for kabuli varieties Fertilizers: NPK @ 25 : 50 : 50 kg / ha Rouging: All off-type plants are to be rouged out at vegetative, flowering and at maturity stage. Field inspection: one at flowering and 2nd at flowering and fruiting stage Harvesting and threshing: harvest the crop manually and threshed with care that mechanical admixture cannot be in seeds. Grade the seeds using 9.0 mm (r) top screen and 5.0 (s) mm bottom screen Seed production techniques in Field bean High yielding varieties: HA-3 (90-100 days), HA-4 (95-105 days) Land requirement • The previous crop should not be the same variety or other varieties of the same crop. • Soil with neutral pH must be selected. Loam or clay loam soils are best suited. Higher organic matter will lead to production of vigorous seed. Isolation: 10 m for F/S and 5 m for C/S Spacing: 30×15 cm or 45×15 cm Seed rate: 30 kg ha-1 Fertilizers: NPK @ 25 : 50 : 25 kg / ha Irrigation


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Water is applied immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day. Then, irrigation is carried out whenever, the fields become dry. Irrigation during flowering, pod formation and seed development are must. Rouging: All off-type plants are to be rouged out at vegetative, flowering and at maturity stage. Field inspection: one at flowering and 2nd at flowering and fruiting stage Harvesting and threshing: Upon ripening, the pods will turn from green to straw coloured. This is the right stage for harvest for seed purpose. Delaying will lead to infection by diseases, pests and sometimes seed vigor will be lost due to untimely rains. Seed grading • Grade the seeds using 8.75 mm (r) top screen and 4.75 (s) mm bottom screen Seed yield: 10 to 10 q ha-1

Seed production techniques in Cowpea HY varieties: C-152 (90-100 days), TVX-944 (90-95 days) and KBC-1 and 2 (90-100 days) Land requirement: the land should have light type of soil with good drainage and meet preceding crop requirement. Isolation: 10 m for F/S and 5 m for C/S. Season, seeds and sowing: The crop is grown during kharif and summer. During kharif it can be sown in june- july or august –September Seed rate: 25-30 kg ha-1 Sow the seeds at the rate of 45-60 cm row to row and 10-15 cm plant to plant distance Fertilizer: NPK @ 25 : 50 : 25 kg / ha Rouging: All off-type plants are to be rouged out at vegetative, flowering and at maturity stage. Field Inspection A minimum of two inspections shall be made, the first before flowering and the second at flowering and fruit stage. Harvesting and threshing • Seeds attain physiological maturity 27-30 days after anthesis. At this stage the moisture content of seeds will be about 18 per cent. • Harvest the pods as they turn light straw in colour and the seeds turn brown or mottled in colour. • Beat the pods with pliable bamboo stick or pulse thresher by adjusting the cylinder speed to avoid splitting and cracking of seeds Grading: Grade the seeds using 7.0 mm (r) top screen and 4.0 mm (s) bottom screen Seed yield: 10-12.5 q ha-1


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Seed production techniques in Soybean HY varieties: JS-335 (90-100 days), Hardi (90-95 days) and KBC-1 and 2 (90-100 days) Land requirement: It can be grown in all types of well drained soils. Field selected should not grown soybean in the previous season. Isolation: 3 m for F/S and 3 m for C/S. Season, seeds and sowing: The crop is grown during kharif and summer. During kharif it can be sown in june- july or august –September Seed rate: 60-70 kg ha-1 Sow the seeds at the rate of 45-30 cm row to row and 10-5 cm plant to plant distance Fertilizer: NPK @ 25 : 50 : 30kg / ha Rouging: All off-type plants are to be rouged out at vegetative, flowering and at maturity stage. Harvesting and threshing Seeds attained physiological maturity 27 –30 days after flowering. Harvest the pods as they turn yellow in colour. The crop should be promptly harvested this stage to avoid shattering. Crop should be threshed either by tractor or by multi-crop thresher. Grading: Grade the seeds using 8.0 mm (r) top screen and 4.0 mm (s) bottom screen Seed yield: 10-15 q ha-1 Seed standards

Blackgram

Greengram

Chickpea

0.10

0.20

0.10

0.20

0.10

0.20

F.S. 98 2 5 No/kg

F.S. 98 2 5 No/kg

C.S. 98 2 5 No/kg

F.S. 98 2 None

5 No/kg

None

None

10 No/kg 75 %

C.S. 98 2 10 No/kg 10 No/kg 20 No/kg 75 %

10 No/kg 75 %

10 No/kg 85 %

5 No/kg

9% 8%

9% 8%

9% 8%

9% 8%

9% 8%


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Field standards Off types Class of Seed Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.) Other crop seed (max.)

C.S. 98 2 10 No/kg Total weed seed (max.) 10 No/kg Other distinct variety 20 No/kg Germination % (min.) 75 % including hard seeds Moisture content (%) (i) Ordinary container 9% (ii) Vapour proof container 8%

5 No/kg

85 %

Cowpea Field standards Off types Seed standards Class of Seed Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.) Other crop seed (max.)

0.10

C.S. 98 2 10 No/kg Total weed seed (max.) 10 No/kg Other distinct variety 10 No/kg Germination % (min.) 75 % including hard seeds Moisture content (%) (i) Ordinary container 9% (ii) Vapour proof container 8%

Fieldbean

Soybean

0.20

0.10

0.20

0.10

0.20

F.S. 98 2 None

C.S. 98 2

F.S. 98 2

C.S. 98 2

F.S. 98 2

None

None

None

None

None

None

None

10/kg

5 / kg

5 No/kg

5 No/kg

40/ kg

10 /kg

75 %

10 No/kg 75 %

75 %

70

70

9% 8%

9% 8%

9% 8%

12 7

12 7

Seed Production Techniques in Pigeonpea It is a short day plant, which requires critical day length of 11-11.5 hours for flowering. Though floral biology favors self-pollination, up to 30-40 percent cross-pollination occurs as a result of many insects viz. Carpenter bees (Megachille spp), honeybees, and others Released varieties of pigeonpea for southern Karnataka: 1. HY3C, 2. TTB 7 (150-200 days), 3. BRG 1 (170-190 days), 4. BRG 2 (150-170 days ), 5. ICP 7035 (160-170 days) Selection of seed plot • Uniform Topography, high fertility, free from weeds • Should not be grown in the plot unless the previous crop was different. • Soil should be light, well drained with a neutral pH. • Availability of irrigation facility • Irrigate the field at least one week before sowing, so that seeds in the plot will germinate, they can be removed • It is desirable to have crop rotation • Wilt sick plot should be avoided • Remove SMD infested plants in the vicinity of the seed plot


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Isolation requirements To avoid genetic contamination - 250 m for foundation seed and 100 m for certified seed Requirement of seed and sowing Ø Removal of disease and pest infested seeds and other coloured seeds. Ø Seed material should have minimum of 90% germinability. Ø Provide slightly higher spacing for easy monitoring. Ø Early sowing is advantageous for better yields in pigeonpea. Ø Do not grow varieties in the environment not suited to them. Application of FYM and Fertilizers a. Soil Application before sowing FYM - 7.5 tones / ha NPK - 25:50:25 kg/ha, Sulphur - 20 kg/ha in the form of gypsum (250 kg/ha), Zinc sulphate - 15 kg/ha b. Seed treatment Rhizobium and PSB - 375g/ha each. Sodium molybdate - 4g/kg of seed. Irrigation • Critical points - Germination stage, flower bud, flowering and pod formation • Light Irrigation, immediately after sowing to ensure good germination • Irrigate 2-3 times depending on soil and weather conditions • Reduce the Irrigation when there is excessive vegetative growth Weed Control • Two intercultivations and two hand weedings, all before flowering • Keep the seed plot free from weeds • Application of Pendamethaline @ 3.0 ml/litre of water after sowing Roguing Rogue out the off types and diseased plants as and when they noticed Variation in duration, flowering, plant type, stem colour, pod colour and others Plant Protection • Important Pests: Podborer, Pod fly, Maruca, Aphids, Bruchids etc., • Important Diseases: Fusarium wilt, Sterility mosaic, Powdery mildew • Take timely plant protection measures to control diseases and insects Field Inspections: A minimum of two inspections shall be made in such a way that atleast one of them is made during flowering. Harvesting, Threshing and Drying • Harvest the seed crop when it is fully matured. • Threshing can be done by beating the dry pods by with sticks. • Care to be taken to avoid mechanical injury to the seeds. • Drying should be appropriate. • Threshing yard should be big enough to avoid mechanical mixtures. • Moisture should be maintained at less than 9% for storage. Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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• Small, broken and disease infected seeds should be rejected. Processing ü Processing by sieve size 9.50 (r) mm top screens and 4.0 (r) bottom screen with the help of cleaner cum grader. ü Seeds should be packed in polythene lined gunny bags and stacked on wooden pallets. ü Before bagging, seeds should be treated with thiram 75%WP, 2.5g/kg of seed or Carbendazim 50% WP at 2g/kg of seed. ü Dusting of seed bags with 5% Melathion dust to avoid bruchids infestation. Prescribed field/seed standards Particulars Foundation seed Certified seed Seed Standards Pure seed (%)(min) 98 98 Inert matter (%)(max) 2 2 Other crop seeds/ kg (max) 5 10 Weed seeds per kg (max) 5 10 Other variety seeds/ kg (max) 10 20 Germination percentage (min) 75 75 Moisture percentage (max) 9 9 Hybrid seed production in pigeonpea Using Genetic male sterility (ICPH-8= MS Prabhat×ICPL 161) B/S or F/S seed production • Genetic male sterility lines (ms ms) are maintained by crossing with a heterozygous maintainer (Ms ms) in an isolated field • Sow the F1 seeds in an isolated plot and seed production field consists of 50 % sterile plants and 50 % fertile plants • Mark the fertile and sterile plants separately • Allow open pollination between sterile and fertile plants • Harvest the seeds of sterile line that constitute B/S or F/s C/S production • Raise the crop by using F/S seeds in an isolated field in planting ratio method (3:1) • Here use fertile line (Ms Ms) as pollinator • Identify the sterile and fertile plants in the female line • Rouge out all the fertile plant in the female line • Allow open pollination between sterile line and pollinator • The seeds harvested on the female (sterile line) constitute certified seeds Using CGMS system (ICPH 2671=ICPA/ICPB 2043 ×ICPR 2671) BS or FS seed production • A & B lines should be grown with recommended agronomic package • Spacing should be 90×30 cm


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• Planting ratio will be 3:1 • Observe the visual characteristics of genotype & discard the off types • Harvest the seeds from female line constitute breeder seed or foundation seed Certified seed production • The foundation seed of A and R line is the source for purchasing hybrid seed • A line and R line is to be planted in plating ratio method (3:1) • Allow the open pollination between A and R line • The seeds harvested on female line constitute the certified seed Harvesting First male line has to be harvested and then female line has to be harvested to avoid mechanical admixer.

Hybrid seed production in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) Introduction • Cotton botanically as Gossypium sp. is a fibre yielding crop, • It serves as a cash crop to the farmer as the lint serves as the raw material for the textile industry. • As quality study on seed production aspects is warranted in this crop. Botany • Cotton Gossypium spp is an often cross pollination crop • Eextend of cross pollination is >60%. • Four different species are in cultivation, viz. G. .arborium G..herbaceum G. hirsutum and G. barbadense Method of Hybrid Seed Production • Hand emasculation and pollination • Nucleus/Breeder/Foundation seed production – selfing of flowers is done with cotton (lint) or red earth. Land requirement • Field should be fertile and formed into ridges and furrows. • Black cotton soils are highly preferable than other soils. • Land should be free from volunteer plants and designated diseases especially the wilt disease. Isolation: 50 m for foundation seed and 30 m for certified seed. Season th

Winter crop: Aug – Sep (After Aug. 15 )

th

Summer crop : Feb – March (Before Feb. 15 ) Seeds and Sowing Seed should be obtained from an authenticated source with tag and bill.


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Pre-sowing management Use of delinted seed is better than fuzzy seed to avoid diseased and injured seed. Method of planting Planting Ratio: 5:1 (Female: Male) Block method (80:20) Seed rate: 3.5:2.5kgs/ha (Female: Male) Spacing: Female : 150 x 100 cm, Male: 150 x 50 cm Manures and fertilizer Compost: 12.5 tons/ha Total: 100: 50: 50 NPK kg/ha Basal: 50: 50: 25 NPK kg/ha Foliar Spray ü Boll shedding either due to extreme dry climate or lesser frequency of irrigation or physiological disorder. ü By spraying 40 ppm of NAAand cycocel at 20 ppm this can be minimized. Staggered sowing Based on crop growth period of male and female lines sowing has to be adjusted in such way that, male and female should flower at the same time to achieve nicking. Method of sowing of male and female lines to achive nicking Varalaxmi (DCH 32) 1st day sow 10% male and 100% female. 2nd day sow 30% male 7 days after first male sowing. 3rd day sow 30% male 7 days after second male sowing. 4th day sow 30% male 7 days after third male sowing DHH 11 1st day sow 50% of male 2nd day sow remaining 50% of male and female one week after first male sowing Roguing Crop should be rogued for offtypes, selfed plants, from vegetative phase to harvest phase depending on plant stature, leaf size, leaf colour, hairiness, stem colour, flower colour, petal spot, pollen colour, No.of symbodia, boll size, boll shape, pittedness etc. to maintain genetic purity. Field inspections: A minimum of four inspections shall be made as follows (1st before flowering, second and third during flowering, 4th during harvesting) Pests and Diseases • Pests: Aphids, Jassids, whiteflies and Boll worms • Control measures : Spraying of systemic insecticides monocrotophos, endosulphan at final stages and rogar to control white flies, aphids and jassids • Diseases: Wilt (Fusarium), Rust (Puccina)


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Irrigation Once in 10 days. Critical periods are boll formation to boll maturation stages. Organizing the crossing programme • Rough out all off-types before commencement of the crossing programme • In female block, Emasculate and pollinate all the buds appearing during first seven weeks of reproductive phase to ensure good seed set • Restrict emasculation to evening hours 2 pm to 6 pm and pollination to morning between 9 am to 1 pm • Emasculation should be complete and perfect • Remove any un-emasculated flower with out fail • Give light irrigation as and when required during crossing programme • Choose the optimum size of bud and avoid too young or too old buds for emasculation • Cover the male buds with paper pockets the previous day • Emasculated buds should be covered perfectly with butter paper covers or straw to identify for pollination next day • Cross the emasculated flower stigma uniformly with pollen of male flower • Tie a thread to pedicel of the bud immediately after pollination • Close the crossing programme after eleventh week and nip the top end of shoots to support development of crossed bolls Harvesting • Seed attains physiological maturation 45 days after anthesis. • Initiation of hair line cracks on the dried bolls are the physical symptoms of physiological maturation. • At that time the moisture content will be 30-35%. • The bolls are harvested as pickings in cotton. • Due to continuous flowering habit once over harvest is not practiced. • When the bolls burst with hair line cracks the bolls are collected and dried. 5-7 pickings can be practiced in a crop. Kapas sorting • The outer shell of boll is removed and kapas is sorted manually to pick good quality seeds. • Hard locks are to be removed (kapas without proper bursting and lint is light yellow in colour). • While kapas sorting, since these kapas mostly result in poor quality seeds, due to boll worm or other insect attack. Ginning • It is the removal of lint from the seed. • Done in approved ginneries using ginning machine with proper blade sharpness and gap to avoid mechanical injury Processing


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The ginned seeds 9or) the fuzzy seeds are graded by hand picking and pressing on wiremesh sieves to remove the under sized seeds and dust. Acid delinting: Fuzzy seeds will cog with one another. For easy handling the seeds are delinted using H So @ 100 ml / kg of seed for 3 – 5 mins 2

4

Procedure `Weighed quantity of fuzzy seeds are taken in a plastic container and required quantity of the acid is added. Stir well with wooden rod till a shinny black colour appears (Tar like), immediately add lime water to neutralize the acid and wash with more of water (5-6 times) shade dry the seeds to reduce the moisture content to 12% before further handling. Processing of delinted seed: Free flowing delinted seeds can be graded using 7.2 ® /3.9 (s) mm round perforated metal sieve. Seed Yield: 3-4 qtls/ha Seed Standard Characters Field standards Off types Seed standards Physical purity % (min0 Inert matter % (max) Other crop seed (max)

Foundation

Certified seed

0.10

0.50

98.0 2.0

98.0 2.0

Weed seed (max)

5 kg 10 6

Moisture content (max) a. Moisture previous b. Moisture vapour proof Germination (min) %

5 kg

65

–1 –1

10 kg 10 kg 10 6

–1 –1

75

Seed production in oilseeds Hybrid seed production in Sunflower Introduction Sunflower popularly known as `Surajmukhi", is a familiar plant in India. The plant was traditionally grown for its ornamental value. However, presently sunflower is mainly grown for its oil. Sunflower was introduced in India during 1969. The commercial cultivation of this crop started in 1972.The crop is fourth most important oilseed crop in the country after groundnut, rapeseed-mustard and soybean. Sunflower Seed oil contains both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids like oleic and linoleic types that may protect the heart. Floral structure Inflorescence is head or capitulum with ray and disc florets. The disc florets are bisexual, zygomorphic tubular and gamopetalous androceium consists of five stamens, syngenecious and epipetalous (stamens attached to petal), gynoecium consists of a ovary having a single ovule,


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bicarpellary and inferior ovary (calyx, corolla, stamens and stigma are above the ovary). Ray florets are sterile/unisexual). Anthesis 1 It is protandrous in nature, where male parts mature first. 2 Flowering starts from early morning 6 to 10 AM. 3 Pollen viability is for an hour. 4 The receptivity of stigma is for one day. 5 Flowering starts at periphery and continues towards centre and is completed in 2 to 4 weeks. Breeder and foundation seed production Planting ratio method In this method male and female plants are planted in 3:1 planting ratio. Ensure manual transfer of pollen from B- to A-line as frequently as desired during flowering. Remove B plants immediately after complete pollination season for good seed set. Block method Here female and male plants are planted in separate blocks, At the time of anthesis the pollen is collected separately from B- or R-lines and pollinated on to A-line in respect of breeder / foundation and certified seed production, respectively. The advantage of this separate block method is that seed from selfed plant of B-line is multiplied and also used. Certified seed production Planting ratio In this method male (R line) and female plants (A line) are planted in 3:1 planting ratio. Ensure manual transfer of pollen from R- to A-line as frequently as desired during flowering. Remove R plants immediately after complete pollination season for good seed set. Block method Here female and male plants are planted in separate blocks, At the time of anthesis the pollen is collected separately from R-lines and pollinated on to A-line. The advantage of this separate block method is that seed from selfed plant of B-line is multiplied and also used. Isolation: 600 m for FS and 400 m for CS.

Seed production package for certified seed production Particulars Units Seeds Female: 5 kg/ha Male: 1.75 kg/ha Season Suitable in all seasons but summer & rabi are most suited Planting ratio 3:1 Spacing 60×30 cm Fertilizer application 80:90:60 kg N:P2O5:K2O


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Pollination For higher yield of hybrid seed, supplemental pollination by hand is recommended. Crops like green gram, sesame and Niger should not be in bloom in vicinity of sunflower crop since pollinators shift to these crops and only a negligible number of bees visit sunflower. Should be carried out throughout the flowering period. Gently passing the palm, or palm covered with muslin cloth first on the B line plants and then by gently rubbing on the stigmas of the A line. In certified seed production the pollen of the R line has to be transferred to the A line in similar way. To avoid pollen theft by honey bees, it is better to provide natural smoke during the early morning hours ( 6 to 9am) or by spraying repellants on the crops. Pollination should be carried out from 8 to 12 noon. Rouguing; has to be carried out at three times befor flowering, during flowering and at maturity stage Field Inspection: A minimum of four inspections shall be made as follow (first at vegetative stage, second and third at flowering stage and fourth at harvesting srage) Harvesting, Threshing and drying Harvest the crop when top leaves are yellowing, drying and withering or when back of ear head turns to lemon yellow. Harvesting of male line should be done before the female the dried heads threshed by hand, by rubbing seed heads on metal sheet or beating with stick. Dried the seeds under sun in morning hours to bring down moisture content to around 9-10 percent. Processed using appropriate sieve size (top screen 9.00 mm(r) and bottom screen 2.40 mm(s)) with the help of seed cleaner-cum-grader. Field and seed standards Foundation Certified Field standards Off-types 0.20 0.50 Seed standards Pure seed (minimum) 98 98 Inert matter (maximum) 2 2 Huskless seeds 2% 2% Other crop seeds (maximum) None None Weed seeds 5/kg 10/kg Germination (minimum) 70 70 Moisture (maximum) 9 9 For vapour-proof containers (maximum) 7 7 Hybrid seed yield 6-8 q/ha


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Hybrid seed production in castor The inflorescence is an erect terminal panicle, flowers are unisexual monoecious. Male flowers are carried at the base of peduncle and the female flowers at the top in racemose manner. The male flowers have perianth, green, many branched stamens (five number) and around anthers. In female flowers the calyx is spatheceous. Ovary superior is with three carpels each ending in a bifid stigma. Anthesis 1 The male flowers open first and the female flowers open one or two days later. In many cases both male and female flowers open at the same time. 2 Dehiscence of anthers takes place between 4 to 8 AM. 3 Receptivity of stigma is throughout the days or even for two to three days. Breeder seed production of female line Conventional method  As per the prevailing standards 20-25 % of monoecious plants are allowed in seed production plot to ensure pollen supply to pistillate plants  Prior to flower opening in primary raceme remove all deviants based on morphological characters  After flower opening in the primary raceme, indentify pistilate plants based on diagnostic characters and tag them  Examine all monoecious and rouge out those which have male flowers beyond 3 whorls  Count ultimate number of female & male plants in each row and remove the monoecious plants over and above the stipulated percentage  Examine tagged female plants for possible reversion to monoecious, if found remove them  On maturity harvest the female line bearing tag & it constitute the breeder seed Modified method ü Unlike in the conventional method, rouge out all monoecious atleast 2-3 days earlier to flowering in the primary raceme ü Verify individual female line for various morphological characters ü Most of female flowers fail to set seeds on primary racemes because of non availability of pollen ü Once temperature starts shooting beyond 32-35 ̊C interspersed male flower appears in primary spike which provide pollen for late formed female flowers ü Observe all the plants for any reversion to monoecious upto 4th order raceme, if found rogue out ü Collect the seed from female plants & keep the picking wise seed lot separately Certified seed production Plant the pistillate line (female line) and pollinator line (male line) in planting ratio method. Allow open pollination Isolation: 600 m for FS and 300 m for CS. Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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Production packages Particulars Seeds Isolation distance Season Planting ratio Spacing Fertilizer application Irrigation

Units Female: 5 kg/ha Male: 2 kg/ha 150 m Sowing should be done August end to October , so that primary & secondary spikes coincide with cool season 3:1 90×60 cm 80:60 kg N:P2O5 For kharif 4-6, During rabi the number of irrigations may go up to 68 while in summer as many as 15-20 irrigations are required at intervals of 7-10 days.

Harvesting ü The primary spike in female rows is ready for harvest within 100-110 after seeding ü The change of capsule colour from green to yellowish brown and drying of few capsules in the spike is maturity indices ü Harvest different sequential order spikes of female and dry them in a separate threshing yard ü Harvest male parent first & the female parent afterwards separately, dry & thresh them in separate threshing floors ü Threshed seed can be processed using air screen cleaner with screen size of(top screen 13.50 mm (r) and bottom screen 6.00 mm (r)) ü Seed yield: 12-15 q/ha Field and seed standards Foundation Certified Field standards Off-types 0.20 0.50 Seed standards Pure seed (minimum) 98 98 Inert matter (maximum) 2 2 Other crop seeds (maximum) None None Weed seeds None None ODV 5/kg 10/kg Germination (minimum) 70 70 Moisture (maximum) 8 8 For vapour-proof containers (maximum) 5 5


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Seed production technology of groundnut (Arachis hypogeal l.) Introduction Groundnut Arachis hypogea belongs to the family fabaceae under the under leguminosae. It was originated from Brazil and was introduced in India by about the sixteenth century. Economically it is an oilseed crop and the oil extracted from kernel is edible and extensively used for industrial purpose. The oilcake and plant are utilized as nutritious cattle food. The seed production in the multipurpose crop fetches importance owing to their lowest multiplication ratio which varies from 1:8 to 1:5 in Indian subcontinent. But adoption of good production technique can aids in production of good quality seed with higher yield potential. Popular varieties grown in Karnataka are GPED-4, TMV-2, JL-24, K-134, VRI-2 The important seed production techniques to be adopted form sowing to harvest are as detailed below. Selection of land It is important for production of genetically pure seeds. The land should be free from volunteer lands and the previous crop should not be groundnut. Further the land should be free from root rot caused by Macrophomina sp. The land should be prepared to fine tilth for better establishment. Isolation It is also important for maintenance of genetic purity and the field should be isolated from other groundnut varieties with a distance of 3 m at all sides. Season It is important for maximizing the yield. The selected season should be such that the maturation period should not coincide with rainy season because it will cause vivipary at the time of harvest. Anyhow December – January is recommended for irrigated crop and June – July is recommended for rainfed crop. The optimum temperatures for growing groundnuts range from 25°C to 35°C. Cooler temperatures, especially at night, prolong the growing cycle. Seed rate and spacing Based on the growing habitat the seed rate and spacing varies as below: -1 Plant habitat Spacing (cm) Seed rate (pod kg ha. ) Bunch type 100-120 kg/ha 20 x 15 Spreading type 80-100 kg/ha 60 x 15 Semi spreading type 80-100 kg/ha 45 x15 Pre-sowing seed management Selection of pod The seeds used for sowing should be or certified class (Foundation and certified seed) certified class with higher physical, physiological and genetic purity. Shriveled, damaged, naked, undersized, fungal (aflotoxin) infected seed (kernel) should be separated from the seed material. Seed treatment


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-1

The seeds should be treated with thiram on Mancozed or carbendazim @ 2 kg of seed. The seeds also can be treated with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g/kg of seed before sowing. It is compatible with biofertilizers and is not compatible with fungicides. Treat the seeds with 3 packets of rhizobial culture using the gruel as binder. Breaking seed dormancy Some varieties of groundnut possess seed dormancy, particularly when fresh seeds are used for sowing. This fresh ungerminated dormant seed can be identified through tetrazolium testing. These seeds are treated with 200 ppm of ethrel for 6 hours and are used for sowing. Sowing The treated seeds are dibbled at 4 cm depth under irrigated condition and line sowing is better for the rainfed crop. The gap filling should be done with the pre-germinated seed within 10 days. Upto 1 week the sown seeds are to be protected from the crows and squirrels. Manures and fertilizers -1

At last ploughing 12.5 tones of farm yard manure and full doses of PK 40:60 kg ha are -1

-1

applied to the soil. Nitrogen @ 40 kg ha and Borax @ 10 kg ha is applied to the soil before -1

sowing. The micronutrient mixture 12.5 kg ha should be applied on the surface after sowing. Earthing up It is the most important operation during which each plant is earthed up with porous soil which helps in peg formation and their easy penetration. It should be done 40-45 days after sowing. During earthing up gypsum is applied @ 500 kg/ha and incorporated in the soil. This gypsum application encourages pod formation and better filling up of the pods Irrigation Even before sowing the pulverized soil is irrigated and after 1 day when soil moisture is rd

optimum seeds are sown. Life irrigation is given on 3 day followed by once in 10 days depending on the climatic conditions. The critical periods for the irrigation are peg formation stage (40-45 days), flowering phase (25-60 days) and maturity phase (60-90 days). Spraying of 0.5% KCl at flowering and pod development stages will aid to mitigate the effects of water stress. Rouging It is an important field operation needed for maintenance of genetic purity. It is done from seedling stage upto harvesting based on habitat (spreading, bunch; semi spreading) leaf foliage colour (dark / light green), flower characters, pod characters (length, beak shape, 2/3 seeded etc.) and seed characters (colour of testa). The off types that deviate from the original characters are removed from the plot and are destroyed. Field standards FS CS Offtypes (%) 0.10 0.50


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Physiological maturation and harvesting Drying and falling of older leaves and yellowing of the top leaves indicates maturity. At maturation time the inner side of the pod will be black in colour instead of white and pod will give rattling sound. At the time of harvest, the field is irrigated and at sufficient moisture level the plant is pulled as such. Maleic hydrazide 0.5% is to be sprayed between 65-70 days to control vivipary. Stacking: The pulled out plants are stacked near the field in such a way that the pods are exposed to outside for easy drying. The height of the heap should be minimum to avoid heating up of pods during heaping. Stripping The pods are stripped from plant for its collection either manually or with groundnut stripper. Depending upon the varieties, season and agroclimatic condition prevailed in the area the yield of pods may be varied from 14 to 25Qtls per ha. Pod grading Mechanically injured, immatured, shrivelled, insect / diseased infected, germinated and the undersized pods are removed by grading them with groundnut pod grader using 22/64" (8.8 mm) – 22/64" (9 mm) round perforated metal sieves. Pod verification For evaluation of genetic purity, the pods are verified for their variation as off type based on number of seed / pod, beak character, length and size of pod etc. Decordication The pods are decordicated before sowing using groundnut decordicator. Kernel / seed grading The seeds obtained from decordication should be graded using 18/64" round perforated metal sieve to remove shrivelled and undersized seeds. Drying Pods should be dried to 7-8% moisture content either by sundrying Pod storage Pod storage is the general practice of seed storage in groundnut because the kernels lose -1

their viability faster than pods. The pods can be dry dressed with thiram or bavistin @ 4 g kg of pod for better storage. The pods can also be treated with chlorine based halogen mixture @ 3 g -1

kg of pod. Seed standards Parameters Physical purity (min) Inert matter (max) % Other crop seed (max) Weed Seed (max)

FS 96 4 None None

CS 96 4 None None


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Other distinguishable variety seed (max) Germination (max) (including hard seed) Moisture content (Max)

None 70 9

None 70 9

Seed production in vegetables Seed production of tomato Botanical name : Lycopersicum esculentum Family : Solanaceae Tomato floral biology: • Highly self pollinated with 0.5-4% out crossing • 4-8 flowers/ inflorescence • 5-6 yellow petals • Stamens elongated forming a cone enclosing the pistil & stigma • Base of anthers connected with bottom part of petals, facilitating easy emasculation Inflorescence: Cluster Climate and soil • It is a warm season crop. It does not perform well at temperature 35 ˚C and above as well as below 15 ˚C. • It is best in the dry season under day temperatures of 21-25 ˚C and night temperatures of 15-20 ˚C. Soil It grows in all soils from light sandy to heavy clay. Light soils are preferred for an early crop, while clay loam and slit loam soils are well suited for heavy yields. t should be free from volunteer plants. The PH of soil should be between 6 to 7. Isolation: 50 m for FS and 25 m for CS Seeds and sowing: A seed rate of 350 g ha-1 is recommended for tomato and should be obtained from source approved by certification agency. Nursery preparation The area to be used as nursery must be under partial shade, preferably near water source. The soil must be healthy and fertile. Raised beds of 7.5m length,1.2m width and 10cm height are made. Small depressions are created using a stick (known as rills) at 10 cm intervals. Into these rills about 150g seeds that are treated with 3 g Carbendazim are placed and covered using sand or dry soil. Irrigated the nursery bed till it is completely submerged followed by irrigation once in two days. Transplanting The right age of seedling is essential for better growth and development upon transplanting, transplanting seedlings that are 25-30 days old is essential. The healthy seedlings pull out from well maintained nursery has to be used for transplanting; single seedling should be


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transplanted as per the following spacing (70×70 cm or 90×90 cm) recommended for different varieties. Fertilizers: 25-25 t/ha FYM and 100:100:100 kg/ha N:P2O5:K20 Weed management: Application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg ha-1 Rouging: Stages of rouging

Characters to be observed

Pre-flowering stage (or) vegetative stage

Plant height, number of branches, leaf and stem colour and pigmentation

Fruiting stage

Fruit shape, colour and size

After harvest

Fruit Shape, colour and size

Field Inspection A minimum of three inspections shall be made, the first before flowering, the second during flowering and fruiting stage and the third at mature fruit stage and prior to harvesting. Harvesting • Tomato harvesting has to be done in 8 to 10 pickings. • The first and last one or two harvests may be taken for vegetable purpose the fruits from remaining pickings in between the above harvest may be used for seed extraction. • The seeds from the above pickings are normally posses high vigor and germination. • Well ripened fruits alone are to be harvested and medium to large size fruits may be used for seed extraction. Seed extraction Manual or fermentation method • Crush the fruits by trampling with feet. • Put the bags of crushed fruits into big plastic containers and ferment to separate the gel mass embedding the seeds. • To hasten the fermentation process, put weights over the bags or keep the fruits submerged in the liquid fruit mass. • If temperature is above 25ºC, one day of fermentation may be sufficient. If below, 2 days of fermentation may be needed • Fermentation for more than 3 days may spoil the seeds quality. • Put the seeds in an open plastic container. Then, fill up the container with water and stir the seeds to allow the pieces of flesh and skin sticking on the seeds to float. • Incline the container and gently remove the floating refuse, making sure that the seeds remain at the bottom. • Repeat the washing several times, adding fresh water to the container every time until all the flesh and gel are completely removed, leaving clean seeds at the bottom Acid method: fully ripened matured fruits are harvested and crushed to pulp. The pulp is taken in plastic container and commercial HCL is added @ 25 ml per kg of fruit pulp. The acid and


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pulp is mixed thoroughly and kept for 30 minutes. During this acid removes mucilage adhering to the seed and makes the seeds free of pulp. Then the seeds are washed with 4-5 times with water to make free of acid. Mechanical seed extraction: Is used by large scale operations. Instead of fermentation, treat the seed mass with HCL @7 ml/kg of seed mass. Stir the seeds mass while acid being added. When seed is separated from gel, pour the acid treated seeds into a clean fine mesh bag. Wash the bag with tap water thoroughly so that no acid is left on the surface. After seed extraction, reduce the moisture content of seeds to 6-7 %. Hybrid seed production Technique: Hand emasculation and pollination technique Popular hybrids: Arka Vishal, Arka Vardhan, Arka Abhijit, Arka Shresta, Arka Ananya Isolation distance: 200 m for FS and 100 m for CS. Method of planting: Planting ratio 1: 4 (Male: Female) or adopting in block system Stages of seed production: Parental line multiplication (BS & FS) and hybrid production (CS). Sowing: Staggering: Male parent sown 3 week earlier. Seed rate: Female -60-100 g/ha Male - 20-25g/ha Steps involved in hybrid seed production programme Emasculation and Hand pollination Emasculation • Emasculation begins about 55-65 days after sowing. • Flower buds from the second cluster which will open in two to three days are chosen for emasculation • The petals will be slightly out of the flower bud but not opened, • The corolla colour is slightly yellow or even paler. Flowers from the first cluster are removed • Use sharp-pointed forceps to force open the selected buds. Then, split open the anther cone • Carefully pull the anther cone out of the bud, leaving the calyx, corolla and pistil Pollination • Collect flowers from the male parent to extract pollen. • The best time for pollen collection is during the early morning before the pollen has been shed. • Remove the anther cones from the flowers and put them in suitable containers, such as glassine, cellophane, or paper bags • Emasculated flowers are generally pollinated two days later. • The corolla of the emasculated flower turns bright yellow, signalling that the stigma is ready for pollination. • Dip the stigma into the pool of pollen in the pollen container pollinate by touching the stigma with the tip of the index finger dipped in the pollen pool Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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Seed Yield: • Seed yields vary between 70-80kg/ha under outdoor condition in tomato Seed standards Standards for each class Factor Foundation Certified Pure seed (%) (Max) 98 98 Inert matter (max) 2 2 Other crop seeds (Max) 5/kg 10/kg Weed seeds (Max) None None Germination (%) (Min.) 70 70 Moisture (%) 8 8 Vapour proof containers 6 6

Seed production in chilli Botanical Name : Capsicum annum Inflorescence : Solitary. Pollination : Often cross pollinated crop (16% out crossing) Anthesis : 5-6 a.m. Anther dehiscence : 8-11 a.m. Ideal temperature for Seed set : 20-25°C Pollen viability : 24 hours (At the day of anthesis) Stigma receptivity : 24 hours Soil and climatic requirement • Well drained loam soil, rich in OM, is preferred. Acid soils and water logging conditions are not suitable. The pH of soil should be 6-6.5. Land should not be selected in the previous season same crop was grown. • Although crop can be grown at any time of the year, April and June is the best time. The optimum temperature for seed germination is 25˚C. 18-20˚C night temperature is best to get more seeds. • It prefers a warm humid climate during early stages and a dry weather towards the maturity of fruits. Isolation: 500 m for FS and 250 m for CS. Season: June-July, February-march Seed rate: 1 kg ha-1 Seed selection: seed should be collected from healthy plant and healthy fruit. Sowing: Seed treatment: to check the seed borne diseases like Die back and Anthracnose, treat seed with 0.2% Thiram. Seed bed preparation and transplanting Select well drained area near the water source for raising the chili seedlings. Prepare raised beds to overcome damping off disease usually beds are 7.5 m length, 1.2m width and 10cm. The


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seedlings should be transplanted when they are of 15-20 cm height after 4-5 weeks. Maintain 45x45 cm spacing between plant to plant and row to row. Fertilizer requirement: FYM-20 tons/ha, 115:200:200 Kg NPK/ha Irrigation: a light irrigation is given after few days of transplanting and thereafter at weekly interval. Weed management: Use Alachlor 2 lit a.i per ha. Rouging: Rouging has to be done at vegetative stage, early flowering stage and maturity stage to maintain genetic purity. • Before flowering: Growth habit, leaf characters, vigor. • Early flowering and first fruit immature stage: flower characters. • Mature fruit: fruit color, size, shape and length. Harvesting: The time of Harvesting is at 50-60 days after planting, when fruits are green bright to deep red. Turning of fruit color from Dark green to pale yellow and deep red indicate the maturity of fruits. Seed extraction: is usually done manually by cutting tip of harvested fruit. The fruit should be picked when red ripe and crushed or macerated by machine. Seed is to be washed to make it free from pulp and skin. After washing it should be dried in the sun without delay. Grading : 4.0 (r) and 2.10 (r) mm sieve See yield: 100 to 200 kg/ha. Hybrid seed production Popular hybrids: Arka Meghana, Arka Sweta, Arka Harita Hybrid Seed Production technique: Hand emasculation and pollination method Isolation : FS – 500 m CS – 250 m Seed Rate : Female – 500 g/ha Male – 100 g/ha Hybridization Emasculation : Early in the morning or previous day afternoon before flower opening and the petals still covering the anthers and stigma. Pollination : Late in the morning Methodology • Emasculation may be done in the previous afternoon before opening of flower and petals still covering the anthers and stigma. • The petals are removed carefully with the help of a pair of forceps and the anthers are removed separately. • The emasculated flower buds are protected by thin cotton wad or bag or by thin cloth loosely wrapped around the branch, enclosing leaves and flowers and securely fastened. • Pollen collection is normally done late in the morning. • Pollen from the previously protected flowers are collected by a vibrator or after plucking the flowers from intended male parents, they are gently tapped by finger for the collection of pollen in petridish or watch glass.


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• Best time of pollination in early morning of the following day of emasculation. • Pollination in done by touching the freshly dehiscenced anthers to the stigma by forceps, by dusting pollens over the stigma or by transferring the pollens with brush or needle very carefully and the petals may be cut off to facilitate pollination. • Bagging of the flowers should be done to prevent pollen contamination. Field inspection: 3 times Before flowering, At flowering, After flowering at fruiting stage. Roguing: Done from vegetative to harvesting stage. Plant Protection: Insects: Leaf eating catter piller, fruit borer: Sparay monocrotophos 2ml/l or sevin 1.5g/l Jassids,Aphids, white flies: Spray Imidaclopride 1ml/l ot Actara 1ml/l Diseases: Damping off: drench with capton or metalaxyl Early blight/blight: Spray Benlate 2g/l or Mancozeb 2g/l or Metalaxyl 1ml/l Virus affected plants has to be rogued out Physiological Maturation: 35 DAA Type of harvest: Picking Number of pickings: 4-5 at weekly intervals Seed yield: 50-60 kg/ha Field standards Contamination

Maximum permitted % Foundation Certified 0.10 0.20

Off types Plants affected by seed borne diseases (leaf blight 0.10 0.50 ,Anthracnose) Seed standards Standards for each class Factor Foundation Certified Pure seed (%) (Max) 98 98 Inert matter (max) 2 2 Other crop seeds (Max) 5/kg 10/kg Weed seeds (Max) 5/kg 10/kg Germination (%) (Min.) 60 60 Moisture (%) 8 8 Vapour proof containers 6 6


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Seed Production in Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) Flower : Solitary (or) in cluster of two (or) more highest % of fruitset is found where the stigma is above the stamens , bisexual flowers Anthesis : 7.30 am to 11.30 am Peak time of anthesis : 8.30 to 10.30 a.m. Pollen dehiscence : 9.30 to 10.00 a.m. Stigma receptivity : At the time of flower opening more cross Pollination by itself Pollen viability : 8-10 days Selfing : Bagging Crossing technique : • Emasculation and Pollination • Male sterility line also used Climatic requirement v Eggplants a warm season crop. It requires a long and warm growing season for successful production m v It is most susceptible to lower temperatures than tomat and pepper. • A day temperature of 25–32 °C and a night temperature of 21–27 °C are ideal for plant growth and fruit development. Comparatively hardy crop, • It can tolerate drought and heavy rainfall. However, it is advisable to select a dry climate or at least a season with a low air humidity, which discourages fruit rot and other diseases. • Eggplant can be grown on different kinds of soil but does best on well-drained silt loams or clay loams with a pH of 5.5–6.5. Soil Requirements • Egg plant production can be successful on any good agricultural soil by using appropriate management methods. • A deep, fertile and well-drained sandy loam or silt loam soils, with a pH of 5.5 to 6.8, and a high organic content are desirable for eggplant growth and development. Isolation: 300 m for FS and 150 m for CS. Seed rate: 375-500 gm per ha Nursery preparation • Sow seeds in seedling flats, beds, pots or modules. The seed beds should be fertile and well drained. • Prepare seed beds of 7.5m, 1.2 m wide, and 10 cm height and sow the seed in rows of 6 cm apart and 0.5 cm deep. • Apply a thin layer of compost on the bed before mulching with rice straw and cover them with a mesh screen net. • Thin seedlings at the first true leaf stage. They will be ready for transplant in about 5- to 6-weeks depending on the sowing season.


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Transplanting • About 6-9 days before transplanting, seedlings are hardened by slightly withholding water and exposing them to strong sunlight by removing the netting. • This will decrease the transplanting shock. The seedlings are thoroughly watered 12-14 hours before transplanting to the field. • Generally, seedlings are ready to set in the field 4-6 weeks after sowing. Transplant seedlings at the spacing 90×60 cm. Manure requirement: 25-30 t/ha, 120:100:50 kg/ha N:P2O5:K20 Irrigation: give once in 6-7 days Rouging: Stages Off types characters 1. Before flowering. 2. At Flowering stage 3. At Fruiting stage.

based on plant characters like plant height, leaf color, leaf size, leaf shape Based on flower color, shape Rouging can be performed based on fruit size, shape and color, and other plant Characters

Field inspections: A minimum of four inspections shall be made as follows (1st during before flowering, 2nd and 3rd during flowering and 4th maturation stage) Harvesting: • In brinjal harvesting has to be done in 8 to 10 pickings. • For seed production, fruits are allowed to ripen fully to ensure complete seed development and maturity. • In general, the color of fully matured fruits fades and turns normal colour to yellow. For open-pollinated cultivars, only the ripe yellow fruits are harvested. Seed Extraction and Drying ü The selected fruits are to be cut into pieces and put in the cement tank with water for 1012 hours for fermentation. ü The fruits can be allowed for over ripening for one or two days. This facilitates for easy pulping of fruits. ü Then fruits are to be made into pulp by manually. Add excess quantity of water and after ½ hour, remove the floating pulp fraction and collect the seeds settled at the bottom. ü For large scale seed extraction we can use the brinjal seed extractor. The seeds extracted by this machine may again be treated with concentrated HCl @ 2-3 ml/kg seed with equal volume of water for 3-5 minutes with constant stirring and then seed should be washed with water for three to four times. Seed yield:100-120kg/ha. Hybrid seed production Hybrid seed production technique: Manual method / emasculating and pollinatio Popular hybrids:


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Long: Pusa Hybrid-5, RHRBH-3, BSS-513, BSS-127, Navina, Lonag Purple, Mamata, PPL-74, HABH-18, Sachin.,TSX-251, NBH-171, GS-82-2WA, ARBH-201 Round: Pusa Hybrid-6, VRBHR-1, Utsav, BSS-540, Raveena, Surbhi, Neelma, Kuroi, HABH17, Anurag, NDBH-1, Isolation : The distance of Foundation stage : 200 m and Certified stage : 200 m Seed rate: 430 g of female seeds and 70 g male seeds. Method of planting: Row ratio: 5:1 (or) 6:1 Female & Male or block system Emasculation Flower buds about one to two days away from opening should be chosen for emasculation. At this stage, the petals are still white. Emasculating very young flower buds could lead to injury to the style and ovary. On the other hand, emasculating large flower buds which petals have turned violet color are not recommended since the likelihood of self-pollination is high. To emasculate, use sharp-pointed forceps to open the unopened bud, and then carefully remove all the anthers inside leaving only the petals, ovary, and style.The emasculated flower buds are covered with bags or left uncovered depending on the field isolation condition and insect activity. Pollen collection Pollen flowers are collected from the male plants in the early morning hours before the anthers dehisce. After most of the anthers have dehisced in the container, the pollen is gathered in convenient small-sized vessels by vibrating the flowers. An alternative pollen collection method uses a specially made vibrator and adopts the same principle of shaking the dehiscent flowers to force the pollen to shed. Pollination Using a small pair of scissors, cut two calyxes of the emasculated flower buds the mark the hybridized buds. Then, the stigma is dipped into pollen mass kept in a suitable pollen container. Pollination can also be done by dipping the tip of the little finger into a pool or pollen, then touching the stigma with the pollen-covered finger. Mark the pollinated flowers with either small rubber bands or strings or tin ties on the peduncles. Any un hybridized old flowers of the female plants should be removed Seed yield: 50-60 kg/ha. Grading: 4.0 (r)/2.10 (r) mm perforated metal sieve. Field standard Factors Certified Renames Off types 0.20 Other types Objectionable weed plants Disease Plants

0.50

Strict roughing for Phomosis blight and little leaf diseases.


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Seed Standards Standards Pure seed (min) Inert matter (max) Other crop seed (max) Total weed seed (max) Objectionable weed seed (min) Germination (min) Moisture (max)

Foundation 98.0 2.0 None None None 70 8

Certified 98.0 2.0 None None None 70 8

Hybrid seed production of bhendi Land: • Free from Volunteer plants • Fertile, well drained free from soil borne diseses Isolation: 500 m(FS) and 250m (CS) Time of sowing: Through out year Preparation of land: to fine tilth Seed source: Approved source Planting Ratio: 4:1 (block method) Seed rate: 12kg: 3kg (Female: Male) Method of sowing: ridges and furrows Spacing: Female: 60x45cm Male: 45x30cm Fetilizers: 30 tos of FYM, N:P:K=350ssp:125MOP:300 ammo sulphate Season : 1) June - August 2) Nov - January 3) Mar - May Irrigation Immediately after sowing and then once in a week (or) 10 days depending on the soil moisture irrigation should be given. Organizing the crossing programme 1. Rough out all off-types before commencement of the crossing programme 2. Select proper size bud about to open next day 3. Restrict emasculation to evening hours 2 pm to 6 pm and pollination to morning between 9 am to 12 pm 4. Emasculation should be complete and perfect 5. Remove any un-emasculated flower without fail 6. Cover the male buds with paper pockets the previous day 7. Emasculated buds should be covered perfectly with butter paper covers or straw to identify for pollination next day 8. Tie a thread to pedicel of the bud immediately after pollination Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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9. Close the crossing programme and nip the top end and maintain 6-8 fruits per plant. Plant protection: Pests • Jassids, Aphids, whit flies: Roger 30 EC1ml/l or Imidacloprid 1ml/l, Acephate 1gm/l • Borers: Monocrotophos 2ml/l or Sevin 1g/l or Methomyl 1ml/l • Red spidermite: Dicofol 2m/l or Majastar 1.5/l Disease • Yellow vein mosaic:Control Jassids • Powdery mildew: Sulfur 2g/l Roguing: Both in male and female –offtypes, YVM infected plants Charectes of roguing; Plant height, leaf and stem charecters, pigmentation, flower size and shape, fruit shape ect. Field Inspection A minimum of three inspections shall be made, the first before flowering, the second during peak flowering and fruiting stage and the third at mature fruit stage and prior to harvesting. Harveting and threshing: Pods should be harvested when they have dried (35 days pld). Varities with anguler pods, which open along sutures, should be harvested promptly to avoide shettering. Pods are picked by hand and threshed by flailing seeds by hand or beat with sticks. Seed Yield:10-12 qtl/ha Field standards Factor FS CS Off types 0.10 0.20 Objectionable weed seed None None Seed standards Foundation Certified Pure seed (Min) 99% 99 Inert matter (Max) 1 1 Other crop seeds (Max) None 5/kg Total weed seed (Max) None None Objectionable weed seed (Max) None None ODV 10/kg 20/kg Germination 65% 65% Moisture 10% 10% Vapour Proof Containers (Max) 8 8

Onion seed production Land Requirement: Select fields in which an onion crop was not grown in the previous year unless it is the same variety and certified by seed certification agency for its purity. The soil should be rich in organic matter and have good water holding capacity.


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Isolation requirement: Onion is largely cross-pollinated crop with up to 93 per cent natural crossing. It is chiefly pollinated by honeybees. For pure seed production the seed fields should be isolated by at least 1000 m for foundation seed production and 500 m for certified seed production. Methods of seed production There are two methods of seed production 1. Seed to seed method and 2. Bulb to seed method. Seed to seed method (Insitu method): The bulbs of first season crop is left to over winter in the field so as to produce seed in the following season Bulb to seed method: The bulbs produced in the previous season are lifted selected stored and replanted to produce seed in the second year. Mostly the bulb to seed method is used for seed production because of the following advantages over the seed to seed method. a. It permits selection of true to type and healthy bulbs for seed production b. Seed yields are comparatively very high. The seed to seed method however can be practiced for varieties having a poor keeping quality. First season (bulb production) Sowing time (Nursery): Mid of October to Mid of November. Around 2000 square meters of nursery is sufficient to plant one hectare. Seed rate: 8-10 kgs /ha Transplanting: 8-10 weeks old seedlings are planted in small seed beds in well prepared fields by following a spacing of 10-15cm depending upon the bulb size. Fertilization: it requires 200 kg urea, 300 kg super phosphate and 100 kg murate of potash. Harvesting and curing of bulbs: well-matured bulbs should be harvested. Maturity is indicated by the tops drooping just above the bulb, while the leaves are still green. After harvesting the bulbs should be topped leaving an half-inch neck. Before storage a through selection and curing of bulbs should be done. The length of time required for curing depends on weather conditions and may take 3-4 weeks. Storage: The essentials of successful storage are 1. The bulbs should be well matured dried and cured before storage. 2. Storage should be well ventilated. 3. Storage should be done in shallow trays with perforated bottoms Planting of bulbs and seed Production (Second Year) 1. Time of planting bulbs: second fortnight of October 2. Seed Rate: true to type bulbs are selected based on colour, size, shape Bulb size 2.5 3.0 cm diameter – 15 q of bulbs /ha Bulb size 3.0 – 4.0 cm diameter – 40 - 50 q of bulbs /ha 3. Spacing: 8-10 cm deep at 45 x 30 cm Fertilizers: 60:60:30 N:P:K kg per ha. Rouging of seed crop:


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First year: It is desirable to begin rouging in the field before bulbs are harvested, look for plants having different foliage or plant type or late maturing bulbs. After harvesting, the bulbs should be rouged for color and such off types a thick necks, doubles, bottlenecks or any other type. Second Year: Plant only selected true to type bulbs and remove plants not confirming to varietal characters before flowering. Field Inspection A. Mother bulb production stage: minimum of two inspections shall be made (after transplanting and after bulbs harvested B. Seed production stage: minimum of four inspections shall be made (before flowering, flowering and maturity) Harvesting and threshing: seed is ready for harvest when first formed seed in the heads get blackened. 2-3 pickings are necessary to harvest the heads. Seed heads after harvest are thoroughly dried with sir circulation. Heads are threshed when seeds separate easily. Before storage seed must be dried to 6-8% moisture. Seed yield: 5-7 q per ha.

Field standards Off-types Seed standards Pure seed (minimum) Inert matter (maximum) Other crop seeds (maximum) Weed seeds Germination (minimum) Moisture (maximum) For vapour-proof containers (maximum)

Foundation

Certified

0.10

0.20

98 2 5/kg 5/kg 70 8 6

98 2 10/kg 10/kg 70 8 6

Seed production in cabbage Method of seed production Three methods are followed for seed production 1. Head to seed method 2. Seed to seed method 1. Head to seed method This method mostly followed in nucleus seed production. True to type compact heads are selected, uprooted and replanted in separate plot during November-December. Before replanting, the outer leaves are removed and plants are left in the field in such a way that whole stem below the head is buried in to the ground. 2. Seed to seed method (Insitu method)


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For certified seed production seed to seed method is commonly followed by using high quality seeds. Plants are allowed to grow, overwinter and produce seed in their original position where they were first planted as seedling. This method is again divided into three sub methods a. Head intact method: Here the plants are allowed to over winter at the place of original planting as seedling. Head formation is completed by mid-December. With the rise in temperature in the first fortnight of March, the developing flower stalk exerts as internal pressure and the head starts bursting. To facilitate the flower stalk to emerge easily, uniformly two vertical cross cut with a sharp knife are made in the heads. b. Stump method: The fully matured heads are cut just below the base, keeping the stem with outer whorl of leaves intact. The stumps thus left will develop throw flowering shoots from axillary buds during spring. c. Stump with central core method Instead of removing the whole heads they are chopped off on all sides with downward perpendicular cuts in such a way that central core is not damaged. The flowering shoot arise from the terminal and auxiliary buds. Seed to seed method of seed production Climatic requirements • It’s a cool season crop; it thrives best in a relatively cool moist climate. • The optimum temperature for growth and head formation is 15-20 ˚C • For transition from vegetative to reproductive stage its required 4.4 to 10 ˚C Soil requirements Selected field in which the same kind of crop or any other cole crop was not grown in the previous season and land should be fertile. Isolation: 1600 m for FS and 1000 m for CS. Seeds, season and sowing: Seed rate: 500-700 g ha-1 Nursery may be raised in June-July for early varieties in mid hills and late varieties in May-june in mid and high hills. Transplanting: the seedlings of 5-6 leaf stage are fit for transplanting. The seedlings are to planted during evening with a spacing of 45×45 cm. just after transplanting light irrigation must be provided. Fertilizer: 50-60 tonns FYM per ha and 100-150: 40-50: 30-40 kg N: P:K is required. Rouging: First rouging is done at the time of handling the mature heads. All off types plants/diseases plants and undesirable types are removed. Second rouging is done before the heads start bursting. The loose, leaved poorly heading plants must be rouged out. Subsequent rouging of off types, diseased plants should be done.


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Field Inspection: A minimum of three inspections shall be made, the first before the marketable stage of heads, the second when heads have formed and the third at the flowering stage. Harvesting and threshing When 70 per cent of the pods on a branch have changed to yellowish to brown colour and seed turns brown it is cut whole with a sharp sickle and piled up for curing. Harvested crop is filed up in small heaps for curing either on tarpaulin or cement floor. Later seeds threshed by beating with stick. Seed yield: 500-700 kg ha-1 Foundation Certified Field standards Off-types 0.10 0.20 Seed standards Pure seed (minimum) 98 98 Inert matter (maximum) 2 2 Other crop seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg Weed seeds 5/kg 10/kg Germination (minimum) 70 70 Moisture (maximum) 7 7 For vapour-proof containers (maximum) 5 5

Seed production in cauliflower Climatic requirements • It’s a cool season crop; it thrives best in a relatively cool moist climate. • The optimum temperature for growth and curd formation is 15-22 ˚C • For transition from vegetative to reproductive stage its required 4.4 to 10 ˚C Soil requirements Selected field in which the same kind of crop or any other cole crop was not grown in the previous season and land fertile sandy loamy to clay soils are more preferred. Isolation: 1600 m for FS and 1000 m for CS. Method of seed production 1. Seed to seed method (Insitu) 2. Head to seed method For seed production seed to seed method is recommended. In this method crop is allowed to complete its vegetative phase, bolt flower and produce seed in the same field where seedlings are transplanted. Seeds, season and sowing: Seed rate: 400-600 g ha-1 Nursery may be raised in May-June for early varieties in mid hills and late varieties in June-July in mid and high hills.


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Transplanting: the seedlings of 12-15 cm height or 5-6 leaf stage leaf stage are fit for transplanting. The seedlings are to planted during evening with a spacing of 60×45 cm. just after transplanting light irrigation must be provided. Fertilizer: 50-60 tonns FYM per ha and 100-120: 40-50: 70-80 kg N: P:K is required. Scooping: scooping the central portion of curd when it is fully formed helps in the early emergence of the flower stalks. Rouging: First rouging is done at the time of handling the mature curds. All off type’s plants/diseases plants and those forming poor curds are removed. Subsequent rouging of off types, diseased plants should be done. Field Inspection: A minimum of three inspections shall be made, the first before the marketable stage of heads, the second when heads have formed and the third at the flowering stage. Harvesting and threshing: Harvest the crop when pods turn to brown or yellow brown colour. After harvesting it is piled up for curing. After 4-5 days it is turned upside down and allowed to cure for another 4-5 days in the same way. Then it is threshed with sticks. Seed yield: 325-375 kg ha-1 Foundation Certified Field standards Off-types 0.10 0.20 Seed standards Pure seed (minimum) 98 98 Inert matter (maximum) 2 2 Other crop seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg Weed seeds 5/kg 10/kg Germination (minimum) 65 65 Moisture (maximum) 7 7

Seed production in carrot Climate • Is widely adapted to cool climates. A warm atmosphere is desirable for maturity and plants that mature in this climate are tough and woody. • Seed stalk formation results only when plants are subjected to a subsequent temperature of 12.2 to 21.1 ˚C. Soil: land should be free volunteer plants should be deep, with good drainage and fertility. Isolation: 1000 m for FS and 800 m CS. Methods of seed production Seeds are produced by two methods a. Root to seed method b. Seed to seed method


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Root to seed method: here seeds are sowing the field. At the time of maturity roots fully developed roots are lifted and selection of true to type is made. Selected roots are transplanted in the main field and allow for seed development. Later at the time of maturity seeds are harvested. • This method is followed for seed production of nucleus, breeder and foundation seed where we can produce quality seeds. Seed to seed method: here seeds are used for sowing purpose and roots are not lifted, left in the field itself and allow for seed setting. Seeds are harvested at the time of maturity. • This method is followed only for seed production of certified seed In carrot seed to seed and root to seed methods can be followed. Generally, the later one is preferred because root rot is very high in seed to seed method. Root to seed method First season: Mother Root production Time of sowing: Asiatic types sown in September-October and Europeans type during Julyaugust Preparation of land: It need deep loose soil for the best development. Prepared the land to fine tilth by repeated ploughing. Seed rate and sowing : 2.5 to 3.5 kg per ha. Seeds have to be sown on ridges and furrows Fertilization: For roots production apply 25 tonnes of FYM ha-1 and 90:90:90 kg N:P:K kg ha-1 Irrigation: given once in 10 days interval Harvesting: uproot the plants when they have fully developed roots Second season (seed production) Preparation and planting of stecklings • Lift mature roots carefully, any damage to the roots may expose roots to bacterial and fungal infections and eventual rotting and those infected can be removed. • Discard misshapen, diseased, or mechanically damaged roots • The top of roots is cut leaving about one third portion intact and the root is cut about one fourth from tip • Transplant the stecklings so that the growing point is placed just below the surface of the firmed soil. • Irrigate every 2-3 days to avoid desiccation until most stecklings regenerate shoots. Fertilization: For roots production apply 25 tonnes of FYM ha-1 and 90:90:90 kg N:P:K kg ha-1 Irrigation: given once in 10 days interval Rouging • Remove plants which show atypical foliage, bolt during the seed-to-root phase or early during root-to-seed phase. • Lift the roots and inspect for trueness-to-type to the cultivar based on root shape, colour, size, etc and discard roots showing different colour, split or fanged roots or those with rough (hairy) surface. Pollination Carrots undertake both cross and self-pollination. Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65

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Cross-pollination- individual carrot flowers are normally protandrous and much crosspollination occurs between plants in a seed crop. • Self-pollination:- occurs because of the extended flowering period, resulting from several successive umbels per plant and the succession of flowers on individual umbels • Honeybees are efficient pollinators of carrots and placing beehives in seed production fields can enhance seed yield and quality. Field Inspection 1. Mother Root Production Stage: A minimum of two inspections 2. Seed Production Stage: A minimum of four inspections shall be made Seed maturity and harvesting Carrots have a distinct order of flowering and maturity depending on umbel position. At maturity, seeds turn from dark green to brown and remain suspended on the umbel because of the racemes (little hooks that cover a seed). Seed are commonly harvested by hand pickings. Two to three pickings often may necessary. After drying heads are threshed and cleaned. After cleaning the seed is rubbed by hand to remove the bristles on the surface. Seed yield: 500 to 600 kg per ha. Seed standards Foundation Certified Field standards Off types 0.10 0.20 Seed standards Pure seed (Min) 95 95 Inert matter (Max) 5 5 Other crop seeds (Max) 5/kg 10/kg Total weed seed (Max) 5/kg 10/kg ODV 5/kg 5/kg Germination 60% 60% Moisture 8 8 Vapour Proof Containers (Max) 7 7 •

Seed production in radish Climate • Is widely adapted to cool or moderate climates. Flowering of radish is biannual types generally influenced by temperature • Low temperature is critical for causing flowering Soil: land should be free volunteer plants should be sandy and sandy loamy soils are preferred. Isolation: 1600 m for FS and 1000 m CS. Methods of seed production Seeds are produced by two methods


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b. Root to seed method b. Seed to seed method Root to seed method First season: Mother root production Time of sowing: Asiatic types sown in September-October and Japanese type during august Preparation of land: It need deep loose soil for the best development. Prepared the land to fine tilth by repeated ploughing. Seed rate and sowing: 8 to 10 kg per ha. Seeds have to be sown on ridges and furrows at the rate of 45×10 cm. Fertilization: For roots production apply 20 tonnes of FYM ha-1 and 100:50:50 kg N:P:K kg ha-1 Irrigation: given once in 8-10 days interval Harvesting: Fully developed roots are lifted along with tops and arranged in rows to select the true to type roots. Roots are selected based on size, shape and pithiness. Second season (seed production) Preparation of steckling and transplanting • The selected roots are used for preparing the steckling • Roots are prepared by giving two-third shoot cut and half to three-fourths root cut. • The prepare stecklings are used for transplanting at the rate of 45-60 ×8-10 cm spacing Fertilization: For roots production apply 20 tonnes of FYM ha-1 and 100:50:50 kg N:P:K kg ha-1 Irrigation: given once in 8-10 days interval Roguing: it can be carried out based on leaf colour, flower characteristics etc. Field inspections: as same as carrot Harvesting and threshing Harvest the crop when they dry and turn creamy straw yellow in colour. The crop is cut at fully matured stage and threshed can be done by beating the sticks. Seed yield: 700-1000 kg ha-1 Seed standards Foundation Certified Field standards Off types 0.10 0.20 Seed standards Pure seed (Min) 98 98 Inert matter (Max) 2 2 Other crop seeds (Max) 5/kg 10/kg Total weed seed (Max) 10/kg 20/kg Germination 70% 70% Moisture 6 6 Vapour Proof Containers (Max) 5 5


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Seed processing Seed drying Lowering down the seed moisture content to safe moisture limits is very important in order to maintain seed viability and vigor, which may otherwise deteriorate fast due to mold growth and increased micro-organism activity. The advantages of seed drying are it permits early harvest, so that land and manpower can be used efficiently, permit long term storage and maintains the seed quality. Methods of seed drying 1. Sun drying 2. Forced air drying Sun drying It is a common method of drying followed in the field or threshing yard by using the radiant energy of the sun. Seeds should be spread in a thin layer to enhance the uniform drying of the seeds. Seeds with high moisture content should be shade dried and later exposed to sun drying. Sun dried seeds should not be kept open in the threshing yard during night times, since it absorbs moisture from the air. The main advantage of natural drying is that • It is an easy and cheap method • No need of special equipments • No need of technical persons But there are many disadvantages like • Slow drying • Requirement of a large floor area • Loss due to pest and disease attack and high weather risks • Sun drying is advisable only in the morning and evening hours • Drying in mid noon causes damage to seed quality Forced air drying The seed is placed in drying bin upto the recommended depth. Natural or heated air of recommended temperatures is forced through damp seeds to remove the moisture content. The heat necessary for removing the moisture content comes from the temperature of air. Types of forced air drying 1. Natural air drying – Natural air is used in this type of drying method. 2. Drying with supplemental heat – In this method temperature of the air is raised to about 10 to 20 ˚F for reducing relative humidity of the air. 3. Heated Air drying – In this method the drying air is heated to 110 ˚F. Among the three methods heated air drying system is used to dry the seeds in India. Heated air drying system It mainly consists of following different parts 1. Building requirements


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a. Storage structures (Bins) b. Air distribution system 2. Heating unit 3. Fans 4. Thermostatic control Building requirements a. Storage structures (bins) Storage structures are made of steel, wood, concrete, plywood and these may be cylindrical or rectangular in shape. Requirements of storage structures 1. Adequate strength: Seeds of small grains in bulk exert large pressure against the sidewalls. A sound foundation is necessary 2. Weather tight: The roof and walls must keep out rain and snow, which are important causes for the damage of stored seed. For drying the seeds satisfactorily the walls must be airtight. 3. Easy to fill and empty: The openings for filling and removal of seed should be large enough and so situated that minimum time is lost in filling and unloading the seed. A full size entrance door is desirable. 4. Convenient to inspect, fumigate and clean : For easy inspection there should be 60 120 cms of headspace above the seed. Cleaning and spraying are mad comparatively easy if sharp corners are avoided. 5. Multiple Use. The structure should be usable for drying and storage of more than one kind of crop. 6. Good air distribution system. The air distribution system should be able to carry adequate quantities of air for the drying of seed, and distribute it as uniformly as possible through all portions of the seed bulk. Types of storage structures a. Bin dryers: bins are constructed with solid walls and false slotted floor and an opening on the top and one at the bottom through which air may pass. It should be air tight, moisture resistant and rodents proof. b. Wagon Drying: It is a special type of batch drying with heated air. The seed is directly loaded from a combine into a wagon that is specially built for drying. The wagon is drawn to the dryer and connected to the canvass distribution duct. The heated air is forced through the perforations of the wagon floor for drying the seed. After drying is over it is disconnected from the heating system and the seed is cooled with a small fan. c. Bag Drying: Jute bags are used for drying. The bags are stacked in such a way that tunnel is formed. The tunnel is kept open from one side where the fan is fixed and closed from other side. Stacks should be compact so that air will not go out.


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d. Box Drying: It is a modified bag drier. The boxes are made locally with perforated bottoms. Hot air is forced through the bottoms. After drying the boxes are shifted to storage area. b. Air distribution system There are three main types of air distribution systems. 1. Main and lateral duct system: in this system the main duct is located in the centre or one side of the bin. 2. Single central perforated duct system: in this system main duct is made of perforated metal is located in the centre of the bin. For drying the air should be forced upwards through the seed. The sidewalls of the bin must be perforated so that air can flow laterally through the seed. This type of air distribution system is more commonly used for drying maize cobs. 3. Perforated false floor air distribution system: the air is introduced in the bin through the perforated false metal sheet floor to dry the seeds. Heating unit Air used for drying can be heated by using any type fuel such as kerosene oil, diesel, coal, natural gas, wood and electricity etc. Heating system are of two types 1. Direct fired: In this the fuel is burned and the hot combustion gasses are thrown directly into the air stream which goes into the air distribution system. The fuel used is liquid propane gas, butane gas or natural gas. Advantages of this system are it is highly heat efficient. The disadvantages are there is possibility of blowing soot entering into the air distribution system. Unburnt fuel and objectionable fumes may enter the seed bin. With some fuels there is also danger of blowing small sparks into the seed, leading to fire hazards. 2. Indirect Fired: The hot combustion gasses pass into a chamber. The drying air circulates around this chamber and picks up the heat and enters the air distribution system. The fuel used is kerosine oil or rarely coal. The advantages of this system are, there is no possibility of combustion gasses or soot entering the bin and it safe with respect to fire hazards. One of the disadvantage is it is less efficient in use of heat. Fans: are used to force the air through the seeds Thermostatic control: useful to control the temperature Types of forced air seed dryers 1. Layer in Bin Dryer: In this method the bin is filled to a specific depth depending upon seed moisture, the drying unit and bin sizes. The hot air is forced into the bin to dry the seed. After drying this seed to safe moisture level for storage, next layer is added. 2. Batch Dryer: the seed is placed in bin with inner air chamber surrounded by two parallel perforated steel walls that contain seed up to desired thickness. After drying the seed is removed and replaced by another batch. Batch dryers are generally rectangular or cylindrical. 4. Continuous Dryers: In this method there is a continuous flow of seed through feeder whereas dried seed is collected at the outlet.


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Example: LSU type dryer: Louisiana state university dryers Drying temperature for drying the seeds with different moisture content Moisture content Temperature 10 % and below 110˚F (43.3 ˚C) 10-18 % 100 ˚F (37.7 ˚C) 18-30 % 90 ˚F (32.2 ˚C) Seed processing Seed lots received from the field are often at high moisture content and contain trash and other inert material, weed seeds, deteriorated and damaged seeds, off-size seeds, etc. Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level; remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed seeds, other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds. Seed processing plant layout planning Layout plan for construction of a seed processing plant should be carefully planned to ensure that the thorough seed cleaning, upgrading, seed treatment and other seed processing operations are carried out efficiently, without mixing and damaging seed lots, with a minimum of equipment, personnel, time and at minimum cost. The following factors should be considered in planning and designing a seed processing plant: 1. Kinds of crop seeds to be handled and kinds of contaminating crop and weed seeds usually present in the seed lots 2. Size of operation 3. Whether drying facilities should be required 4. Selection of suitable equipment 5. Location of the plant 6. Source of power for running machinery 7. System of seed delivery to processing plant and Type of Layouts There are three main types of processing plant layouts: multistorey, single level and combination. Multistorey: In this system, seed is carried by elevators to the top floor and emptied into large bins. Cleaning machines are then arranged in a vertical series on the lower floors. Seed flows from one machine down into the next by gravity. Single level: In the single storey plant, seed is moved from one machine to the next by elevators placed between the machines. A great advantage of the single level system is that one man can supervise the processing line without running up and downstairs. He can thus maintain closer supervision of all operations. Combined designs: A compromise between the single and multistorey system could also be adapted.


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Principles of seed processing 1. There should be complete separation 2. Minimum seed loss 3. Upgrading should be possible for any particular quality 4. Efficiency 5. It should have only minimum requirement

Sequence of operations in seed processing plant Receiving

Pre-conditioning

Basic-cleaning Grading and separating

Drying

Storage Treating Storage Bagging Transport

Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65 Page 100

List of equipments used in processing plant Conveyors ü Belt conveyor ü Bucket elevator ü Screw conveyor ü Pneumatic conveyor Pre-cleaning and pre-conditioning are ü Scalper or Rough Cleaner ü Huller Scarifier ü Debearder ü Maize Sheller Basic cleaning 1. Air screen cleaner Seed grading ü Disc or indented cylinder separator ü Specific gravity separator ü Spiral separator or draper separator ü Electronic colour separator ü Magnetic separator Seed treatment ü Slurry treater ü Direct treaters Panogen Mist-O-Matic treater ü Drum mixer ü Grain auger ü Shovel Packaging equipments ü Bagging ü Bagger–weigher: ü Bag sewing machine Pre-cleaning and pre-conditioning This is the operation that prepares a seed lot for basic cleaning. The equipment required for preconditioning is generally specific for individual crops. Some of the equipments are Scalper Scalpers are used to remove large trash. They consist of a vibrating screen and the screen perforations are large enough to allow the seeds to pass through and retains the large inert matter on the screen, which is scalped off and removed from the seed lots. The single sieve pre-cleaners are called as scalpers and the multiple sieve units are referred as rough cleaners. The rough cleaners are the simple air screen seed cleaners that separate large trash over a large hole screen


and separation of small foreign material through a small hole screen. Most scalpers are arranged to make the air separation before the seed reach the screen. Huller – Scarifier Huller is a device to remove husk or outer seed coat. Scarifier scratches the seed coat. In a huller scarifier, the seed falls from the feed hopper on to a rotating disc, where they are thrown against the hulling and scarifying surface by centrifugal force either once or twice and the seed is hulled or scarified to the desired extent. After this operation the seeds are moved into a suction chamber where the suction removes the light, fine dust and the seed is discharged at the bottom of the chamber. Debearder The Debearder removes the hair like structures present on the seeds. The Debearder machine has a horizontal beater with arms rotating inside a steel drum. The machine rubs the seeds against the arms and against each other. The degree of action is determined by the processing time, beater clearance and beater speed. Examples: Barley and wheat Maize Sheller The size of maize sheller’s vary from small hand operated ones to large motor driven shellers. Hand operated maize sheller are used for shelling small seed lots like breeders seed and nucleus seed, while the Power operated maize shellers are used for high capacity shelling specially for foundation seed lots and certified seed lots. Basic Seed Cleaning It refers to actual cleaning and grading of seeds and is essential process in seed cleaning operation. The basic seed cleaning is done over an air screen machine commonly referred to as an air screen cleaner. It is the basic equipment in all seed processing plants. Air Screen Machine Principle: The separation of undesirable material from seed is done on the basis of differences in seed size and weight. The air screen machine uses three cleaning elements: 1. Aspiration: the light seed and chaffy material is removed from the seed mass through aspiration. 2. Scalping: Good seed are dropped through screen openings but large material (trash, clods etc.) are scalped off over the screen into a separate spout. 3. Grading: The good seed ride over the screen openings, while smaller particles (undersized, weed seeds, shriveled) drop through the screen perforations. Principle of Operation of air screen machine: ü The air blast removes lightweight seed and chaffy seed. ü Scalping screen removes material larger than the crop seed. ü Grading screen drop out material smaller than crop seed. In four screen cleaner, the screens do the following ü First screen does scalping ü Second screen does grading


ü Third screen does close scalping ü Fourth screen does close grading The seed to be cleaned is fed from the feed hopper which passes through the upper air which removes light seed, chaffy seed and dust particles. The top screen is used for rough scalping. Its perforations are large enough so that good seeds will be dropped through screen perforations and material bigger than seed like trash, stems, sticks, mud particles etc. are scalped off on the screen. The second screen is used for grading. Its perforations are smaller than the seed size so that good seeds are retained on the screen and small dust particles, inert matter and weed seeds drop through the perforations and are separated. The third screen is used for close scalping and fourth screen is used for final close grading. Separating and grading Physical characteristics used to separate seeds are ü Size : Based on size it can be separated with air screen cleaner cum grader ü Length : Disc or indented cylinder separator ü Weight : Specific gravity separator ü Shape : Spiral separator or draper separator for round and flat seeds ü Surface texture : Rough from smooth surface seed- dodder mill or magnetic separator ü Colour : Electronic colour separator Disc separator It consists of a series of discs, which revolve together on a horizontal shaft inside the cylindrical body. Each disc contains many under cut pockets. The seed enter the intake end of the separator and move through the open centers of the discs towards the discharge end of machine. As the discs revolve through the seed mass the pockets lift out short seed but rejects longer seed. Longer seeds are conveyed by flights on the disc spokes towards the discharge end of the machine where they go out through the tailings gate. The rate of seed travel through the open disc centers is controlled by conveyor or blades attached to the spokes of the discs. The discs separator makes a very precise separation. No factor other than seed length and shape affects its separation. Flexibility is obtained by varying the size of the pockets. Indented cylinder separator The indented cylinder separator is a rotating, almost horizontal cylinder with a movable, horizontal separating adjustments which are mounted inside it. Indents line are there inside the surface of the cylinder. The indented cylinder revolves, turning the seed mass to give each seed a chance to fit into indent. Short seeds are lifted out of the seed mass and are dropped into the lifting through long seeds remain in the cylinder and are discharged out via. separate spout at the end of the cylinder. Specific gravity separator Seeds of the same size and general shape can often be separated because they differ in specific gravity or relative weight. This difference is very useful in removing light, immature seeds or heavy sand and rocks to improve the purity and germination of crop seeds.


As seeds flow on the deck of the gravity separator, they enter a column of air coming up through the porous surface of the deck. The pressure of terminal velocity of the air rising through the deck can be controlled very closely to separate two kinds of seeds differing in specific gravity, the air is adjusted so that only the lighter seeds are lifted up off the deck surface. These lighter seeds are held up by air pressure and tend to float on the deck surface. The heavier seed possess a velocity greater than that of the air column's so they are not lifted and so will lie on the deck surface. The air column thus stratifies the seed mixture into vertical zones of relative weight with the heavier seed lying on the deck and the lighter seeds lifted up to the top of the seed mass. Magnetic separator The magnetic separator performs separation on the basis of surface texture and stickiness properties of the grain. Since the grain do not contain any free iron therefore, are not by magnet. A selective pre-treatment of mixing finely ground iron powder to feed mass is given. The grain mixture is fed to a screw conveyor or other mixing device that tumbles and mixes the grain with a proportioned amount of water. Due to moisture, iron powder adheres to rough, cracked, broken and sticky seed coats. Seed treatment Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or both to the seeds to disinfect (deep seated) and disinfest (over seed coat) them from seed borne or soil borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to subjecting the seed to solar energy exposure or immersion in conditional water. Types of seed treatment 1. Seed disinfection: It refers to eradication of fungal spores present within the seed coat or more deep seated tissues. For effective control the fungicide must penetrate into the seed to kill the fungus. 2. Seed disinfestations: It refers to the destruction of surface borne organisms that contaminated the seed surface but not infected the seed. Chemical dips, soaks, fungicides applied as dust, slurry or liquids have been found successful. 3. Seed protection: To protect the seed and young seedling from organisms in the soil which might otherwise cause delay of the seed before germination. Equipment for seed treatment 1. Slurry treater Slurry is prepared by mixing the chemical with water. The treatment material to be applied as slurry is accurately measured through a simple mechanism composed of a slurry cup and seed dump pan. The cup introduces a given amount of slurry with each dump of seed into a mixing chamber where the seeds are mixed thoroughly. 2. Direct treater These are the recent ones and include panogen and Mist-OMatic treater. Of these the Misto-O-Matic treaters are widely used. The Misto-O-Matic treater applies the chemical in the form of a mist directly to the


3. Drum Mixer A simple mixer can be made by running a pipe through a drum at an angle. The drum is then mounted onto a stand. The seed and treatment are placed in the drum and it is rotated slowly until all the seeds are corned with the chemical. 4. Grain Auger Liquid materials can be dripped on the seed as they enter a grain auger or straw conveyer. By the time seeds have left the auger the chemical is spread on the seeds. 5. Shovel Seeds are spread on a clean dry surface 10 -15cm in depth. The proper amount of chemical is diluted with water and sprinkled over the seed. Mixing is done with shovel or sloop turning the seed at least 20 times. Seed packing and handling After processing and treating are completed, seeds are packaged into containers of specified net weight. Packaging or bagging is essentially the last operation in which seeds are handled in bulk flow. The packaging consists of the following operations: 1. Filling of seed bags to an exact weight. 2. Placing leaflets in the seed bags regarding improved cultivation practices 3. Attaching labels, certification tags on the seed bags, and sewing of the bags. 4. Storage/shipment of seed bags. Equipment Used for Packaging of Seeds A) Bagging (i) Bagger–weigher: These are small machines which, when properly mounted beneath a bin, will fill and weigh a bag accurately in a single operation. (ii) Bag sewing machine: After an open-mouth bag is filled, the bag top must be sewed with a bag sewing machine. Bag sewing machines are precision, high speed machines and must be operated and maintained properly to prevent frequent break-downs and a short operating life. For proper operation, the bag sewing machine must be. Preparation of seed lot number It consists of 5 parts (JAN 14- 10- 141- E- 10) I II III IV V I. Month of harvesting and year of production II. Code of State (Example; Karnataka 10) III. Seed processing plant code IV. Seed certification agency sub division code V. Lot number


Seed storage Seed storage is the maintenance of high seed germination and vigour from harvest until planting. Depending on the longevity of seeds during storage, seeds can be divided into two categories; 1. Orthodox Seeds: Orthodox seeds are long-lived seeds. They can be successfully dried to moisture contents as low as 5% without injury and are able to tolerate freezing temperatures. Most orthodox seeds come from annual temperate species adapted to open fields. At physiological maturity they contain moisture content of 30 – 50%. 2. Recalcitrant Seeds: They are short -lived seeds, which cannot be dried to moisture contents below 30% without injury and are unable to tolerate freezing. They are difficult to store successfully because of their high moisture content encourages microbial contamination and results in more rapid seed deterioration. Principles of storage a. Seed storage conditions should be dry and cool b. Effective storage pest control c. Proper sanitation in seed stores d. Before placing seeds into storage they should be dried to safe moisture limits. e. Storing of high quality seed only i.e., well cleaned treated as well as of high germination and vigour. Stages of seed storage 1. Storage on plants (physiological maturity until harvest) 2. Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse 3. In storage's (ware houses) 4. In transit (rail, wagons, trucks, carts, railway shed etc.,) 5. In retail stores 6. On the user's farm Factors affecting seed longevity in storage 1. Genetic factors: Seeds of some species are genetically and chemically equipped for longer storability than other under comparable conditions. Seeds like onion, soybean, groundnut etc are poor stores. Seed longevity has positive association with seed coat attributes viz., its hardseedness, impermeability etc. The oilseed crops have poor storability by protein rich (pulses) and carbohydrates crops (cereals). 2. Effect of provenance: The seeds harvested from regions of high relative humidity and temperature at the time of maturation or harvesting store less than the seed harvested from the regions of low relative humidity with moderate temperature.Seeds produced at Raichur/Ranebennur can be stored longer period compared to seeds produced at Chikkamagalur/Mangalore. This is due to different climatic conditions and soil types prevailing in different places.


3. Initial seed quality: seeds with higher initial quality have more storage capacity than lower initial quality seeds. Physically damaged seeds viz., broken, cracked seed and wrinkled seeds deteriorate more rapidly than undamaged seeds. 4. Seed moisture: moisture content of the seed is important factor influencing the viability of seed during storage. The rate of seed deterioration increases with increase in moisture. At very low moisture content of 4 per cent seeds may be damaged due to extreme desiccation, or breakdown of membrane structure hastens deterioration. If the seed moisture content is in the range of 12-14 %, losses occur due to increases mould growth due to heating of the seeds and increased biological activity further which increase respiration activity and deteriorate faster. 5. Temperature: Temperature also plays an important role in life of seed. Insects and moulds increase as temperature increases and deteriorate the seeds faster. 6. Relative humidity: Harrington suggested the following thumb rules regarding optimum storage conditions. 1. For every 1% reduction in seed moisture the storage life of seed doubles (provided moisture content ranging from 4-14%) 2. For every 10 ˚F or 5 ˚C reduction in temperature in the storage doubles the life span of the seed (provided the temperature ranges between 0-50 ˚C) 3. The sum of relative humidity in percentage and temperature in ˚F or ˚C should not exceed 100. 7. Oxygen pressure during storage: Increase in oxygen pressure during storage tends to decrease the period of viability by enhancing the biological activity (respiration) of the seed. Therefore to enhance the biological activity of the seed during storage is minimized with low level of oxygen around the seeds. Types of storage for different end use or based on storage period a. Commercial seeds: about 75-80 % of the seeds produced are stored for about 6-8 months from harvest for the next planting time of the crop. The seeds must be dried to less than 14 % moisture content for starchy and less than 11 % for oily seeds. Adequate pest control measures should be taken. b. Carry over seeds: generally remaining 20-25 % of seeds are carried over in storage through one growing season for the next sowing time. Thus the storage period is about 16-20 months. Properly dried carry over seeds are stored in moisture proof bags at low temperature or in airtight metal bins. c. Foundation, stock and enforcement seed: Foundation and stock seeds may be stored for several years to minimize the genetic drift caused by multiplication in the field. The enforcement seed samples should be kept for a year or more with high germination. Storage area requirement is small as the seed quantity to be stored not large. To maintain high germinability for 3-5 years the storage area should have 25 % RH at 30 ˚C. Alternatively, small seeds lots may be stored in moisture proof metal boxes or polythene bags maintained at proper RH by a desiccant.


d. Germplasm seeds: germplasm seeds for the gene bank are to be kept for very long periods. Long term storage require coldest temperature (5 to -10 ˚C) with 20-25 % RH. Stored samples should be dried to proper moisture level. Storage containers: a. Moisture vapour permeable container, e.g., jute (burlap) bag, cloth bag, paper bag, multiwall paper bag : b. Moisture vapour resistant container, e.g., jute bag laminated with thin polythen film c. Moisture vapour proof container, e.g., tin can, polythene bags, aluminimum foil pouches, glass bottles.

Seed Marketing Seed marketing is one of the vital components of seed technology. In broad sense it covers all the activities involved in the flow of seeds from production to consumption. However in narrow sense it refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and sales promotional activities. Seed marketing comprised the followings 1. Demand forecasts a. Total cultivable area, seed rate, SRR, Seed multiplication ratio b. Impact of extension efforts c. Current acreage under high yielding varieties d. Farmers preferences e. No and size of compotators f. Kinds of publicity and sale promotional activities. g. Climate of the area where seed is being marketed. 2. Marketing Structure 3. Arrangement for storage of seeds 4. Sales promotional activities a. Print Media-News paper/news letters/Ads/ Posters/Banners b. Electronic Media-Cinima slides/Radio and TV/Mobiles/kisan call centres/Internet c. Krishi melas d. Field demonstrations e. Folk ways-skits/Mimes f. Project approaches-seed village concept g. Educational Institutions approaches-ATIC 5. Post sales service a. Technical help b. Quick follow-Up c. Attending the complaints 6. Economics of seed production and pricing Seed Production cost:


a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

All costs of crop production Cost of foundation seed Cost of specialized planting(Hybrids; male &Female sowing) Cost of other special operations(Detaselling, emasculation) Cost of additional supervision required in raising a seed crop Seed certification fee Other expenses: Construction of separate threshing yard or cleaning of floor and machineries. h. Supervision of harvesting i. Separate harvesting j. Drying losses k. Sorting of undesirable ears/heads/cobs l. Additional transportation m. Seed processing rejection n. Seed processing and testing chargers o. Seed marketing costs p. Seed storage and transportation charges q. Distribution and sales promotional costs Seed Pricing 1. Production, processing and storage cost 2. Distribution cost 3. Whole sale margin 4. Retail m 5. argin 6. Sale promotional costs 7. Risk costs 8. Over heads 9. Profit 10. Compotators price


Seed legislation and law enforcement Seeds act and Rules-1966 Introduction The seed is an important agricultural input and it plays vital plays vital role in increasing production and productivity. There is a need to safeguard the farmers with the supply of genetically pure and quality seeds. Any new variety produced by the Scientist has to be multiplied to many times to meet the needs of the farmers. In order to ensure the availability of quality seeds, Government of India have enacted seeds act 1966 and seed rules, 1968. The seed (Control) order 1983 promulgated under essential commodities act, 1955 in order to ensure the production, marketing and equal distribution of the quality seeds. Seeds Act 1966. The object of Seed Act is for regulating the quality of certain notified kind / varieties of seeds for sale and for matters connected therewith. The seed act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966 was designed to create a 'Climate' in which the seeds man could operate effectively and to make good quality seed available to cultivators. Seeds rule under the act were notified in September 1968 and the act was implemented in its entirely in October 1969. This act extent to the whole of India and it has 25 sections. Seed legislation could broadly be divided into two groups 1. Applicability: Applicable only to ‘Notified’ Variety of seeds 2. Sanctioning legislation Sanctioning legislation authorities’ formation of advisory bodies, Seed Certification Agencies, Seed Testing laboratories, Foundation and Certified Seed Programmes, Recognition of Seed Certification Agencies of Foreign countries, Appellate authorities. Satutary Bodies under the seed Act 1966 a. Central Seed Committee: The central govt established this committee which is the main technical source to advice cental and state Govts regarding the administration of seed act. b. Central Seed Citification Board: Constituted by central Govt, it deals with problems faced during implementation of seed certification programme and coordinates work of State Seed certification Agencies. c. State Seed Testing Laboratory: Constituted by central Govt, at IARI, empowerd to test all the seeds received from the state and aboard. d. State Seed Testing Laboratory: To test all seed samples produced for the state. e. Appellate Authority: To look into grievances related to SCA and seed law enforcement. f. Committee for recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries: By central Govt on recommendation of committee. 3. Regulatory legislation Regulatory Legislation controls the quality of seeds sold in the market including suitable agencies for regulating the seed quality. On quality control basis, the Seeds Act could conveniently be divided into the following: I. Minimum limit and lablelling of the notified kind / varieties of seed Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65 Page 110

a. Power to notify the kind / variety b. Labeling provisions c. Seed testing d. Seed analyst e. Seed inspectors f. Penalty II. Seed Certification III. Restriction of Import and Export of Seeds I. Minimum limits and labelling Quality control as envisaged in the Act is to be achieved through pre and post marketing control, voluntary certification and compulsory labelling of the seeds of noticed notified kind / varieties. (a) Power to notify the kind / varieties New varieties evolved by the State Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutes are notified and release /notified respectively under section 5 of the seeds act in consultation with the central seed committee and its sub committees constitute under section 3 and 3(5) of the Seeds Act. As on date more than 2500 varieties and 130 varieties were notified and denotified under this section. (b) Labeling provision Minimum limits for germination, physical purity and genetic purity of varieties / hybrids for crops have been prescribed and notified for labelling seeds of notified kind / varieties under section 6(a) of the Seeds Act. Size of the label, colour of the label and content of the label were also notified under sub clause (b) of Section 6 of Seeds Act. Accordingly no person shall keep for sale, offer to sell, barter or otherwise supply any seed of any notified kind or variety, after the dates recorded on the container mark or label as the date unto which the seed may expected to retain the germination not less than prescribed undr clause (a) of section 6 of the Act. (c) Seed Testing There is a provision to set up a central seed laboratory and state sees laboratory to discharge functions under section 4(1) and 4(2) of the Seed Act, In the year 1968 there were 23 state seed testing laboratories in the country. At present there are 86 Seed testing laboratories functioning in the country. (d) Seed Analyst State Government could appoint the Seed Analysts through notification in the Official Gazette under Section 12 of the Seed Act defining his area and his jurisdiction. Seed Analyst should posses certain minimum qualification as prescribed under clause 20 part IX of Seed Rule. The State Government, under section 13 of the Act may appoint such a person as it thinks fit, having prescribed qualification (Clause 22 part IX of Seed Rule) through notification, as a Seed (e) Seed inspectors (Seed Law Enforcement)


He has power to examine records, register document of the seed dealer. He will also exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the purposes of this Act or rule made there under. Duties of Seed inspectors are defined in clause 23 of part IX of Seed rule. He can issue stop sale order in case the seed in question contravenes the provision of relevant Act and rules for which he can use form No.III. When he seizes any record, register documents or any other material, he should inform a magistrate and take his order for which he can use form No.IV. Powers of seed Inspector a. Can take sample of any notified kind/variety from any seed seller/producer/consignee and send to STL for analysis. b. Can enter any place where he believes that an offence under this act has been or being committed. c. Can examine all the records. d. Pay cost of seeds to the person. e. Can break open any container/door where any seed of notified kind/variety may kept for sale(if owner refuses to open). (f) Penalty In the event of such person having been previously convicted of an offence under this section with imprisonment for a term, which may extend to six months or with fine, which may extent to one thousand rupees of with both. II. Seed certification The object of the Seed Certification is to maintain and make available to the public through certification high quality propagating material of notified kind / varieties so grown and distributed as to ensure genetic identify and genetic purity. The certified standards inforce are Indian Minimum seed certification standards and seed certification procedures form together for the seed certification regulations. Seed of only Seed if only those varieties which are notified under section under Section 5 of the seeds act shall be eligible for certification. • Breeder seed • Foundation seed • Certified Seed

Seed (Control) order, 1983 1. The provision of seed (control) order is applicable to all seed dealers of public/private. Salient features of Seed control order • A person carrying on the business of selling, exporting and importing of seeds needs to obtain a license • The license provided to a seed dealer remains valid only for 3 years from the date of its issue which can be later renewed


• • • • • • •

The seed dealer has to essentially display the stock position (opening and closing) on daily basis along with a list indicating prices or rates of different seeds A cash or credit memorandum has to be given by the dealer to purchaser of seeds, compulsorily The State Government is empowered with appointing a licensing authority, inspectors and mode of action for supply regulation. Under this order the time period for completion of seed analysis in case of any doubt about quality is 60 days compared to 30 days under Seed Rules Cancellation of license if obtained through misrepresentation Provision for appeal and an appellate has also been provided Provision for amendment of license and need for maintenance of records and submission of monthly returns by the dealer

New policy on seed development-1988 The Government of India evolved a new seed polity and which is implemented from October 1, 1988. The policy laid a special emphasis on - Import of high quality of seeds - A time bound programme to modernize plant quarantine facilities - Effective implementation of procedures for quarantine /post entry quarantine and - Incentives to encourage the domestive industry Import of quality seeds Import duty on seeds has been reduced to 15 cent. Import duty on advanced machines and equipment used in seed production or processing has also been reduced and interest on post shiftement credit has also been slashed down to help importers. Strengthening of quarantine Since, from 1st October 1988 only bulk import of seeds under taken without any progress either in the strengthening of quarantine facilities. Threat of pest and disease Introduction of new pest and disease would pose a new problem due to bulk import due to lack of post entry quarantine. To avoid this threat the imported seeds should be subjected to testing and it should be done by one person from ICAR. Entry of exotic variety without proper field testing may change the disease pattern if that particular strain is becoming susceptible to existing pathogens. (e.g.) Karnal burnt - which was not noticed in the previous years and because a major disease on wheat after the introduction of Kalyansona. Incentives to domestic seed industry


Income tax rebate and deduction are available to the taxpaying units on the revenue expenditure on in house research and development. Incentives area also being provided to seed with located in backward areas and growth centers.

National Seed Policy 2002 Thrust areas 1. Varietal Development and Plant Varieties Protection 2. Seed Production 3. Quality Assurance 4. Seed Distribution and Marketing. 5. Infrastructure facilities 6. Transgenic Plant Varieties 7. Import of seeds and planting material 8. Export of seeds 9. Promotion of Domestic Seed 10. Strengthening of monitoring system

Protection of Plant Variety & Farmers Rights Act-2001 The unique features of the PPVFR Act, 2001 are: • Protection for new plant varieties, essentially derived varieties, extant varieties and farmers' varieties. Farmers' varieties and extant varieties need not fulfill the requirement of newness • Safeguard for genetic use restriction technology such as "terminator gene" • Recognizing farmers as innovators, conservers, breeders, preservers of plants and plants varieties in addition to cultivators • Simplified procedure for protection of farmer's variety • Special arrangements for benefit sharing • Creation of gene fund conservation of agro biodiversity • Special provision for compensation to the farmers in case material supplied is not meeting the expected performance • Waiver of fees to farmers • Failure to supply adequate material to farmers at a reasonable price is made a ground for compulsory license • Establishment of Tribunal


Farmers' rights Farmers have right to save, use exchange, share or sell his farm produce of a protected variety except in case where the sale is for the purpose of reproduction under commercial marketing arrangement . The Farmers' right also includes the rights arising from conserving, improving and making available the genetic resources. Researchers' rights There will be a free access to protected varieties for conducting experiments or for bonafide research purposes. The use of a variety by any person as an initial source of variety for the purpose of creating other varieties is not prevented. However, the authorisation of breeder will be needed for repeated use of protected variety as a parental material for commercial production or marketing arrangement. Benefit sharing In relation to a variety, 'benefit sharing' means such proportion of the benefit accruing to a breeder of such variety or such proportion of the benefit accruing to a breeder from an agent or a licensee of such variety, as the case may be, for which a claimant shall be entitled as determined by the Authority. National Gene Fund A National Gene Fund is to be created using benefit sharing proceeds, royalties, communities' compensation, and contributions. The Fund will be utilized for (through appropriate schemes) disbursing share of organizations/individuals, compensation to village communities, maintenance and conservation of plant genetic resources and varietal development. Compulsory licensing At any time after the expiry of three years after registration of a variety, any person may apply to the Authority alleging that the reasonable requirements of the public for seeds or other propagating material of the variety have either not been satisfied or unavailable at a reasonable price and request for grant of compulsory license to produce, distribute and sell the seed or other propagating material of a variety

New Seeds Bill, 2004 Salient Features Based on the changes that have taken place in the seed sector since 1966, the existing Seeds Act, 1966 is proposed to be replaced by a suitable legislation. Over the years, the following deficiencies have been noted in the existing Seeds Act:• Registration of seed variety not compulsory. • Non-notified varieties are not covered. • Commercial crops and plantation crops are not covered. • Certification only through State Seed Certification Agencies. • No provision for regulation of transgenic materials. • Penalties for infringement are very mild. The revision of existing Seeds Act is proposed to:i. overcome its present deficiencies. Reading material, SST by Dr. Vishwanath Koti, Asst. Professor, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-‐65 Page 115

ii. iii. iv. v.

create facilitative climate for growth of seed industry enhance seed replacement rates for various crops boost the export of seeds and encourage import of useful germplasm create conducive atmosphere for application of frontier sciences in varietal development and for enhanced investment in research and development. The draft Seeds Bill, 2004 have been introduced in the Parliament. The highlights of the proposed Seeds Act are as under:i. Compulsory registration of varieties based on agronomic performance data. ii. Accreditation of ICAR centers, State Agricultural Universities and Private Organizations to conduct agronomic trials. iii. Accreditation of Organizations for certification. iv. Maintenance of National Register of varieties. v. To regulate the export and import of seeds. vi. Exemption for farmers to save, use, exchange, share or sell their seed without registration. vii. Accreditation of private seed testing laboratories. viii. Enhancement of penalty for major and minor infringement. ix. Inclusion of provisions to regulate GM crops and ban on terminator seed.
