Seed testing in Forage Crops

Quality Seed Production and Seed Standards in Forage Crops and Range Grasses: Challenges, Advances and Innovations

Editors

D. R. Malaviya, D. Vijay, D. Bahukhandi C. K. Gupta, Vikas Kumar & H. C. Pandey

2013

INDIAN GRASSLAND AND FODDER RESEARCH INSTITUTE JHANSI-284003, INDIA

Compilation of lectures of Winter School held at IGFRI, Jhansi during September 11 to October 1, 2013

Organized By: Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003, INDIA

Sponsored By: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, INDIA

Cover page design: D. Vijay, C. K. Gupta and A. Maity

Printed at: Gupta Computers & printers, Jhansi (U. P.), INDIA

© 2013 All right reserved. This compilation or any parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the permission of the authors/editors.

CONTENTS Chapter no.

Title

Page no.

1

Forage Seed Production Scenario in India – Status and Way Forward – DR Malaviya

1-1 to 1-7

2

Forage Seed Research – Innovations at IGFRI – DR Malaviya

2-1 to 2-4

3

Basics of Seed Development and Maturation – Kumar Durgesh

3-1 to 3-7

4

Plant Genetic Resources of Forage Crops and their Utilization in Crop Improvement – Tejveer Singh

4-1 to 4-12

5

Variety Development, Testing, Release and Notification of Forage Crops – RV Kumar

5-1to 5-7

6

Genetic Improvement in Forage Crops – S Ahmed

6-1 to 6-9

7

Maintenance Breeding: Importance and Applications – VK Yadav

7-1 to 7-5

8

Vegetative Propagation of Important Cultivated and Range Grasses – Rajiv Kumar Agrawal

8-1 to 8-6

9

Forage Breeder Seed Production in India: An Overview and Current Status – AK Roy

9-1 to 9-3

10

Apomixis in Grasses: Genetics and Utilization – P Kaushal

10-1 to 10-7

11

Physiochemical Interventions for Enhanced Seed Setting – CK Gupta

11-1 to 11-7

12

Macro and Micro Nutrient Management for Quality Forage Seed Production – Arvind K Rai

12-1 to 12-19

13

Production Components and Crop Management in Cultivated Forages – Sunil Kumar

13-1 to 13-12

14

An Overview of Seed Quality Concept and Indian Seed Standards in Forage Crops – D Vijay

14-1 to 14-12

15

Physical Purity Testing In Forage Crop Seeds – D. Vijay

15-1 to 15-9

16

Seed Germination Methodology And Analysis In Forage Crops - D. Vijay

16-1 to 16-14

17

Seed Vigour Concept and Testing – D. Vijay

17-1 to 17-9

18

Bioenergies, Seed Viability and Crop Improvement – Bhupinder Singh

18-1 to 18-7

CONTENTS Chapter no.

Title

19

Measurement of Root Characteristics in Plants and their Significance – Bhupinder Singh

19-1 to 19-2

20

Biochemical Markers for Varietal Identification – MK Srivastava

20-1 to 20-5

21

Molecular Markers for Forage Seed Quality Assessment – KK Dwivedi

21-1 to 21-12

22

Post Harvest Technology in Forage Seed Processing – PK Pathak

22-1 to 22-13

23

Moisture Conservation Techniques in Grasslands – B Narsimlu

23-1 to 23-4

24

Mechanization of Forage Seed Production: Current Status and Future Prospects – CS Sahay

24-1 to 24-13

25

Effect of Pest and Pathogen on Viability in Stored Seeds – D Bahukhandi

25-1 to 25-10

26

Seed Borne Pathogens in Forage Crops and their Management – RB Bhaskar

26-1 to 26-9

27

Identification of Seed Borne Pathogens in Forage Crops – Theory & Practice – Pradeep Saxena

27-1 to 27-16

28

Insect-Pest Damage and its Management in Fodder Seed Production – NK Shah

28-1 to 28-10

29

Importance of Seed Health Testing in Forage Seeds – D Bahukhandi

29-1 to 29-11

30

Use of Information and Communication Technology Dissemination of Quality Seed Importance - Satyapriya

31

Innovations in participatory fodder seed production – Vikas Kumar

31-1 to 31-15

32

Economics of Fodder Seed Production and Marketing – Vikas Kumar

32-1 to 32-4

33

Suitability of Fodder Crops for Livestock Feeding and their Quality 33-1 to 33-14 Assessment – SK Mahanta

34

Plant Variety Protection & Farmer’s Right Act, 2001 – AK Roy Handouts of special lectures List of Participants List of Resource Persons

Page no.

for 30-1 to 30-13

34-1 to 34-6

CHAPTER-1

Forage Seed Production Scenario in India – Status and Way Forward D.R. Malaviya, D.Vijay and C.K. Gupta Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003 Introduction India with 2.3% share of global geographical area supports nearly 20% of the livestock population of the world, notably among them are cattle (16%), buffalo (55%), goat (20%), and sheep (5%). The productivity of Indian livestock is very low compared to many other countries in the world. One of the main reasons for this low productivity is malnutrition or under nutrition. To provide sufficient milk to the ever growing population there is a need to increase the current milk production of 128 mt to 160 mt by 2020. To make this possible nearly 825 mt of green fodder, 494 mt of dry fodder and 54 mt of concentrates are required. Out of the total 326.82 mha geographical area only 4% area under pastures thereby leading to severe shortage of fodder to the tune of 36% green fodder, 40% dry fodder and 57% of concentrates. The increase in area of fodder crops is difficult because of severe competition from food crops. Apart from vertical expansion, utilization of non-cultivable areas for pastures is one of the most viable options to balance the demand. India possesses nearly 85 mha of grasslands/ rangelands which are mostly in degraded state. Revitalizing these denuded grasslands is the most plausible means to improve the availability of green fodder.These grasses also play pivotal role in the conservation of natural resources by preventing the denudation of degraded land mass and thus preventing soil erosion, enhancing bio-diversity and increasing carbon sequestration. The wider use of perennial range grasses selected for their special utility in the diverse land and climatic situations found in the arid and semi-arid tropics require seed or planting material of good quality and its continued availability to farmers through trade or farmer’s own initiatives in multiplying material for his own use (Parihar, 2010). One of the reasons reported to stumble the green fodder production is non-availability of quality seed in sufficient quantities. Seed is the basic input of agriculture and 15-20% increase in production is possible by using quality seed. Whereas in forages availability of quality seed is only 25-30% in cultivated fodder and 90%. While studying the reasons for less PGS in bulk harvest, it was observed that a lot of PGS is Dinanath grass seed: A. being dropped during harvesting due to its floral with fluff; B. Single structure. Thus the stage of harvest at physiological floret of var BD-1; maturity is very crucial in optimizing recovery of PGS. C.Single floret of var In this context it is necessary to develop physiological BD-2; X ray radiograph and harvesting maturity indices for bulk harvesting of of BD-1 (E) and BD -2 Dinanath grass through prioritized research. (F).

Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

Page 2-1

A C

E

Invitro rooting in Napier Bajra Hybrid: A more packing friendly method of NB hybrid rooted slips was developed in the seed lab of Division of seed technology, IGFRI, Jhansi. The suitable aged stem cuttings with 2-3 nodes were obtained from the Napier Bajra Hybrid plants. From each plant at least 10 slips with 2-3 nodes were obtained. The stem cuttings were wrapped in paper towel layers in such a manner that one node is outside and one node is inside the wrapping. The wrapping was done with 6-7 layers of paper towel with 8 stem cuttings per layer. These wrapped Stem cuttings with root and shoot stem cuttings were kept at 25oC and 80% development RH. Alternatively it can be kept at suitable ambient room temperature and maintaining moisture. The moisture was maintained by necessary water sprinkling. The roots were developed in 7-8 days’ time making them ready for transplanting in the field. Since the rooted slips were wrapped with paper and tied they can easily be transported to long distances in cartons. It is a less labour intensive with no need of field requirement/ preparation and is free from seasonal conditions. More than 85% rooting in the stem cuttings was observed and all the rooted slips have developed leaves within 10 days and survived in the field successfully after transplanting. High density nursery in Napier Bajra Hybrid: With the increasing demand for green fodder, there was an upsurge in the requirement of Bajra-Napier (BN) hybrid, which is one of the most promising forage crops having wide acceptability among farmers. Due to absence of seed setting, rooted slips are the sole method of propagation in BN hybrid. In general the rooted slips are collected from the grass tufts containing 5-10 cm long stems with 2-3 nodes and basal roots. To meet the demand a new methodology was adopted for quick production of rooted slips at large scale with minimum resources. After thorough investigation, it was found that the bi-nodal stem cuttings of at least 20 cm length and proper thickness are most promising material for high density nursery. The stems from the BN hybrids were collected and each stem was

Bi-nodal stem cuttings sown in high density nursery

Established high density nursery ready for uprooting Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

Page 2-2

further chopped into 9-10 bi-nodal stem cuttings of approximately 20 cm length. The stem cuttings were closely planted in upward direction after a slant basal cut. Regular water supply was maintained for their establishment and growth. Within a fortnight, the cuttings started rooting and shooting and by 4 to 5 weeks they are ready for uprooting and transport. Thus, this technique has several advantages viz., ability to produce rooted slips within short notice; reduced labour requirement; easy management such as irrigation, uprooting, counting, loading due to small area and finally original tussocks are saved. Defluffing through mechanical means in Dinanath: The grass seed (caryopsis) is enclosed in fluff thereby giving protection as well as dispersal mechanisms. However, for production in huge quantities this fluff invariably adds woes during transport. Eight kg of Dinanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum) grass seed with fluff occupies 0.1 cubic m volume. The actual true seed (caryopsis) in this fluff will be less than half a kilogram and occupy very less volume due to its small size. The true seed not only increases the ease of transport but also results in easy and accurate establishment in the field. The seeds with fluff being lighter in weight are difficult to broadcast manually and have high chance of being blown off with wind. Each spikelet (fluff) contains 2-3 seeds and it is practically impossible to extract the true seed from it. Developing machine for de-fluffing these seeds has been in talk since long. A new initiative was devised for a more feasible approach to remove the true seed from large quantities of fluff in a mechanized way. The commonly used ‘cotton quilt batting machine’ with some adjustments was used for separation of true seed from the fluff of Dinanath grass. By adjusting its components, maximum amount of true seed was obtained without any mechanical damage. This was verified by doing germination test and counting the normal and abnormal seedlings. Approximately 450 g of true seed was obtained from 7 kg of seeds with fluff within an hour time. Since Cenchrus, Chrysopogon and other range species also possess similar fluff this newly developed technique paves the way for experimentation of bulk separation of their true seeds mechanically. Invitro maturation studies in guinea grass The effect of hormonal solution on seed ripening was studied by dipping of cut panicles of Panicum maximum in hormonal solutions and water. Five guinea grass panicles during anthesis stage were collected from the field. The panicles were dipped in 100 ppm and 200 ppm solutions of IAA, Kinetin and water.


Page 2-3

A control without water was also studied. The matured seed from each treatment were collected separately. The cut panicles of Panicum maximum showed varied degree of liveliness in different solutions. The cut panicles without water dried early followed by those dipped in Kinetin and water. The panicles dipped in IAA solution found to retain their viability for longer duration. In Panicum maximum under field conditions the spikelets shattered within a week time after anthesis. Therefore if the liveliness can be maintained in the cut panicles the shattering loss can be minimized and more mature seed can be collected than bulk harvest. These new innovations in grass seed technology along with the ongoing research projects on improving the ovule to seed ratio in different tropical grasses will help in enhancing the seed yield. A combination of these methodologies is to be adopted to realize the seed production potential of these range species.


Page 2-4

CHAPTER-3

Basics of Seed Development and Maturation Kumar Durgesh Indian Grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284003, India

The complete life cycle of plant is often described by the alternation of generations between a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte yields spores, which is developed into gametophytes. The male gametes (sperm) or female gametes (egg cells) are the resultant of differentiation of gametophytes. Gametophytes in angiosperms are relatively smaller and simple than the sporophyte and are produced within very specialized organs situated in flower. The pollen grain or micro gametophyte (male gametophyte) progresses inside the anther, while embryo sac or mega gametophyte (female gametophyte) is a producedin the ovule. Sexual reproduction necessitates the transfer of the sperm nuclei via pollen, in to the embryo sac, where fertilization follows and the formation of new diploid sporophyte occurs. These distinctive characteristics of the angiosperm reproductive biologydemonstrate one of the most central complications in plant biology. By what means the conversions from sporophytic to gametophytic change ensue within the framework of the flower? By what means the communication of gametophytes with each other and the female plant to yield a seed? The ovule is the basis of the mega gametophyte and the predecessor of the seed. Development of megasporocyte, (megasporogenesis), embryo sac (megagametogenesis), and embryogenesis all ensue within the ovule. Flower- Is basic structure where seed formation story starts Component of a flower: • Sepals or calyx, • Petals or corolla • Stamen or androecium, • Carpels or gynoecium


Page 3-1

Male reproductive organ Stamen: contains long narrow stalk named as filament and blobbed anther. Structure of anther: bithecous anther linked by sterile part connective has four pollen sacs or microsporangia where pollen grains are formed. Microsporogenesis: The formation of microspores inside the microsporangia (or pollen sacs) of seed plants. A diploid cell in the microsporangium, called a microsporocyte or a pollen mother cell, undergoes meiosis and gives rise to four haploid microspores. Each microspore then develops into a pollen grain (the microgametophyte).

Megasporogenesis The formation of megaspores inside the ovules of seed plants. A diploid cell in the ovule, called a megasporocyte or a megaspore mother cell, undergoes meiosis and gives rise to four haploid megaspores. In most plants, only one of the megaspores then goes on to develop into a megagametophyte within the ovule, while the other three disintegrate. In the ovules of angiosperms, megasporogenesis takes place within a structure called a nucellus, and it is the megaspore farthest from the micropyle of the ovary that survives.


Page 3- 2

Components of Female reproductive organ • Stigma • Style • Ovary • Ovule • Integuments • Embryo Sac

Fig: Embryo sac organization Egg Cell The egg cell is positioned at the micropylar end in the embryo sac and eventually fuses with a sperm nucleus to produce a zygote. The egg cell lies nearby to the two synergids, separated from them by one or the other partial cell walls or the


Page 3- 3

plasmalemma only. The distribution of cytoplasm within the egg cell is highly polarized. Synergids They are positioned on both side of the egg cell; play a vital role in fertilization .The pollen tube liberations its matters into one of the synergids before unification of the sperm cell nuclei into the egg and central cells. Central Cell Situated in the middle of the embryo sac, this cell comprises of two nuclei, cytoplasmic organelles, and a large vacuole. The polar nuclei originate at both the micropylar and chalazal ends of the coenocytic megagametophyte and migrate to the center after cellularization. The polar nuclei may partially fuse with each other before they are fertilized by a single sperm nucleus, generating the triploid primary endosperm nucleus (Cass et al., 1985). The nutrients will make available by The mature endosperm for the embryo or seedling under development. Antipodal Cell Three antipodal cells are positioned opposite to the egg at the chalazal end of the embryo sac. No specific function during reproduction has been attributed to the antipodals. Type Of megaspore: • Monosporic (polygonum) • Monosporic (oenothera) • Bisporic (allium) • Bisporic (adoxa) Development of male and female gametocytes: In anther in pollen sac microsporocytes (2n) undergoes through meiosis and giverise to four microspore which lead to four pollengrain while in female megasporocytes (2n) gives rise to four cells (n) after meiosis, but out of four three degenerates and only one survives and that surviving megaspore after successive mitotic division give rise to eight nucleate cells called embryo sac.


Page 3- 4

Megasporogenesis

em

Fig: Embry sac development pattern

Fig Male and female gametes development stage


Page 3- 5

Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower. Pollination is a prerequisite for fertilization: the fusion of nuclei from the pollen grain with nuclei in the ovule. Fertilization allows the flower to develop seeds. Double fertilization: The process in which the two sperm nuclei of a pollen grain unite with nuclei of the embryo sac of an angiosperm plant. One sperm nucleus unites with the egg to form the diploid zygote, from which the embryo develops. The other sperm unites with the two nuclei located in a single cell at the center of the embryo sac. Together these nuclei form the triploid nucleus of the cell from which the endosperm develops. Double fertilization in this form is unique to the angiosperms. What is seed? Botanically it can be well-defined as matured ovulethat compriseof an embryo that itself results of fertilization and comprises of: Embryo, Testa –A Protective outer covering and endosperm (storage tissue), Testa-seed coat or pericarp which covers the fruit Storage tissue: According to In Dicots—cotyledons Endosperm In Monocots—endosperm

Fig: internal structure of the seed Stages of SeedDevelopment: There are three stages of seed development 1. Histodifferentiation=embryogenesis 2. Cell expansion (seed development) 3. Maturation and drying (dormancy) Seed development : a sequence of events that is controlled by the genes Major Happenings inEmbryogenesis • Formation of the precursors or initials for dermal, ground, and vascular tissues in the plant body. • Formation of apical-basal polarity of the embryo that is permanent structure. • Formation of the root and shoot apical meristems (heart stage) Celle xpansion/seed development Maturation: A set of successive stages in preparation for seed germination


Page 3- 6

REFERENCES http://www.plantcell.org/content/5/10/1425.full.pdf+html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC160362/pdf/051291.pdf http://www.psla.umd.edu/faculty/Coleman/seed%20structure%20and%20developmen t.pdf http://src.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/bio1.pdf


Page 3- 7

CHAPTER-4

Plant Genetic Resources of Forage Crops and their Utilization in Crop Improvement Tejveer Singh and DC Joshi Indian Grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284003, India

Introduction Plant breeders are continuously making the efforts by developing new high yielding and environmental stress facing varieties through crop improvement programmes, to meet the challenges of the food, feed and fodder for growing population of human and animals,. Plant genetic resources (PGR) are used as building blocks for any genetic improvement and the most important components of agro-biodiversity, include primitive forms of cultivated plant species and landraces, modern cultivars, obsolete cultivars, breeding lines and genetic stocks, weedy types and related wild species (IPGRI 1993). Genetic diversity created in the farmers’ fields over millennia, complemented by the diversity present in wild relatives of crops, provides the raw material for improving crop productivity through plant breeding. Genetic resources can be defined as all materials that are available for improvement of a cultivated plant species (Becker, 1993). According to the extended gene pool concept, genetic resources may be divided into primary gene pool, secondary gene pool, tertiary gene pool and isolated genes (Harlan and de Wet, 1971; Becker, 1993). The PGR are finite and vulnerable to losses due to introduction of new crop varieties in agriculture, growing urbanization, natural hazards, etc. The PGR contribute enormously towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals of food security, poverty alleviation, environmental protection and sustainable development (Upadhyaya et al., 2008). Status of forage germplasm International status World-wide, 1500 genebanks are registered in the WIEWS (World Information and Early Warning System on PGR) database (http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/) and conserve a total of 7.1 million accessions belonging to 53109 species, including major crops, minor or neglected crop species, as well as trees and wild plants. Out of total germplasm stored, 651 024 accessions belonging to forage crops (FAO 210). To investigate the conservation and use of agricultural biodiversity in order to achieve better nutrition, improve smallholders’ livelihoods and enhance agricultural sustainability, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) was established in 1974 by CGIAR. In October 1991, IBPGR became the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) (www.biodiversityinternational.org). Eleven of the CGIAR centres along with IPGRI manage germplasm collections on behalf of the world community, CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICARDA, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IITA, ILRI, INIBAP, IRRI and AfricaRice (formerly WARDA). Global gene banks are refrigerated buildings for long term seed storage of wild relatives of grassland species for future use, breeding material and seed resources. Gene banks also hold breeding lines and valuable cultivars that do not occur in the wild and might be lost. The ILRI Genebank conserves more than 18 thousand accessions of forages from over 1000 species. This is one of the most diverse collections of forage grasses, legumes and fodder tree species held in any genebank in the world (www.ilri.org). Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

Page 4-1

CIAT genebank keeps 35,898 accessions of beans, for 44 species of the genus Phaseolus from 109 countries, and 23,139 forage accessions belonging to 668 different species of grasses and legumes from 72 countries, that have been introduced over the past 30 years (www.ciat.cgiar.org). The IITA genebank holds the world's largest and most diverse collection of cowpeas, with 15,122 unique samples from 88 countries, representing 70% of African cultivars and nearly half of the global diversity. Details of the institute conserved forage crops germplasm are given in table 1. Table 1. Germplasm holding of forage crops in regional, national and international genebanks Crop Genus Institute Acronym No. of Institute address code accessions Maize Zea MEX002 CIMMYT 26 596 CIMMYT,Apdo. Postal 6-641, 06600 Mexico, D.F., Mexico http://www.cimmyt.org/en/about -us/contact-us Maize Zea PRT001 BPGV24 529 Portuguese Bank of Plant DRAEDM Germplasm BPGV-DRAEDM (PRT001 ) Quinta S. José – S.Pedro de Merelim-Braga-4700-859, Email: [email protected]; Maize Zea USA020 NC7 19 988 Quentin Read, 1424 Acadia Street Durham, NC 27701 North Carolina E-mail: [email protected] Maize Zea CHN001 ICGR19 088 Institute of Crop Germplasm CAAS Resources,CAAS 12 Zhongguancun nan dajie, Beijing 100081, P.R.China, Fax: 86-10-62186629 Maize Zea MEX008 INIFAP 14 067 Avenida Progreso No 5, Col. Barrio de Santa Catarina, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04010, México, D.F. E-mail: [email protected] Maize Zea RUS001 VIR 10 483 42-44, B.Morskaya Street, 190000, St. Petersburg, Russia Maize Zea JPN003 NIAS 5 935 2-1-2 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8602, Japan, Email: [email protected] Sorghum Sorghum IND002 ICRISAT 37 904 Patancheru, A.P., India Fax: +91 40 30713074 E-mail: [email protected] Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

Page4- 2

Sorghum Sorghum

Sorghum Sorghum

USA016 S9 CHN001 ICGRCAAS

36 173 18 263

Sorghum

Sorghum

ETH085

IBC

9 772

Sorghum

Sorghum

BRA001

CNPMS

7 225

Sorghum

Sorghum

KEN015

KARINGBK

5 866

Sorghum

Sorghum

JPN003

NIAS

5 074

Oat

Avena

CAN004

PGRC

27 676

Oat

Avena

USA029

NSGC

21 195

Oat

Avena

RUS001

VIR

11 857

Pearl millet

Pennisetum IND002

ICRISAT

21 583

Pearl millet

Pennisetum BRA001

CNPMS

7 225

Pearl millet

Pennisetum CAN004

PGRC

3 816

Pearl millet

Pennisetum UGA001 SAARI

2 142

Pearl millet

Pennisetum USA016

2 063

S9

Griffin, Georgia (S9), USA Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources,CAAS 12 Zhongguancun nan dajie, Beijing 100081, P.R.China, Fax: 86-10-62186629 Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, Ethiopia National maize and sorghum research centre, Brazil P.O. Box 30148, Nairobi, Tel: +254 20-2700462 Email: [email protected] 2-1-2 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8602, Japan,fax: +81-29-838-7408 E-mail: [email protected] Plant Genetic Resources of Canada (PGRC), http://pgrc3.agr.gc.ca/index_e.ht ml National Small Grain Collection, Idaho http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/d ocs.htm 42-44, B.Morskaya Street, 190000, St.Petersburg, Russia Patancheru, A.P., India, Fax: +91 40 30713074 E-mail: [email protected] National maize and sorghum research centre, Brazil Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 1341 Baseline Road,Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C5 E-mail: [email protected] Serere Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute (SAARI), Uganda E-mail: [email protected] Griffin, Georgia (S9), USA


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Cowpea

Vigna

NGA039 IITA

15 122

Cowpea

Vigna

USA016

S9

8 043

Cowpea

Vigna

BRA003

CENARG EN

5 501

Cowpea

Vigna

IDN002

LBN

3 930

Cowpea

Vigna

CHN001 ICGRCAAS

2 818

Cowpea

Vigna

JPN003

NIAS

2 431

Cenchrus

Cenchrus

KEN015 KARI

NGBK

1138

Clover

Trifolium

AUS137

WADA

11326

Medicago

Medicago

AUS006

AMGRC

27827

IITA PMB 5320, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria Fax: 873761798636, Email: [email protected] Griffin, Georgia (S9), USA Brazilian Corporation for Agriculture Research (EMBRAPA), National Center for Genetic Resources (CENARGEN) http://www.embrapa.br/english Research Center for Biology LIPI Cibinong Science Center (CSC) Jl. Raya Jakarta-Bogor Km. 46 Cibinong 16911 Bogor – Indonesia, Email : [email protected] Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources,CAAS 12 Zhongguancun nan dajie, Beijing 100081, P.R.China, Fax: 86-10-62186629 2-1-2 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8602, Japan, Email: [email protected] Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, [email protected]/zkmutha mia - yahoo.com Western Australian Department of Agriculture (WADA) AMGRC, SARDI

(Source: Singh and Joshi, 2012, www.fao.org ) National status The National Seed Genebank The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi is the nodal organization in India for exchange, quarantine, collection, conservation as National Gene Bank (NGB), evaluation and the systematic documentation of plant genetic. In addition, it provides technical support to the network in the planning, development and operation of medium-term genebank facilities, in human resource development, and in provision of accessions for the regeneration of active collections. The Indian NGB has 12 modules with a capacity to hold around 1 million accessions. The present Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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base collection holdings in NGB are about 0.4 million accessions belonging to 1812 species (http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/). NBPGR has introduced total 13,181 forage germplasm during last 33 years. A total 10,049 samples in sorghum and 20,085 samples in pearl millet were introduced for dual purpose. In oats, genetic resources of grain and fodder type comprising of 1,827 accessions were procured (Joshi et al., 2009). Many of the introduced germplasm are released directly as a variety like, Kent and Weston-11 in Oats, EC4216 in Cowpea and Pant Cheri-6 in sorghum. National Active Germplasm Sites (NAGS) Total 56 NAGS are based at different ICAR institutes, All India Co-ordinated Crop Improvement Projects (AICRP) and State Agricultural Universities, with the responsibility of crop specific collection, multiplication, evaluation, maintenance and conservation of active collections and their distribution to users at a national level (Malik and Singh, 2006). Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) are NAGS for forage crops, which have been provided with medium-term seed storage (MTS) modules, to facilitate the use of active collections in research and breeding programmes. IGFRI conserved >8500 germplasm accessions of forage crops (cereals, grasses, legumes and trees) in MTS module, documented all the germplasm of major forage crops in the form of 15 crop specific catalogues, developed descriptor list in two forage crops, registered 15 novel genetic stock with NBPGR and released more than thirty varieties in different forage crops (Anonymous, 2012). Germplasm utilization Although there is huge number of germplasm accessions maintained in genebanks, there is no corresponding utilization in the crop improvement programme, indicating that the collections were not being used to their full potential. Thus, a very large gap exists between availability and actual utilization of the materials. Reasons for low use of germplasm are: • Very difficult to handle large collections in crop improvement programme, • Lack of information on a large number of accessions, particularly for traits of economic importance, which display large genotype × environment interactions and require multilocation and replicated evaluation, • Limited capacity of breeding programs to absorb new material, • Restricted access to the germplasm collections due to insufficient seed quantities, and • Lack of linkage between genebank and germplasm users. • Most of the germplasm in genebank is unimproved and associated with many undesirable traits. Therefore, pre-breeding is a disincentive to use for unimproved germplasm. Enhancing utilization of germplasm in crop improvement • Evaluation and documentation of germplasm in form of regular publication and wider circulation of catalogues, publication of information on internet, linking passport data with evaluation data in a single database


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• • • • • •

Developing representative core and mini core collections to overcome the size related problems of collections, Identifying trait-specific germplasm for specific use in crop improvement programs, Multilocation evaluation of germplasm for traits showing genotype x environment interaction, Ease of accessibility to all accessions of the collection by the users of germplasm. Allele mining Field day and demonstration trials be conducted more frequently and invite crop specific breeders

Characterization and evaluation The accessibility of collections depends largely on the information available on them. Accurate passport and characterization data are the first requirements, but users of plant genetic resources, particularly plant breeders, have also emphasised the need for improved evaluation of accessions (Rao and Hodgkin, 2002). Evaluation is a complex process and there is serious backlog in most collections. It is worth emphasising that both characterization and evaluation data provide an effective source of information for genetic diversity studies. The results can be used to help understand patterns of variation in crop species and to identify groups of accessions with high diversity or with shared characteristics. To enhance the utilization through greater access to information of the germplasm conserved in Indian National Genebank, NBPGR developed PGR Portal which is accessible to researchers, farmers, students and policy makers. Users of PGR portal can search passport, characterization and evaluation data of each conserved accession (www.nbpgr.ernet.in). IGFRI forage germplasm collections were evaluated for their descriptive traits as well as characterized for their important morphological features. These were published in the form of fifteen crop specific catalogues viz., Deenanath, Berseem, Teosinte, Siratro, Cowpea, Guinea grass, Cenchrus, Forage Maize, Oat, Cluster bean, Pearl millets, Napier, White Clover, Stylosanthes, Forage sorghum germplasm catalogues. Descriptors were also developed in Tropical Forage Legume Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrium) and Dichanthium Bothriochloa Complex (Anonymous, 2012). Core and mini core collection in forage crops Even where passport, characterization and evaluation data of germplasm samples of a crop or wild species are available, large numbers of accessions make it difficult to choose the most promising ones with which to work. One approach to this problem is the development of core collections. A core collection is intended to contain, with a minimum repetitiveness, the genetic diversity of a crop species and its wild relatives (Frankel and Brown, 1984; Brown, 1989). Over 60 core collections were identified in a wide range of different crops and wild relatives. In different forage crops core collection has been developed to enhance the utilization of large number of accessions conserved in gene bank. In Sorghum, a core collection developed at IGFRI, Jhansi has Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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three multiple disease resistant lines and brown mid rib lines (Joshi et al.). Core collection in maize has been developed in different regions of world by different researchers; developed core will facilitate the use of hidden genetic diversity in maize germplasm worldwide after coordination in exchanging of this collection (Yu Li et al., 2004). Core and minicore collection established in Pearl-millet by ICRISAT, the mini-core collection captured almost full diversity of core collection and have downy mildew, ergot and smut resistant accessions along with early flowering and high tillering accessions. Canada and USA has a large number of diverse germplasm of oats, there is a need to develop the core collection in oat for their efficient germplasm utilization. Even, IGFRI also have more than 1300 lines of diverse origin in oat and planning to develop core collection of oat. Further, core collection developed by different institutes for specific crop may be merged to develop composite collection. Table 2. Core collections developed in forage crops Crop Entire collection Core Sorghum 22,774 2247 Sorghum 538 71 Pearlmillet 21,392 1,600 Maize 16749 1193 Maize 1753 80 Cowpea 12,000 2062 Bermudagrass 600 170 (Cynodon spp.) Annual Medicago 1240 211 Perennial Medicago 1100 200 Trifolium pratense 800 78

Institute ICRISAT IGFRI ICRISAT ICGR,China CNPMS, Brazil IITA USDA/ARS USDA/ARS USDA/ARS NPGS/USDA

Forage genetic resources used in varietal development programme in India There are three ways of using PGR in plant breeding (Simmonds, 1993; Cooper et al., 2001): Introgression- Introgression involves the transfer of one or few genes or gene complexes (chromosome segments) from the PGR into breeding materials; Incorporation- Incorporation (also named genetic enhancement or base broadening) describes the development of new, genetically broad, adapted populations with large variation and acceptable performance level. In forage crops like, Sorghum-UP Chari2, Haryana Jowar 513, CSH-20MF, Pusa Chari-615, Haryana Jowar-513, Bajra-Giant Bajra, CO-8, Maize-J-1006, Oat-OS-6, OS-7, OL-9, Bundel Jai-822, UPO–212, OL125, Bundel Jai 992 (JHO-99-2), Bundel Jai 991 (JHO 99-1), Bundel Jai 2001-3 (JHO 2001-3), cowpea- Cowpea-74, UPC- 8705, CS – 88, UPC- 9202, UPC 607, CL-367, UPC – 618, Guar- Agaita Guara-111, Agaita Guara-112, Guara-80, Guar Kranti, Sem- Bundel Sem-1, varieties has been released by this approach. Prebreeding- Prebreeding refers to more basic research activities with the goal of facilitating use of ‘difficult’ materials. Pre breeding also used in different forage crops Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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to broaden the genetic base. Some varieties has been released though this approach like in Sorghum-COFS-29, SSG-59-3 and in Oat- Bundel Jai 2004 (JHO 2000-4). Impact of germplasm utilization The variability of different forage crops conserved at NAGS and distributed to different centre of AICRP on Forage Crops, has been tested and released several of its germplasm accessions directly as superior varieties in different forage crops by the concerned crop breeder, vast number of germplasm accessions have been used as building blocks for numerous varieties that are cultivated in many parts of the country. A few examples of germplasm accessions released directly as superior varieties that have contributed significantly towards food and fodder security are described in table 3.

Table 3. Direct utilization germplasm in the form of varieties in different forage crops Crop name

Accessions used

Varieties developed

Lucerne

A Collection from Mathura Mass selection from Coimbatore local collections Selection from perennial type Lucerne grown in Bhuj area of Kutch region of Gujrat Selection from Sirsa material Selection from 125 downy mildew resistant clones from Kutch Selected from fast growing, high yielding and downy mildew resistant germplasm collected from Gujrat state Selection from material from Saurashtra and Kutch Selection from local collections from Ahmednagar, Maharashtra Pure line selection and population improvement of the material collected from Kutch area of Gujrat IL 515 IL978 IL-68-786 Selection from exotic material Selection from local collection from Chharodi area of Gujrat

Chetak Co-1

Cowpea

GAUL-1 (Anand-2)

GAUL-2 (SS-627) LL Composite 5 LL Composite 3

NDRI Selection No.1 RL-88 Anand Lucerne-3 (AL-3)

Bundel Lobia-1 Bundel Lobia-2 Kohinoor EC 4216 GFC-1 (Gujarat Forage Cowpea-1)


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Selection of local material collected from Chharodi area of Gujrat Selection of local material collected from Chharodi area of Gujrat Selection from Chharodi area of Gujrat

Guar

Single plant selection from CK-74-5287 Single plant selection from germplasm line CK-72-287 Pure line selection from CK-76-4200 Selection from local germplasm material of Ratnagiri Selection from Acc. No. B/5/54 Selection Acc. No.5496-2

GFC-2 (Gujarat Forage Cowpea-2) GFC-3 (Gujarat Forage Cowpea-3) GFC-4 (Gujarat Forage Cowpea-4) UPC-5287 UPC – 287 UPC-4200 Konkan Fodder Cowpea1: (DFC-1) Bundel Guar-1 Bundel Guar-2

Selection from RGC-19-1 Single plant selection of the material collected from Nagaur, Rajasthan Single plant selection from local material of Rajasthan Selection from local material Single plant selection from the genetic stock (accession HFC-182) Selection from germplasm material supplied by NBPGR IGFRI-3808-4-2-1

Bundel Guar-3 Durgajay

Selection from Pusa Bihar P.No.12

Jawahar Pennisetum-12

Selection from African germplasm

Pusa deenanath grass

Selection from indigenous collection

Bundel-1

Panicum maximum

TGPM-19 (IG-01-80)

Bundel Guinea-1

Cenchrus ciliaris

JHGG04-01 Introduction from Australia (CPI59985) Selection from JHGG-96-4 IGFRI-S3108

Bundel Guinea-2 Punjab Guinea grass-1 Harthasree Bundel Anjan-1

IGFRI-727

Bundel Anjan -3

Pennisetum pedicellatum

Durgapura Safed FS-277 HG-182 Maru Guar (2470/12) Bundel-2


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Motha Dhaman (Cenchrus setigerus)

Clonal selection method from exotic line EC 14369 from Australia Clonal selection of FS-391 Clonal selection method from exotic line EC 17655 from Australia Institutional collection

Setaria (Setaria sphacelata) Sehima Heteropogon Chryopogon

Selection from Kenyan introduction Narok-5 IG-2045 Selection from germplasm IG 95-284 Selection from germplasm IG 2014 B

Bundel Sen Ghas-1 Bundel Lampa Ghas-1 Bundel Dhawalu Ghas-1

Berseem

Selection from diverse polyploidy material

Wardan

Selection from indigenous material

JHB-146

Variety is an introduction from Egypt followed by selection selection from germplasm lines no. 6 (307011, 11-OP) Selection from a local landrace

Mescavi

Selection from germplasm collected from district Nagaur of Rajasthan Local landrace selection by

RBL-6

Selection from exotic germplasm

Bundle Jai-851

Germplasm line 37/14

HFO-114

Exotic introduction from USA

Kent

Exotic introduction

Weston-11

Selection from Algerian

Palampur-1

Selection from base population of Kent

Harita

Selection from germplasm collected from Uttar Pradesh Selection from germplasm collected from Uttar Pradesh Selection of local sorghum in Udaipur region by RAU, Udaipur Single plant selection from Durra caudatum (Maje Vari-Junagarh) EC-438401

Pusa Chari-1

Selection from material collected from Nagore, Rajasthan

AVKB-19

Rice Bean (Vigna umbellate)

Oat

Sorghum

Pearl millet

Marwar Anjan (CAZRI75) CO-1 (Neela Kolukattai) CAZRI-76 Marwar Dhaman (CAZRI-175) PSS 1 (Golden timothy)

Hisar Berseem-1 (HFB600) Bidhan-1 (BC 15/K 1)

Bidhan Rice Bean 2

Haryana Chari (J5-73/53) Rajasthan Chari - 2 (SU45) UP Chari-1 (IS 4776) Pant Cheri-6


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(Source: Singh and Joshi, 2012, Pandey and Roy, 2011)

REFERENCES Anonymous, 2012. Fifty years research of IGFRI. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi Becker H 1993. Pflanzenzu¨ chtung. Stuttgart: Verlag Eugen Ulmer Borlog, NE 1968. Wheat breeding and its impact on world food supply. In: (Finley, K.W. and Shepherd K.W. eds.) Proc. Third international Wheat Symposium (Australian Aca. Sci.), pp: 1-36. Brown AHD 1989. Core collections: A practical approach to genetic resources management. Genome 31: 818–824. Cooper HD, Spillane C and Hodgkin T 2001. Broadening the genetic base of crops: an overview. In: Cooper HD, Spillane C and Hodgkin T (eds) Broadening the Genetic Base of Crop Production. Wallingford: CABI Publishing in cooperation with FAO and IPGRI, CAB International, pp. 1–23. FAO 2010. The Second Report on The State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Available online (accessed 29 September 2011): www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e.pdf. Frankel OH and Brown AHD 1984. Plant genetic resources today: A critical appraisal. In: Holden JHW & Williams JT (ed) Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation and Evaluation (pp 249–2557). George Allen and Unwin, London Harlan JR and de Wet JMJ 1971. Toward a rational classification of cultivated plants. Taxon 20: 509–517. http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/Paginas/index.aspx http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e03.pdf http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e12.pdf http://www.ilri.org/ForageDiversity http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/ IPGRI, 1993. Diversity for development, the strategy of International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. Joshi DC, Singh T, Singh S and Kumar RV. Development of core collection in forage sorghum utilizing qualitative and quantitative traits. Australian Journal of Crop Science (accepted) Joshi V, Tyagi V, Kak A and Lal A 2009. Status of Genetic Resources of Forage Crops in India: A Review. Indian J. Plant Genet. Resour. 22(3): 243-252. Mahalakshmi V, Ng Q, Lawson M and Ortiz R 2007. Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] core collection defined by geographical, agronomical and botanical descriptors. Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization 5(3); 113–119. Malik SS and Singh SP. 2006. Role of plant genetic resources in sustainable agriculture. Indian J. Crop Science 1(1-2): 21-28. Pandey KC and Roy AK 2011.Forage Crops Varieties. IGFRI Jhansi (India) Rao, VR and Hodgkin, T. 2002. Genetic diversity and conservation and utilization of plant genetic Resources. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 68: 1–19. Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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Regine Andersen (2003), ‘FAO and the Managment of Plant Genetic Resources’, in Olav Schram Stokke and Øystein B. Thommessen (eds.), Yearbook of International Co-operation on Environment and Development 2003/2004 (London: Earthscan Publications), 43–53. Ronaldo R, Coimbra, Glauco V, Miranda, Cosme D, Cruz, Derly JH Silva and Ramiro A Vilela. 2009. Development of a Brazilian maize core collection. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 32, 3, 538-545. Simmonds NW 1993. Introgression and incorporation. Strategies for the use of crop genetic resources. Biological Reviews 68: 539–562 Singh, T and Joshi DC. 2012. Plant genetic resources of dual purpose forage crops. Compendium of lectures Model training course on Dual purpose fodder crops and trees for nutritional and food security. 19-26 Nov. 2012. pp 10-15. Upadhyaya HD, Gowda CLL and Sastry DVSSR 2008. Plant genetic resources management: collection, characterization, conservation and utilization. Journal of SAT Agricultural Research 6. Wen W, Franco J, Chavez-Tovar VH, Yan J, Taba S. 2012. Genetic Characterization of a Core Set of a Tropical Maize Race Tuxpenõ for Further Use in Maize Improvement. PLoS ONE 7(3): e32626. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032626 Yu Li, Yunsu Shi, Yongsheng Cao and Tianyu Wang. 2004. Establishment of a core collection for maize germplasm preserved in Chinese National Genebank using geographic distribution and characterization data. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51: 845–852.


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CHAPTER-5

Variety Development, Testing, Release and Notification of Forage Crops RV Kumar and AK Roy Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Introduction In developing country like India, agricultural scenario is characterized by the predominance of mixed farming system which is a well-knit combination of crop and dairy enterprise. Livestock in India is primarily dependent on the feed that are mostly available as agricultural by-products (like bhusa, straw, wheat bran, oil cakes etc.) and roughages available in the pasture as well as barren lands. It is the fact that despite the increase in the supply of milk, still the price of milk is increasing at an alarming rate in the country. The per capita availability of the milk in India reached to a level of 269 grams per day in the year 2010-11, but it is still lower than the world average of 286 grams per day (2010-11). Animals were and are the integral part of Indian agriculture, contributing significantly to farm economy in terms of dairy products, meat, wool, manure and a major source for draught power in agricultural operations. Whenever we talk of animal production, the forages are the main component. But the availability of fodder to the animals are still not sufficient. At present, the country faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder, 10.95% dry crop residues and 44% concentrate feed ingredients. In this situation, maximum attention is required how to increase the production and productivity of the fodder crops. To increase the productivity per unit area, technologies for each condition and region are required such as, well adapted variety to express maximum yield potential, suitable production and protection technologies along with sufficient quantity of quality seed coupled with suitable extension network.IGFRI, Jhansi being pioneer in the field of forage research, many SAUs and various other agencies like NGOs and private organizations are extensively involved invarious aspects of forage production and utilization. In order to coordinate this research at the national level, AICRP on Forage Crops was established in 1970. It is a multi-disciplinary, multi-location scheme envisaged for improvement in forages (arable, rainfed and irrigated forage crops, range grasses and legumes) and generation of appropriate technology for boosting forage production in diverse agro-ecological regions of the country. Under the AICRP on Forage Crops, varietal development programme is being taken under a systematic time bound procedure. The broader aspects of varietal development procedure in forage crops are discussed here. Variety Development Procedure in Annual Forage Crops Evaluation of the test entries For evaluation of any new test entry, it has to be passed through certain evaluation phases starting from Initial Varietal Trial (IVT), Advance Varietal Trial-I (AVT-1) and Advance Varietal Trial –II (AVT-II). I.

Initial Varietal Trial (IVT) : a. Establishment of trial: The test entries which have performed its superiority over respective checks in station trial are included in this trial.


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The number of test entries should be such that which is suitable for appropriate design of experiment. All these test entries have to be evaluated against a number of checks. In general there should be more than one national checks which is under cultivation for wide range of climatic conditions with its established performance in terms of production and productivity. Secondly there should be one zonal check/local check which has been released for a particular zone/popular variety of that area and locally grown in larger area. We can increase the number of checks as per our requirement and need. The other co testing entries which are also being evaluated in the same trial act as qualifying entries. In general all the checks including national, zonal/local checks remains same for the period of testing i.e. from IVT to AVT II so that average superiority can be calculated over the time. b. Size of the plot and no. of replication : The size of the plot and number of replication must be decided by the group of scientists in consultation with Project Director/Project Coordinator and it should be always in the mind that plot size and replication should be in such a way that experimental error remains to minimum level. In general in IVT trial, plot size is kept 3m x 3m and line to line distance is kept depending on the crop nature. Trial must be formulated and conducted in same appropriate field plot designon many locations. Simultaneously, it should be tried best to have all the replications in the same field.The condition of the field should be well managed so that real potential of the test entries can be harvested. All recommended package of practices must be applied uniformly at all the testing locations. c. Testing Locations: Selection of testing locations is very important and it should be decided during the AICRP workshop/group Meet. While identifying the testing locations, some of the important things must be kept in the mind. First, the location should be such where testing crop is predominantly grown. Second, adequate scientific manpowermultidisciplinary in nature, must be there so that it can be grown and evaluated scientifically. Thirdly, location must have sufficient operation facilities for proper and timely execution of coordinated trials. In AICRP on Forage Crops, for establishment of testing locations, five zones have been identified viz., Hill, North West, North East, Central and South zone. Altogether more than 40 testing centres have been established in these five zones and it includes centres of ICAR, SAUs and NGO. Based on the acceptability and cultivation of the crop in that area, testing locations are decided for that particular crop. d. Monitoring of the coordinated trials: Monitoring of the trial is of utmost importance and monitoring of the trial must be done by an expert scientific team constituted by the concerned Project Director/Project Coordinator. Overall head of the team will be Project Director/Project Coordinator and other members of the team should be a breeder, agronomist,


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pathologist/entomologist and other scientist of relevant discipline. Monitoring should be done using a specific common proforma, taking into account the technical programme of the trial, the number of test entries, number of checks (national/zonal/local), plot size, spacing, time of sowing, cultural practices etc. Simultaneously, the quality of the trial with respect to uniformity within the trial, germination percent of test entries, weed management, general growth of the crop, insect/disease infection, water logging in the field, input application, performance of the test entries etc should also be taken into account. On the basis of their general observation, monitoring team can estimate the yield of the trial and by visual observation they can rank first three top performing test entries. If monitoring team is not satisfied with the condition of the trial, they can recommend for failure of the trial. e. Recording and analysis of data: Observation and recording of data depends upon the nature of crop. For recording of any coordinated trial data, a data set book is formulated by Project Director/Project Coordinator with consultation to the group of concerned crop scientist. This data set book is provided to all the concerned scientist placed in testing locations and data must be recorded for the character mentioned and for the period and time mentioned accordingly. The observations which are of common nature are, growth characters, plant height, days to flowering, days to maturity, incidence of insect pest and disease, yield (grain/fodder/stover), In addition to this, specific recording like data under artificial condition and data for hot spots of some disease and pest are recorded. Certain data on quality parameters like crude protein yield, crude protein (%), crude fibre (%), leaf stemratio, ADF(%), NDF (%). IVDMD (%) needs to be recorded. After careful compilation of replication wise data, data must be sent to coordination cell for further analysis and interpretation. Data thus received at coordinators cell is critically examined particularly with comments of monitoring team, Coefficient of Variation (CV) level, abnormal variation in the yield data of particular test entries/ check varieties at respective test locations etc. As far as CV is concerned, in case of irrigated conditionshigher level is not accepted in comparison to rained situation. In fodder crops, CV above 20 percent in case of cultivated fodder crops and above 30 percent in range crops is not acceptable. Thus, data confirming the above guide lines are pooled and analysed for further interpretation. Similarly data for ancillary characters may be pooled and compiled for presentation in annual reports. f. Promotion of entries based on superiority in performance: The promotion of test entries from IVT to AVT-Icertainly depends upon the superiority in performance of test entries over the best check (national/zonal/local) for the character concerned. As far as fodder crop is concerned, we take yield i.e. green fodder and dry matter yield, crude protein yieldas main criteria for taking the superiority. In general, if any test entry is having superiority more than 7-8 percent for yield (green/dry


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matter) over the best check is considered for promotion to next year evaluation. However it is not hard and fast, sometimes if any test entry have more than five percent superiority over best check with respect to character of economic importance like yield but simultaneously it is having character of resistance to major insect pest and disease along with having high qualitative aspect like crude protein percent etc., then that entry might be considered for up gradationfor evaluation in next year. Sometimes we have to look into another aspect for promotion like if any test entry is equivalent to best check with respect to main character of economic importance but it is of 10-15 days early maturity, very high quality characters, highly palatable, may be having some other qualitative aspect, in that case also, such test entry must be considered for promotion for evaluation in next year. So promotion of test entry is not only dependent on the fixed percent superiority for yield/character of economic importance but it depends on other characters of importance which can also add the value of such entries when identified and released as variety. So we can say that promotion of entry not depends on single factor but it is a cumulative effect of so many important characters of particular crop species. II.

Advance Varietal Trial – I (AVT-I) :

a. Establishment of trial: The entries which have been selected for promotion to be evaluated in the second year based on the superiority for economic character like yield and other character of importance like qualitative and insect pest and disease resistance form the core group for establishment of the trial. In AVT-I, trial may be established for all the zone or may be established for few or one zone depending upon the superiority of test entries performance in IVT. As per the nature of trial, national or zonal, selection of check variety is decided. In general there should be more than one national checks which is under cultivation for wide range of climatic conditions with its established performance in terms of production and productivity. Secondly there should be one zonal check/local check which has been released for a particular zone/popular variety of that area and locally grown in larger area. We can increase the number of checks as per our requirement and need. b. Size of the plot and no. of replication: The basic thing which has to be kept in mind before deciding the size of the plot and number of replication that, plot size and replication should be in such a way that experimental error remains to minimum level. In comparison to IVT, in AVT-I size of the plot remains larger because of getting more realistic estimates of yield and other characters as well as to keep other error levels at the minimum. In AICRP on Forage Crops, plot size in AVT-I is kept 4m x 3m. Trial must be formulated and conducted in appropriate field plot design. Again, it is assured to have same size of plot and number of replications in all the testing locations. All recommended package of practices must be applied uniformly at all the testing locations.


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c. Testing Locations:The number and place of testing locations must be decided during the AICRP workshop/group Meet. In any case the number of testing locations should not be less than the number in IVT for a particular zone. The area where crop is grown in larger area, the number of testing locations can be increased for evaluation of test entries on wider level. Again we have to make sure that adequate scientific manpower, multidisciplinary in nature is placed in the testing location. d. Monitoring of the coordinated trials:Monitoring by an expert scientific team constituted by the concerned Project Director/Project Coordinator is prerequisite for real and scientific evaluation of the coordinated trials. Constitution of monitoring team remains same as constituted in the case of IVT. More number of monitoring team needs to be constituted so that they can monitor and evaluate as many centres as possible. As per the approved technical programme, monitoring team will see whether the number of test entries, number of checks (national/zonal/local) are as per the technical programme or not. On the basis of their experimental field observations, monitoring team can estimate the yield of the trial,test entries and by visual observation they can rank first three top performing test entries. If monitoring team is not satisfied with the condition of the trial, they can recommend for failure of the trial. e. Recording and analysis of data: Observation and recording of data is done in data set book formulated by Project Director/Project Coordinator with consultation to the group of concerned crop scientist. Again, the observations which are of common nature like plant height, days to flowering, days to maturity, incidence of insect pest and disease, yield (grain/fodder/stover) are recorded to all testing locations. In addition to this, specific data like data under artificial condition and data for hot spots of some disease and pest are recorded on some of the specified test locations. In addition to routine data on quality parameters, certain other biochemical data can be generated and recorded in the certain specified centres where such facility exists. The help and facility of that centre may be taken in analysing the data of other test locations. Data thus received at coordinators cell is critically examined based on monitoring team report, C.V levels of the trial data, variation in yield data with respect to particular test entries/ check varieties at respective test locations etc. After examining the data by different angles, it is finally analysed for further interpretation. f. Promotion of entries based on superiority in performance : The criteria for promotion of test entries from AVT-I to AVT-IIis more or less same as mentioned for IVT to AVT-I. Again it is mentioned that for fodder crop, yield i.e. green fodder and dry matter yield remains the main criteria for calculating the superiority. Besides the yield data, data on resistance to major insect pest and disease along with qualitative aspects are also taken into consideration for promotion of test entries in next year.


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III.

Advance Varietal Trial –II (AVT-II) :In the case of AVT-II, establishment of trial, size of the plot and no. of replications, testing locations, monitoring of the coordinated trials, recording and analysis of data remains largely same as it is followed in the case of AVT-I. In the case of forage crops, a coordinated trial on seed production aspect of test entries are conducted at AVT-II level. The reason behind conducting the seed trial is that as the forage crops are shy in seed production so we have to evaluate the potential of their seed producing ability also. Seed is the basis for further multiplication of any test entry hence their seeding ability is also evaluated. Simultaneously, evaluation response to agronomic variables need to be evaluated. In this case,effectof different dates of sowing, level of fertilizer application, irrigation application, population density, spacing etc, needs to evaluated with respect to different test entries (as per the need)

IV.

Variety Identification Procedure : After three consecutive years ofevaluation of the test entries across the zone for yield and other qualitative traits, the time comes for identification of superior test entries. The process of identification of superior entries is done in Annual Workshop/Group Meeting. The identification of any test entry is done by Variety Identification Committee. In general the Variety Identification Committee comprises: DDG (Crop science) or his nominee, Director Research of SAU of that region, Agriculture Commissioner (Dept. of Agriculture), Director of Agriculture (State govt.), one representative of seed organization (NSC, SFCI, and SSC), one or two senior level scientists and Project Director/Project Coordinator (Member Secretary). To assist the committee with respect to different queries, Principal Investigators of different research disciplines remains present during the committee meeting. The candidate test entry which is being proposed by the concerned breeder and his team for identification must have the yield data (green fodder/dry matter) of all the three years supported by the data on insect pest and disease resistance and certain quality parameters. Third year data on the performance of agronomic practices as well as seed producing ability of the candidate test entry is also required. Pure seed of candidate entry has to be put before the committee. Committee will examine and verify the significant superiority for yield (green fodder/dry matter) over other qualifying entries as well as best check (national/zonal/local) over the years and over the locations. Other than the yield levels, performance for biotic/abiotic stress and quality parameters are also taken into consideration. Sometimes combinations of all the favourable characters are also taken to justify the candidate’s entry superiority rather for significant superiority for yield character only. The stable performance of candidates entry over the years and locations are also taken into consideration for identification. After being identified by the Varietal Identification Committee, the identified


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entry is again submitted to Central Sub-Committee on Crop Standards, Notification and Release of Varieties.


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CHAPTER-6

Genetic Improvement in Forage Crops S. Ahmed, R. P. Sah, P. Kaushal, D. Vijay and D. R. Malaviya Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Introduction Indian farming is highly dependent on agriculture and live stock as our most population is dependent on it for his livelihood. Our population is (might be 1400 million by year 2025) increasing continuously beside this the animal population is also increasing. The way the animal population is increasing, demand for fodder is also coming up during the peak months of the year. Since the major dependence of livestock is on crop residues. Then it becomes important to breed varieties based on need which shows that meat and milk production will grow by 2.8 and 3.3 percent per annum, livestock population will grow at a rate of 1.23 percent which is around 500 million now. Livestock production adds 7% to Indian national GDP (a source of employment and livelihood for 70 % rural population). We need around 130 million tonnes of milk, 7 million tonnes of meat and 95 million eggs right now. Green fodder has an important role in animal health which ultimately determines the output of animal in terms of milk and meat. To overcome the upcoming requirement we have to increase the productivity, utilize the untapped feed resources, increase land area (not of human use) and imports. The green forage supply must grow at 3.2% rate to meet the projected demand. Gap between demand and supply of fodder is increasing because of constant pressure to grow commercial and crops for human use. The only option to decrease this gap of demand and supply is by genetic improvement of forage crops. Before starting any breeding programme in forage crops it is important to study the forage crops breeding behaviour and limitations as they are different from other crops in one or the other way. Classification of forage crops 1. On the basis of nature & behavior of growth a. Annuals- all cultivated except lucerne, alfalfa b. Perrenials- grasses & legumes 2. On the basis of pollination behavior a. Self-pollinated crops-oat, barley, cowpea, guar b. Cross-pollinated crops- maize, bajra, lucerne, berseem c. Often cross pollinated crops-sorghum, white clover 3. On the basis of family a. Leguminous-guar, berseem, cowpea, lucerne b. Non-leguminous- maize, bajra, sorghum, oat 4. Cultivated fodder legumes - Berseem, lucerne, senji, (sweet clover), shaftal, cowpea, guar (cluster bean) 5. Cultivated fodder cereals- Jowar, bajra, maize, teosinte, barley, oat 6. Cultivated fodder grasses-NB hybrid, guinea grass, dinanath grass, white & red clover 7. Range species/ grasses- Dharaf grass, marvel grass, setaria grass, anjan grass, fescue ghas, sen ghas, dhawalu ghas


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Limitations in breeding forages- A large number of limitations mentioned below affect the breeding programme in forage crops. 1. Very small and delicate flowers pose difficulty in hybridization eg. Berseem, Guar. 2. Majority of them are cross-pollinated- problem in maintenance. 3. Polyploid in nature- chromosomal variations/ abnormalities, leads to different level of fertility, difficult to manage/ maintain. 4. Narrow germplasm base in many forage legumes. 5. Grasses are mostly apomictic in nature- different breeding methods. 6. Perennial in nature & long lived –need many years to evaluate their potential. 7. Poor seed production so it is not possible to evaluate them for various economic traits under different agro climatic zones. 8. Small seeded and seedlings are delicate- difficult to establish good plant stand required for proper evaluation. 9. Mostly grown in mixture – evaluation becomes difficult in such systems. 10. Evaluated under poor management conditions-last priority given. 11. Nutritional evaluation- in vivo trials are to be conducted which are time consuming and requires expertise. Breeding objectives- To develop 1. Genotypes that can produce high biomass (green & dry) rather than economic traits like grain yield, oil and fibre. 2. Nutritionally superior lines better in palatability & digestibility and low in toxic content. 3. Breeding methodology should be according to reproductive behavior. 4. Wider adaptation. 5. Resistance to biotic & abiotic stresses. 6. Responsiveness to inputs. 7. High seed yield for faster spread in areas of adaptation. Table- Mode of reproduction & chromosome number Crop Botanical name Mating Chromosome number system (2n) Jowar

Sorghum bicolour

Sexual

20

Maize

Zea mays

Sexual

20

Bajra

Pennisetum americanum

Sexual

14

Teosinte

Zea mexicana

Sexual

20

Oat

Avena sativa

Sexual

42

Cowpea

Vigna anguiculata

Sexual

22

Berseem

Trifolium alexandrinum

Sexual

16


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Lucerne

Medicago sativa

Sexual

32

Napier grass

Pennisetum purpureum

Sexual

28

Anjan grass

Cenchrus ciliaris

Apomictic

32,34,36,40,54

Dhaman grass

Cenchrus setigerus

Apomictic

32,34,36,40,54

Guinea grass

Panicum maximum

Apomictic

18,32,36,48

Breeding Strategies- Different breeding strategies should be based on wide variations available in different cereals, legumes, grasses. Following should be taken into consideration for an affective breeding programme. 1. Exploitation of Germplasm Resources For effective utilization of genetic variability continuous exploration and evaluation of germplasm must be carried out. For strengthening of genetic resources and germplasm lines different agencies like IGFRI ; NBPGR; different SAU’s are working and maintaining it. Desirable genetic stocks should be identified for different traits like forage, seed, quality or resistance from the germplasm and could be used in hybridization. Different parameters like combining ability, phenotypic stability and suitability to adverse soil types and conditions should also to be studied in different lines for their suitability. The crops like Berseem , Lucerne which are leguminous fodder has shown less variability that mean creation of wide & desirable variability for GFY/DMY; quick & high regeneration should be taken up. Collection, evaluation, multilocation testing & their eventual use is of formost importance because of limited variation and whatever available is still not utilized fully in Range, pasture legumes & grasses. 2. Breeding for dual purpose varieties Low seed productivity in most of the forages has lead to development of less number of varieties with low adaptability. Efforts should be made to have the lines with high green fodder with dry fodder and grain yield. Utilization of grain varieties into crossing with fodder varieties might lead to dual types. Annual types of lucerne should be used in development of annual fodder lucerne in order to fit into crop rotation. A high fodder cum grain yielding variety will be adapted soon on larger area. 3. Development of multi-cut varieties While breeding for multi cut types efforts should be made to look for individuals with profuse tillering, quick regenerating, gives 4-5 cuts, having tolerance to biotic factors etc. Multicut type varieties serve to fulfill the purpose of fodder demand in the country. 4. Development of forage hybrids & composites For most of the cereal fodders hybrid breeding system is available that can help in development of hybrids. As the cost of seed production and multiplication rate are very important in hybrids so it should be low in Indian conditions. As we are aware of that sorghum hybrids are very popular in India & abroad but the same is


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not true for maize hybrids as they give less promise over varieties. Now with use of different systems the problem has been overcome in many cases. Composite breeding programmes for high GFY, quality, faster growth, earliness, high seed productivity are very successful in India. Traits like synchronous tillering, fast growth, stay green (greeness after grain harvest) must be considered. 5. Resistance to biotic & abiotic stresses Use of fungicides & insecticides in forage crops might lead to toxicity to animal/ livestock besides there is increase the cost of fodder production and it causes environmental pollution also. In such situations only solution left is the use of resistant varieties or the eco friendly management of biotic and abiotic stresses. With the efforts and long time research scientists are able to develop disease and insect pest resistant varieties in various fodder crops. 6. Improvement in Nutritional Quality Main attributes for the quality includes protein, digestibility, low NDF and ADF with no toxic constituents and anti nutritional factors. This is important because ultimately the output in the form of milk or meat will decides the profit to farmer and adoption of the variety in use for different fodder crops. It is important to identify parents of good quality having high biomass and select the better combining parents. We must look for high leaf/ stem ratio which is positively correlated with protein & digestibility, leaf number & leaf weight that are important fodder yielding traits. 7. Use of in vitro techniques Biotechnological techniques have been effectively used by clonal / rapid propagation in many legumes and apomictic grasses and for conservation of useful genotypes for long term. Immature embryo culture technique to obtain interspecific & intergeneric hybrids, where normal viable hybrids are not obtained has been successfully utilized in improvements of various forage crops. Cryopreservation & in vitro germplasm conservation needs attention in forages. Looking into the present fodder crops scenario, it becomes important to identify areas for fodder crops cultivation and their proper utilization. In recent years several high yielding varieties have been developed and released which are suitable to particular climatic regions as well as for different stress conditions. These varieties need to be popularized in respective areas, in addition to continue efforts for further improvement of fodder crops. Some of the potential areas include perennial cereals, interspecific hybridization, molecular markers aided plant breeding, apomixis in hybrid development and developing multiple stress tolerant varieties. Judicious use of released varieties in specific area will helps in improvement and adaptation of forage crops in larger areas. Major emphasis has been to breed high yielding and better quality varieties suitable for different agro-climatic areas of the country. Promising and widely adapted forage varieties are listed below.


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Table: Important forage crop varieties with area of adaptation and yield levels Crop and Variety Areas of adaptation Green forage (q/ha) I Cultivated Fodder – Legumes Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L) Mescavi Northern and Central India 800-900 Wardan (S-99-1) All India 900-1500 BL-1 Punjab and H.P. 100-1200 BL-10 Punjab, Haryana and H.P. 1100-1150 BL-22 Temperate zone of India 900-1000 JB-2 Northern and Central India 900-1000 Bundel Berseem –2 North West and Central zone 580-850 (JHB 146) UPB-110 Southern zone 500-650 BL-2 Northern India 650-900 Bundel Berseem –3 North eastern Zone, Eastern 600-700 (JHTB 96-4) UP, Bihar, Orissa and W.B. UPB-103 Northern, Central and part of 1000-1150 South India Lucerne (Medicago sativa L) Type-9 Whole of India 900-1000 Anand-2 Gujrat, Rajasthan, Haryana, 850-900 M.P.,U.P. LL composite-3 Punjab 900-950 LL composite-5 Punjab 900-950 Anand –3 Himachal Pradesh 600-900 RL –88 Whole of India 700-1000 CO-1 Tamil Nadu and Karnataka 600-800 SS-627 Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, 800-950 U.P., Rajasthan, H.P. and M.P. Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata (L) Walp.) Russian Giant

Northern India

350-400

NP-3 (EC-4216)

300-350 275-325

UPC-287

Northern, Western and Central India Tamil Nadu, A.P., Kerala and Karnataka Whole of India

UPC-5286

Whole of India

350-450

Gujarat Lobia-3

Gujarat

250-400

UPC-4200

North east zone

270-420

Lobia-88

Punjab

250-350

CO-1

350-400


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Bundel Lobia-2 (IFC8503) Haryana Lobia –88

North West Zone

220-350

North West zone

280-350

UPC 8705

Whole of India

300-420

UPC-5287

Northern India

350-400

C-30

Whole of India

300-350

Kohinoor (IGFRI-S-450) Whole of India (for summer) 250-300 Shweta (No.998)

Whole of India

300-350

Bundel Lobia – 1 (IFCWhole of India 8401) Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. HFG –156 Guar growing area of India

250-300

FS-277

Guar growing area of India

175-250

Bundel Guar-1(IGFRI – 212-1) Bundel Guar-2 (IGFRI – 2395-2) Bundel Guar –3


220-350


280-400

HFG-119


250-300

Guara-80

Punjab

300-320


Rice been (Vigna umbellata) RBL-1 Punjab RBL-6 Punjab K-1 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, N.E. region of A.P. and Kerala K-15 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, N.E. region of A.P. and Kerala Lablab Bean (Sem) Bundel sem –1 (JLP – 4) Whole of India Shaftal (Persian clover) SH –48 Himachal Pradesh White clover Palampur Composite –1 Gobhi Sarson GSL-1 Sheetal (HPN-1) Fenu greek (Metha) ML-150

200-250

250-400 220-450 200-300

200-300

220-350 800-1050

Himchal Pradesh

350-500

Punjab Himachal Pradesh

250-350 180-300

Punjab

270-350


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II Cultivated Fodder – Cereals Oats (Avena sativa L.) Kent Whole of India OS-6 Whole of India UPO-212 Whole of India OL-125 Whole of India UPO-94 Whole of India (Multicut) OL-9 Northern and NorthWestern India JHO-810 Kashmir valley JHO-822 (Bundel Jai-822) Central India (Multicut) JHO-851 Whole of India (Multicut) Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) Pusa Chari-6 Whole of India Pusa chari-9 Whole of India SL-44 North India HC-136 Whole of India M.P. Chari North India Meethi Sudan (SSG-59-3) Whole of India (Multicut) IS-4776 Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and A.P. Jawahar Chari-6 M.P. Jawahar Chari-69 M.P. (Multicut) JS-20 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi JS-263 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi GFS-4 Gujarat Pro-Agro chari (SSG-988) Whole India 855 F Whole India HC-308 Whole India PCH –106 Whole India Pantchari –3 (UPFS-23) U.P. Gujarat Forage Sorghum – Gujarat 1 (AS-16) MFSH-3 Whole India LS-250 Punjab Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum (L) Leek.) Giant Bajra Entire bajra growing tract K-677 Entire bajra growing tract Raj Bajra Chari-2 (UUJEntire Bjara growing tract IV-M) L-72 Entire bajra growing tract Rajko Gujrat and Rajasthan Fooder cumbu-8 (TNSC- Entire Bajra growing tract 1) Maize (Zea mays L.)

450-500 400-500 370-520 350-480 450-500 450-550 500-600 450-550 500-550 400-450 400-450 350-450 400-500 400-500 500-550 350-400 350-450 350-450 350-400 400-450 320-500 600-900 600-900 350-550 650-900 350-450 400-700 500-850 600-950 350-400 400-500 300-450 400-550 400-450 270-400


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African tall Vijay composite Jawahar Moti composite J-1006 Manjari Composite Teosinte TL-1

Whole of India Whole of India Whole of India Whole of India Punjab Whole of India

500-600 350-450 350-450 350-425 350-450 400-450

Punjab

380-500

III Cultivated fodder - perennial grasses Hybrid Napier (Napier- Bajra hybrid) (Pennisetum purpureum x P. glaucum) Pusa Giant Whole of India and tropics abroad NB-21 Whole of tropical humid part CO-1 Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Swetika-1 (IGFRI- U.P., M.P., NE hills, Punjab and hills of North 3) India IGFRI-6 U.P., H.P., NE hills, Punjab and hills of North India (intercropping) PBN-83 Punjab CO-2 Tamilnadu and Southern part CO-3 Tamilnadu and Southern part IGFRI-7 Whole of India (acid soils sub-temperate regions) IGFRI-10 Whole of India (acid soils sub-temperate regions) Yeshwant (RBNWhole of India 9) Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) Jacq. Macuenii Kerala Hamil Kerala, Tamil Nadu, A.P., West Bengal, Bihar and North- Eastern States PGG-1 North-West PGG-19 Punjab PGG-101 Punjab PGG-3 Northern, North-West and Central India PGG-9 Norther, North-West and Central India Deenanath (Pennisetum. pedicellatum) P.S.-2 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of Maharashtra and A.P. Bundel-1 (IGFRI- Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North 43-1) region of Maharashtra and A.P. IGFRI-3808 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of Maharashtra and A.P. Bundel-2 (IGFRI- Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of 4-2-1) Maharashtra and A.P. TNDN-1 Tamil Nadu

1000-1300 1200-1500 1100-1200 1100-1200 1200-1300 1250-1700 1200-1800 1300-2000 1300-1500 1300-1600 1300-1400

600-700 700-800 900-1100 750-1300 800-1450 800-1000 900-1100 600-700 600-700 500-600 550-700 550-780


Page 6-8

Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) Bundel Anjan –1 (IGFRI- Arid and semi-arid region 3108) Neel kolu kattai (Co-1) Tamil Nadu and other semi-arid areas (FS-391) Setaria Grass (Nandi Grass) PSS-1 Sub –temperate hill region Tall Fescue Grass Him –1 Himachal Pradesh

220-400 280-470

750-1100 400-450

Table : Suitable areas for different fodder crops for seed production in India Crops Area Sorghum South and South -West Cowpea North-West and South-West Dinanath grass East and Central Pearl millet North-West Buffel grass Western, Southern Marvel, Sehima Central, South-Central Siratro, Stylo Central, South-Central Rice bean East Berseem Central and West Lucern West and South-Central Oats North and North-Central Guinea grass South and North-West Strategies for promotion of forages that needs attention Although a good number of varieties has been developed in many forage crops but still the efforts are needed in following directions. • Improvement of fodder crops should not only be based on fodder production but also on adequate seed yielding capacity. • Synchronous tillering & flowering • Aggressiveness & compatibility in mixed stands • Genotypes environment interaction for seed production must be studied for site-specific seed production.


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CHAPTER-7

Maintenance Breeding: Importance and Applications V K Yadav and P Kaushal Indian Grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003 The selected seed, improved through years and labour, was observed to reverse, unless the hands of man choose the biggest and richest ears each year. (Vergilius in Georgica I, 197, cited by H. de Vries, 1906. Soorten en varieteiten, Haarlem, 538 p) Variety is a group of genetically similar plants, which may be identified (by some means) from other groups of genetically similar plants or a sub division of a species, homogenous and stable. It released and notified after DUS test and seed production practices are followed to maintain genetic purity in seed multiplication. As per Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 Novel varieties Extant varieties Farmers’ varieties Essentially derived varieties (EDV) Improving yield potential of crop varieties through plant breeding has been a critical component of global food security, especially for rice and the other major cereals. The green revolution, initiated by introduction of modern high yielding rice and wheat varieties in the 1960s, helped avoid food shortages in the 1970s. Yield potential is defined as the yield of a variety when grown in environments to which it is adapted; with nutrients and water non-limiting; and with pests, diseases, weeds, lodging, and other stresses effectively controlled Causes for Deterioration of Genetic Purity of varieties The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. Developmental Variations When seed crops are grown under environments with differing soil, fertility, climate photoperiods, or at different elevations for several consecutive generation's developmental variations may set in as differential growth responses. It is therefore, preferred to grow the varieties of crops in the areas of their natural adaptation to minimize developmental shifts. Mechanical Mixtures Mechanical mixtures, the most important reason for varietal deterioration, often take place at the time of sowing if more than one variety is sown with the same seed drill, through volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed field, or through different varieties grown in adjacent fields. Two varieties growing next to each other field is usually mixed during harvesting and threshing operations. The threshing equipment is often contaminated with seeds of other varieties. Similarly, the gunny bags, seed bins and elevators are also often contaminate, adding to the mechanical mixtures of


Page 7-1

varieties. Roguing the seed fields critically and using utmost care during seed production and processing are necessary to avoid such mechanical contamination. Mutations Mutations do not seriously deteriorate varieties. It is often difficult to identify or detect minor mutations occurring naturally. Mutants such as ‘fatuoids’ in oats or ‘rabbit ear’ in peas may be removed by roguing from seed plot to purify the seeds. Natural Crossing Natural crossing can be an important source of varietal deterioration in sexually propagated crops. The extent of contamination depends upon the magnitude of natural cross-pollination. The deterioration sets in due to natural crossing with undesirable types, diseased plants, or off types. In self-pollinated crops, natural crossing is not a serious source of contamination unless variety is male sterile and is grown in close proximity with other varieties. The natural crossing, however, can be major source of contamination due to natural crossing. Extent of genetic contamination in seed field due to natural crossing depends up on 1. The breeding system of the species 2. Isolation distance 3. Varietal mass 4. Pollinating agent. The isolation of seed crops is the most important factor in avoiding contamination of the cross-pollinated crops. The direction of prevailing winds, the number of insects present and their activity, and mass of varieties are also important considerations is contamination by natural crossing. Minor Genetic Variations Minor genetic variations can occur even in varieties appearing phenotypically uniform and homogenous when released. The variations may lost during later production cycles owing to selective elimination by the nature. The yield trials of lines propagated from plants of breeder's seed to maintain the purity of self-pollinated crop varieties can overcome these minor variations. Due care during the maintenance of nucleus and breeder's seed of cross-pollinated varieties of crop is necessary. Selected Influence of Pest and Diseases New crop varieties often are susceptible to newer races of pests and diseases caused by obligate parasites and thus selectively influence deterioration. The vegetatively propagated stock also can deteriorate quickly if infected by virus, fungi or bacteria. Seed production under strict disease free conditions is therefore essential. The Techniques of the Plant Breeder Serious instabilities may occur in varieties owing to cytogenetic irregularities in the form of improper assessments in the release of new varieties. Premature release of varieties, still segregating for resistance and susceptibility to diseases or other factors can cause significant deterioration of varieties. This failure can be attributed to the variety-testing programme. In addition to these factors, other heritable variations due


Page 7-2

to recombination's and polyploidization may also take place in varieties during seed production, which can be avoided by periodical selection during maintenance of the seed stock. Maintenance Breeding Maintenance breeding’ (maintenance selection) refers to all breeding measures taken to conserve the genetical composition of a variety- improved or not. The main objective of the maintenance breeding is to maintain the purity and identity of a cultivar. To achieve the objective the normal breeding process is extended and genetic purity of the cultivar is maintained from generation to generation. During seed multiplication process, several factors may reduce the genetic purity of seed. The maintenance of genetic purity is largely dependent on the genetic makeup of the cultivar. Based on pollination mechanism, vegetable cultivars can be classified into four categories • Self pollinating crops with very little out crossing • Self pollinating crops with substantial amount of out crossing (often cross pollinated crops) • Typical cross pollinating crops • The vegetatively reproductive crops Traditional maintenance breeding Crop Traits Maize Kernel Colour, Use, cob length, kernel size Sorghum Large and full head of grain, Panicle length Rice Pant habit, Panicle length, grain colour, awnness Millets long and compact ears, bold seed Wheat Panicle length, seed colour Potato size, colour, colour pattern, bitterness, storability, cook ability, taste, resistance and tolerance Cassava cook ability, taste, resistance and tolerance, leaf colour, tuber shape and colour, Use (Confectionary, roasting, Beer making, vegetable, Powder etc) Systematic Maintenance of a cultivar Once a cultivar is released for cultivation, the breeder usually supplies a small quantity of seed for further multiplication and maintenance. The responsibility of breeder seed production centre is to produce breeder seed and varietal maintenance. In order to release seed of an improved cultivar to farmers, it has to be multiplied. Each multiplication cycle has to start from its basic seed stock, ‘Nucleus Seed’.


Page 7-3

• • • • • • •

Adoption of Crop: Growing crops only in areas of their adaptation to avoid genetic shifts. Approved Class of Seeds: Use of only approved class of seed in seed multiplication and adopt generation system. Preceding Crop Requirement: Inspection and approval of seed plots prior to planting Isolation: Isolation of seed crops from various sources of contamination by natural crossing or mechanical mixtures. Roguing: Roguing of off types differing in characteristics from those of the seed variety. Field Inspection: Qualified and experienced personnel of seed certification agency should inspect seed crops at all appropriate stages of growth and verify seed lots or purity and quality. GOT: Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.

Methods to maintain genetic purity Mass Selection : A form of selection in which individual plants with desirable phenotypes are selected from large populations of plant grown in a field and the next generation propagated from aggregate of there. Best suited for the maintenance of purity of cross pollinated crops. Mass Pedigree Method: A system of breeding in which a population is propagated in mass until conditions are favourable for selection occurs, after which pedigree selection is practiced. Changes are made based on mode of pollination of genotype (HYV/A/B/R line) to maintain. Plant to row Method The maintenance procedure starts with a small plot raised from the parental material received from the breeder or uniform seed multiplication field in case of established cultivars. A fair number (300-500) of healthy plants typical of the cultivar are selected and marked for progeny testing (Plate 1). The seeds of the marked true- to- type plants are harvested separately. The seeds of each plant are planted in a 3m long progeny row. These progeny rows are assessed critically several times during the growing season. Progeny rows that deviate in one or other characteristics are discarded and entire plant progeny rows is rejected. The plant progenies that are uniform and true to type are selected and bulked together as nucleus seed stage-I. This nucleus seed is used for planting larger breeder seed plots. If the breeder seed requirement of a particular cultivar is more, then another cycle of nucleus seed production is followed


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Methods of maintenance breeding in fodder crops : Crop Oat Cowpea Maize Sorghum Pearl millet Guinea grass NX B Hybrid Berseem Lucerne Clovers

Method Plant to row method Pod to row Method Plant to Row/ Mass Selection Ear to Row Method Ear to Row Method Rouging and SPS Mass selection/ Ear to row method (parents) Mass Selection Mass Selection Mass selection


Page 7-5

CHAPTER-8

Vegetative Propagation of Important Cultivated and Range Grasses Rajiv Kumar Agrawal*, D R Palsaniya J B. Singh and Satyapriya Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Introduction Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants from seeds, stem cuttings, leaves, bulbs and other plant parts. Plant propagation is used to produce new plants/ plant in masses from a desired parent plant. There are two categories of plant propagation: asexual and sexual. Sexual propagation is a natural process resulting in a parent plant forming seeds that create offspring that are not genetically identical to the parent plant, as in asexual propagation. Asexual propagation creates plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant. Both types of propagation have their own advantages and disadvantages. Asexual propagation allows you to reproduce or clone the parent plant exactly. This is especially useful when the parent plant has desirable characteristics such as higher yield, biotic or abiotic stress resistance or good quality. In cases where seed production is not possible due to genetic, climatic or other reasons, asexual propagation is the only way to save the species from extinction. Asexual propagation preserves the characteristics of the parent plant. The plants produced by asexual propagation will also flower and fruit faster than those produced by sexual propagation because plants grown from seed need to pass through a juvenile period before they flower and fruit. Asexually propagated plants are mature when they are propagated and begin to flower immediately. Sexual propagation has several benefits as well. Growing from seed is cheap and easy. Growing plants from seed produce offspring which are not genetically identical to the parent; therefore, the propagated plant will be genetically diverse from the parent plant which is a desired characteristic in a natural setting. Plants have a number of mechanisms for asexual or vegetative reproduction. Some of these are being used to multiply or clone plants rapidly. Vegetative reproduction uses plants parts such as roots, stems and leaves. In some plants seeds can be produced without fertilization and the seeds contain only the genetic material of the parent plant. Therefore, propagation via asexual seeds or apomixis is asexual reproduction but not vegetative propagation. Techniques for vegetative propagation include: air or ground layering, grafting, cuttings and micropropagation. Vegetative propagation in grasses Some grasses such as Napier, Napier-Bajra hybrid, Tri Specific Hybrid (TSH), etc does not produce viable seeds so propagation is carried out through vegetative means. Some grasses that produce seeds such as Panicum maximum and Cenchrus ciliaris, can also be


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propagated vegetatively for faster establishment. The vegetative propagation in such grasses can be carried out through stem cuttings and rooted slips. Vegetative propagation in prominent grasses This type of propagation involves taking a small portion of a mature plant in order to reproduce that plant. Propagation by cuttings results in plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant. Napier Bajra hybrid (Pennisetum glaucum x P. Purpureum) The NB hybrid is not capable to produce the seed. In some cases the seed setting is there, but the seeds are sterile. Hence, it is propagated by stem cuttings with two buds or with rooted slips. About 35000 rooted slips or stem cuttings per /hectare are required in sole crop depending upon the plant geometry. In intercrop 20,000 rooted slips are sufficient to harvest better biomass. Stem cuttings are placed into the soil at an angle of 450, and at least one node is pushed into the soil and one remains above the soil surface. The rooted slips are prepared by uprooting a clump, dividing it into rooted tillers with small stem. These should be planted in to field with a spacing of 75 cm x 50 cm for sole cropping and 100 cm x 50 cm for intercropping. Just after planting, irrigation should be given for better establishment. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) Guinea grass can be grown by using seed and vegetative materials likes rooted slips. A seed rate of 3-4 kg/ha is sufficient for better crop stand in sole crop. 40,000 rooted slips in sole stand and 20,000 rooted slips in inter cropping has been found optimum. The vegetative propagation is advantageous as the seed germination is very poor usually 20-30 per cent. Further it increases the time lapse in establishment phase. Nonetheless, in far-off areas the propagation through seed reduces the transportation cost as well as risk of mortality in planting material is minimized. For planting the slips or cuttings a well-prepared, weed-free seed-bed is required for good establishment. For best results, the seed should be sown by a combine or a drum seeder, by dropping seed in the soil surface and rolling. It can also be propagated by nursery sowing. A seedling of 20-25 days old nursery or rooted slips at the spacing of 50 cm x 50 cm is optimum for sole stand. In intercropping it may be planted of 150 cm row to row and 50 cm plant to plant.


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Seteria (Seteria sphacelata stapf.) It is propagated by seed, rooted slips as well as stem cuttings. About 2.0-2.5 kg seed is sufficient for planting of one hectare. About 40000 rooted slips are sufficient for planting of one hectare area. In intercropping system, 20000 rooted slips are required. The seed should be broadcasted on the bed and covered with thin layer of fine soil mixed with well rotten manure. Care should be taken that the seed does not go deeper than 3 cm. Nursery bed should be irrigated after sowing and continued till the seedlings emerge. Seedling becomes ready for transplanting when they attain height of 15-20 cm. The transplanting is done during February and July. Rooted slips are prepared by uprooting a clump, dividing it into rooted slips with small stem. A stem In fields, the seedlings are to be planted at a spacing of 50 cm x 50 cm. Just after planting, irrigation should be done. Cultivation practices of important perennial grasses in brief Nursery Raising for Grasses The seed quality is very important for establishing the grasses. In forage species, particularly in grasses, the seed production varies from species to species. Rooted slips are also viable alternate measures for establishing the grass. These seedlings are raised in nursery. May- june is the best month for this purpose. Raised seed beds (6 m x 0.6 m) are prepared at the first rains in the nursery. The soil is thoroughly pulverized, grass roots, big pebbles, mud clots and stones etc. are removed, and as the grass seeds are small and have very less density and germintability. About 30 kg FYM + 10 g N + 5 g of P2O5 is mixed thoroughly in each bed, while preparing the soil.. After removal of weeds the grass seed are sown 5-6 mm deep in lines, 10 cm apart. The beds are watered using a rose can and covered with wet gunny bags for a period of 4 to 6 days continuously, by which time the seeds germinate. The gunny bags are removed soon after the seed germination in the beds. The bed is watered for 4 to 6 days. Weeds should be cleaned regularly. In places where the day temperature is very high, it may be necessary to shade the beds in order to protect the delicate seedlings. Thereafter, the beds are watered every alternate day. About 40-50 g of grass seeds will be required for each bed. Raising of 12 nursery beds is required to provide seedlings for transplanting in one hectare. Seedling of grass will be ready for transplanting after 4 to 6 weeks when they attain a height of 15 to 22 cm. Top dressing with urea (10 kg N/ha) will ensure a good stand of the seedlings. The beds are kept free from weeds. The beds should be watered properly a night before pulling out the seedlings. This facilitates uprooting of seedlings without damage to the root system. The seedlings are then transplanted at the desired place following proper geometry. The soil, around the seedlings should be pressed thoroughly to remove the air space. Two seedlings should be planted at each place for quick establishment. The ideal time for transplanting is after outbreak of monsoon (July-August) in kharif and February -March.


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Bajra - Napier hybrid 1. Suitable area: Whole India except low temperature hilly regions 2. Sowing/ planting time: rains)/ February- march

July (with onset of

3. Isolation Distance: 10 m ( for both foundation and certified seed) 4. Varieties: Pusa giant, IGFRI-6, IGFRI-10, NB-17, NB-21, BN-6, Co-3, Co-4 5. Plants/ ha : 30000 rooted slips/ ha 6. Line to line distance X Plant to plant distance: 75 X 50 cm 7. Fertilizers (kg/ha): N- 80, P-50, k-50 8. Irrigation: 6-8 irrigation 9. Cutting- 75 days after planting then every next cut after 30-40 days 10. Total forage yield: 2000-2500 q/ha green fodder 11. Total rooted slip production: 4 lakhs rooted slips per ha/year Guinea Grass (Panicum maximum) 1. Suitable area: Whole India 2. Sowing time: July (with onset of rains) 3. Isolation Distance: 20 m (Foundation seed) 10 m (Certified Seed) 4. Varieties: Macueni, Hamil, Bundel Guinea 1, Bundel Guinea-2, PGG-9, PGG-14 5. Plants/ ha : 40000 rooted slips/ ha 6. Seed rate: 3-4 kg per hectare 7. Line to line distance X Plant to plant distance: Row to row 75-100 cm Plant to plant: 50 cm Fertilizers (kg/ha): N- 80, P-50, K-50, 30 kg nitrogen after each cut in two splits 8. Irrigation: 6- 8 irrigation/ year 9. Ist cut- 75 days after sowing then every next cut after 30-40 days


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10. Total forage yield: 1200-1600 q/ha green fodder 11. Total rooted slip production: 4-6 lakhs rooted slips per ha /year 12. Seed production: 1.5 q/ha Anjan grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) 1. Suitable area: Whole India, tolerant to draught, Sandy loam soil

prolonged

2. Sowing time: July (with onset of rains) 3. Isolation Distance: (Certified seed)

20

m (Foundation Seed) 10 m

4. Varieties: Bundel Anjan ( IGFRI-3108), Bundel anjan474, Marwar anjan (CAZRI-75), CAZRI- 2178, CAZRI2221 5. Plants/ ha : 40000 rooted slips/ ha 6. Seed rate: 2-3 kg per hectare 7. Line to line distance X Plant to plant distance: 50 X 50 cm for transplanting 8. Fertilizers (kg/ha): N- 50 , P-20, K-20 9. Irrigation: Rain fed 10. Cutting- 70 days after sowing then next cut after 45 days (suitable for graizing) 11. Total forage yield: 400-450 q/ha green fodder 12. Total rooted slip production: 4-6 lakhs rooted slips per ha /year 13. Seed production: 1.5 - 2 q/ha Dhaman grass (Cenchrus setigerus Vahl) 1. Suitable area: Tropical and sub-tropical region of India, tolerant to prolonged draught, Sandy loam soil 2. Nutritive value: Crude protein 7 to 12 percent and IVDMD 50 to 65 percent depending upon stage of harvesting 3. Sowing time: July-August (with onset of rains) 4. Varieties: Marwar Dhaman (CAZRI 76) 296, 175 and 415 5. Plants/ ha: 40000 rooted slips/ ha 6. Seed rate: 10 kg per hectare 7. Line to line distance X Plant to plant distance: 50 X 50 cm for transplanting


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8. Fertilizers (kg/ha): N- 30 , P2O5-30, yield increase upto 90 kg N and 60 kg P2O5/ha has been observed 9. Irrigation: Rain fed, normally irrigation is not required 10. Cutting- 70 days after sowing then next cut after 45 days (suitable for grazing) 11. Total forage yield: 3.9-7.9 t/ha Dhwalu grass (Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng) Choiv) 1. Suitable area: Suitable to arid to semi-arid regions gravelly land of Aravalli hill in Rajasthan, Central Plateau and lower ranges of Himalaya, shallow and gravelly/stony soils 2. Nutritive Value: crude protein 4.6 to 5.1 and contains higher fibre fraction 3. Sowing/planting time: July-August (with onset of rains) 4. Varieties: Mhow, Chandigarh & Bundel Dhwalu Grass-1 (IGC-9903) 5. Plants/ ha: 40000 rooted slips/ ha 6. Seed rate: 5 kg per hectare 7. Line to line distance X Plant to plant distance: 50 X 50 cm for transplanting 8. Fertilizers (kg/ha): N- 60 , P2O5-40 9. Irrigation: Rain fed, normally irrigation is not required 10. Cutting- 70 days after sowing then next cut after 45 days (suitable for grazing) 11. Total forage yield: 4-6 t/ha 12. Total rooted slip production: 4-6 lakhs rooted slips per ha /year 13. Seed production: 99.5 kg/ha Marvel grass (Duchanthium annulatum (Forsk) Stapf) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Suitable area: Plains and hills in India except in northern mountains. Nutritive value: 4.5 to 7.0 percent crude protein and rich in fibre Sowing time: July (with onset of rains) Varieties: IGFRI 495-1 and Marvel-8, CAZRI-490 and 485 Plants/ ha: 40000 rooted slips/ ha Seed rate: 6 kg per hectare Line to line distance X Plant to plant distance: 50 X 30 cm for transplanting Fertilizers (kg/ha): Basal: 6 to 8 tonnes FYM, N- 20 kg, P2O5-20 kg, top dressing 20 kg N after one month of planting 9. Irrigation: Rain fed 10. Cutting- 60 days after sowing then next cut after 45 days (suitable for grazing) 11. Total forage yield: 30 t/ha 12. Total rooted slip production: 4-6 lakhs rooted slips per ha /year


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CHAPTER-9

Forage Breeder Seed Production in India: An Overview and Current Status A. K. Roy and A. K. Mall Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Introduction Non-availability of good quality seeds is the major reason for slow adoption of improved fodder production technologies specially the improved varieties. The availability of good quality seeds is estimated to be around 15-25 per cent only for cultivated fodders. The productivity and availability of seed are vital because the fodder crops have been bred for enhanced vegetative potential and as such they are shy seeders with very low seed productivity. Forage seed production depends on a number of environmental and physiological factors such as photoperiod, thermo-period, humidity, soil condition. Each forage crop is suited to only specific area for forage and/or seed production such as Berseem in the northern plains and Lucerne in the north-west India. Similarly, pasture grass like Lasiurus is best adapted and productive under low rainfall situations of western Rajasthan and Congo signal grass and guinea grass in the highly humid regions of Kerala. Hence, there is a need to prepare a ‘seed production atlas’ for the entire country for commercial seed production and marketing. In this endeavour, disease free zones could also be identified and mapped. Forage seed production is largely concentrated in the unorganised sector, where the quality of seed is always compromised. Organised fodder seed production chain is very limited. It is mainly because of a large number of forage crops and their suitability to specific niches. Only a few crop varieties are under proper seed production chain In the rabi season, it is limited to only 35 cultivars of 04 fodder crops, namely Berseem (11), Lucerne (6), Oat (14) and Gobhi sarson (4). In most of the cases the quantity indented is very meagre. In the kharif season, only 41 cultivars belonging to 7 foirage crops are in seed chain. They are Cowpea (10), maize (4), Sorghum (15), Teosinte (1), Rice bean (2), Guar (4), Pearl millet (5) The details of total quantity of different varieties and crops indented, allotted and produced are given in following tables Table 1: Allocation and production of Breeder seed in important varieties of kharif forage crops ( in Quintals) Crop Varieties Allocation Production 2010 2011 2012 2010 2011 2012 Maize African Tall 44.80 52.12 63.05 57.78 51.60 64.25 J-1006 15.10 17.75 31.33 20.00 20.00 40.00 Cowpea CL-367 1.00 1.90 1.90 Nil Nil 0.12 Haryana Lobia- 1.00 1.00 1.50 0.60 1.10 1.50 88


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EC-4216 UPC-628 UPC-5287 Bundel Lobia-2 UPC-625 Pearl FBC-16 millet Raj Bajra Chari-2 PCB-164 Sorghum Pusa Chari-23 Pant Chari-9 Pusa Chari-6 MP Chari Ricebean Bidhan-1 Bidhan-2 Guar Bundel Guara-1 Guar Kranti

5.70 1.00 0.50

19.25 1.00 10.00 7.00 4.00 0.50

9.15 4.50 6.00 2.10 3.80 2.60 0.20

12.50 1.50 7.00

3.00 2.00 0.00 4.20 1.00

5.00 1.50 3.00 0.60 2.00 4.00 2.00

14.00 0.50 1.00 5.00 -

1.05 43.00 36.00 108.00 38.10 2.00 1.00 -

1.25 15.00 1.80 5.00 2.00 0.70 3.00

13.40 2.15 1.57 10.00 -

1.10 13.97 6.70 6.40 1.50 2.00 1.00 -

1.50 2.52 2.60 55.00 2.00 0.25 3.00

-

-

5.00

-

-

2.00

Table 2: Allocation and production of Breeder seed in major varieties of Rabi forage crops ( in Quintals) Crop /Varieties Allocation Production 20102011201220102011-12 2012-13 11 12 13 11 Oat Kent 139.60 551.20 495.00 211.33 454.50 371.40 HJ-8 10.00 14.00 12.50 10.00 24.00 4.90 UPO-212 2.50 103.50 110.50 10.00 100.00 45.00 Sabzar 15.00 64.00 90.00 18.00 80.00 85.00 Phule Harita 50.00 10.00 9.00 7.00 JHO-851 5.00 130.00 32.00 20.00 60.00 21.00 JHO-99-2 10.00 127.00 40.00 22.00 98.00 33.60 OS-6 5.00 22.50 5.00 23.00 JHO-822 25.00 25.00 30.00 20.40 Berseem JB-1 Wardan Bundel Berseem-3 Mescavi BL-1 BL-10 BL-42

11.50 0.80 10.50

9.00 25.95 15.50

10.75 12.00 7.00

21.95 7.00 6.00

12.30 15.00 16.00

11.40 2.55 5.00

6.20 5.00 25.90 8.40

5.50 6.65 16.60 11.80

15.25 5.00 10.00 8.00

0.75 5.30 8.50 0.50

12.00 8.00 16.00 3.90

15.25 8.00 18.30 13.50


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Table 3: Allocation and production of Breeder seed in Kharif forage crops ( in quintals) Crop Allocation Production 2010 2011 2012 2010 2011 2012 Maize 63.22 74.87 99.38 92.68 76.6 109.25 Cowpea 9.2 42.65 28.95 16.1 12.1 13.72 Pearl millet 1.5 5.55 5.47 8.5 6.3 9.22 Sorghum 23 233.9 35.85 28.62 37.31 73.64 Teosinte 10.00 6.00 Ricebean 3.0 2.7 3.0 2.25 Guar 8.4 5.4 Table 4: Allocation and production of Breeder seed in Rabi forage crops ( in Quintals) Allocation Production 20102011201220102011-12 2012-13 11 12 13 11 Oat 202.1 1112.7 837.5 305.33 887.25 611.3 Berseem 68.8 95 73.1 50 84.05 76.68


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CHAPTER-10

Apomixis in Grasses: Genetics and Utilization P. Kaushal and K. K. Dwivedi Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi (UP) 284003

Apomixis is a process of clonal reproduction through seeds (Nogler 1984) that occurs naturally in a substantial number of angiosperm species, most of them belonging to the Poaceae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae families. Apomictic plants bypass both meiotic reduction and egg cell fertilization to produce offspring that are genetically identical to the mother plant. Exploitation of apomixis in major crop plants would provide tremendous benefits to agriculture, including: (a) widespread use and fixation of hybrid vigor, even for those plants for which hybrid technology is not available; (b) survival and immediate fixation of combined genetic resources, including wide-cross progeny that are unfit when propagated sexually; (c) true seed production from crops currently propagated vegetatively; (d) more rapid breeding programs in response to changing needs and environments. Potential advantages of apomixis breeding have been widely discussed and subjected to excellent reviews (Savidan 2000, Koltunow and Grossniklaus 2003, Spillane et al. 2004, Ozias-Akins and VanDijk 2007, Tucker and Koltunow 2009). Using apomixis to fix hybrid vigour in cereals would have a major impact on food production around the world. An Australian study estimated that the introduction of apomixis in rice alone would have an economic gain of US$2.5 billion per annum (Mc Meniman and Lubulwa 1997). It promises economic and social benefits exceeding those of the green revolution and hence, was termed ‘Asexual Revolution’ (Calzada et al. 1996). Apomixis gained world-wide attention in last two decades following discovery of sexual plants in otherwise apomictic taxa as well as efficient screening procedures to identify apomictic and sexual plants (Savidan 2000). Naumova (1997) and Leblanc and Mazzucato (2001) have reviewed various screening procedures for identification of apomixis in large populations. Matzk et al. (2000) has described Flow Cytometric Seed Screen (FCSS) as a highly efficient method for screening apomixis as well as its component traits in large populations based on the flow cytometric measurement of relative DNA contents of embryo and endosperm cells from matured seeds. Origin and evolution of apomixis is explained on the basis of polyploidy, genomic imprinting in interspecific/intergeneric hybridization, and mutation (Carman 1997, Savidan 2000, Koltunow and Grossniklaus 2003, Tucker and Koltunow 2009). Genetic regulation of apomixis is explained under control of major genes following Mendelian segregation (eg. in Taraxacum, Ranunculus, Bracharia, Cenchrus, Panicum) or under control of ‘linkat’ extensively large in size and characterized by hemizygosity and suppressed recombination (in Pennisetum, Paspalum) (Grimanelli et al. 1998, Labombarda et al. 2002, Ozias-Akins et al. 2003). Third theory supports the origin and evolution of apomixis resulting from asynchronously-expressed duplicate genes that control female development (Carman 1997, Sharbel et al. 2009). Apomixis essentially contains three apomixis components viz., apomeiosis (leading to unreduced embryo sac formation), parthenogenesis (development of embryo without fertilization) and functional endosperm development (autonomous or pseudogamous), which are reported to be under strict structural and functional linkage in most of the apomictic crops (Savidan 2000, Pupilli et al. 2001, Ozias-Akins and


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van Dijk 2007). However, uncoupling of these components and their independent existence has now been demonstrated in several taxa, such as Poa pratensis (Albertini et al. 2001), Erigeron (Noyes 2006), Taraxacum (van Dijk et al. 2003, Zavesky et al. 2007), Hieraceum (Okada et al. 2007), Boechera holboellii (Kantama et al. 2007), Panicum maximum (Kaushal et al. 2008) and Pennisetum (Kaushal et al. 2010). Recent studies also demonstrated that the locus controlling autonomous endosperm development can be segregated away from the apomeiosis and parthenogenesis loci, yielding progeny which are both apomeiotic and parthenogenetic, yet require fertilization of the central cell for normal seed development (van Dijk et al. 2003, Kaushal et al. 2008, 2010). Matzk et al. (2005) demonstrated apomixis in Poa pratensis under control of atleast five genes with varying penetrance and expressivity, controlling independently the components of apomixis. Utilization of molecular markers in apomixis research has contributed significantly in understanding as well as partitioning of this complex phenomenon. DNA based markers as RAPD were used in earlier studies to identify aberrant progeny in generations derived from apomictic plants as well as to characterize degree of apomixis in crops like Poa, Hypericum, Pennisetum, Paspalum, Medicago, Miscanthus, Rosa, etc. Following one of the earliest reports on DNA markers for apomixis research in Pennisetum (Ozias-Akins et al. 1998) molecular markers were extensively utilized for tagging genes involved in apomixis. RFLP markers linked with apomeiosis in agamic species as Pennisetum, Brachiaria, Taraxacum, Tripsacum and Erigeron species have been identified (Savidan 2000, Grimanelli et al. 2001). Similarly RFLP and AFLP markers were identified for parthenogenesis, the second component of apomixis, in crops like Poa (Pupilli et al. 2001, Labombarda et al. 2002). BAC libraries have been produced to demonstrate microcolinearity of apospory specific regions between apomictic and sexual genomes, as in Pennisetum species (Conner et al. 2008). AFLP and SAMPL markers for generating linkage map and identification of genes for apomixis have been utilized in Poa pratensis and Paspalum (Porceddu et al. 2002). Cloning and characterization of genes expressed during apomeiotic embryo sac formation and parthenogenetic development have also been targeted in crops such as Cenchrus ciliaris (Vielle-Calzada et al. 1996), Brachiaria (Leblanc et al. 1997), Panicum maximum (Chen et al. 1999) and Paspalum (Pessino et al. 2001). Molecular analysis of apomixis has also focused on the development of molecular maps and the localization of the DNA regions that control apomixis in various species and the syntenic relations they share. Molecular maps for apomixis (or its components) are available in crops such as Brachiaria (Pessino et al. 1998), Paspalum (Pupilli et al. 2004), Cenchrus ciliaris (Jessup et al. 2002), Poa pratensis (Albertini et al. 2001), Pennisetum squamulatum (Roche et al. 2002, Goel et al. 2003) and Taraxacum (Vijverberg et al. 2004). In addition to the presence of genomic sequences that governs apomixis, evidences are now supporting deregulation of key genes of embryo-sac and embryo development leading to apomictic phenotype (Grimanelli et al. 2003, Tucker and Koltunow 2009). In view of this, gene expression studies have been made in crops such as Panicum, Eragrostis, Poa, Brachiaria, Pennisetum etc. and differentially expressed genes between sexual and apomictic phenotypes have been identified


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(Albertini et al. 2005, Alves et al. 2007, Singh et al. 2007, Cervigni et al. 2008, Laspina et al. 2008, Akiyama et al. 2009). Full expression of gametophytic apomixis has been always associated with polyploidy (Nogler 1984), though recently some true diploid apomicts are also reported including Boechera holboellii (Kantama et al. 2007), Brachiaria decumbens (Naumova et al. 1999) and Paspalum rufum (Siena et al. 2008). The strong correlation of polyploidy with apomixis has been intriguing and suggesting the existence of mechanisms by which sexual processes are deregulated following an increase in the number of genomic complements (Spillane et al. 2004). In Paspalum spp., autopolyploidisation of sexual diploids generated tetraploid aposporous lineages (Quarin et al. 2001). Increase in ploidy is believed to trigger both genetic and epigenetic alterations leading to a stable repatterning of gene expression that can contribute to apomixis (Spillane et al. 2004, Cervigni et al. 2008). Effects of polyploidy on induction/expression of apomixis have been studied in Calamagrostis purpurea (Nygren 1948), Potentilla (Asker 1967), Paspalum notatum (Quarin et al. 2001) and Manihot (Nassar 2006). Mechanisms involved in rapid genome variation and gene expression re-patterning associated with ploidy changes have been studied in Eragrostis (Mecchia et al. 2007). Cervigni et al. (2008) demonstrated significant differential expression in individuals with different ploidy level and/or variable reproductive mode in Eragrostis utilizing diploid and tetraploid sexual, and tetraploid apomictic plants analyzing 8,884 unigenes sequenced from inflorescence-derived libraries. They identified a set of genes that are silent in sexual tetraploids, but function in apomictic and sexual diploids. One of the regulatory mechanisms have recently been described is by selective methylation patterns during the ploidy conservations, thereby reprogramming the gene expressions by silencing of transposon activity, establishment of heterochromatin in the centromeres, and control of transcriptional activity (Sokolov et al. 2008, Ochogavia et al. 2009, Verhoeven et al. 2010). Dose dependence of manifestation of particular reproduction form in the hybrids according to the number of parental genomes has been demonstrated (Rosenbaumova et al. 2009). Apomixis components, viz. apomeiosis and parthenogenesis were also shown to differently respond to an increase in the number of genomes (Sokolov et al. 2008, Kaushal et al. 2008, 2009). Similarly, the proportion of facultativeness in apomictic reproduction was shown to be dependent on genome dosage from sexual parents in Ranunculus, Erigeron, and Pennsietum (Nogler 1984, Noyes 2005, Kaushal et al. 2010) In addition to apomixis, polyploidy has generated interest in plant biologists because many of the agriculturally important species that cater to our needs for food, feed, fodder and fibre are polyploids. Polyploidy research has focused on production of synthetic polyploids in many taxa and/or modifying ploidy to facilitate comparative studies on evolution, genetics and breeding and to provide useful insights for improving our crop plants (Udall and Wendel 2006, Peng et al. 2008). To facilitate such studies, artificially synthesized ploidy (series) have been produced in taxa, such as yeast (Galitski et al. 1999), potato (Stupar et al. 2007), Taraxacum (van Dijk and Bakx Schotman 2004), maize (Rhoades and Dempsey 1966, Riddle et al. 2006), Paspalum (Martelotto et al. 2007), Eragrostis (Mecchia et al. 2007) etc. Ploidy variations are reported to cause alterations in morphology (Riddle et al. 2006, 2010), biochemical attributes (Birchler 1979) and molecular behaviour involving gene


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expression, regulation, and genetic and epigenetic changes (Wang et al. 2006). Although the causes of novel variation in polyploids are not well understood, they are believed to involve changes in gene expression through increased variation in dosageregulated gene expression, altered regulatory interactions, and rapid genetic and epigenetic changes (Gerstein and Otto 2009, Salmon and Ainouche 2010, Verhoeven et al. 2010). DNA methylation and sRNAs have recently been identified to be involved in ploidy-regulated gene expression (Peng et al. 2008). Polyploidy has the general effect of increasing gene expression levels on a per cell basis in proportion to the gene dosage conferred by ploidy level, as was shown for most genes in a euploid series (monoploid, diploid, triploid and tetraploid) of maize (Guo et al. 1996). In diploids, allele-dosage effects have been observed for many genes, including key regulatory genes of developmental processes, such as plant architecture (tb1 in maize (Doebley et al. 1997), fruit size (fw2.2 in tomato (Frary et al. 2000)) and flowering time (FLC in Arabidopsis (Michaels and Amasino 1999)), and they appeared to be a major contributor to the control of quantitative traits in general (Birchler et al. 2001, Guo and Birchler 1994, Peng et al. 2008). Newly synthesized polyploids provide useful systems to reveal genetic alterations occurring immediately following a modification at the ploidy level. Rapid genetic changes were observed in autopolyploid Paspalum (Martelotto et al. 2005) and allopolyploid Brassica (Song et al. 1995), Aegilops triticum (Ma and Gustafson 2005) and triticale (Ma et al. 2004). Gene expression alterations were detected in a recently formed autopolyploid of Paspalum notatum (Martelotto et al. 2005). Similarly, autotetraploid Arabidopsis thaliana lines generated by colchicine doubling also showed differential expression of several genes when compared to the original diploid (Wang et al. 2004). Gene expression repatterning associated with genetic and epigenetic modifications was also reported for allopolyploid wheat (Kashkush et al. 2002, 2003), Arabidopsis (Comai et al. 2000, Wang et al. 2004) and cotton (Adams et al. 2003). Research efforts on apomixis breeding have been taken up in national laboratories and Agricultural Universities to understand factors associated with apomictic mode of reproduction or to attempt interspecific hybridizations between sexual and apomictic species. Gupta (1968) observed degree of apospory in members of Andropogoneae. Gupta et al. (1969) studied the degree of incidence of apomixis in Dicanthium annulatum. Murty et al. (1983, 1984) described genetic markers to detect apomixis and its utilization in production of hybrids in Sorghum. tetraploid cytotypes of P. orientale (2n=36) were reported to be apomictic in reproduction (Patil et al. 1962). Patil and Singh (1964) reported hybrids between diploid pearl millet and diploid P. orientale. Zadoo and Singh (1986) demonstrated recurrent addition of Pennisetum glaucum genome to interspecific hybrids between pearl millet and P. orientale, possible through formation of unreduced embryo sac being fertilized, in BC1 (2n=23) and BC2 (2n=30) generations. Mohindra and Minocha (1991) studied the pollen-pistil interactions in crosses involving sexual and apomictic Pennisetum species. The estimation of genetic distances between different species has been made to identify species closer to pearl millet for increasing the probability of successful crossing (Kaushal and Sidhu 1993). Kaushal and Sidhu (2000) identified the incompatibility barriers to interspecific hybridization in Pennisetum species and advocated the use of several genotypic combinations while attempting an interspecific cross. Utilization of embryo rescue technique was also advocated to obtain cross


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combinations from parents with varied ploidy level. Recent trends in genetic analysis of apomixis as well as utilization of molecular markers in apomixis research have also been discussed (Kaushal et al. 2002). A comprehensive review on apomixis research in India has been presented by Kaushal et al. (2005). Dwivedi et al. (2007) had identified a SCAR marker associated to apospory in Cenchrus ciliaris. New cytotypes in apomictic Pennisetum pedicellatum (2n=72) (Zadoo et al. 1997) and P. squamulatum (2n=56) (Roy et al. 2003) have been reported. Interspecific hybrids, segregating for their modes of reproduction, were reported between cultivated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and apomictic P. squamulatum (Kaushal et al. 2007). Further analysis on advance generation hybrids leading to sequential reduction of P. squamulatum genome revealed its octoploid status (2n=8x=56) and inclusion in secondary genepool rather than tertiary genepool (Kaushal et al. 2008a). Ravi et al. (2008) identified a mutation (DYAD/SWITCH1) in Arabidopsis capable of forming unreduced female gametes, though with low frequency and limited penetrance. Fingerprinting reproductive pathways of seed development in guinea grass, utilizing ovule clearing and flow cytometry (FCSS), revealed eight different pathways of seed development, arising out of recombination between apomixis components leading to partitioning of apomixis components (Kaushal et al. 2008b). Utilizing a new concept viz., HAPA (Hybridization-supplemented Apomixis-components Partitioning Approach) a ploidy series represented by 3x, 4x, 5x, 6x, 8x and 9x cytotypes, all derived from a single 4x progenitor, in guinea grass has been generated (Kaushal et al. 2009). Germplasm lines and segregants with enhanced expression of partitioned apomixis components, alongwith the ploidy series are registered with NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, ICAR). Kaushal et al. (2010) demonstrated independent existence of apomixis components in Pennisetum and have reported induction of apomeiosis in interspecific hybrids between two sexual species (diploid P. glaucum and diploid P. orientale). A case of inducible and recurrent apospory was presented whereby a transition from sexual embryo-sacs in parents to aposporous embryo-sacs in diploid interspecific hybrids was observed. Comparative transcriptome studies were made between aposporous and non-aposporous plants and differentially expressed genes were identified. Amongst 96 differentially expressed genes, 40% were novel sequences while 13 genes showed homology to rice genome, majority of them mapping to rice chromosome 2 (Sahu et al. 2011). REFERENCES Akiyama et al. 2009. Analysis of expressed sequence tags in apomictic guinea grass (Panicum maximum). J Plant Physiol 166: 750-761. Albertini et al. 2005. SERK and APOSTART: candidate genes for apomixis in Poa pratensis. Plant Physiol 138: 2185-99. Alves et al. 2007. In situ localization of three cDNA sequences associated with the later stages of aposporic embryo sac development of Brachiaria brizantha. Protoplasma 231: 161-71. Calderini et al. 2006. Molecular cytogenetics and DNA sequence analysis of an apomixis-linked BAC in Paspalum simplex reveal non pericentromere location and partial microcolinearity with rice. Theor Appl Genet 112: 1179-1191. Calzada et al. 1996. Apomixis: The asexual revolution. Science 274:1322–1323.


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Carman, J. G. 1997. Asynchronous expression of duplicate genes in angiosperms may cause apomixis, bispory, tetraspory, and polyembryony. Biol J Linn Soc 61: 5194. Cervigni et al. 2008. Gene expression in diplosporous and sexual Eragrostis curvula genotypes with different ploidy levels. Pl Mol Biol 67: 11-23. d’Erfurth et al. 2009. Turning meiosis into mitosis. PLoS Biology 7: e1000124. Galitski et al. 1999. Ploidy regulation of gene expression. Science 285:251-254. Gerstein, A. C. and S. P. Otto. 2009. Ploidy and causes of genomic evolution. J Hered 100: 571-581. Kaushal et al. 2004. Prospects for breeding apomictic rice; a reassessment. Curr Sci 87: 292-296. Kaushal et al. 2005. Apomixis research in India: past efforts and future strategies. Curr Sci 89: 1092-1096. Kaushal et al. 2008a. Sequential reduction of Pennisetum squamulatum genome complement in P. glaucum (2n=28) x P. squamulatum (2n=56) hybrids and their progenies revealed its octaploid status. Cytologia 73:151-158. Kaushal et al. 2008b. Reproductive pathways of seed development in apomictic guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.) reveal uncoupling of apomixis components. Euphytica 164:81-92. Kaushal et al. 2009. Ploidy manipulation in guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq., Poaceae) utilizing a Hybridization-supplemented Apomixis-components Partitioning Approach (HAPA). Plant Breed 128:295-303. Kaushal et al. 2010. Morphological, cytological and reproductive characterization of tri-species (GOS) hybrids between Pennisetum glaucum, P. orientale and P. squamulatum. Euphytica (in press). doi 10.1007/s10681-010-0152-9. Koltunow A. and U. Grossniklaus. 2003. Apomixis: a developmental perspective. Annu Rev Plant Biol 54: 547-574. Laspina et al. 2008. Gene expression analysis at the onset of aposporous apomixis in Paspalum notatum. Plant Mol Biol 67: 615-28. Mecchia et al. 2007. Genome polymorphisms and gene differential expression in a ‘back-and-forth’ ploidy-altered series of weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). J Plant Physiol 164: 1051–1061. Nogler, G. A. 1984. Gametophytic apomixis. In, Embryology of Angioperms (Ed. Johri BM). Springer, Berlin, pp, 475-518. Ochogavia et al. 2009. Variation in cytosine methylation patterns during ploidy level conversions in Eragrostis curvula. Plant Mol Biol 70: 17-29. Ozias-Akins, P. and P. vanDijk. 2007. Mendelian genetics of apomixis in plants. Ann Rev Genet 41: 509-537 Pupilli et al. 2001. The chromosome segment related to apomixis in Paspalum simplex is homeologous to the telomeric region of the long arm of rice chromosome 12. Mol Breeding 8: 53-61 Ravi et al. 2008. Gamete formation without meiosis in Arabidopsis. Nature 451:1121-1124. Riddle et al. 2010. Gene expression analysis at the intersection of ploidy and hybridity in maize. Theor Appl Genet 120: 341-353. Salmon A. and M. L. Ainouche 2010. Polyploidy and DNA methylation: new tools available. Molecular Ecology 19: 213-215.


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Sahu, P. P., S. Gupta, D. R. Malaviya, A. K. Roy, P. Kaushal and M. Prasad. 2011. Transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes during embryo sac development in apomeiotic non-parthenogenetic interspecific hybrid of Pennisetum glaucum. Molecular Biotechnology (in press) DOI 10.1007/s12033011-9464-9. Savidan Y. 2000. Apomixis: genetics and breeding. Pl Breed Rev 18: 13-86. Sharbel et al. 2009. Molecular signatures of apomictic and sexual ovules in the Boechera holboellii complex. Plant J 58:870-882. Siddiqui et al. 2009. Molecular approaches for the fixation of plant hybrid vigour. Biotechnol. J. 4: 342-347. Singh et al. 2007. Isolation of candidate genes for apomictic development in buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare). Pl Mol Biol 64: 673-682. Tucker, M. and A. Koltunow. 2009. Sexual and asexual (apomictic) seed development in flowering plants: molecular, morphological and evolutionary relationships. Functional Plant Biology 36: 490-504. Udall and Wendel 2006. Polyploidy and crop improvement. Crop Sci. 46: S3-S14. Verhoeven et al. 2010. Changes in genomic methylation patterns during the formation of triploid asexual dandelion lineages. Molecular Ecology 19: 315324. Wang et al. 2006. Genome wide nonadditive regulation in Arabidopsis allotetraploids. Genetics 172: 507-517. Zhao et al. 2008. OsTDL1A binds to the LRR domain of rice receptor kinase MSP1, and is required to limit sporocyte numbers. Plant J 54:375–387.


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CHAPTER-11

Physiochemical Interventions for Enhanced Seed Setting C. K. Gupta, D. Vijay and D. R. Malaviya Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi (UP) 284003

Introduction Seed development is a complex process which normally starts with the process of fertilisation of male and female gametes. A fully developed seed must contain a viable embryo along with some food reserves to support development of seedlings postgermination. Therefore, when we talk about seed development and its setting within the fruit we must account for both the processes i.e. development of a viable embryo and accumulation of adequate quantity of food materials. Pollination is a requisite process except in apomictic plants which precedes before fertilisation and thus ensures development of viable embryo whereas, partitioning of photosynthates and other mineral nutrients to developing seeds ensures the accumulation of sufficient food reserves in the endosperm (grasses) or cotyledons (legumes). Further, partitioning of food reserves is governed by the principle of source-sink relationship i.e. to accumulate sufficient quantity of food reserves, a seed need to be very active so that it can compete with other sinks. Although, in apomictic plants, pollination is not needed per se for the development of embryo, it is very much essential for the development of endosperm which is the store house of food materials. Thus two processes are of utmost importance for the development of a healthy seed i.e. pollination followed by fertilisation and source-sink relationship and in the absence of either of the processes a so called matured seeds will remain empty and its germination capability will be very less. Therefore, we use the term PGS (Pure Germinating Seeds) i.e. a seeds which is capable of germination provided other factors are favourable. Once a seed matures, retention of seeds on the plant is important to have a good harvest following general practices. Many a times due to non-synchronous nature of flowering, especially in legumes and most of the range grasses, it becomes difficult to harvest seed at one go and get good quantity of quality seeds. Here comes the concept of harvesting at physiological maturity. Physiological maturity is a stage of seed development when seed is physiologically mature and no further biochemical process is taking place though moisture content of seed remains high. And after harvest seeds can be dried to requisite moisture level and stored. Another physiological factor affecting quality of seeds post harvesting is the dormancy i.e. inability of seeds to germinate even when external environment (availability of temperature, moisture and oxygen) is favourable. Dormancy in seed may be of different types which may be broadly grouped into two categories. 1) Coat imposed dormancy and 2) embryo dormancy. So, we need to wait for overcoming of dormancy naturally or by following intervention. Thus considering all these factors, one can think of physiochemical intervention at any of above said factors once the factors is known. So, before applying any intervention, we must account for the limiting physiochemical processes and then try for external application of some chemicals or alteration of physiological process. Since forage crops especially range grasses and legumes are least studied, we


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can draw analogy from other related crops where some intervention have resulted in fruitful results and accordingly plan the experiment. Reasons for low quality seed yield in forage crops (Parihar, 2010) 1. Prolonged head emergence: most of the legumes and range grasses being indeterminate in their growth habit tend to flower continuously. At any given time many stages of seed development may be found in one crop and makes it very difficult to achieve good quality seed yield. 2. Low seed setting: this is related to caryopsis bearing spikelet i.e. emptiness of harvested seeds. 3. Seed shedding: due to non-synchronous maturity early matured seeds drop/shed from parent plant. 4. Lodging of seed crop: especially in tall annuals 5. Low density of panicle producing tiller: due to their continuous growth habit number of effective tillers remain low 6. Lack of information on management practices and seed quality: forages are least studied crops 7. Harvest index: since most of the forages are bred for their extensive vegetative growth they have poor harvest index. This is also related to poor source-sink relationship. Approaches to improve seed setting in forage crops As such grasses produce seed in abundance but due to their emptiness, percentage of PGS are very poor. Any approach directed toward mobilisation of food reserves towards developing seeds will give fruitful results. Role of various growth regulators (Table1, 2 and 3)and micronutrients (Chapter 12) has been well documented in many crops. Role of growth regulators in seed physiology Phytohormones are essential biochemical that controls many aspects of plant development, including seed germination, leaf expansion, stem elongation, flowering, and seed development (Davies, 1995). Seed dormancy and germination are complex physiological processes that are also controlled by a range of developmental and external stimuli. The inhibitory effect of various inhibitors of phytohormone biosynthetic pathway, such as paclobutrazol and uniconazole, on seed germination (Nambara et al., 1991; Jacobsen and Olszewski, 1993) suggests that newly synthesized GAs are required after imbibition for radicle emergence. It is obvious that any deficiency of GA at seed development will result in poor quality seed. Abscisic acid (ABA) is another hormone which plays a critical role in the maintenance of seed dormancy and inhibits germination (Leung and Giraudat, 1998). Inter-play of different hormones has also direct consequence on physiology of plant. Like exogenous ethylene treatment induces the germination of GA-deficient mutant seeds (Karssen et al., 1989) in many model plants. Some recently classified hormones like brassinosteroids (BRs) also play a role in promoting various events of plant developments including seed germination, and exogenous BR application has found to


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enhance the germination of GA-deficient non germinating Arabidopsis mutants (Steber and McCourt, 2001). List of plant growth regulators being used in different crops for various purposes (Source: http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_pgr_applications.html) Table 1: growth regulators in agricultural crops Crop Rice

Cotton

Sunflower

Groundnut

Sugarcane

Chemical/ Dosage Kinetin, GA3 and Triacontanol (1000 ppm) IAA, NAA (30 ppm), CCC (cycocel)

Response Grain filling and partitioning. Delayed senescence

Increase grain yield Decrease boll shedding Increase photosynthetic rate and yield Increase number of bolls, boll weight and lint yield Benzyl adenine (BA) Increase yield and Achenes weight and number (250 ppm) GA+BA(150ppm) Mepiquat chloride Increased grain yield and chlorophyll synthesis (125 ppm) and decrease chlorophyllase activity (2,3,4-DStimulation of assimilate transport in germination chlorophynoxy triethyl amine) Ethephon Reduced growth rate and regulate ripening

Glyphosine Tapioca Ethrel (250 ppm) CCC (1000 ppm) Pigeonpea Ethrel (40 ppm) and GA3 (20 ppm) CCC(0.64 mM) Carrot and GA3 (50 ppm) Potato

Early tuberisation Increase the weight of storage roots Increase grain yield Respond well for RWC, chlorophyll and stomatal conductance Induction of flowering in long day and seed setting

Table 2: plant growth regulators in ripening of fruits Crop Mango

Chemical Ethephon

Dose 1000 ppm

Citrus

Ethrel

1000 ppm

Banana Papaya

Ethrel Ethephon NaOH Ethephon NaOH

Sapota

1000 ppm + 2000 ppm

Response Accelerated fruit ripening and improves surface colour Induce yellow colour within seven days Accelerated ripening by two days Ripening within 24 hours

+ 500 ppm

Ripening within two days


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Table 3: plant growth regulators in flowering and fruit set Crop

Chemical

Dose

Coconut

2,4-D

30 ppm

Banana

2,4-D

Mandarin orange Thompson seedless Pine –apple

2,4-D NAA GA3

or

Response

Fruit setting percentage increased to 32.5% against 23% in control 25 ppm Within a week after Prevents opening of last bud seediness in poovan 20 ppm, 100 Spray at flowering. Increase fruit set ppm 25 ppm Dip cluster at Increase fruit set calyptra falling stage 50 ml/plant At 35-40 leaf stage Induced uniform applied in to Sprayed during flowering to the crown fruiting increase the fruit 200 to 300 size ppm

Planofix 10 ppm +2% urea 0.04% sodium carbonate +20 ppm ethrel Ethrel 100ppm

Snake gourd Bitter gourd Bottle gourd Ribbed Ethrel gourd Pumpkin Sweet Ethrel potato

Time of spray and number of spray One month after opening of spathe, through micro sprayer

250ppm

250ppm

4 times 10 –15 days Increase in yield after sowing at weekly intervals

4 times 10-15 days Increase in yield after sowing at weekly intervals At fortnight interval Increased tuber from 15 days after yield planting

These results indicate that seed development and germination is determined by the net effect of multiple hormones and suggest the presence of crosstalk among actions by GA, ABA, ethylene, and BR. From the above list, it is obvious that plant growth regulators can alter a large numbers of physiological and biochemical events in different crops. Molecular studies related to gene manipulation of hormone biosynthetic pathways have proven the direct role of phytohormones in various aspects of seed. Source –sink relationship Not all the sources supply all sinks on a plant (Taiz and Zeiger, 2005). Transport of food reserves especially photosynthates is governed by certain principle like •

Proximity: a sink near to source will get abundant supply


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• • •

Developmental stage: a sink at active developmental phase will be able to attract more and more photosynthates Vascular connection: there must be free connection with respect to phloem between supplying source and receiving sink Modification of translocation pathways: it has been proven that by altering source-sink architecture by physical detachment or some other means path of translocation can be altered photosynthates can be directed to desired sink.

Reproductive organs are generally preferred sink during late developmental phase of plant. Forages are since, bred for their profuse vegetative growth and due to their indeterminate growth habit, poor source-sink relationship during reproductive phase may be a reason for many empty seeds. Source-sink relationship and interplay of phytohormones A grass panicle is composed of a number of spikelets or caryopses. Based on their flowering date and locations within a panicle, the spikelets can be classified as superior or inferior. In general, superior spikelets flower earlier and are located at the top of primary branches, whereas inferior spikelets flower later and are located at the base of secondary branches. Superior spikelets usually exhibit a faster rate of increase in dry weight during development and higher final seed weight than inferior spikelets (Sikder and Gupta 1976; Kato 1989). Inferior spikelets usually exhibit a slower seed filling rate and lower seed weight than superior spikelets in a panicle of grass species. This behavioural variations in seed filling between the two kinds of spikelets have been attributed to their sink strength (Yang et al., 2003) and whether the sink strength was regulated by the hormonal levels in the seeds is a researchable issue. Cell division rate during seed developmental stages and the content of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in the seeds have been significantly correlated by Yang et al., 2003. A higher gibberellin (GAs; GA1 + GA4) content and a lower ABA levels have been reported at the early stage of seed filling. ABA increased substantially during the linear phase of seed growth and was very significantly correlated with seed dry weight during this period. Application of kinetin at 2 through 6 days post anthesis (DPA) significantly increased cell number, while spraying ABA at 11 through 15 DPA significantly increased the seed filling rate. The results suggest that differences in sink strength are responsible for variations in seed filling between superior and inferior spikelets. Both cytokinins and IAA in the seeds may mediate cell division in rice endosperm at early seed filling stages, and therefore regulate the sink size of the seed, whereas ABA content correlates with sink activity during the linear period of seed growth. Slow seed filling and low seed weight of inferior spikelets have often been attributed to a limitation in carbohydrate supply (Sikder and Gupta 1976; Wang 1981; Murty and Murty 1982). However, the intrinsic factors responsible for variations in seed filling between superior and inferior spikelets remain elusive. It is generally believed that seed-filling rate in cereals is closely associated with sink strength (Venkateswarlu and Visperas 1987; Liang et al. 2001). During the seed filling period, rice seeds are strong carbohydrate sinks (Cao et al. 1992). The sink strength can be described as the product of sink size and sink activity (Warren 1972; Venkateswarlu and Visperas 1987). Sink size is a physical restraint that includes cell number and cell size and sink activity as the physiological constraint upon a sink organ’s assimilate import (Ho


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1988). It is assumed that hormones in a sink organ are prominent factors in determining sink strength (Bangerth 1989; Brenner and Cheikh 1995). In cereal grasses, high levels of cytokinins are generally found in the endosperm of developing seeds, and may be required for cell division during the early phase of seed filling(MichaelandSeiler-Kelbitsch 1972; Saha et al. 1986; Morris et al. 1993; Dietrich et al. 1995; Banowetz et al. 1999). Although cytokinins are generally considered to play a major role in increasing sink size by promoting cell division, little information is available with regard to their effect on endosperm cell number (Brenner and Cheikh 1995). Auxins, gibberellins (GAs), and abscisic acid (ABA) are also thought to be involved in regulating sink strength either by mediating the division and enlargement of endosperm cells or controlling import of assimilates to the sink (Karssen 1982; Davies 1987; Kende and Zeevaart 1997; Hansen and Grossmann 2000). There are many reports on the correlation between the level of ABA and the growth rate of fruits or seeds (e.g., Eeuwens and Schwabe 1975; Browning 1980; Ber€uter 1983; Wang et al. 1987; Ross and McWha 1990; Schussler et al. 1991; Kato et al. 1993; Yang et al. 2001). However, the proposal that ABA is involved in the regulation of assimilate partitioning towards developing seeds has remained disputable (Jones and Brenner 1987; Barratt et al. 1989; Ober and Setter 1990; Schussler et al. 1991; de Bruijn and Vreugdenhil 1992; Sharp and LeNoble 2002). Multi cut characteristic in relation to seed quality Most of the forages are multi cut in nature and is a desirable trait. However, it has been found that crops undergoing frequent cut develops poor root growth. Importance of root characteristics has been well discussed in chapter 19. Poor root development affects mineral nutrition of plants and hence it is very much possible to affect over all nutrition of seed. Many micro nutrients especially B, K, Zn and Fe has profound effect on overall seed development and limitation in availability of these elements often results in poor quality yield. Source of these mineral nutrients are soil and root is the vehicle through which it reaches to the plant system. Therefore, we external application of many nutrients like KNO3 and Borax has resulted in better seed yield. Concept of physiological maturity Quality of harvested seeds will automatically improve if harvesting is done at physiological maturity and left for drying. Since most of the range grasses are nonsynchronous in nature early matured seeds shed from spikelets and result in huge loss. In dinanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) we found that seed filling is not a problem and if we can select a proper harvesting stage most of the seeds can be recovered. There are biochemical markers available like arrest in activity of betatubulin synthase which indicate that seed development process has finished. By observing cell division also one can reach at physiological maturity stage.Many physiological markers for seed maturity (acquisition of germinability, definitive morphological traits and desiccation tolerance) have been correlated with the timing of the shutdown of nuclear replication activity and β-tubulin synthesis in developing seeds (Portis et al., 1999). Seed mass is also significantly correlated with seed vigor in grass species, as evidenced by correlation coefficients between seed mass and seedling emergence (Berdahl and Frank, 1998).


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Identification of harvesting stage following plant type concept Plant type concept will be very useful in identification of proper harvesting stage in range grasses showing non-synchronous maturity pattern. By doing random sampling and sufficiently large in number, we can observe and record plant type at any given time and judge harvesting time when maximum number of plants are at a stage when maximum number of panicle bear seeds at physiological maturity. We need to follow a compromise point at which maximum number of seed bearing spikelets can be harvested instead of waiting for all the flowers to bear seed. Strategies to improve PGS status in range grasses Proper management, correct choice of seed production area and establishment of dense and vigorous initial stand form the basis of the achievement of high yield. Forage grasses are selected/bred for dual purpose where initial high biomass is a prerequisite which is harvested as green fodder and subsequently crops are left for seed production. Tropical grasses viz. Panicum maximum, Sehima nervosum, Dicanthium annulatum, Bothriochlo apertusa, Cenchrus spp, Heteropogon contortus etc. flower and produce seeds more than once a year, therefore, scheduling of harvest at physiological maturity will be a productive approach. The seeds produced in different season and year of planting have quality differences. Minimising the loss of caryopsis seed during harvest will significantly improve the proportion of PGS in the total seed yield. It was found in Dinanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) that recovery of seed during harvest was only 20-60 % of the total seed set (Gupta et al., 2011). Thus the stage of harvest at physiological maturity is very crucial in optimizing recovery of PGS. In this context it is necessary to develop physiological and harvesting maturity indices for bulk harvesting of crops like Dinanath grass through prioritized research. Many physiological markers for seed maturity (acquisition of germinability, definitive morphological traits and desiccation tolerance) have been correlated with the timing of the shutdown of nuclear replication activity and β-tubulin synthesis in developing seeds (Portis et al., 1999). Seed mass is also significantly correlated with seed vigor in grass species, as evidenced by correlation coefficients between seed mass and seedling emergence (Berdahl and Frank, 1998). As discussed earlier, the altered source-sink relation during seed productive phase exert adverse influence on quality of seed produced, it is my object to call reader’s attention to these induced "disturbing" effects on growth and development in plants during the time of sexual reproduction.


Page 11-7

CHAPTER-12

Macro and Micro Nutrient Management for Quality Forage Seed Production Arvind K. Rai, T. Kiran Kumar, D. R. Palsania and A. K. Dixit Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Introduction The ability of given forage species to produce sufficient quantity of seed plays a very important role in the species desirability, perpetuation, palatability and availability. Eighteen chemical elements are essential for normal plant growth and reproduction (Table 1). Some of these are non-mineral nutrients (e.g., hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, etc.) that are freely available to all plants, with very rare exceptions. However, several mineral nutrients may need to be supplemented. Essential nutrients are generally grouped into two categories, macronutrients and micronutrients, based on the concentration of the nutrients found in the plant. The nutrients required in the largest quantities are called macronutrients and are further grouped into primary and secondary nutrients. Primary nutrients are mineral elements that are needed in the highest concentration and that most frequently need to be supplemented. Primary nutrients include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Secondary nutrients Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S)) are also needed in high concentrations, but are not as frequently deficient in most soils. Other nutrients are also essential, but are required in much smaller quantities. These micronutrients include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co). Indian soils often do not contain sufficient concentrations of macro and micronutrients for proper plant growth and the addition of fertilizer (inorganic or organic) are necessary to correct the imbalance. Sometimes, however, this lack of nutrient availability (e.g., micronutrient deficiencies) may be because the soil pH has become too low or too high. As with all crops, forages must be provided an ample supply of available nutrients. Maintaining optimum soil fertility is critically important for ensuring good establishment, persistence, winter hardiness, pest resistance, drought tolerance, sufficient forage quality, adequate yields, and economic returns. If any nutrient is deficient, problems in one or all of these areas can occur. Thus, it is critical that a good soil fertility program be the basis of any forage management system. When the crop growth and maturation is over and the crop is harvested that much nutrients are removed from the soil. Hence there is the need for replenishing the soil by supplying nutrients as there would be nutrient utilization during the next crop development. This can be supplied by chemical fertilizers. The strategy for sustaining satisfactory yield levels, envisages nutrient balances and efficient nutrient cycling. Every plant requires nutrition which may be supplied in the form of fertilizers, organic manures, biofertilizers, green manures, etc. This section presents Management of macro and micro nutrients in soil, briefly conveys the importance of several essential elements and identifies the most common sources of individual nutrients.


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Table 1: The 18 nutrients those are essential for normal plant growth and reproduction. Groups Non-Mineral

Macronutrients Primary

Secondary

Micronutrients

Essential Nutrients Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen(N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sulphur (S) Boron (B) Chlorine (Cl) Copper (Cu) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Molybdenum (Mo) Zinc (Zn) Nickel (Ni) Cobalt (Co)

Nitrogen Nitrogen is necessary for rapid growth and high yields, and is an essential component of plant proteins. Nitrogen (N) is an essential macronutrient for plants and constituent of amino acids, proteins, chlorophyll, several plant hormones and improving grain yields of cereal crops (Ladha and Reddy, 2003). Proper nitrogen fertilization is primarily responsible for how well the seed fill. Since the amount of N available from the soil is typically much less than the forage crop could utilize for seed production, N can be effectively used as a tool to increase or decrease productivity of forage crops. Nitrogen-deficient plants will be light green or slightly yellow, especially in the lower (older) leaves, and will be much less vigorous. The importance of N fertilizer for balancing N requirements is apparent when the amounts of N needed for increased forage seed yields are compared to N released from the soil. The N released from the soil is small in relation to the amount of N needed for maximum forage production. Therefore application of nitrogen from external sources will achieve the maximum potential seed yield of forage crop. Seed yield of Setaria sphacelata var. Nandi increased significantly with N application up to 80 kg/ha N, with a further increase to 120 kg/ha N just failing to reach significance (Dwivedi et al., 1999). As nitrogen is a highly mobile nutrient in plant and also in soil, the residual effect will always be very small on succeeding season crop. Increased level of nitrogen from 80 to 120 kg/ha brought significant increase in the crude protein yield of pearlmillet seed crop when compared to ratoon crop due to increased forage yield as well as crude protein content (Hegde et al., 2005).


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N sources: Organic and inorganic N sources supply the N required for optimum crop growth. Organic sources: 1. Manures: FYM, poultry manure, sheep manure etc. 2. Legumes: inclusion of legumes in cropping system provide substantial amount of plant available n to crop production Inorganic: Fertilizers are the important source of N to plants (Table 2). Urea is the most widely used N source due to its favourable manufacturing, handling, storage and transportation. Table 2: Common source of Nitrogen Nitrogen material N (%) P2O5 K2O Ca Mg S (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Urea (CO (NH2)2 46 Di ammonium Phosphate 18 46 Ammonium chloride 25 Ammonium sulphate 21 24 Ammonium nitrate 34 Anhydrous ammonia 82 Method of application 1. Broadcasting by hand 2. Band application at top dressing 3. Foliar application 4. Fertigation Phosphorus Phosphorus is an essential plant element that plays a key role in many vital plant processes such as root development, reproduction, and energy transfer. Adequate phosphorus results in higher grain production, improved crop quality, greater stalk strength, increased root growth, and earlier crop maturity. The challenge is that phosphorus is a macronutrient in plants but behaves somewhat like a micronutrient in soils. The concentration of soluble phosphate in the soil solution is very low, and phosphorus is relatively immobile in the soil. That is important because crops take up phosphorus only from the soil solution. The crop depends on replenishment of the soil solution with phosphate from the other forms existing in the soil. The rate of replenishment, which determines the availability of phosphorus, is related to soil pH, phosphorus levels in soil, its fixation by the soil, and placement of added phosphorus. The crop manager must deal with each of these factors to avoid crop phosphorus deficiency. Phosphorus deficiency symptoms include reduced growth and yield, delayed maturity, and generally purple coloring along the edge of the lower plant leaves, especially on younger plants. In general, the seed yields of all forage species were significantly increased by P application. The availability of phosphorus to crops is more than just having


Page 12-3

phosphorus in the soil. It will depend on soil pH, how supplemental phosphorus is applied, crop root growth, and the other management factors that influence root growth. Berseem Showed better performance in terms of seed production when fertilized with 60 kg of P/ha in irrigated areas of Pakistan (Saeed et al., 2011). But dry forage yield and crude protein of pearl millet seed differed non- significantly due to phosphorus levels due to higher level of phosphorus (Hegde et al., 2005). Verma et al. (1992) reported that application of 40 kg N + 40 kg P2O5 /ha recorded higher lucerne seed yield of 15.66 q/ha. Nandanwar et al. (1990) reported that 180 kg P2O5/ha gave significantly higher seed yield of lucerne. P sources: 1. Organic P: FYM, poultry manure, municipal waste etc. 2. Microbial P: Posphate solubilising fungi or bacteria and other rhizobacteria 3. Inorganic: Phosphate fertilizers are inorganic source of P (Table 3). Table 3: Common source of phosphorus K2 O Ca Mg S (%) Phosphorus material N (%) P2O5 (%) (%) (%) (%) Rock phosphate 25.2 33.1 Single super phosphate 16 19.5 12.5 Triple super phosphate 43.5 14 1 Di ammonium Phosphate 18 46 Potassium Potassium is second only to nitrogen in the concentration found in plants, and is essential for producing economical yields. It affects plant vigour, disease resistance, forage quality, and winter survival. Potassium plays a vital role in the nutrition and production of forage legumes in the temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. Nevertheless, when adequate levels are available for optimal physiological activity, there appears to be little advantage to larger quantities of available K. The seed yield and test weight of berseem increased with each successive increase in the K level (0 to 80 kg/ha). Potassium applications maintained a higher plant population during reproductive phase in general but application after the last cut gave higher seed yield than basal application (Mishra et al., 2012). For seed yield of barley and oat, the response was significant up to 80 kg N/ha (Sharma and Bhunia, 2001). K sources: Organic K: FYM, organic waste etc. Inorganic: Potassium fertilizers are inorganic source of K (Table 4). Table 4: Common source of potassium Potassium material

N (%)

P2O5 (%)

Potassium chloride (MOP) Potassium magnesium sulphate Potassium nitrate 13 Potassium sulphate

K2 O (%) 60 21

Ca (%)

Mg (%)

44 52


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S (%)

23

16

Nutrient uptake data can vary with both yield level in different crops. It is one of the important factors for establishing fertilizer needs (Table 5). Nutrient requirement of major cereal are given Table 6. Table 5: Primary nutrient removed by kharif cereals for grain purpose Crops Nutrient removal (kg/tonne) N P2O5 K2O Sorghum 6.69 5.61 27.04 Pearlmillet 9.28 7.35 18.42 Maize 8.20 7.09 21.24 Source: FAI, 1996 Table 6: Nutrient requirement of different crops for grain purpose Crops Nutrient requirement (kg/ha) N P2O5 K2O Sorghum 120 60 40 Pearlmillet 100-120 40 40 Maize 100-120 60 40 Sulphur Sulphur is essential to how a plant grows. It is a major component of some protein enzymes that regulate important activities, such as photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation. It plays a role in the nitrogen fixation associated with legume crops. It’s presence is associated with better nitrogen availability. It is believed to play a role in crop hardiness and winter survival. Plants deficient in sulphur tend to grow slowly and become spindly. Sulfur is less mobile than N and deficiency symptoms tend to first appear in younger leaves, in contrast to N deficiency, which tends to appear first in older leaves. Tripathi et al. a(1992) reported that application of S upto 40 kg/ha had significant influence on increased protein, sugar and methionine contents with low N:S ratio specially with ammonium sulphate as S source in forage sorghum. Calcium Calcium is critical for several basic plant functions (cell growth, stress detection, signaling, cell division, etc.). In a plant calcium is present in every cell wall; in fact, plants and animals use more calcium than any other nutrient. Calcium improves disease resistance, plant health, and, resilience to weather extremes. Usually soils with a higher pH level contain more available calcium. Magnesium Magnesium is a critical element of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants that enables photosynthesis. Magnesium deficiency causes yellowing between the veins of the leaf and will be found first in the lower or older leaves of the plant. Magnesium deficiency is often more problematic when the forage is growing quickly. The uptake of Mg by plant roots is sometimes slow, especially if K is high. Micronutrients The role of micronutrients including trace elements is important not only for increasing productivity but also for the quality of the seed which may become


Page 12-5

ultimate part of the strategy in solving problem of micronutrients related problems in soil-plant-livestock continuum. Initially Indian soils were considered as deficient in mostly N, P, S and Zn often affecting the crop production to its optimum. But, intensive cultivation practices of the past has involuntarily contributed in the development of several micronutrient in deficient category, now it have been emerging as a major problem in many intensively cultivated soils of India and have become one of the serious constraints to productivity (Takkar et al., 1989, Tripathi and Hazra, 1995). Swarup and Ganeshmurthy (1998) and Yadav et al. (1998) reported the increasing trend in the areas having multinutrient deficiencies like Zn, Fe, B, K and S. Use of high analysis fertilizers also contributed significantly in the development of this malady in Indian agriculture. the role of micronutrients including trace elements is important not only for increasing productivity but also for the quality of the seed which may become ultimate part of the strategy in solving problem of micronutrients related problems in soil-plant-livestock continuum. Boron (B) Boron is having effect on plant cell wall formation and stabilization, lignification and xylem differentiation, rate of water absorption and translocation of sugars. The first symptoms appear in the new growth, stunted and small plants with misshapen, thick, brittle leaves are common symptoms. Younger leaves show symptoms first due to boron is not transferred easily from older to younger leaves. In alfalfa, symptoms include rosetting, yellow top, poor flowering, death of the terminal buds and poor seed set. Boron toxicity is indicated by yellowing, followed by browning of the leaf margins and tips with sharp boundaries between the yellow and/or brown and unaffected green area. Boron is mobile in the soil and is subject to leaching like NO3and SO4--. In alfalfa boron deficiencies have been suspected on sandy and eroded sandy soils. Additions of high rates of B on soils where B is not required can result in toxicity and a reduction in yield. Extreme care must be taken while applying boron fertilizers to avoid overlap between deficiency and toxicity. Chloride (Cl) Chloride is a mobile nutrient in the soil. It is required in small quantities by all crops. Chloride in the plant is involved in controlling water loss, maintaining turgor, transportation of K, Ca and Mg within the plant, and photosynthesis. Chloride will increase the yield of cereal crops and reduce the incidence of root diseases as well as helps in reducing the incidence of some leaf spot diseases of winter wheat. Chloride fertilization results in delayed leaf senescence and greater relative leaf water content in wheat. Chloride also impacts on N uptake. Copper (Cu) Copper is an important component of proteins found in the enzymes that regulate the rate of many biochemical reactions in plants. Copper is involved in cell wall formation, electron transport, oxidation reactions and plants would not grow without the presence these specific enzyme systems like cytochrome oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Copper plays an essential role in chlorophyll formation and Promotes seed production and formation. Copper is not readily transferred from older to younger leaves. In cereals, older leaves remain green and


Page 12-6

healthy with the newer leaves yellowing and wilting, and the leaf tips pigtailing. Copper deficiency results in excessive tillering, aborted heads, delayed maturity, prolonged flowering period and poor grain filling. These symptoms appear in irregular patches within fields. These patches have a “drought-like” appearance. Copper deficiency is often associated with increased incidence of root rot, stem and head melanosis (purpling, appears as brown patches in the field at maturity) and possibly may increase the incidence of ergot. Copper deficiencies will most likely show up first in wheat, barley, oats or canary seed, as these crops are highly sensitive to Cu deficiency. Canola, rye, flax, and forage grasses are much less sensitive to Cu deficiency. Crop cultivars can differ widely in sensitivity to Cu deficiency. Iron (Fe) Although required by plants in small amounts, Fe is involved in many important compounds and physiological processes in plants. It is associated with enzyme systems like cytochrome oxidase, catalase and peroxidase. Iron is a catalyst to chlorophyll formation, acts as an oxygen carrier, and aids in respiratory enzyme systems. Iron is found in the iron-containing (heme) proteins in plants, examples of which are the cytochromes. Cytochromes are found in the electron transfer systems in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Iron is also associated with certain non-heme proteins such as ferredoxin. Fe’s involvement in chlorophyll synthesis is the reason for the chlorosis (yellowing) associated with Fe deficiency. Iron is not translocated within the plant, so deficiency symptoms first show up on the younger leaves. The classic Fe symptom is interveinal chlorosis, a pale green to yellow leaf with sharp distinction between green veins and yellow interveinal tissue. Iron deficiencies in field crops are rare. Manganese (Mn) Manganese is a component in enzyme systems like carboxylases and dehydrogenases of TCA cycle. Manganese activates several important metabolic reactions, aids in chlorophyll synthesis, accelerates germination and maturity, and increases the availability of P and Ca. Functions with enzyme systems involved in breakdown of carbohydrates, and nitrogen metabolism. Manganese is not translocated in the plant, so symptoms first appear on younger leaves. There appears to be some translocation of Mn in oat. Yellowing between the veins is the main deficiency symptom and can be confused with iron deficiency. Gray speck of oat is the most common symptom, with the gray specks appearing in interveinal areas. Severe Mn deficiency in oat can cause significant loss in yield. Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum is associated with nitrogenase and nitrate reductase enzymes and is essential for biological nitrogen fixing systems. In plants Mo deficiency resemble with N deficiency, in reticulate venation plants it appear as chlorotic mottling between the veins on old and middle leaves all over the surface. Severely affected leaves show scorching and withering starting from margin and extending to the entire lamina except petiole. Molybdenum is needed in very small amounts, so treating the seed is probably the most common way to correct this deficiency, if it occurs.


Page 12-7

Zinc (Zn) Zinc is involved in enzyme systems and metabolic reactions, and is necessary for production of chlorophyll and carbohydrates. It is also involved in the synthesis of some growth promoting hormones and reproductive processes, very vital for grain formation. Most important metaloenzymes in which Zn is involved are carbonic anhydrase, dehydrogenases, proteinases and peptidases. Zinc is not generally translocated within the plant (but is partly mobile in wheat and barley), so the first symptoms appear on the younger leaves. Symptoms differ from one species to another. In wheat and barley, the older leaves may have light blotches between the veins. Younger leaves will have a normal green colour and will be smaller. In flax, grayish brown spots appear on the younger leaves with shortened internodes appearing stunted. Nickel (Ni) Nickel is associated with nitrogen metabolism by its influence on urease and hydrogenase activity of free-living Rhizobia. It facilitates the transport of nutrients to the seeds. Its deficiency is associated with reduction in dry matter production, decrease in amino acid content and accumulation of nitrates in plant tissues. Cobalt (Co) It enhances nitrogen fixation and improves quality of forages for ruminants. It is metal component of the coenzyme cobalamine. Status of micronutrients in Indian soils Total and available content of micronutrients vary considerably in different soils of India (Table 7). Except Zn, Cu and B all other nutrients are present in sufficient range in most of the soil of the country. The plant usable micronutrient pool is low to moderate depending upon soil properties, cropping pattern being followed and environmental conditions. Agro-ecological zone wise soil fertility maps of Zn deficiency also indicates the wide distribution of Zn deficiency in India (Fig 1). Zn deficiency is most prevalent in Tamil Nadu and lowest in Andhra Pradesh. In most of the states the Zn deficiency was reported to be within 50-60% except Maharashtra and Punjab showing 30% Zn deficiency. The deficiency of Zn is showing declining trend in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Deficiency of B and Mo are also appearing, about 24 and 49 per cent samples tested from different states showed deficiency of these nutrients, respectively (Singh 2006). Zinc deficiency is also prevalent in the Bundelkhand region. Most of the soil samples analyzed from Banda (66%), Jhansi (60%), Hamirpur (49%) and Jalaun (48%) districts have shown zinc deficiency. Cu (10%) and Mn (20%) deficiency has also been reported in the region (Yadava et al. 2001). Soil under forages and grasses are generally deficient in Zn content, while other nutrients like Fe, Mn and Cu are found in adequate quantities. They reported that the application of Zn and Mn showed increasing trend, while Cu treatment showed decreasing trend in the yield of M. P. Chari. Zn availability is very low in calcareous soil particularly under high P application (Tiwari and Pathak, 1984). Micronutrient status of soils of forage growing areas showed that the available Zn was 1125 and 1250 ppm in red soils and 1208 and


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2259 ppm in black soils by 0.1N HCL and ammonium acetate dithiozone buffer, respectively. Table 7. Status of available and total micronutrients in Indian soils Micronutrient Total content in surface soil Available content in surface soil -1 (mg kg soil) (mg kg-1 soil) Iron* 0.4-27 0.8-138 (19) Manganese 37-11500 0.97-108 (21) Zinc 2-1600 0.1-5.9 (0.87) Copper 2-960 0.8-26.16 (2.1) Boron 3-630 0.08-2.6 Molybdenum 0.1-11.6 0.07-7.67 Cobalt

-

0.1-5.0

Figures in parenthesis are mean available content (mg kg-1) in surface soil * total iron content is in percent. (Source: Singh, 2006)

Fig1. Impact of green revolution technologies on the emergence of micronutrient deficiencies in crops of India (Singh, 2008)


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Fig. 2 Agro-ecological zone wise distribution of Zn deficiency-affected areas (Source: Singh, 2006) Sources of micronutrients Cu, Zn, Mn, and Fe may be supplied as oxides or sulphates. B is usually applied as borax or other borates. Plants respond equally well to all of these sources, but sulphates are mostly used as fertilizer because these are water-soluble (Deb and Sakal, 2002). Micronutrients chelates are also now becoming popular for application in fields. Many micronutrients formulation for soil and foliar application are also available in market. A list of these fertilizers and their rate of applications is presented in table 8 and 9. Since, there is a very small difference between sufficient and toxic amounts of these nutrients, care must be exercised when applying micronutrient. Recommended amounts should not be exceeded. Table 8: Major micronutrients carriers and their rate of application. Micro Name of the salt Formula Content Minimu Rate of nutrien (%) m application ts micronu (kg/ha) as trient* nutrients (%) Zn Zinc sulphates heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O 21 21 2.5-10 Zinc sulphates monohydrate ZnSO4.H2O 33 33 Zinc oxysulphate ZnSO4 + 4 55 Zn(OH)2 Zinc oxide ZnO 55-70 Zinc-EDTA Zn-EDTA 12 12 Cu Copper sulphates CuSO4.5H2O 24 24 1.0-5.0


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pentahydrate Copper sulphates CuSO4.H2O 35 monohydrate Copper oxysulphate CuSO4 + 13-53 3Cu(OH)2 CuCO3 + 57 Cu(OH)2 Copper- EDTA Cu-EDTA 9-13 Mn Manganese sulphate MnSO4.3H2O 26-28 10-25 trihydrate Manganese suphate MnSO4.H2O 30-32 30.5 monohydrate Manganese oxysulphate MnSO4. MnO 40-49 Manganese dioxide MnO2 55-65 Manganese-EDTA EDTA-Mn 5-12 Fe Ferrous sulphate FeSO4.7H2O 19 19 5-20 Ferric chloride FeCl3 5-18 Iron-EDTA Fe-EDTA 12 12 B Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O 10.5 10.5 2-5 Boric acid H3BO3 17.5 Solubor Na2B4O7.5H2O + 19 19 Na2B10O16.10H2O ***Granubor Na2B4O7.5H2O in >14.6 0.75-1.0 granular form Mo Sodium molybdate NaMoO4.2H2O 37-39 0.5-0.1 Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6Mo7O24.4 52 52 H2O Cl Potassium chloride KCl 48 ** *As per FCO, 1985, FAI (1998); ** usually not applied as fertilizer supplier of chloride, except in coconut crop (Source: Deb and Sakal, 2002). *** Source: Singh, 2006. Table 9. Use of multinutrient mixture grade for farmers use Grade Content of mixture grade Application Recommended for time crop A. Foliar grade I For all soil (Fe-2.0, Mn-0.5, 15, 30, 45 days Summer groundnut Zn-4.0, Cu-0.3, B-0.5) after sowing II For Zn deficient soils (Fe-2.0, 20, 30, 40 days Kharif maize, forage Mn-0.5, Zn-8.0, Cu-0.5, B- after sowing maize and forage 0.5) sorghum Bsoil application grade V Fe-2.0, Mn-0.5, Zn-5.0, Cu- Basal Kharif maize, forage 0.2, B-0.5 maize, Bajri (Source: Singh, 2006)


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Rate of application 1% 1%

20 kg/ha

Response of the crops to micronutrients application Forage crops especially the multicut and perennial ones are heavy feeders of plant nutrients and remove large amount of the nutrients from the soil. Requirement of the micronutrient increases with increase in the level of productivity. If proper nutrient management is ignored due to over emphasis of NPK fertilizers there is all probability of buildup of micronutrients deficiencies in these areas. An effect of micronutrients on forage production had been extensively reviewed (Tripathi and Hazra, 1995 and Hazra and Tripathi, 1998). Forage legumes are particularly responsive to B and Mo (Gupta, 1969,1984; Johansen et al., 1997). Zn response is observed in neutral to high pH soils for berseem and lucerne. Micronutrients applied individually, like Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe, Mo and B increased forage yield by 9-81% of anjan grass (Hazra and Tripathi, 1998). Some of the crops used for the fodder as well grain purpose clearly indicated that the Zn application enhanced the yield by 1.39 to 7.1 q/ha in different crops. In different studies maize appeared most responsive for Zn application (Table 10). Maize, sorghum, pearl millet, barley and mustard showed varied response to Zn application depending upon the soil Zn availability Table 10. Response (grain yield) of the crops to zinc fertilization in cultivator’s field Crops No. of Rang of Average response Reference experiments response (q ha-1) -1 (q ha ) Maize 285 Nil-34.0 6.7 Rattan et al. 1997 Pearlmillet 240 Nill-8.3 2.1 Sorghum 34 Nil-13.5 4.8 Barley 7 1.1-8.1 3.4 Oats 3 1.0-8.2 3.8 Gobi sarson 6 1.0-5.8 2.7 Mustard 2 3.1-4.5 3.8 Soybean 5 1.2-6.9 3.8 Maize 601 2.26 Singh, 2006 Barley 209 2.54 Soybean 24 1.39 Gobi sarson 9 2.47 Mustard 6 4.8

Uptake of micronutrients vary in different crops accordingly in relation to their yield levels (Table 11) Table 11: Average uptake of micronutrients by crops Crop Economic Total Uptake (g) yield Zn Fe Mn (tonnes/ha) Maize 1.0 130 1200 320 Sorghum 1.0 72 720 54 Pearlmillet 1.0 40 170 20

Cu

B

Mo

130 6 8

54 -

2 -


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Guinea grass Berseem

269

558

2940

1880

443

-

-

112

980

650

580

95

-

-

Source: Tandon, 2004 Methods of application Numerous method of micronutrients application like soil application, foliar application, seed caoating, seed dusting, seed soaking, swabbing of the foliage with the paste etc have been tried in many crops and situation to address the micronutrients problem in cropping systems. Compared to soil application other methods have received less attention of the farmers in the country, due to lack of resources and equipment needed. In most of the situations micronutrients deficiencies are corrected by either soil or foliar application. In the case of the Zn deficiency about 25 and 50 kg Zinc sulphate is most commonly applied in coarse and fine textured soils, respectively (Singh et al. 1978). Takkar et al. (1974) reported that the seed soaking of maize and wheat in 0.02 M ZnSO4 solution for 24 hour was not as effective as the soil application, yield obtained and concentration of Zn in grain and straw was less in soaking treatment than in the soil application in maize crop. Seed treatment of maize crop with a micronutrient formulation Teprosyn (Zn+P), at the recommended level (8 ml/kg seed) significantly increased the yield of maize crop over the NPK control (Anonymous, 2006-07). In many crops, studies concluded that soil application of Zn was more efficient in increasing the crop yield and soil build up in comparison to foliar application. Katyal (1985) based on the reviews of several papers concluded that in case of Zn , with soluble source band placement and less soluble sources broadcast method performed better in most of the conditions. Integrated nutrient management Integrated nutrient management may be defined as the technical and managerial component of achieving the objectives of integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS) under farm situations i.e. maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. Integrated nutrient management refers the use of different sources including organic materials, nutrients carried over from previous cropping seasons, the dynamics and transformations of nutrients in soil, interactions between nutrients, and the availability of nutrients in space (the rooting zone) and time (the growing season) in relation to the nutrient demand by the crop. In addition to this, it integrates the objectives of production with ecology and environment, that is, optimum crop nutrition, optimum functioning of the biosphere (soil health), and minimum nutrient losses or other adverse effects on the environment. Goal of INM INM’s goal is to integrate the use of all natural and man-made sources of plant nutrients, so that crop productivity increases in an efficient and environmentally benign manner, without sacrificing soil productivity of future generations. INM relies on a number of factors, including appropriate nutrient application and conservation and the transfer of knowledge about INM practices to farmers and researchers.


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Need of INM With the introduction of high yielding crop varieties and increased use of irrigation, fertilizers and other inputs, the agricultural production has increased tremendously. Despite this tremendous increase in fertilizer use, Indian agriculture is budgeted at an annual deficit (between nutrient removal by crops and addition through fertilizers) of about 8-10 million tones. This excessive mining and over withdrawal of nutrients from the soil reserve has resulted into progressive appearance of multi-nutrient deficiencies. Besides this the, continuous application of fertilizers have declined physical, chemical and biological properties of soil which reduced input response and poor resource use efficiency. In view of these, integrated nutrient management appears to be the only option to increase crop productivity in an eco-friendly and sustainable manner. Components of Integrated Nutrient Management 1. Organic manure Farm yard Manure Composts Green Manures Crop residues 2. Legumes in cropping system 3. Biofertilizers

Rhizobium Blue green algae (BGA) Azotobacter Azospirillum Mycon-hiza Phosphatic bio-fertilizers.

PGPR (Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria) 4. Chemical Fertilizers: Crop Responses to Integrated nutrient applications The judicious use of fertilizer is one of the most important instruments for achieving higher yield in poor soil fertility. Integrated use of fertilizer and FYM not only increase higher yields but also maintain greater yield stability. It has been observed that the fertilizers having both the forms of N (NO3- and NH4+) are more efficient than those having either of the forms. The combination of organic and inorganic sources gave the best results. The application of N and P in combined form gave better yield of various crops. The most of the soils are rich in total phosphorus but its availability is very less due to high fixing capacity of soil. The use of organic + inorganic forms of P in 50:50 could perform better in solubilizing and mobilizing more P with producing higher crop yield and quality of produce.


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The Indian soils suffer from multinutrient deficiencies and their productivity can only be sustained by integration of diverse sources for all such nutrients, which the soil cannot provide. Yield of many crops are declining mainly due to continuous use of fertilizers. This decline in yield is contributed mainly due to insufficient or nonavailability of micronutrients to crop plants. Recommended NPK with S and Zn increased grain yield significantly over NPK by 17.9 and 15.9% respectively. It is estimated that about 50-60% soils become deficient in S & Zn, particularly coarse textured soils. Based on soil test, the balanced fertilization including S & micronutrients will be more useful for obtaining higher yields, greater nutrient use efficiency and enhanced profits. The yield increases due to combined application of NPK&S or NPK+Zn or NPK+S+Zn have been reported in number of crops (Table 12&13).The grain and fodder yield of kharif sorghum obtained maximum in 150% NPK + S, Zn followed by 100% NPK+S, Zn. Likewise, in specific areas boron has become necessary for obtaining higher yield, greater nutrient use efficiency and enhanced profits. The application of borax @10kg/ha +ZnSO4 @ 20 kg/ha or organic manure 10 t/ha coupled with 100% recommended dose of NPK @ 80-40-40 kg/ha is advocated. (Table 14) Table 12. Effect of combined dose of nutrient application on grain yield of various crops (q/ha) Treatement Control 100% NPK 150% NPK 100% NPK+FYM 100% NPK+Zn 100% NPK+S

Maize 11.9 20.9 23.7 24.3 22.9 22.4

Wheat 25.0 46.2 48.4 49.9 46.5 46.3

Cowpea 3.0 5.3 6.0 6.3 5.3 5.3

Table 13. Effect of combined application of nutrients on yield of different crops (t/ha) Treatment Finger Millet Maize Cowpea 100% NPK

0.89

0.34

0.56

100% NPK + ZnSO4

3.17

0.60

2.47

100% NPK + FYM @ 10 t/ha

3.89

0.67

2.95

Control

0.86

0.37

0.35

CD 5%

0.23

0.40

0.26


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Table 14. Effect of combined application of nutrients on crop yields of sorghum and sunflower (t/ha) Treatments Sorghum Sunflower Grain

Fodder

Seed

Stalk

Control

1.89

5.36

0.80

2.51

100% NPK

2.60

7.79

1.28

3.67

100% NPK + S + Zn + B (50% FYM N)

2.60

7.37

1.32

3.82

100% NPK + S + Zn

2.65

7.52

1.17

3.32

100% NPK + S + Zn + B

2.90

7.93

1.27

3.58

The supplementation of FYM @10 t/ha along with borax (10 kg/ha) and ZnSO4 (20 kg/ha) met the demand of multicut and sustained higher producer of green gram cropping in West Bengal. Combined application of Mo & Co each @ 3 kg/ha along with NPK at sowing improved the root development and number of nodules which resulted in higher seed yield of cowpea. Zinc use efficiency has increased for the application of organics. Physiological efficiency of Zn was worked out to assess the impact of uptake of Zn on physiological activities. The conjoint use of green leaf manure with Zn increased physiological efficacy. The results generated from research under long-term fertilizer experiments have shown that under high intensity continuous cropping system even optimum level of NPK failed to maintain the yield levels probably due to increasing secondary and micro nutrient deficiencies. Apart from the soil productivity issues, the use of chemical fertilizer is also becoming more and more difficult for the farmers due to their high cost and scarcity during peak season. The country is thus, in great need for alternate sources which can supplement partially or wholly the use of chemical fertilizers. Traditionally, organic manures have been regarded being as good source for maintenance of crop productivity but their use in the recent past was over looked. An integrated use of ½ recommended fertilizer + 2.5 t/ha of (poultry manure) proved to be one of the ideal combinations for maintaining soil health and realizing remunerative wheat yield. This practice appears to be useful for resource poor farmers who are unable to afford more fertilizer and have easy access to poultry manure. The best response in terms of grain yield (5.3 t/ha with 89% yield improvement over control) was obtained from the applications of 2.5 t/ha of PM supplemented with 25 kg/ha ZnSO4 and recommended fertilizer dose. Similarly varnish compost @ 1.25 t/ha supplemented with ½ recommended fertilizer dose led to extra yield of 0.16 t/ha. There was residual effect of organic manure on seed yield of sunflower over nutrient applied only through chemical fertilizer Sorghum - wheat sequence is one of the cropping sequences, which is gaining popularity under intensive cultivations on vertisoils .The most limiting nutrients are N&P in vertisols because of low organic matter and high P-fixation. Integrated


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nutrient management for yield, uptake of nutrients and soil fertility under sorghumwheat sequence has important role in increasing status of organic matter and available P content. The maximum number of tillers and dry matter production was obtained when inorganic fertilizer 75% NPK was applied with organic manures. The recommended dose of NPK may safely be lessened by 25% with the additions of FYM. Higher crop yields were obtained for the integrated use of FYM along with fertilizer NPK, Apparently, integrated use of FYM with optimal dose of fertilizers had provided the best nourishing soil medium with release of nutrients from it besides effecting improvements in soil physical properties. In another studies FYM applied at 10 t/ha has increased chlorophyll content in sorghum at flowering by 5.41-6.77% over no FYM. 100% recommended dose of fertilizer reduced the duration of 50% bloom by 5 days as compared the control. Microorganism help in crop production by way of promoting plant growth, improving the availability of plant nutrients in the soil (Table 15). The application of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilising bacteria increased grain yield of soyabean by 2 to 11% depending upon nature and time of applications. Application of ½ recommended fertilizer dose supplemented with top dressing of phosphate solubilizing bacteria and Rhizobium produced grain yield of 1948 kg/ha, which was at par with recommended fertilizer application. The mycorrhizal associations are of importance of plant nutrition especially in nutrient deficient soils. Inoculating the host plant with VAM fungi lead to more economic use of costly phosphatic fertilizers. The results revealed that mycorrhizal plant possess a greater ability to absorb phosphorus from the soil than the control no P. Dual inoculation with VAM and N2 fixers resulted in better performance of crop plants than single inoculation.Combined application of organic manures like Sesbania aculeata, (6.25 t/ha) or 12.5 t/ha FYM with Azospirillum (2 kg/ha) and application of N 150 + 25 kg Zn SO4 ha-1 maximised the growth and yield attributes and finally yield of rice. Table 15. Effect of biofertilizers with and without inorganic nutrient application on crop yield (t/ha) Treatment Control 25 kg N Rhizobium + 25 kg N Rhizobium + A. brasilence + 25 kg N CD at 5%

Berseem

Lucerne

Nodules 10.5 18.5 32.5

Yield 30.8 38.5 45.0

Nodules 12.5 14.5 40.0

Yield 25.5 29.2 35.0

29.0

45.5

35.0

38.5

4.8

5.2

6.2

3.8


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Strategies for Efficient INM For efficient and eco-friendly integrated nutrient management, following points have to be kept in mind: Soil test based fertilizer application Maximum possible exploitation of FYM, on-farm and off-farm crop residues, biofertilizers, wormicompost and non-conventional sources of nutrients Time the application of fertilizer nutrients to synchronize with physiological stages at which demand for them is maximum. Apply FYM/organic manures in such a manner that the mineralization of organic nutrients occurs at the peak period of their demand by the plants. Maximize crop productivity with highest use efficiency and lowest avoidable losses of nutrients. Minimize the losses of nutrients through volatilization, leaching runoff, denitrification etc. Use of suitable amendments to minimize the toxicities of elements and pollutants Conclusion Nutrient management for seed production of forage crops is very site specific and it must be flexible in response to climatic conditions and it must be fit to individual crop needs and harvest management procedures. Soil physical and chemical characteristics are also involved in the decisions relating to which nutrients will need to be applied, the rate of application, and even the timing and method(s) of application. To realize greatest return from the investment in fertilizer, this input must be fit to the crop being grown, local soil and climatic conditions. REFERENCES Ladha, J.K, and Reddy, P.M. 2003. Nitrogen fixation in rice systems: state of knowledge and future prospects. Plant and Soil 252:151-167. Sharma, S. K. and Bhunia, S. R., 2001. Response of oat Avena sativa to cutting management, method of sowing and nitrogen. Indian Journal of Agronomy 46(3): 563-567. Dwivedi, G.K., Dinesh Kumar and Tomar, P.S. 1999. Effect of cutting management and nitrogen levels on growth, seed yield attributes and seed production of Setaria sphacelata var. Nandi. Tropical Grasslands (1999) 33: 146–149. Hegde M. R., Devaraja and Gumaste, S. 2005. Effect of harvesting stages N and P levels on forage yield and quality of ratoon pearl millet. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences 18 (3):(794-797). Misra, S.M., Niranjan, K.P. and Pandey, H.C. 2012. Effect of potassium application and crop geometries on seed yield, seed quality in berseem (Trifolium alexandrium L.) plants. Agricultural Science Research Journal 2 (6): 324-328. Verma, S.S. et al. (1992). Forage Research, 18: 57-60.


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Nandanwar, R.S. et al. (1990). Forage Research, 16: 103-106. Tripathi, S.B. et al. (1992a). Forage Research, 18: 9-14. Takkar, P.N., Chhibba, I.M. and Mehta, S.K. (1989). Bull. 1, ISSS, Bhopal Tripathi, S.B. and Hazra, C.R. (1995).Nutrient management and fertilizer use in forages. Book chapter, 12. pp. 201‘-232 on “Forage Production and Utilization” edited by Dr. R.P. Singh, Director, IGFRI, Jhansi. Swarup, A. and Ganeshmurthy, A. N. (1998). Emerging nutrient deficiencies under intensive cropping systems and remedial measures for sustainable high productivity. Fertilizer News 43(7): 37-50. Yadav, R.L., Yadav, D.S., Singh, R.M. and Kumar, A. (1998). Long-term effects of inorganic fertilizer input on crop productivity in rice-wheat cropping system. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystes 51:193-200. Yadava, R.L., Dwivedi, B.S. and Singh, V.K. (2001). Fert. News, 46(4), 13-18, 21-28 & 31. Singh, M.V. (2002). Micro- and secondary nutrients and pollutants elements research in India. Coordinator Report-AICRP Micro- and Secondary Nutrients and Pollutants Eements in Soils and Plants, IISS, Bhopal. 30, 1-110, M.V. Singh 2008. Micronutrient deficiencies in crops and soils in India In. B.J.Alloway. (Eds) Micronutrient deficiencies global crop production pp 93-125. Tiwari, K.N. and Pathak,A.N. (1984). An assessment of the magnitude of secondary nutrient deficiencies in the soil of northern region and future research needs. Proc. FAI-NR seminar pp. 193-306, Jaipur,30-31 March. Deb, D.L. and Sakal, R., Micronutrients. In: Shekhon et al. (eds.), Fundamentals of soil science. Indian Society of Soil Science, New Delhi. Pp. 391-404, (2002). Tripathi, S.B., Tripathi, S.N., Singh, K.K. and Rai, Arvind K. (2009). Effect of Micronutrients Application on Forage Productivity and Qualit. In: In: Abstracts, 4th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture-innovations for Improving Efficiency, Equity and Environment, 4-7 February, New Delhi, India, pp.129. Hazra, C.R. and Tripathi, S.B. (1998). Effect of secondary and micronutrients on yield and quality of forages. Fertilizer News. 43, 77-89. Gupta, U.C. (1969). Effect and interaction of molybdenum and limestone on growth and molybdenum content of cauliflower, alfalfa, brome-grass on acid soils. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 33, 929-932. Gupta, U.C. (1984). Boron nutrition of alfalfa, red clover, and timothy grown on podzol soils of eastern Canada. Soil Sci. 137, 16-22. Johansen, C.P., Kerridge C. and Sultana A. (1997). Responses of Forage Legumes and Grasses to Molybdenum. In: Gupta, U.C. (ed.) Molybdenum in Agriculture, pp. 202-228. Cambridge University Press, U.K.


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CHAPTER-13

Production Components and Crop Management in Cultivated Forages Sunil Kumar and T. Kiran Kumar Indian Grasland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Introduction In India, agriculture and livestock are integral parts of rural living and are a major component in raising overall agricultural growth. Although the contribution of agricultural sector in Indian economy is steadily declining (from 36.4% in 1982-83 to 13.7% in 2012-13), the agriculture and livestock sector still provides employment to 52% of total work force. Crop-livestock association is the backbone of agriculture which supports the small and marginal farmers by providing employment throughout the year. Livestock are important assets of this and play a vital role in sustainability and intensification of agricultural productivity in most farming systems. This rich livestock base provides major opportunities that can contribute to the improvement in livelihoods of resource poor farmers. Livestock production increasing rapidly at global level in the consumption of animal products and in India it is predicted that meat and milk consumption will grow at 2.8 and 3.3% per annum. India has about 4.9% of the total cropped area under cultivated forages, which is almost static since last few decades. The demand for green and dry fodder is increasing over the years due to livestock pressure. The inability of producers to feed animals adequately throughout the year remains the major technical constraint in meeting future demands for meat and milk. In this context, cultivation of forage crops in crops and in cropping systems needs better management practices for producing more fodder of good quality. Cultivated forages Wide range of forage species are grown under varying management situations in different agro-ecological regions of the country. Due to their flexibility in growth and duration, forages offer ample scope in different cropping systems as a short duration, catch/intercrop or alley crop under different resource use situations. Production and productivity of cultivated fodder crops is low, as these crops are getting least attention in allocation of resources, and by growing in poor and marginal lands. Major forage crops during kharif are guinea grass, napier bajra hybrid, setaria, deenanath (grasses), sorghum, pearlmillet, maize, teosinte (cereals) cowpea, rice bean and guar (legumes); and during rabi season crops like oat (cereals), berseem, lucerne are grown under cultivated condition as a sole or as component crop in cropping systems. The package of practices adopted in different forage crops have been given in Table 1. Crop management practices Selection of crop and varieties Forage crops are adopted well in different agro-climatic situations and can be grown in kharif, rabi and summer. A forage crop may include several species within genus and several varieties within a species or may be a single species. In choosing a suitable crop, species or variety of crop to be grown, the following characteristics should be considered: 1) growth cycle 2) growing season 3) adaptation to soil and Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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climate 4) uses of the crops 5) yield and quality of the harvest product 6) resistance to insects, disease, and nematodes and 7) market acceptability of the variety. It is important to choose a variety of crop plant that is well adapted to local conditions of soil, water, climate and disease resistance. Based on soil type and water availability forage crops and varieties are selected for different regions of the country. Tillage and land preparation Tillage operations are normally done to make a good seed bed for the sowing of seeds. Tillage makes soil loose, friable and well aerated with sufficient moisture which enables the proper germination of seed. The operations carried out in the field to prepare the land right from the harvest of existing crop to the sowing of the next crop are known as preparatory tillage, it has three components like primary, secondary and layout. Land suitability and its preparation for forage crops vary in accordance with seed size and rooting behaviour. For higher forage productivity, soil should be ploughed once with soil turning plough followed by one to two times with country plough to get a levelled and good seed bed free from weeds. Clods should be broken to the maximum extent. Conservation tillage Conservation tillage systems are methods of soil tillage which leave a minimum of 30% of crop residue on the soil surface or at least 1,100 kg/ha of small grain residue on the surface during the critical soil erosion period. The collective umbrella term commonly given to no-tillage, direct drilling, minimum tillage and or ridge tillage, to denote that the specific practice has a conservation goal of some nature. The conventional tillage for sorghum and zero tillage for oats were on par, indicating that oats can be sown soon after the last monsoon rains without tillage in sorghum-oat rotation. In an Alfisol, sorghum, pearl millet and maize forage yields were highest (1.33, 1.10 and 1.42 t/ha, respectively) where seed was drilled in rows with conventional tillage (CT, ploughing + disc harrowing) plus mulched with dry grass. Low soil crust strength and high soil moisture content promoted seedling emergence in the mulched plots (Kumar and Hazra, 1992). Seeding techniques Seeding practices (seeding date, seeding depth, seeding method, seed treatments, fertilizer placement, herbicide application, surface residues, use of farm machinery, etc influence crop establishment. Therefore, right time, method, spacing, seed rate and depth of sowing helps in achieving optimum plant population under field conditions. Seed quality (variety and seed lot, seed germination, vigour, seed size, green seed, etc) also affect the germination and establishment of crops. Seeds of better quality results in good crop establishment. Seasonal forage species are sexually propagated by seeds; whereas, perennials may be multiplied by seeds or asexually by vegetative parts viz., stem cuttings, rooted slips, tubers, rhizomes, etc. For continuous supply of green fodder, staggered sowing of cultivated forages is also suggested. Seeding techniques of forages vary species to species in different production systems and agro-climatic zones of the country. Many factors affect the date of sowing, seed rates, and methods of planting of forage crops. Some of these are climate and weather conditions, fertility, moisture-holding capacity, Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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temperature, and moisture content of the soil; depth to the water table; size and germination of the seed; plant size and growth habit; growing season and water requirements of the crop; and the habits of insects, disease, and other pests. Seed rate In forages, seed rate is higher and usually double rate is used in crops grown fodder than for seed. Under sexual plant propagation, seed rates prescribed for each crop has to be adopted to maintain the optimum plant population for maximum fodder yield. Variation in seed rate is reported in different agro-climatic region in a single crop due to varietal differences, management practices, soil type and harvesting schedule. Seed rate depends upon method of sowing, test weight i.e. weight of 1000 healthy seeds, germination percentage, spacing, plant population and type of variety used. In order to get higher biomass production from forages close spacing and higher seed rate were followed. In many of the cultivated perennial forage species like hybrid napier, guinea grass, setaria where seed production is less or problematic, planting with rooted slips has been found beneficial. Establishment cost of such planting is more but productivity is higher in first two years due to quicker establishment and better regeneration after frequent cuttings. Sowing time Timely sowing is the best non-monetary input and important consideration in forages for successful crop establishment. Sowing of the kharif forages should be undertaken with the onset of monsoon. If sowing is delayed after optimum time will result in reduction quality of fodder. Like other crops, certain forage crops and their varieties perform well in specific seasons and regions. The optimum time of planting has been worked out for important forage crops of different regions, however, forages are adjusted in the existing production systems as per climatic and crop sequence and suitability (Sunil Kumar and Faruqui, 2010). Cultivated forages are sown or planted with the onset of monsoon during kharif for higher yield, reduced incidence of diseases and pests and higher monitory returns. In North West part of India, where rains are received in mid July, single/multicut forages are sown with pre-sowing irrigation at the end of June. Maize crop sown timely in kharif (June end) with pre sowing irrigation yielded 62.1 and 97.7% higher green fodder (35.05 t/ha) over early and late sown crop, respectively (Tiwana et al., 2007). However, with shifting rainfall pattern, the onset of monsoon is delayed in many parts of the country. This has affected the sowing of crops in appropriate time. Therefore it becomes imperative to find out appropriate sowing dates of the forage crops to cope the changing climate particularly erratic behaviour of rains (Sunil Kumar et al., 2012). During Rabi, month of October in North and early September in temperate hills are best sowing time for forages. Mostly forages are integrated in existing sequences in different regions; hence sowing time is adjusted with dominant crops of the sequence of the region. Seed crop of forages in rabi may be sown late due to higher emphasis on seed than forages. Highest yield of oat and barley in rabi was obtained by sowing from mid October to early November.


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Planting pattern and geometry Plant population is an important factor for higher yield realization through light penetration in crop canopy. Maintenance of optimum plant population is the key for successful crop production. If plant density is above the optimum, the plant growth may be poor due to competition for nutrients, light and space. On the other hand, if it is below optimum then the nutrients space and light will not be utilized for their fullest thus resulting in poor yield. For exploring the potential of high yielding varieties the optimum plant stand is a very important non-monetary input. Too low and high plant population beyond a certain limit often adversely affects the crop yield. Number of plants per unit area influences plant size, yield components and ultimately the seed yield. Moreover, plant spacing in the field is also very important to facilitate aeration and light penetration in to plant canopy for optimizing rate of photosynthesis. In forages, optimum plant population density per unit area varies with genotype, environment, seeding time and season, planting geometry and use pattern. Planting diversity is kept higher in forages for getting more green fodder yield, but in seed crop it is less which may be 50% of population to that of seed crop. Planting of multi cut forage crops provides regular supply of fodder and saves in tillage operation and seed. For fodder crops, among different methods of sowing viz., broadcasting and covering, sowing behind country plough, sowing with seed drill are the common techniques adopted. Different seed types had a differential response to sowing depths but all types had maximum germination at shallow depths. Spacing geometry of inter (20-100 cm) and intra row (10-50 cm) has been found to affect forage yields considerably. Crops grown for fodder performed better with narrow spacing and seed crop produced higher yield with wider spacing. Nutrient management Nutrient management of forage crops and forage based cropping system is one of the most crucial management practices to obtain higher yields. The nutrient management strategies in forage crops aim at increasing herbage yield per unit area per unit time and also insure improved quality of forages for healthy and productive livestock. Since the economic part in fodder crops is foliage therefore, unbalanced nutrition will result in poor quality of fodder. Soil fertility management for forage crops is a continuous process that begins well before the forage crop is established. In the preestablishment phase, the soil conditions are adjusted to provide optimum soil fertility when the crop is established. The fertility program during the establishment phase should deal with small adjustments in soil fertility and any requirements such as a starter fertilizer for getting the plants established. After the crop is established, the fertility program should focus on maintenance of good fertility levels in the soil for the life of the forage stand. Quality of forage is also very important to animal health and performance. Forage quality can be improved and the toxic principles can be alleviated by efficient nutrient management. The Indian soils have low total nitrogen and uptake of nutrients by forage crops is higher due to tropical and sub tropical climatic conditions. Therefore forages are to be adequately supplemented with nitrogen through available organic and inorganic sources, so that higher biomass is obtained from the unit piece of land. Management of nitrogen has great significance in forages due to its role in enhancing luxuriant vegetative growth, higher biomass and quick regeneration following cutting Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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or defoliation. Phosphorous is especially critical at initial crop growth stage. Forage legumes require substantial amount of P for higher biomass yield and persistency. Bands placement of fertilizer at 5 cm depth has been found better than traditional fertilizer application practices (surface broadcasting) or placing at 10 cm depth. In normal to alkaline soil, single super phosphate (SSP) and in acid soil, basic slag and rock phosphate are superior on forages. Integrated nutrient management plays an important role in sustaining soil health due to declining productivity. The nutrient management through any single source is not sufficient because deficiency of any macro and/or micronutrient in the soil and plant will affect the animal health and the production efficiency. Supply of nutrients at each stage is essential for optimum growth and quality of forages. This is possible only by integration of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients as well as bio-fertilizers. Continuous application of chemical fertilizers alone in an intensive fodder production system deteriorates soil health and affects crop productivity. Judicious integration of organic manures and bio-fertilizers with chemical fertilizers for nutrient supply has a great potential to off-set the growing high nutrient demands, to achieve maximum yields, besides improving soil health and impart sustainability to the productivity of food-forage /forage based cropping system. Sunil Kumar et al., 2005 reported that application of vermicompost and FYM @ 5 t/ha to sorghum recorded higher NP uptake than the other levels with inorganic sources only except the 100% recommended dose of NP. Nutrition to forage crops with secondary nutrients like Ca, Mg is also essential along with major nutrients to improve forage quality. Recently, multinutrient deficiencies are emerging, to correct the deficiency and balancing the nutrient for quality fodder and livestock health NPK along with S, Zn & Mo based nutrient management has also been attempted (Sunil Kumar and Faruqui, 2010). Weed Management In fodder crops weeding is an important operation at early stages of crop growth for better establishment and stand. Maximum crop-weed competition occurs up to 4-5 weeks in most of the seasonal forages. Factors affecting weed-crop interference or critical period of crop weed competition: 1. Period of weed growth. 2. Weeds / crop density. 3. Plant species effects: a) Weed species b) Crop species and Varieties. 4. Soil and climatic influence: a) Soil fertility b) Soil moisture status c) Soil reaction d) Climatic influences. 5. Cropping practices. a) Time and method of planting crops b) Method of planting of crops c) Crop density. Weed infestation in forages needs to be checked starting from land preparation. The strategy includes adoption of stale seed bed technique, use of well decomposed FYM, clean seed, application of pre-emergence herbicides and growing of smother crops as intercrop. There are several approaches of weed control in forage crops but each approach have its own limitations due this no any single approach is capable to efficiently control the weed in fodder crops. Growing concern over herbicide resistance and their residual effect and declining profitability are major challenges of high input agriculture. Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

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Therefore, Integration of all the available weed control methods may be helpful to sustainable weed management. Integrated weed management is the deployment of suitable methods of weed control in right proportion and at appropriate time against the target weeds without damaging the environment in any way. Components of IWM are: a. Cultural management: enhancing crop competitiveness, optimum plant population, planting pattern, crop diversification, etc. b. Mechanical management c. Chemical management d. Biological management Weed menace in forages can be effectively controlled at initial growth stage through preemergence and preplant incorporated herbicides. With the availability of new herbicides molecules, the dose and application strategy changed in forage crops and forage based cropping systems. Water management Water management aims to provide suitable moisture environment to the crops to obtain optimum yields with maximum economy in available water and maintenance of soil productivity. In forages, economic product is fresh green biomass hence, the water assumes greater role in this group of crops. The soil moisture is measured in two ways – direct and indirect methods as follows. Direct methods: Gravimetric, volumetric, spirit burning and infrared balance method; Indirect methods: Resistance blocks, neutron probe, tensiometer and pressure plate apparatus. Various approaches for irrigation scheduling like irrigation at critical crop growth stage, available soil moisture (ASM), irrigation water /cumulative pan evaporation ratio (IW/CPE), cumulative evapotranspiration (CET) has been used to workout optimum irrigation schedules for forages. Water use and irrigation scheduling in mixed/intercropping and crop sequences is done using IW/CPE ratio. Growing of forage crops in rainfed areas can be a successful endeavour by conservation of soil and water, making best use of conserved resources and evolving contingency plans to meet seasonal aberrations. Different approaches of soil water management by conservation practices such as various forms of tillage and timing of such operations, surface mulching by mechanical and /or biological means etc. and by supplemental irrigation have been recognised as efficient management practices for increasing water use efficiency of forages in rainfed areas of different agro-climates of the country (Lal et al., 2004 and Burman et al., 2004). Harvesting Proper stage of harvesting in forages crops determines the herbage yield and quality. Frequency of cutting also significantly influences the yield and quality of herbage produced. Forage crops invariably are harvested at appropriate growth stage to obtain adequate fresh biomass with acceptable dry matter and nutrients particularly the crude protein. The number of cuts depends upon rate of growth and temperature during the life cycle of the crop.In most of the forages this stage is achieved at 50 per cent flowering stage to dough stage. In single cut this is followed strictly but in multi-cut types, pre-flowering stage is preferred to get more subsequent cuts. In forages, cutting management influences not only the yield but also the forage quality. Multi-cut Quality seed production and seed standards in forage crops and range grasses: challenges, advances and innovations

Page 13-6

forages should be harvested leaving 8-10 cm stubble for quick regeneration and adequate recovery from ratoons. REFERENCES Burman, D., Shiva Dhar, Das, S.K. and Prasad, J.V.N.S. 2004. Effect of foliage incorporation and mulch on crop yields and soil properties under rainfed condition. Range Management and Agroforestry 25: 51-56. Kumar, A. and Hazra, C.R. 1992. Forage yield of sorghum, pearl millet and maize as influenced by crust formation in Alfisol under dryland situation. Annals of Agricultural Research 13(1): 80-84 Lal, B., Rajput, D.S., Singh, S.D., Gupta, H.P. and Suman, M. 2004. Tillage and residue management impacts on fodder sorghum production: Yield energy and soil properties. Tropical Agriculture 81: 1-8. Sunil Kumar and Faruqui, S. A., 2010. Forage production technologies for different agro-ecological regions, Tech. Pub. No. 01/2010, AICRP on Forage Crops, IGFRI, Jhansi pp. 64. Sunil Kumar, C. R. Rawat, Shiva Dhar and Rai, S.K.. 2005. Dry matter accumulation, nutrient uptake and changes in soil fertility status as influenced by different organic and inorganic sources of nutrients to forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 75 (6): 340-342. Sunil Kumar, S. K. Rai and Yashpal Singh Saharawat. 2012. Forages and climate change: Mitigation and adaptation strategies (In) Abstracts of National Seminar on Indian Agriculture: Preparedness for Climate Change held at NASC, Pusa, New Delhi during March, 24-25, 2012 pp. 138. Tiwana, U.S., Puri, K.P., Bharadwaj, L. and Singh, P. 2007. Effects of seed rates and row spacings on the fodder yield of maize under different sowing dates. Range Management and Agroforestry 28 (2): 309-310.


Page 13-7

Table1: Package of practices of important cultivated forage crops Crops and Sowing/plan Seed rate & Fertilizer Varieties ting time spacing management Single cut: 25-30 cm row to FYM: 10 t/ha, Single Sorghum PC-6, PC-9, June-July, row seed rate :35- cut varieties: 60:30:30 PC-23, MP Multicult: 40 kg/ha (Bold kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha as Chari, UP March-April seeded), 25-30 basal and 30 kg N/ha as Chari-1, UP kg/ha (small seed) top dressing. Chari-2 Multicut: 70:30:30 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha as basal and 50 kg N/ha as top dressing Pearl millet Single cut: raj Bajra Chari-2, CoO-8, APFB-2 Dual: Avika Bajra-1 Multi cut: Giant bajra, pro-Agro1

Summer: 25 cm row to row March to mid using a seed rate April. of 10-12 kg/ha Monsoon season: first fortnight of July

FYM: 10 t/ha 50:30:30 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha as basal and 30 kg N/ha as top dressing. In rainfed 20-30 kg N/ha coinciding with rain at 30-35 days stage


Page 13-8

Water management Weed management

Harvesting

Rainy season crop: Pre emergence 1-2 irrigations application of Summer sown crop: atrazine @ 0.5 kg 5-6 irrigations a.i/ha in 450 litres of water is effective. One hoeing through weed-cum-mulcher at 3-4 week crop stage.

Single cut: 60-75 days after sowing (DAS) i.e 50% flowering, Multicut: first cut at 40-45 DAS and subsequent cut at 30 days interval

Rainy season crop: Pre emergence 1-2 irrigations application of Summer sown crop: atrazine @ 0.5 kg 4-5 irrigations a.i/ha in 450 litres of water is effective. One hoeing through weed-cum-mulcher at 3-4 week crop stage.

Single cut: 55-60 DAS (initiation of flowering) Multicut: first cut at 40-45 DAS and subsequent cut at 30 days interval

Summer: February to March. Monsoon season: Beginning of rains JuneJuly

30-40 cm row to row, using a seed rate of 40-50 kg/ha

FYM: 12-15 t/ha, 80- Rainy season crop: 100 kg N + 40 kg 1-2 irrigations P2O5/ha. 15-20 kg Summer sown crop: ZnSO4 ai/ha 5-6 irrigations at 1012 days interval

Application of atrazine @ 0.75-1.0 kg a.i/ha in 450 litres of water is effective. One hoeing through weed-cum-mulcher at 3-4 week crop stage. Preemergence

Silk stage DAS) for purpose continue up stage

Summer: Teosinte Improved March to mid Teosinte, TL- April. 1, TL-6 Monsoon season: JuneJuly

25-30 cm row to row, using a seed rate of 35-40 kg/ha

60:30 kg N:P2O5/ha as basal followed by top dressing with 20-30 kg N/ha

Atrazine @ 0.75kg a.i/ha in 450 litres of water as Preemergence. At 3-4 week crop stage hoeing with weeder cum mulcher. Crop should be kept weed free up to 30 days with hand hoeing/weeding

First cut at 60-70 DAS and subsequent cut at 40-45 days after previous cut

Maize African tall, Vijay, Moti, Jawahar composite, VL-54, APFM-8, J1006

Jobs Tear June KCA-3, KCA4 and Bidhan Coix Mid Dinanath Grass Bundel July Dinanath-1, Bundel Dinanath-2, Pusa-19,

Rainy season crop: 1-2 irrigations Summer sown crop: 5-6 irrigations at 1012 days interval

40 cm row to row, 80:40:40 kg N:P:K/ha. When sowing done using a seed rate 40 kg N as basal and in May-June, of 30-40 kg/ha remaining top dressing irrigation may be given 15 days interval June- Seed should be Basal dose of 30 kg N In event of long dry sown at 25 cm and 30 kg P2O5/ha spell the irrigation is spacing with seed subsequently 30 kg needed during rate of 3-4 kg/ha. N/ha should be top monsoon season. 40000 dressed 45 DAS. seedlings/ha at 50


Page 13-9

Regular weeding ensures good crop growth. One weeding with kurpi or weed cum mulcher at 30 days

(60-75 fodder which to milk

First cut at 45 DAS and subsequent cuts at every 30 days interval at 25 cm height First cut at 70-75 days after planting and subsequent cuts at 40-45 days after previous cut

TNDN-1 Cowpea EC-4216, UPC-5286, BL-1, BL-2, UPC-618, UPC-622, GFC-1, GFC2, GFC-3 Cluster bean Bundel Guar1, BG-2, BG3, Maru Guar, Guara-80, HFG-110, HFG-156

Sowing time extends from March to middle of July.

Summer crop: MarchApril, Monsoon seaon: JuneJuly. Winter: OctoberNovember Mid OctoberOat HFO-114, end of Kent, OS-6, November in OS-7, North West Palampur-1, to East zone. IGFRI-S-54, Bundel Jai822, BJ-851, BJ-992

cm× 50 cm sspacing Sowing should be done in lines at inter row spacing of 25-30 cm with seed rate of 35-40 kg/ha

crop stage 20 kg N and 60 kg P2O5/ha at sowing. 2040 kg sulphur/ha in sulphur deficient soils

Monsoon season: Crop doesn’t require irrigation except in case of long dry spell. Summer: 6-7 irrigations at 8-10 days interval

PPI of Fluchloralin @ 0.75 kg a.i/ha. One manual weeding or hoeing with weeder-cummulcher at 3 week crop stage.

Rainy season crop: at 50-60 DAS at 50% flowering. Summer season: 70-75 DAS

25 cm row to row 20 kg N and 50 kg Monsoon season: spacing using a P2O5/ha at sowing Crop doesn’t require seed rate of 30-35 irrigation except in kg/ha. Under dry case of long dry land 25-30 kg/ha spell. Summer: 3-4 at 30 cm spacing irrigations

Preplant incorporation of Nitralin @ 0.75 kg a.i/ha. At 3-4 week crop stage hoeing with weeder cum mulcher.

At bloom to pod formation stage (60-75 days after sowing)

Sowing preferably done by pora/kera behind the plough. 80-100 kg/ha. 30 cm row spacing for profuse tillering varieties

Weeding with weeder cum mulcher at 4 week crop stage followed by application of 2,4-D @ 0.37 kg a.i at 6 week crop stage.

Single cut: 50% flowering stage Double cut: First cut at 60 days followed by second cut at 50% flowering stage. Multicut: First cut at 60 days, second cut at 105 days and third cut at 50%

15 t FYM/ha before 1520 days of sowing. In case of single and two cut 80 kg N and 40 kg P2O5/ha, in case of multicut 100-120 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha.


Page 13-10

4-5 irrigations including the presowing irrigation. For multi cut varieties 7-8 irrigations are required

Berseem Mescavi, Wardan, BL-1, BL-10, BL-2, Bl-22, JB-1, JB-2, Jb-3, BB-2, BB-3

Mid October (Punjab, Haryana and U.P) November (Gujarat and W.B)

Optimum time 20 kg N/ha, 80-90 kg 16-18 irrigations in sowing: 25 kg/ha. P205/ha and 30-40 kg 10-12 days interval Early sowing: 15- K2O/ha at sowing, 20% extra seed rate. Lowland Rice: 35 kg/ha

Field infestation of chicory minimized by treating with 10% common salt and deep summer ploughing. Imazethapyr @ 0.10 kg a.i/ha as PPI was effective

Lucerne Sirsa-8, Anand-2, Anand-3, RL88, Co-1, T-9

End of September to early December but best time is Middle of October.

Broadcasting: 2025 kg/ha, line sowing 12-15 kg/ha. It can also sown with seed drill at 25-30 spacing

20 t FYM/ha every year for perennial crop. Seed inoculation with Rhizobhium meliloti. 20 kg N, 60-75 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha

Crop requires 15-20 irrigations in a year along with pre sowing irrigation. Early stage frequent irrigation required

Napier Bajra Hybrid IGFRI-3, IGFRI-6, IGFRI-7 and IGFRI-10, NB-21, CO-1,

Planting through rooted slips at any time of the year except in winter.

Sole crop: 35000 rooted slips or stem cuttings/ha at 75 × 50 cm spacing. Inter crop: 20000 rooted slips/ha at

20-25 t FYM/ha. At sowing basal dose of 60 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha applied prior to sowing. 30 kg N/ha after each cut

During monsoon no need of irrigation except long dry spell. During marchmay crop require regular irrigation at 15-18 days interval.

Fist weeding at 2025 DAS. pendimethalin @ 1.2 kg a.i/ha A Preemergence or spot application of diquat @6-10 kg/ha as Post emergence (5-10 DAS) controls Cascuta Regular hand weeding/hoeing ensures good aeration and crop growth.


Page 13-11

flowering First cut at 55 DAS and subsequent cuts at 25-30 days after previous cut.

First cut at 50-55 DAS and subsequent cuts at an interval of 25-30 days. In a year 8-10 cuts between October-April.

First cut at 60-65 DAS and subsequent cuts at an interval of 25-30 days. In a year 6-8 cuts can be taken.

CO-2, CO-3, Irrigated: PBN-83, February APBN-1. Rainfed: July-August. Guinea Grass Irrigated: Hamil, BG-1, Mid BG-2, CO-1, FebruaryCO-2, PGG-1, July. PGG-9, PGG- Rainfed: 14, PGG-19 Monsoon and PGG-101. season.

100 × spacing

50

cm

Seed rate of 3-4 kg/ha for sole crop. 40000 rooted slips (sloe) and 20000 rooted slips (intercropping). 20-25 days old seedling or rooted slips at 50 cm × 50 cm for sole and 150 cm × 50 cm for intercropping.

10-12 days interval in summer

20-25 t FYM/ha. At sowing Basal dose of 60 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha applied prior to sowing. 40 kg N/ha after each cut


Page 13-12

During monsoon no need of irrigation except long dry spell. During marchmay crop require regular irrigation at 15-18 days interval. 10-12 days interval in summer months.

Regular hand weeding/hoeing ensures good aeration and crop growth.

First cut at 60-65 DAS and subsequent cuts at an interval of 25-30 days.

CHAPTER-14

An Overview of Seed Quality Concept and Indian Seed Standards in Forage Crops D. Vijay Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Seed Seed is the propagating material of plant kingdom. In broad sense any propagule can be called as seed, may be it is the semen in livestock, fish lings in fishery, grafts in horticulture or rooted slips in grasses. The definition of seed when restricted to angiosperms is as follows, “A true seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule that possesses an embryonic plant, stored food (sometimes absent), and a protective coat or coats” (Kozlowski & Gunn, 1972). The present chapter on seed quality and standards deals with this true seed and different quality parameters and their standards in India. Seed quality Seed is the most common propagating material in maximum number of the crops and serves as the basic input of agriculture. As quoted in ancient Atharva Veda “Good seed in good soil realizes good yield”. The seed quality is utmost important as it is estimated that all other factors being remaining same, the use of quality seed of high yielding varieties increases the crop yield by 15-20% (Anonymous, 2007). The Seed quality parameters consists of, germination, physical purity, genetic purity, moisture content, seed vigour and health. Among these parameters germination and physical purity are compulsory for all types of seeds. Whereas, genetic purity testing is compulsory in hand emasculated and pollinated hybrids. Moisture test should to be performed on a separate sample collected in a moisture impervious container. Seed vigour and health are additional tests conducted in a seed testing laboratory based on requirement. The seed quality is to be maintained both at pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. The pre harvest quality control is achieved by ensuring the generation system of seed production followed by regular field inspections. The post-harvest step involves the quality testing of the seed material in the seed testing laboratory. Quality concept Quality has become one of the most important aspects in all aspects of life. Quality assurance is the need of the hour as we have achieved the production targets successfully in breeder seed. In focussing on quality assurance on seed production and marketing, the quality systems as described by Nieper (1995) includes the following components 1) Focusing on relevant needs of the customer 2) Conformity to a specification or code of practice 3) Achievement by prevention, rather than by inspection or cure 4) Reduction of risk 5) Improved product quality, leading to enhanced market acceptance. Even though these are general quality assurance components these will fit very well into the seed production and marketing system. By focusing on the relevant needs of


Page 14-1

the customer, the seed produced should deliver the needs of the customer like uniform crop stand, high yield, Lack of off types, weeds etc. and even maturity. Similarly the seeds marketed should confirm to the seed standards prescribed by the law through Indian minimum seed certification standards. By being proactive and following regular quality assurance in the field through generation system and field inspections the desired seed quality can be achieved. By following the prescribed production management practices the risk can be reduced to some extent and by continuous assurance of quality the market acceptance can be achieved leading to ultimate profitability. Production of high quality seed The high quality seed can be produced by following certain prescribed aspects viz., 1. Use of best practice management skills in seed production 2. Generation system of seed production 3. Field inspections 1. Use of best practice management skills in seed production The recommended package of practices should be followed to have higher inputs as well as to produce quality seed. Several seed production practices have their influence on seed quality. The extent of influence on quality varies and there are number of factors influencing this phenomenon (Table 1). Table1: Factors involved in production and their relevance to seed quality Steps in seed Genetic Physical Vitality Factors affecting seed quality production purity purity Land selection and preparation

*

Establishment

*

Vegetative growth Flowering Seed fill

Climate, cropping history, isolation from pollen, disease, insect sources, seed bed condition

*

Contamination, stand **

*

Uniformity

of

Weed and disease management, crop management (affects seed yield and quality) Isolation from pollen sources, quality checks on genetic integrity

* *

**

Stress due to water, and disease

temperature

2. Generation system of seed production To maintain the quality of seed when it moves from one generation to other during mass multiplication, generation system of seed production was developed setting standards at every stage so that the final seed multiplied in large quantity possess


Page 14- 2

good planting value when it reaches the farmer. After going through a rigours process of creating variation, selection and stabilization of selected characters through generations, the newly developed variety is constituted by small quantity of seed called nucleus seed. The purity of variety is maintained through maintenance breeding / nucleus seed production by ear to row method. The progeny of the nucleus seed is called breeder seed and the generation system of seed production starts from this. The seed chain consists of three stages, breeder seed (BS), foundation seed (FS) and certified seed (CS). Breeder seed is produced by the original breeder or a sponsored breeder in research stations. Its quality is monitored by a monitoring team comprising the producer, crop breeder, representatives of National and or state seed corporation, seed certification agency and crop coordinator. It bears a golden yellow tag and has the highest genetic purity of 100 percent. The foundation seed is the progeny of the breeder seed and its quality is monitored by an independent state seed certification agency. It bears white tag and should meet the Indian Minimum Seed Certification standards of foundation class. Foundation seed is produced by the national and state seed corporations, state farm corporation of India, state agricultural universities, state department of agriculture and private organizations. It possess 99 percent genetic purity. Certified seed is the progeny of foundation seed and is supplied to farmers for crop production. It is produced by the same agencies as of foundation seed. It bears azure blue tag and should meet the Indian Minimum Seed Certification standards of certification class. It contains 98 percent genetic purity and its quality is assessed by an independent state seed certification agency. In India certification is voluntary and labelling is compulsory. Therefore, apart from the above three classes, one more seed class called truthfully labelled (TL) seed is present. This is not a certified seed but possess the equal quality and its quality is assured by the producing agency itself. The TL seed contains green colour label with seed standards equal to certified seed. 3. Field inspection The inspection of standing seed crops to verify whether they meet the standards or not is called field inspection. The field inspection is done mainly at three different stages of crop to identify and rogue out the off types, volunteer plants, pollen shedders, diseased plants and weeds so that the seed will be physically and genetically pure and true to type. Stages of field inspection: The three main stages for filed inspection are vegetative, flowering and maturity stages. During vegetative / pre-flowering stage off types or rogues are to be identified based on morphological characters like plant type, height, leaf colour, leaf shape, stem colour, anthocyanin pigmentation, stipules/ auricle colour, stem and leaf hairiness, etc. During flowering stage the phenological characters viz., days to fifty percent flowering, no of days to flower (early/ late flowering) and floral characters like inflorescence type, its compactness, colour, length, shape, florets size, pigmentation if any, presence/ absence of awns, etc. should be observed. During Maturity/ Pre-harvesting stage the grain characters like length of grain, width of grain, grain type, colour, awns and the duration of maturity, plant height, type, etc. should be observed for identification of off types and rogues.


Page 14- 3

Field inspection procedure:After arrival to the seed production farm the seed inspector should verify the seed source, crop type, variety, cultivated area, class of seed, cropping history of the field, isolation etc. with the help of seed producer. Later he should monitor the field for off types, rogues, volunteer plants, pollen shedders, diseased plants, weeds etc. by moving through the field and note their percentage to verify whether it meets the standards or not. The number of plants/ heads to be observed per field count depends upon the spacing. In case of wide spaced crops like maize, 100 number of plants/ heads are to be observed per count and in medium spaced crops like cowpea, 500 plants/ heads and in thickly sown crops like oat 1000 plants/ heads are to be observed per count. The number of field counts depends upon crop area as given below (Table 2). Table 2: Minimum number of field counts Cropped area Minimum number of counts up to 2 ha 5 2 to 4 ha 6 4 to 6 ha 7 6 to 8 ha 8 8 to 10 ha 9 Above 10 ha 10

Covers 75% of field area Covers 85% of field area Entry point Exit point Sample unit Path

Covers 60-70 % of field area


Page 14- 4

If at any given field inspection, the seed crop does not confirm the standards then the field will be rejected unless there is a scope for rectification and re-inspection (Table 3). Post-harvest inspection should be done to notice contamination/ mechanical mixtures at threshing floor and during drying, processing and storage. Table 3: Field inspection standards in fodder crops No. of Sl. Field Stages for Field Name Scientific Name No Inspecti Inspection ons I Cultivated Fodder  Before flowering Sorghum & 1 Sorghum bicolor 3 Sudan grass  Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering 2 Bajra Pennisetumglaucum 3  Flowering  Maturity  Before 3 Maize Zea mays 2 flowering  Flowering  Before flowering 4 Teosinte Euchlaena Mexicana 3  Flowering  Maturity  Flowering 5 Oats Avenasativa 2  Maturity  Before flowering 6 Cowpea Vignaungiculata 2  Flowering and fruit stage  Before Guar/ Cluster Cyamopsistetragonalo 7 2 flowering bean ba  Flowering Trifoliumalexandrinu  Flowering 8 Berseem 2 m  Maturity  Flowering 9 Lucerne `Medicagosativa 2  Maturity  Before flowering 10 Indian Bean Lablab purpureus 2  Flowering and fruit stage Chickling  Before 11 Lathyrussativus 2 vetch flowering

Isolation Distance (m) F C

F

C

200

100

0.1

0.2

400

200

0.05

0.1

400

200

1

1

200

100

0.1

0.5

3

3

0.05

0.2

10

5

0.1

0.2

10

5

0.1

0.2

400

100

0.2

1

400

100

0.2

0.1

10

5

0.1

0.2

10

5

0.1

0.2


Page 14- 5

% Off types

12

Rice Bean

Vigna umbellate

2

13

Chinese cabbage

Brassica pekinensis/ B. chinensis

3

14

Sugar beet

Beta vulgaris

2

II

Pasture species

15

Buffel grass

Cenchrusciliaris

3

16

Birdwood grass

Cenchrussetigerus

3

17

Daaraf Grass

Chrysopogonfulvus (Andropogonmontanu s)

3

18

Dinanath grass

Pennisetumpedicellatu 3 m

19

Guinea grass

Panicum maximum

3

20

Marvel grass

Dichanthiumannulatu m

3

21

Napier grass & Hybrid Napier

Pennisetumpurpurem &P.americanum x P.purpureum

2

Pigeon / Setaria grass

Setariaanceps

3

22

 Flowering and fruit stage  Before flowering  Flowering  Before marketable head  At marketable head  Flowering  Before flowering  Flowering

0.1

0.2

1600 1000 0.1

0.2

1600 1000 0.1

0.2

20

10

0.1

1

20

10

0.1

1

20

10

0.1

1

20

10

0.1

1

20

10

0.1

1

20

10

0.2

1

 Flowering  Maturity

10

10

0.01

0.3

 Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity

400

200

0.1

1

 Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity

50


Page 14- 6

20

23

Indian Clover Melilotus

2

24

Stylo

3

Stylosanthes. spp

Source: Tunwar and Singh, 1988

 Flowering  Maturity  Before flowering  Flowering  Maturity

50

25

0.2

0.1

50

25

0.1

1

Seed testing The science of seed testing, that is, the science of evaluating the planting value of seed has been developed to achieve the following objectives for minimising the risk of planting the low quality seeds, 1) To determine the quality of seed i.e. their suitability for planting 2) To identify the seed quality problems and their probable cause 3) To determine if the seed meets the established quality standards 4) To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination among lots in the market. Seed testing comprises the evaluation of quality attributes of the seeds and compares them with the given standards to assess their suitability for the development of next generation. The standards for comparing the test values are known as Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards. If the assessed quality is equal to or above the standard value it may be considered as quality seed and is allowed for sowing purpose. If it fails to meet the standards it should be treated as non-seed. The quality of seed material is assessed by doing following tests in seed testing laboratory on a representative sample of seed lot.  Seed germination testing Compulsory tests  Purity testing  Seed moisture testing Compulsory for hybrids  Testing of genuineness of cultivar Optional test  Seed vigour testing Optional test  Seed health testing a) Seed Sampling The quantity of seed tested in the laboratory is very small compared to the size of seed lot which it is intended to represent (Agrawal, 1997). Hence the sample collected should be a true representative of the seed lot and is of uniform in nature and of sufficient quantity to conduct the tests. The freely flowing seed sample is collected through a trier. The trier is inserted into the bag diagonally in a closed position. In case of chaffy/ non-free flowing seeds hand sampling is most satisfactory method. Sampling should be done from as many containers as possible to be a true representative of the lot. Sampling intensity: It isthe number of primary samples to be collected from the seed lot and depends on the size of the lot (Table 4 & 5).


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Table 4: Sampling intensity for seed lots in bulk or in containers of different sizes Lot size Minimum number of primary samples < 50 kg Three samples 50-500 kg Five samples 501-3000 kg One sample for each 300 kg but not less than five samples 3001-20,000 kg One sample for each 500 kg but not less than ten samples >20,000 kg One sample for each 700 kg but not less than forty samples Table 5: Sampling intensity for seed lots in bags or containers of similar capacity Lot size Minimum number of primary samples Up to 5 containers Sample each container and at least five samples 6-30 containers Sample at least one in every three containers, but not less than five samples 31-400 containers Sample at least one in every five containers, but not less than ten samples >400 containers Sample at least one in every seven containers, but not less than eighty samples Types of samples: From the time of collection from seed lot to analysis in lab, sample is named differently based on its purpose. i) Primary sample: is the sample collected directly from the seed lot in small amounts. ii) Composite sample: is the sample obtained my combining all the primary samples of a seed lot iii) Submitted sample: is part of the composite sample submitted to the seed testing laboratory for testing purpose. The quantity of submitted sample is different to different species (Table 6). iv) Working sample: is the sample obtained from submitted sample using dividers on which all the tests are conducted. The quantity of working sample varies with species (Table 6). Table 6: Lot size, Submitted sample size, working sample size of fodder crops Crop Botanical name Maximum Minimum weight of weight of Submitted Working seed lot (kg) sample (g) sample (g) I. Cultivated Fodder Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Pearl millet Pennisetumglaucum Maize Zea mays Teosinite Euchlaenamexicana Oat Avenasativa Cowpea Vignaungiculata Cluster bean Cymopsistetragonoloba Berseem Trifoliumalexandrinum Lucerne Medicagosativa Indian bean Lab labpurpureus

10,000 10,000 40,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 20,000

900 150 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 60 50 1000


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90 15 900 900 120 400 100 6 5 500

Chickling vetch Rice bean Chinese cabbage Sugar beet II. Pasture Species Buffel grass Birdwood grass Daraf Grass

Lathyrussativus Vigna umbellate Brassica chinensis Beta vulgaris

20,000 10,000 10,000 20,000

1000 40 500

450 4 50

Cenchrusciliaris Cenchrussetigerus Chrysopogonfulvus (Andropogonmontanus) Panicum maximum Dichanthiumannulatum Pennisetumpurpurem

10,000 20,000 10,000

25 25 -

3 3 -

10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

25 30 150 25

2 3 15 2

10,000 10,000

100 70

10 7

Guinea grass Marvel grass Napier grass Pigeon / Setaria Setariaanceps grass Indian Clover Melilotusindica Stylo Stylosanthes. spp Source: Agrawal, 1993

b) Physical purity: The physical purity is another significant quality parameter as it not only helps in maintaining the quality through reducing the weed seed, other crop seed, and unnecessary inert matter but also influences consumer by visual appearance. It directly impacts the yield by reducing the competitive other crops and weeds from the main crop. Physical purity will be tested in the laboratory by a skilled person on the working sample drawn from the submitted sample. Only the pure fraction obtained from this test will be used for further germination testing. c) Seed Germination: Germination is an important quality test parameter evaluating the viability as well as the planting value of a seed lot. The viable seed when receives congenial conditions like sufficient water, oxygen, proper substratum and suitable temperature, imbibes water and starts respiration and metabolic functions resulting in protrusion of radicle. This is considered as germination in botanical/ physiological sense. But from seed testing point of view the seed is considered to be germinated only when the resultant seedling has the capacity for continued development. Germination is usually tested in the laboratory as under field conditions the results cannot be reproduced. Laboratory methods have been conceived in such a manner that the test will be conducted in controlled and uniform conditions for reproducibility. d) Genetic purity: The yield potential of any of variety will be realized to the full extent only when it is true to type. The genuineness of cultivars is to be maintained by maintenance breeding. All necessary precautions like, isolation, growing suitable variety, roguing at regular intervals etc. are to be taken during seed production to avoid deterioration of varieties.


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e) Moisture content: Seed moisture content is one of the important quality parameter influencing its viability and storability. Seeds in general are hygroscopic and maintains equilibrium with surrounding relative humidity. In combination with high temperature the high moisture deteriorates seed quality rapidly, making them unsuitable as propagating material. Since seed storage till next sowing is inevitable, proper care should be taken with regards to seed moisture to maintain its viability. f) Seed Health: Seed being a highly complex biologically living substance, may contain a diverse group of microorganisms and viruses including both parasites and saprophytes (Agrawal, 1995). Most of the dreaded diseases are seed borne. Seed borne pathogens drastically reduces the yield, sometimes even up to 100 percent. Hence it is necessary to detect the seed borne pathogens to evaluate its planting value and to advocate proper seed treatment to contain them. g) Seed Vigour: Seed vigour is relatively a new parameter in the seed testing laboratory. Seed vigour is the degree of liveliness and is the best indicative of field emergence potential. The decline in vigour precedes the loss in germination and two lots with same viability may differ in their field performance due to difference in vigour. There are many possible reasons for differences in vigour but the major explanation for vigour difference among different seed lots of same variety is seed ageing (Powell and Mathews, 1995). Indian seed standards of fodder crops Table 7: Minimum seed standards of fodder crops for quality assurance Class Germi Pure Inert Other Weed Crop of nation seed matter crop seed seed seed (%) (%) (%) (No./kg) (No./kg) I. Cultivated Fodder Sorghum FS 75 98 2 5 5 CS 75 98 2 10 10 Pearl millet FS 75 98 2 10 10 CS 75 98 2 20 20 Maize FS 90 98 2 5 CS 90 98 2 10 Teosinite FS 80 98 2 5 CS 80 98 2 10 Oat FS 85 98 2 10 10 CS 85 98 2 20 20 Cowpea FS 75 98 2 5 5 CS 75 98 2 10 10 Cluster bean FS 70 98 2 10 None CS 70 98 2 20 None


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Moisture content (%) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 9 9 9 9

Berseem

FS CS Lucerne FS CS Indian bean FS CS Chickling vetch FS CS Rice bean FS CS Chinese cabbage FS CS Sugar beet FS CS II. Pasture species Buffel grass FS CS Birdwood grass FS CS Dharaf grass FS CS Dinanath grass FS CS Guinea grass FS CS Marvel grass FS CS Pigeon grass FS CS Indian clover FS CS Stylo FS CS *Objectionable weed seed Singh, 1988

80 80 80 80 75 75 75 75 70 70 70 70 60 60

98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 96 96

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4

10 20 10 20 None None 5 10 None 5 5 10 5 10

10 (5*) 20 (10*) 10 (5*) 20 (10*) None None 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10

10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 7 7 9 9

30 30 30 30 15 15 50 50 20 20 40 40 50 50 65 65 40 40

80 80 80 80 80 80 95 95 80 80 90 90 95 95 98 98 90 90

20 20 20 20 20 20 5 5 20 20 10 10 5 5 2 2 10 10

20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 10 20 20 40 10 20 10 20

20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 10 20 20 40 10 20 10 20 Source: Tunwar and

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

REFERENCES Agrawal, P. K. 1993. Hand book of seed testing, Department of Agriculture and cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. pp. 340. National Seeds Corporation Limited, New Delhi. Agrawal, P.K., 1995 Detection of seed borne pathogens. Pp. 143-152. Techniques in Seed Science (eds. P.K. Agrawal and M. Dadlani) South Asian publishers New Delhi. Agrawal, R.L. 1997. Seed Technology, Oxford and IBH publish Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi pp. 829.


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Anonymous. 2007. MSP Annual Report 2006-07 of Seed Production in Agricultural crops and fisheries. Directorate of Seed Research, Mau. Anonymous. 2011. IGFRI vision 2030. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute Jhansi (U.P.). Kozlowski, T.T. & Gunn. 1972.In seed biology, Vols I and II, Academic Press, New York. Nieper, R. 1995. Quality systems-support systems. Proceedings Asia Pacific AgriIndustry Community Conference. Joint conference Australian and New Zealand Institutes of Agricultural Science, Brisbane 1995. Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Cartlon, Victoria Powell, A. A. and Mathews, S. 1995. Detection of seed borne pathogens in Techniques in Seed Science eds. P.K. Agrawal and M.Dadlani, South Asian publishers New Delhi pp143-152. Tunwar, N. S. and Singh, S. V. 1988. Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards pp.388. The Central Seed Certification Board, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi.


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CHAPTER-15

Physical Purity Testing In Forage Crop Seeds D. Vijay Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284003

Physical purity is one of the quality parameters of the seed which influences the yield and purity of crop. It comprised the determination of different components viz., pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed and inert matter. The objective of purity analysis is to determine whether the seed produced confirms the prescribed quality standards as per Indian minimum seed certification standards or not and to identify various species of seeds and inert particles constituting the sample. The purity testing is done on the working sample drawn from the submitted sample of the seed lot. The purity analysis is made on working sample of prescribed weight. The number of decimal places to which the working sample and purity components should be weighed depends on the weight of working sample (Table 1). Table 1: Number of decimal places to which purity components are to be weighed Weight of working sample (g) Number of decimal places Example 10

Nil Nil 1 kg concentrate (barley) 1 kg concentrate (barley)

>4 5-6 > 10 8-10

6-8 >8 6-7 6-7 7-8 7-8 >5 4-6

Feeding of high producing milch animals on mixed rations The genetically superior livestock needs balanced diets for superior feed efficiency to fully express their production traits. Cows with average daily milk yield up to 10 kg, may


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be fed a mixed ration of crop residues, green fodder and a concentrate mixture (of average quality containing 18% CP and 70% TDN), so as to meet the nutritional requirements (Table 2). Otherwise, another approach could be to increase the quality of concentrate mixture if green fodder is not available only straw or stovers are the forage sources. Table 2. Nutritional value (% dry matter basis) of some common forage for dairy animals Forage A. Greens 1. Berseem 2. Cowpea 3. Guar 4. Lucerne 5. Stylosanthes sp. 6. Bajra/ pearl millet 7. Barley (pre-bloom) 8. Sorghum 9. Hybrid Napier (NB-21) 10. Maize Green stalk 11. Oats 12. Sudan grass 13. Teosinate 14. Dinanath grass 15. Dub grass 16. Sain grass Hay 1. Berseem 2. Cowpea 3. Lucerne 4. Oats

Species

DMI (kg/ 100 CP (%) kg b.wt.)

TDN (%)

Buffalo Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Buffalo Cattle Buffalo Cattle Buffalo Cattle Cattle Cattle Buffalo Buffalo Cattle Buffalo Cattle Cattle Cattle

2.41 2.10 2.90 3.25 2.25 2.42 3.04 2.20 2.43 2.02 2.57 3.22 1.90 2.00 2.50 1.95

24.97 21.63 20.46 17.00 19.58 15.10 8.84 12.56 6.52 4.57 4.69 4.58 9.32 4.33 9.47 7.81 6.35 9.27 9.23 5.13 8.46 2.55

70.24 57.81 61.05 47.49 53.14 55.75 63.81 60.47 56.08 63.33 57.99 63.56 62.99 58.57 62.42 59.58 52.74 52.46 57.90 56.26 55.00 46.68

Cattle Cattle Buffalo Cattle Buffalo

2.80 1.88 2.58 -

15.84 12.30 14.38 14.86 5.61

65.80 60.00 54.40 50.04 64.38


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5. Sain grass hay Silages 1. Hybrid napier (NB-21 2. Sorghum 3. Maize 4. Oats

Cattle Cattle

1.95

3.69 1.96

54.10 48.85

Cattle Cattle Cattle Buffalo

1.91 1.60 -

4.18 3.75 5.12 5.43

54.11 62.16 61.33 63.40

But cows with 11 to 20 kg daily milk yield, are the improved ones and the farmers can expect a good economical return from them. They require a well balanced diet for effective persistency, reproduction and feed efficiency. They may be given a ration (Table 3) comprising of little quantity of straws/ stovers, mixture of legume & nonlegume (cereal) green forage and good quality concentrate mixture (20% CP and 72% TDN). While cows yielding >21kg milk per day, needs special attention to meet their nutritional requirement. Such high yielding cows will always be deficit in energy in first two trimesters of lactation on conventional diets. They should be given a ration (Table 5) comprising of legume and nonlegume fodders, and a very good quality concentrate mixture (22% CP and 74% TDN). But they should not be fed poor quality crop residues like straws and stovers. Table 3. Rationing (as such basis) of high yielding milch cows Feedstuffs/ items

Quantity (kg/ head/ day) A. Category-I (350-400 kg b.wt, 15 kg daily milk yield & 4-5% milk fat) 1. Maize/ Sorghum/ Oat 20 2. Berseem/ Lucerne/ Cowpea 25 3. Wheat/ Rice straw 1 4. Concentrate mixture 5 B. Category-II (350-400 kg b.wt, 25 kg daily milk yield & 4-5% milk fat) 1. Maize/ Sorghum/ Oat 2. Berseem/ Lucerne/ Cowpea 3. Concentrate mixture

20-25 20-25 8-9

Concentrate mixture Anybody desirous of producing concentrate mixture of his own should know the various types of feed ingredients required for making concentrate mixture ideal for animal feeding. If he is not well conversant with the quality of raw feed ingredients and unconventional feedstuffs available in the region, he may not be able to formulate an ideal concentrate mixture for his animals economically. The various feed ingredients and their proportion of mixing in brief are as follows-


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• •

• • •

Primary source of energy (30-40%): Cereal grains like maize, barley, wheat, sorghum, oats etc. Primary source of protein (25-30%): Oil seed cakes like groundnut cake, mustard cake, cotton seed cake, linseed cake, sesame cake and animal protein supplements like fish meal, meat meal, skim milk powder etc. Diluents (5-25%): Cereal by-products like wheat bran, rice bran etc. and pulse chunies like mung chunni, arhar chunni, massoor chunni, gram chunni etc. Common salt (1-2%) Mineral supplements (1-2%)

Characteristics of a good concentrate mixture • • • • • •

A good concentrate mixture should contain 17-22% crude protein (CP) and 6575% total digestible nutrients (TDN) Final concentrate mixture should contain 1 % common salt and 2% mineral and vitamin mixture Moisture content should not be more than 12-15% Crude fibre content should not be more than 18% Concentrate ingredients should be properly ground before mixing It should not be too dense or too bulky

Quality assessments of forages A. Chemicals analysis (a) Proximate analysis As early as 1864, Henneberg and Stohmann working at Weende Experiment Station, Germany proposed a system of plant analysis for nutritional chemists. This system is popularly known as Weende System of Analysis or proximate analysis. According to this system an herbage plant is partitioned into six fractions, viz., moisture, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, nitrogen free extract (NFE) and ash (Table 4). Among them, five constituents/principles are determined chemically and NFE is determined by difference.

Table 4. Basic scheme of proximate analysis Method

Fractions

Major constituents

Drying at approximately 100 0C to constant weight Ignite at 500-600 0C

Moisture

Water and other volatile compounds Mineral elements

Ash


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N2 by Kjeldahl digestion

Crude protein

Extraction with petroleum ether

Ether extract

Residue after boiling with acid and alkali Remainder i.e., 100 minus sum of other fractions

Crude fibre N-free extract

Proteins, amino acids, NPN compounds Fats. Oils, waxes Cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin Starch, sugars, some cellulose, hemi-cellulose and some lignin

(b) Van Soest system of analysis In this system, the carbohydrate fraction is portioned into hemi cellulose, cellulose, lignin and silica (Table 5). Out of these, lignin and silica impair the digestibility of herbages in animals and considered to be non-nutrient components. Thus, this system includes the determination of dry matter, EE, CP, ash, cell wall (NDF), hemi-cellulose, cellulose, cellulose, lignin and silica.

Table 5. Basic scheme of forage analysis following detergent system Fraction

Reagent

Treatment

Yield

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) Acid detergent fiber (ADF) Lignin

Lauryl sulfate EDTA+ pH 7.0 CTAB in 1 normal H2SO4 KMNO4 , pH 3.0

Boil 1 hr.

Total plant cell wall

Boil 1 hr.

Cellulose

None

Ligno-cellulose + SiO2 Lignin as loss in weight by oxidation Loss in weight

Silica (SiO2)

Concentrate HBr (48%) None

Hemi-cellulose

Treat 1½ hr at 2 ºC Ash residues from lignin step Treat ash dropwise, 1 hr at 25 ºC Calculate as NDFADF

Residue is SiO2 and soil silicates Difference

B. In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) (a) Van Soest Method Weigh 0.5 g sample in duplicate into a 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask. To each flask add 40 ml Mc Doughall’s buffer and 10 ml of strained rumen liquor (SRL) collected from a doner animal and close with a Bunsen valve. The flasks are flushed with a jet a carbon-di – oxide. The flasks are incubated 48 hours at a temperature of 38 ºC occasionally shaking the flasks. 2-3 banks and one standard are also, simultaneously run with each batch. After the incubation, the activity is checked by adding 2-3 drops of 2% mercuric chloride


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solution. The contents of the flasks are transferred to spout less beakers and the flask is thoroughly washed with 100 ml neutral detergent solution. 2 ml of decalin and above 0.5 g Sod. Sulphite are added to each beaker and proceed as in the case of NDF. The IVDMD% can then be calculated as: % IVDMD = 100 – {(Wt. of the sample undigested material – Wt. of the blank)/ Wt. of the sample Х 100 Mc Dougalls’Buffer: NaHCO3 9.8 g Na2HPO4 7.0 g KCl 0.57 g NaCl 0.47 g MgSO4. 7H2O 0.12 g CaCl2 0.04 g Dissolved all these constituents in 1000 ml of distilled water and saturate with carbon dioxide. (b) Tilley and Terry Method At the end of the first incubation period check the bacterial activity by adding 1 ml of 5% HgCl2. Two ml. of N Na2CO3 are also added to improve sedimentation, immediately centrifuge the tubes at 1800 rpm for 15 min. (The tubes can be stored at 1 ºC if, required). The supernatant is discarded and 50 ml of freshly prepared pepsin solution (0.2%) pepsin 1:10,000 in 0.1 N HCL) to the residue in each tube and incubate the tubes at 38 ºC for 48 hours with occasional shaking. Anaerobic conditions are not necessary during the second stage of digestion. At the end of second stage of incubation time, centrifuge the tubes, pour off the supernatant and transfer the residue to a weighed crucible with the minimum water. Dry the crucible and residue overnight at 100 ± 5 ºC, cool in a desiccator and weigh. The percent digestibility can be calculated as: % Digestibility = {Wt. of the sample – (Wt. of the undigested material – blank)}/ Wt. of the sample Х 100 Problems associated with forages/ forage based rations In spite of excellent advance made in the field of forage production and animal health, very little has been done towards learning more about interactions between forages and animal health. Some of the health problems incidentals to forage are as follows1. Bloat/ Tympani Causes: Feeding of legume forage & then interactions of soluble forage protein, rumen microbes and animal itself


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Symptoms:

Distension of rumen Protrusion of tongue, anus Respiratory distress Struggling & death, if not cured

Treatment: Keeping the animals on its feed and moving Drenching mineral oil (0.25-1.0 litre) and poloxalene (25-50 ml) Prevention:

Avoid feeding excessive legume forage Feed green forage along with dry forage Avoid rapid fill from an empty start Keep salt and water accessible

2. Nitrate poisoning Causes: Ingestion of forage from cereal crops like oat, sorghum, barley, maize, rye, anjan and para grass etc, grown under drought, heavy fertilization and spraying herbicides Symptoms:

Nervous symptoms Diarrhoea and loss of appetite Blue colouration of mucous membrane, muzzle and udder Oxy-Hb to Met-Hb

Treatment: 4% solution of methylene blue @ 200 ml per 100 kg live weight Prevention: Feeding high levels of grains/ molasses and Vitamin-A Limiting feeds with high nitrates Ensiling of feeds with high nitrates 3. HCN Poisoning


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Causes: Ingestion of forages containing cyanogenetic glucosides like sorghum, sugar cane tops, johnson grass, sudan grass, bermuda grass, raunja (Acacia leucocephala) etc Symptoms:

In acute case, death within 1-2 hrs Excitement, profuse salivation lachrimation, frothing Gasping & respiratory distress (cytochrome oxidase inhibition) Sometimes bloat

Treatment: Sodium thiosulphate- an effective antidote Supportive therapy- oxytetracycline and cobalt chloride intra-ruminally Prevention: Ensiling of toxic forages Avoiding hungry stock of accessing forages containing HCN Toxic animals should not be watered immediately after showing 4. Oxalate poisoning Causes: A large quantity of oxalates in forage/ feed causes gastro-intestinal irritation and precipitation of blood calcium leading to a state of hypocalcaemia Ingestion of plants (with high concentration of oxalates) like napier grass, leaves of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), Cenchrus ciliaris, Setaria spacelate, para grass (Brachiaria mituca) etc. Symptoms: In acute cases, peresis, muscle tremors, staggering, recumbancy and death Rapid heart rate & rumen atony Frequent urination and red brown coloured urine (occasionally) Treatment: Calcium borogluconate (25% solution) is the drug of choice for affected animals Prevention:


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Prophylactic feeding of dicalcium phosphate Avoiding hungry stock of accessing forages containing high oxalates Keep drinking water accessible Others: •

Photosensitization:

It is a disease caused by the sensitization of superficial layers of skin to sun light due to ingestion of photodynamic agents in forages or accumulation of normal metabolic products of forages in body due to liver damage. •

Mimosine toxicity:

It has been observed both in ruminants and non-ruminants on ingestion of large quantities of Leucaena leucocephala (commonly known as Subabool) and associated with the presence of toxic amino acids- Mimosine, occurring in all parts of the plant.

•

Tannin toxicity

Tannin, a group of phenolic non-nitrogenous plant toxins that are frequently glycosides with astringent properties are found in different feedstuffs including shrubs and tree leaves. They may be hydrolysable or condensed ones, chemically. They cause reduction in voluntary intake and utilization of nutrients, sometimes epithelial edema and irritation. REFERENCES Arora, S.P. 1978. Feeding of Dairy Cattle and Buffaloes. ICAR, New Delhi. Banerjee, G.C. 1988. Feeds and Principles of Animal Nutrition. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Mahanta, S.K. and Pachauri, V.C. 1999. Importance of quality forage to milch animals for economical milk production. Milcow 21: 26-28. Mahanta, S.K., Singh, K.K, Das, M.M and Das, N. 2009. Forage based feeding of livestock. In: Forage for Sustainable Livestock Production (eds. N. Das, A.K. Misra, S.B. Maity, K.K. Singh and M.M. Das). Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi, India pp. 407426. Mertens, D.R. 2009. Maximizing forage use by dairy cows. Adv. Dairy Technol. 21: 303319.


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Miller, W.J. 1979. Dairy cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, London. Mott, G.O. and Moore, J.E. 1969. Forage evaluation techniques in perspectives. In: R.F. Barness, D.C. Clauton, C.H. Gordon, T.J. Kloptenstein and D.R. Waldo (eds.), Proceed. Natl. Conf. On Forage Quality Evaluation and Utilization. Nebraska Cent. Educ., Lincoln, NE. Mudgal, V.D. 1992. Formulation of economic rations for dairy cattle under field conditions. Proceed. All India dairy husbandry officers’ workshop, Oct. 22-23, 1992 at NDRI, Karnal. Pathak, N.N. and Jakhmola, R.C. 1983. Forages and Livestock Production. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi Ranjhan, S.K. 1993. Animal Nutrition in the Tropics. 3rd rev. edn. Vikas Publishing Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Stokes, S. 2002. The importance of forage quality for milk production and health. Adv. Dairy Technol. 14: 207-215. Stone, B. 2011. High quality forages: more milk, less grain. http://www.diamondv.com/newscenter_documents/NutritionLineFeatureArticles/Dairy20 10/May2010. Thakur, S.S. 2001. Scientific feeding for higher milk production. In Short Course on ‘Biotechniques to augment lactation in bovines, May 22-31, 2001 at NDRI, Karnal. Wangsness, P.J. and Muller, L.D. 1981. Maximum forage for dairy cows: review. J. Dairy Sci. 64: 1-13.


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CHAPTER-34

Plant Variety Protection & Farmer’s Right Act, 2001 A.K. Roy PC Unit, Indian Grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284003, India

It is an Act to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants. The act is defined in Gazette of India Extraordinary and the few provisions are presented below and these are taken from the act Chapter 1 – Preliminary The act recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties. It also protects plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development, both in the public and private sector, for the development of new plant varieties; The act will facilitate the growth of the seed industry in the country which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting materials. The act is in agreement with TRIPs [subparagraph (b) of paragraph 3 of article 27 in Part II]. Chapter II: Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority and Registry The chapters deals with following important • Establishment of Authority • Officers and other employees of Authority • Chairperson to be Chief Executive. • General functions of Authority • Authentication of orders, etc. of Authority • Delegation Power of Authority • Registry and offices thereof Plant Variety Protection & Farmer’s Right Authority shall consist of a Chairperson and fifteen members. The Chairperson, shall be a person of outstanding caliber and eminence with long practical experience in the field of plant varietal research or agricultural development. The members of the Authority shall be • Agriculture Commissioner, Government of India, • Deputy Director General Crop Sciences, ICAR • Joint Secretary incharge of Seeds, DAC, GOI • Horticulture Commissioner, Government of India, • Director, NBPGR • one member from DBT, GOI not below the rank of Joint Secretary • one member from MOEFF, GOI not below the rank of Joint Secretary • one member from Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs not below the rank of Joint Secretary Government of India


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• • • • • • •

one representative from National or State level farmers’ organization one representative from a tribal organization one representative from the seed industry one representative from an Agricultural University one representative from National or State level women’s organization two representatives of State Governments on rotation basis The Registrar-General shall be the ex-officio member secretary of the Authority.

Chapter III: Registration of Plant Varieties and Essentially Derived Variety • Application for registration • Registrable variety. • Persons who may make application • Compulsory variety denomination • Form of Application • Test to be Conducted • Acceptance of application or amendment thereof. • Advertisement of Application • Registrar to consider grounds of opposition • Registration of essentially derived variety Section 14. Any person specified in section 16 may make an application to the Registrar for registration of any variety • of such genera and species as specified under subsection (2) of section 29; or • which is an extant variety; or • which is a farmers’ variety. Section 15. (1) A new variety shall be registered under this Act if it conforms to the criteria of novelty, distinctiveness, uniformity and stability. Section 16. (1) An application for registration under section 14 shall be made by a) any person claiming to be the breeder of the variety; or b) any successor of the breeder of the variety; or c) any person being the assignee of the breeder of the variety in respect of the rights to make such application; or d) any farmers or group of farmers or community of farmers claiming to be the breeder of the variety; or e) any person authorized in the prescribed manner by a person specified under clauses (a) to (d) to make application on his behalf; or f) any university or publicly funded agricultural institution claiming to be the breeder of the variety. National Register of Plant Varieties: A Register called the National Register of Plant Varieties shall be kept at the head office of the Registry, wherein shall be entered the names of all the registered plant varieties with the names and addresses of their respective breeders, the rights of such breeders in respect of the registered


Page 34-2

varieties, the particulars of the denomination of each registered variety, its seed or other propagating material along with specification of salient Any person specified in section 16 may make an application to the Registrar for registration of any variety • of such genera and species as specified under subsection (2) of section 29; or • which is an extant variety; or • which is a farmers’ variety. A new variety shall be registered under this Act if it conforms to the criteria of novelty, distinctiveness, uniformity and stability (Article 15. (1) Chapter IV: Duration and Effect of Registration and Benefit Sharing • Issue of certificate of registration • Publication of list of varieties • Determination of benefit sharing by Authority • Breeder to deposit seeds or propagating material • Registration to confer right • Exclusion of certain varieties. • Special provisions relating to application for registration from citizens of convention countries • Provisions as to reciprocity The certificate of registration shall be valid for nine years in the case of trees and vines and six years in the case of other crops and may be reviewed and renewed for the remaining period subject to the condition that the total period of validity shall not exceed, • in the case of trees and vines, eighteen years from the date of registration of the variety; • in the case of extant variety, fifteen years from the date of the notification of that variety by the Central Government under section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966; and • in other cases, fifteen years from the date of registration of the variety. A certificate of registration for a variety shall confer an exclusive right on the breeder or his successor, his agent or licensee, to produce, sell, market, distribute, import or export the variety. A breeder may authorize any person to produce, sell, market or otherwise deal with the variety registered under this Act subject to such limitations and conditions as may be specified by regulations. Generally in the case of an extant variety, unless a breeder or his successor established his right, the Central Government, or the State Government, shall be deemed to be the owner of such right. Researcher’s rights Section 30: Nothing in this act shall prevent • the use of any variety registered under this Act by any person using such variety for conducting experiment or research; or


Page 34-3

• •

the use of a variety by any person as an initial source of variety for the purpose of creating other varieties; Provided that the authorization of the breeder of a registered variety is required where the repeated use of such variety as a parental line is necessary for commercial production of such other newly developed variety.

Denial of registration Section 29. (1) no registration of a variety shall be made t in cases where prevention of commercial exploitation of such variety is necessary to protect public order or public morality or human, animal and plant life and health or to avoid serious prejudice to the environment. Chapter V: Surrender and Revocation of Certificate and Rectification and Correction of Register • Surrender of certificate of registration • Revocation of protection on certain grounds • Payment of annual fees and forfeiture of registration in default thereof • Power to cancel or change registration and to rectify the Register. • Correction of Register. • Alteration of denomination of a registered variety. Section 33. (1) A breeder of a variety registered under this Act may, at any time by giving notice in the prescribed manner to the Registrar offer to surrender his certificate of registration. Section 34. The protection granted to a breeder in respect of a variety may, be revoked by the Authority on infringement of many clauses mentioned in detail in the act. Chapter VI: Farmers’ Rights. • Certain information to be given in application for registration. • Rights of communities. • Protection of Innocent infringement • Framing of schemes, etc. • Authorization of farmers’ variety • Exemption from fees. • Gene Fund FARMERS’ RIGHTS 39. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, (i) a farmer who has bred or developed a new variety shall be entitled for registration and other protection in like manner as a breeder of a variety under this Act; (ii) the farmers’ variety shall be entitled for registration if the application contains declaration as specified in clause (h) of sub-section (1) of section 18; ( iii ) a farmer who is engaged in the conservation of genetic resources of land races and wild relatives of economic plants and their improvement through selection and


Page 34-4

preservation shall be entitled in the prescribed manner for recognition and reward from the Gene Fund. Provided that material so selected and preserved has been used as donors of genes in varieties registrable under this Act; (iv) a farmer shall be deemed to be entitled to save, use, sow, resow, exchange, share or sell his farm produce including seed of a variety protected under this Act in the same manner as he was entitled before the coming into force of this Act : However farmer shall not be entitled to sell branded seed of a variety protected under this Act. The breeder of such variety shall disclose to the farmer(s) group, the expected performance under given conditions, and if such propagating material fails to provide such performance under such given conditions, the farmer(s) group may claim compensation Section 40. (1) A breeder shall disclose in the application the information regarding the use of genetic material conserved by any tribal or rural families in the breeding or development of such variety. Section 42. Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, (i) a right established under this Act shall not be deemed to be infringed by a farmer who at the time of such infringement was not aware of the existence of such right; and (ii) a relief which a court may grant in any suit for infringement referred to in section 65 shall not be granted by such court, nor any cognizance of any offence under this Act shall be taken, for such infringement by any court against a farmer who proves, before such court, that at the time of the infringement he was not aware of the existence of the right so infringed. Section 43. Where an essentially derived variety is derived from a farmers’ variety, the authorization is to be given only with the consent of the farmers group who have made contribution in the preservation or development of such variety. Section 44. A farmer(s) shall not be liable to pay any fees in any proceeding before the Authority or the Tribunal or the High Court. Section 45. (1) The Central Government shall constitute a Fund to be called the National Gene Fund and there shall be credited thereto– (a ) the benefit sharing received in the prescribed manner from the breeder of a variety or an essentially derived variety registered under this Act, or propagating material of such variety or essentially derived variety, Chapter VII: Compulsory Licence • Power of Authority to make order for compulsory licence in certain circumstances • When requirement of public deemed to have not been satisfied. • Adjournment of application for grant of compulsory licence.


Page 34-5

• • • •

Duration of compulsory licence. Authority to settle terms and conditions of licence. Revocation of compulsory licence. Modification of compulsory licence.

Section 47. (1) At any time, after the expiry of three years from the date of registration of a variety, if reasonable requirements of the public for seed or other propagating material of the variety have not been satisfied or that the seed or other propagating material of the variety is not available to the public at a reasonable price Chapter VIII: Plant Varieties Protection Appellate Tribunal • Tribunal • Composition of Tribunal. • Appeal to Tribunal. • Orders of Tribunal • Procedure of Tribunal. Section 54. The Central Government may by notification in the Official Gazette, establish a Tribunal to be known as the Plant Varieties Protection Appellate Tribunal to exercise the jurisdiction, powers and authority conferred on it by or under this Act. Section 55. (1) The Tribunal shall consist of a Chairman and such number of Judicial Members and Technical Members as the Central Government may deem fit to appoint. Chapter IX: Finance, Accounts and Audit Section 60. The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf, make to the Authority grants and loans of such sums of money as the Central Government may think fit for being utilized for the purposes of this Act. Chapter X: Infringement, Offences, Penalties and Procedure Chapter XI: Miscellaneous • Protection of security of India. • Implied warranty on sale of registered variety, etc. • Death of party to a proceeding. • Right of registered agent and the registered licensee to institute suit. • Evidence of entry in Register, etc., and things done by the Authority and the Registrar. • Authority, Registrar and other officers not compellable to production of Register, etc. • Protection of action taken in good faith. • Members and staff of Authority, etc., to be public servants.


Page 34-6

Importance of fodder and fodder seed production in India: current status, future prospects and policy interventions Dr. P.K. Ghosh Director, IGFRI

Facts of Indian Livestock sector (Source: CSO-2012 & Economic survey 2012-13)

Agriculture & allied sector share in Total GDP (%)

14.10

Livestock contribution to Agriculture GDP (%)

27.42

Growth rate of Agriculture sector in 11th Plan (%)

3.60

Growth rate of Livestock in 11th Plan (%)

4.80

Milk production (2011-12) in million tonnes

127.90

Per capita milk availability in India (2011-12) in g

290.00

(per capita milk availability in world is 289.31 in 2011-12)

Importance of Livestock Income Support Dairy production contributes 20 to 50% of family income in crop-livestock production system. Sustainability of Income Livestock contributes 70 to 80% of income to underprivileged marginal and landless livestock owner during drought year

Significant contribution: Income from milk (Rs. 3,05,484 crore in 2011-12) is higher than the value of output of paddy and wheat.

Low productivity of Livestock

Average yield of milk and meat: 20-60% lower than world average Responsible Factors: • Feed & Fodder deficiency (50.2%) • Breeding & reproduction (21.1%) • Diseases

(17.9%)

• Management

(10.5%)

Impact of fodder on milk production Fodder availability, kg per cattle

Average Milk productivity, litre/animal

21 16

17

16

15

14

13 11

11

8 3.8

4.3

1.2

Livestock Census-2007 and Krishiworld.com

3.3

3.5

3.2

2.8

3

3

3

Area under fodder crops (cultivated area)

3.9

% Area

3.3

7.4

Area (m.ha)

4.3

0

2 2009-10

4 1950-51

6

8

Area under fodder crops (irrigated area)

Year

Total Irrigated area

Fodder crop area

Percentage

1952-53

23.30 m.ha

7000 ha

0.03

2009-10

86.42 m.ha

2.3 m.ha

2.7

Demand and Supply of green fodder

1200 Million tonnes

1000 800

1012.7 816.8

826

600 400

525.5

200 0 2010 Demand

2050 Supply

Demand and Supply of dry fodder

700 Million tonnes

600 500 400

631 547.7

508.9 453.2

300 200 100 0 2010 Demand

2050 Supply

Reasons for shortfall of fodder

Farmers level: a. Lesser area under fodder crops b. Subsistence livestock farming Market level: a. Non-commercial nature of forage crops b. Non-availability of adequate & quality forage seeds Policy level: a. Lesser attention on fodder crops b. Diversification of fodder use c. Burning of Dry fodder

Measures to increase fodder supply

• Research Prioritization • Forage production from arable & non-arable land • Grassland restoration and management • Post-harvest technology • Strengthening of seed production chain • Development of new varieties • Dissemination of fodder technology through KVKs • Human resource development

Research Prioritization • Development of dual purpose varieties in fodder crops eg. sorghum, maize, pearl millet • Enhancement of seed setting in range grasses • Effective linkage with other related institutions • Evaluation, production and utilization of conventional fodder crops (Cactus, Azolla etc)

non-

• Evaluation of fodder based production systems and silvipasture system

Forage production from arable & non-arable lands • Location specific forage varieties • Extension of food-forage cropping systems • Non-competitive land use strategies (Forest & Waste lands) • Climate resilient varieties/cropping system • Adoption of alternate land use system (hortipasture, silvipasture, agro-horti-silvipasture)

• Emphasis on range grasses & legumes

Grassland restoration and management

• Restoration of degraded, forest and wastelands through incorporation of grass-legume combinations • Utilization of village level community lands • Linkage of IGFRI with other concerned institutions • Effective involvement of grass-root level institutions including NGOs, Private sector, Biodiversity parks etc.

Post harvest technology Fodder Bank Fodder conservation, compaction, transportation and storage Seed Bank Development of seed banks at village level Marketing Network Development of effective marketing of fodder & fodder seed Enrichment of crop residues Particularly paddy and wheat straw and other leguminous crop residues

Seed Chain

• Strengthening of seed chain by active involvement of SAUs, KVKs and animal science institutes. • At least 3-5% seed production under Mega seed project should be targeted for forage crops by different SAUs. • Seed production over farms of animal science institutes on at least 5-10 hectares area depending upon the availability of land.

Varietal Release

• Up scaling the pace of release of new fodder varieties • Straw yield should also be taken up as parameter in food grain varieties release as straw contribute about 53% of total feed availability • Replacement of old varieties with new varieties

KVK-hub for adoption of forage technology

Fodder Technology demonstration in all zones Involvement of KVKs in the technology dissemination Collection of information on fodder and seed availability thorough KVKs Developing the ability of famer seed production through KVKs

Fodder seed status

According to State of Indian agriculture (2011-12) that the availability of improved fodder seed is only 40000 tonnes against a requirement of 5.4 lakh tonnes. In that way, hardly 10 percent of required quality seed is available.

Major constraints in forage seed production Seed Agencies: • Lesser priority on fodder seed production and multiplication by seed agencies • Resouce constraints. Research Institutes: • The crops are basically bred for herbage, thus less emphasis on seed production • Most of forage crops are shy seeders • Non-synchronus flowering and maturity in most of the grasses and legume • Seed multiplication ratio is very narrow

Major constraints in forage seed production

Farmers’ level: • High cost in seed production because of low productivity • Lesser knowledge on quality seed production Policy level: • Less allocation of resources production • Limited market for forage seed

for

forage

seed

Way forward… Research level: • Development of site specific package of practices for seed production • Synchronisation of flowering and seed setting • Development of seed quality standards for fodder crops and range grasses • Increase in productivity of fodder seed • Development of low cost innovative seed harvesting and processing technology • Strenthning supply of breeder seed for smooth working of seed chain

Way forward… Seed Multiplication agencies: Priority on fodder seed multiplication Allocation of sufficient resources and manpower Introduction of seed production in non-traditional areas Farmers level: Participatory seed production through seed village concept •Farmers access to information on seed production be enhanced

Way forward…

Policy level: • Reliable data base is to be developed • Strengthening production

infrastructure

for

fodder

seed

• Development of Human resource and infrastructure for quality seed production • Development and linkage of national and international market for quality seed transaction

DUS Testing with Special Reference to PPV & FR Act 2001 - Final

Dr. R. K. Chowdhury Consultant (Seed Develop.), IFFDC (IFFCO), Gurgaon Ex- Project Director, Directorate of Seed Research, ICAR, New Delhi- 110012 Dec. 2012

Introduction---Quality Seed Seed

is

the

key

requirement or system

basic

natural delivery

for

productivity,

or

enhancing

profitability

and

resource use efficiency Faster

dissemination

and

adoption of new varieties and hybrids. Transfer of new technology Improves

household

nutritional security.

and

Various legislations important for growth of seed • • • •

Seed Act 1966 (Seed Bill 2004) Protection of Plant Varieties Biodiversity Act (NBA 2002) Seed Policy (NSP 2002)

Since, breeding of varieties is a long time invention with lot of investments, protection of plant varieties is very important to protect the interest of breeders.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001 As per TRIPS Agreement Article 27 (3) b under WTO, the GOI enacted the “Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights” (PPV&FR) Act, 2001, a ‘sui generis system. The Act is unique in a sense that it protects rights of not only breeders but farmers and scientists as well. Its a fine blend between the concepts underlying Convention on Biodiversity, International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and TRIPS. It affords reasonable protection for development of new varieties without compromising the rights of farmers.

Advantage of Plant Variety Protection Safeguards the interest of plant breeders. Incentive to the development of agriculture. Benefit of the whole society. Encouragement of investment in Plant Breeding. International recognition of the National Plant Variety Protection System. Protection of own breeders against appropriation of their varieties by genetic engineers. Growth of seed industry.

Extent: All categories of plants except microorganisms. Period of Protection: Maximum I. In case of trees and vines, 18 years. II. In other cases, 15 years. III. In case of extant varieties, 15 years from the date of the notification.

Major provisions in the Act are : Breeders’ Rights Researchers’ Rights Farmers’ Rights Rights of Communities Essentially Derived Variety Benefit sharing Extant variety Exclusion of certain varieties National Gene Fund Compulsory Licensing Tribunal Report of Authority to be placed before Parliament Power of Central Government to give directions

Varieties that can be protected [Sec. 2(j),2 (za),14,15]

• • • • •

Novel varieties Extant varieties Farmers’ varieties EDV Transgenic varieties

Extant variety Means a variety available in India which isi. Notified under section 5 of the Seed Act, 1966; or ii. Farmers’ variety; or iii. A variety about which there is common knowledge; or iv. Any other variety which is in public domain; The Registrar shall register every extant variety within three years from the date of its notification of the genera and species subject to conformity to DUS. The Registrar may, for specific reasons register an extant variety after the expiry of the said period of three years .

Principles and Procedures of DUS testing

DUS Testing Testing for distinctness, uniformity and stability is called as DUS testing. There are well defined UPOV guidelines for DUS testing of different crops which can be adopted as such or may be modified as per experience and need of a member country. Currently, DUS testing involves the comparison of new (candidate) variety with existing varieties for recording of a number of phenotypic characters or descriptors in tests in which new and existing varieties are grown side by side . All contemporary candidates should be compared. This allows comparison of traits with in a single trial.

Registrable Varieties A new variety shall be registered under this Act if it conforms to the criteria: Novelty Distinctiveness Uniformity Stability using its relevant characteristics (plant height, leaf shape, time of flowering etc.) by which it can be described as a variety in terms of the Act.

Novelty If at the date of filing of the application the propagating or harvested material of such variety has not been sold in India, earlier than one year Outside India, in the case of trees or vines earlier than six years, or, in any other case, earlier than four years before the date of filing such application.

Distinctiveness If

a

variety

is

clearly

distinguishable by at least one essential characteristic from any other variety whose existence is a matter of common knowledge in any country at the time of filing the application.

Uniformity If, variation

subject that

to

the

may

be

expected from the particular features of its propagation it is sufficiently uniform in its essential characteristics

Uniformity The variety is deemed uniform if, subject to the variation that may be expected from the particular features of its propagation, it is sufficiently uniform in its relevant characteristics, at least which are used as a basis for distinctiveness or included in the variety description established at the date of grant of protection of that variety. For vegetative propagated and self-pollinated variety the basis of assessment is normally the number of off types in the variety, judged on the basis of a population standard and an acceptable probability fixed in the corresponding species. In particular, for cross-pollinated species the basis of assessment is the variation in comparable variety (relative uniformity).

Stability If,

its

remain

characteristics unchanged

essential

after

repeated

propagation or, in the case of a particular cycle of propagation, at the end of each such cycle

Stability The verity is deemed to be stable if its relevant characteristics remain unchanged after repeated propagation. It is not usually possible during a period of two or three years to perform test on stability. Generally, when a submitted sample has been shown to be the uniform, the material can also be considered stable. Careful attention has to be paid to stability when testing for distinctness and uniformity. Where appropriate, stability is tested by growing a further generation from new seed stock to be supplied by the applicant to ensure that it exhibits the same characteristics as those shown by material supplied previously.

Duration of DUS tests Usually the DUS examination requires more than one independent growing cycles with reference to ecosystem of the variety for studying the consistency of results. There are several options for multiple growing cycles: • The candidate varieties are studied in a given location, over at least two successive seasons. • For many crops, it is possible to complete two growing cycle in the same year. The two growing cycles should be independent of each other.

Duration of DUS tests • For plants in green houses, provided the time between the sowing is not too short and the trial is randomized, at least partly, two growing cycles can overlap and still be compared as independent. • For some crops such as fruit trees, the same plants are examined over successive years. The condition of independence of growing cycle is also satisfied in this case. • In some circumstances authorities can allow one growing season. Such a possibility is mentioned in crop specific guidelines

DUS Test Centres Factors to be considered: 1. Where the species can best display its characteristics. 2. Where there is least risk of damage from pests, diseases and weather; 3. Where most of the seed crop and main crops are grown; this gives DUS testing a link with the region where the characters will be expressed most often, through a high volume of seed certification and commercial crop production; 4. Where there is ease of breeders’ access; breeders like to see how their varieties are performing in test and to discuss any problems. 5. In order to have better control and efficient data collection on DUS characters, less number of test locations are desirable. In the initial years of DUS testing, two locations per agro-ecological zones are desirable, so that if test fails in one location, the data from another is available.

Facilities Required for DUS testing • Land • Public/private gardens (Collection of roses etc.); orchards (Trees etc.) • Controlled condition facilities like temperature, light and humidity etc. • Cold chamber for storage of seed of ref. collection; • DUS test guidelines of individual crops • Reference collection. • Staff : I) Scientist/Technical officer in charge of DUS test of each species or group of species ii) Technical staff; iii) Personnel for office/secretariat work iv) Casual labor to assist the technical staff.

DUS test design The use of experimental design with respect to the number of growing cycles, lay out of the trial, number of plants to be examined and method of observation is largely determined by the number and nature of varieties to be examined in a particular trial. Because of the presence of only one treatment factor

• RBD, CRBD, In-complete RBD

Guidelines for DUS Testing • General guidelines provides general Principles and procedures of DUS testing of crop varieties. • Specific guidelines deals with specific crops & some times may be specific for ploidy level like; cotton, wheat or specific type of like pea- field pea, vegetable pea, garden pea

Characteristics to be used General Guidelines: The characters listed in the Test Guidelines are those which are considered to be important for distinguishing one variety from another and which are, therefore, also important for the examination of homogeneity and stability. The characteristics must be capable of precise recognition and description. The tables of characteristics are not exhaustive but may be enlarged by further characteristics Characteristics are subdivided in the Test Guidelines into their different states of expression, called in short “states” and the wording of each state is followed by a “Note”. For a better definition of the states of a characteristic in the Test Guidelines, example varieties are indicated whenever possible. The characteristic used to distinguish varieties may be either qualitative or quantitative. “Qualitative characteristics” should be those which show discrete or discontinuous states.

“Quantitative characteristics” are those which are measurable on a one dimensional scale and show continuous variation form one extreme to the other. Characteristics which are assessed separately may subsequently be combined, for example the length/width ratio. In order to obtain comparable results in the various member State, the scope of the test (for example, size of plots, sample size, number of replications, duration of test, etc.) has to be fixed. Qualitative characteristics are normally recorded visually, whereas quantitative characteristics can be measured; in many cases, however, a visual assessment of, if applicable, other sensory observations (for example, taste, smell) are sufficient, especially when measurements can only be made with considerable efforts.

Minimum distance for establishing of Distinctiveness Visually assessed characters:

Characters which show discrete discontinuous states of expression with no arbitrary limit on number of states, a difference between two varieties is clear if the respective characters show expressions which fall in two different states. Characters which are visually assessed are grouping characters and the minimum difference of the score is 1. For visually assessed non-grouping characters, the minimum difference can be 2 or more based on expression of characters. If the character is environmentally sensitive (viz., anthocyanin pigmentation), the minimum difference should be 3.

Lanceolate

Small

Triangular

Medium

Cordate

Rounded

Large

Selection of characteristics The characteristics should be readily identifiable characteristics associated with the crop, the amount of effort required to record those characters, and the value of those characters in distinguishing varieties. The characteristics must be important for the description of varieties and may be morphological , physiological, biochemical or of another nature. These characteristics should be important for DUS testing of varieties and not for their commercial value. The superiority of usefulness of a variety is not criterion for protection . Basic requirement of characteristics for DUS Testing : a) Capable of precise definition. b) Produce consistence and repeatable results. c) Allow uniformity requirements to be fulfilled. d) Clearly defined in the observation and evaluation of results. e) Allow a clear differentiation among the varieties. f) Least susceptible to environment influence.

Characteristics like, disease resistance, chemical resistance well as characteristics based on chemical (herbicide) as constituents may be included provided they are tested.

Measured characters Characters which show a continuous range of expression from one extreme to the other are measured. In case of measured characters if a difference can be established by statistical analysis then the difference is clear if it occurs with the same sign at the 1% significance level or less (P=0.01) in a test in two consecutive years or two out of three growing periods provided there is not a significant difference in the opposite direction in the second year. The distinctiveness of self-pollinated crops can be established using characters which can be assessed by visual examination and whose expression falls into clearly defined discrete states. In cross-pollinated crops many of the varietal characteristics are on a continuous scale of expression and require measurement and distinctness can be determined only on the basis of statistical analysis to be significant at equal to or less than a probability of 0.01 or 0.05, depending on species, for the same characteristic in two out of three years. For herbage species combined over years analysis is used using a significance level equal to or less than a probability of 0.01.

Grouping of varieties Its will be very difficult task to assess the candidate variety for distinctness against all the varieties in reference collection or in common knowledge. The selection of varieties of common knowledge to be grown in the trial along with the candidate varieties and the way in which these varieties are divided into groups to facilitate the assessment of distinctness is aided by the use of grouping characteristics

Grouping characters Grouping characters facilitate grouping of varieties in few categories. Characters for grouping are those which are known from experience not to vary or to vary only slightly within a variety. Which in their various states of expression are fairly evenly distributed throughout the collection. For example in wheat, Grouping characters are: 1. Ear colour 2. Time to heading 3. Auricle pigmentation 4. Plant height

Recording of observations on characteristics VG : Visual assessment by a single observation of a group pf plants or parts of plants VS : Visual assessment by observation of individual plants or parts of plants MG : Measurement by a single observation of a group of plants or parts of plants MS : Measurement of a number of individual plants or parts of plants

Asterisked characteristics These are characteristics that the experts consider important for DUS testing. These characteristics should be used as a matter of routine for all varieties in every growing period. Such characteristics should always be included in variety description except when the regional environmental conditions render it impossible. They are marked with asterisk (*) in the test guidelines. A characteristic should only receive an asterisk status if it (a) important for description (b) it is needed as a minimum information for the exchange of information on the variety (c) all experts agree to asterisk at least (d) for a pest or disease resistance characteristics, it has only “absent, present” states;

Recording of colour characteristics Examiner of DUS test is usually required to record the observations on colour characteristics of plant such as seedling, leaf, petal, seed etc. Since each colour manifests several shades, recording of precise colour and shade becomes confusing. It is therefore, recommended that Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) colour charts should be used while recording colour characteristics.

Special characteristics: • If, the DUS based on morphological characteristics fails to establish distinctiveness of candidate variety & breeder makes a request, the special characters may be allowed for DUS like; • Characteristics expressed in response to certain external factor viz; disease resistance, chemical resistance & Characteristics based on chemical constituents may be used for DUS testing provided these characteristics are well defined and an appropriate method is available to ensure consistency in examination. • Combined characteristics: Characteristics that are assessed separately, but have biological connection, may subsequently be combined like ratio of length to width. Combined characteristics must be examined for distinctness. Uniformity and stability to the same extent as other characteristics.

Sample size for DUS Testing • The UPOV recommendations to put 60 plants (3times 20) into a DUS trial as not a general rule. The question is what is the optimal sample size in DUS testing for specific crop over all characteristics? For qualitative character sties distinctness procedures are not the basis to determine the optimal sample size up to now. However for uniformity point of view. The optimal sample size can be calculated. Maximum of determent sample size is from the statistical point of view the options. The sample size depend on a number of factors. • Precision at the stage of individual single plants (within plots) • Precision at the stage of replication (over the plots) • Precision for years or cycles (over the years or cycle) • Uniformity of a variety within the species. • Type of characteristics in respect of variability within the variety over the plants and over the year /cycle.

Cont.-• It is diffident to determine the optimal sample size per characteristics, per stage and per type of testing. It is possible to give formula for calculating the number of plants or the number of plants, but it is not clear how to combine all these individual calculation? Another difficulty is the crop expert has not enough information about the variation when he starts the work with a new crop and when he has to establish new guidelines.

Technical questionnaire Technical questionnaire is also a part of guidelines which deals with the following information with regard to specific crop; 1. Genera / Species 2. Applicant (Name and Address) 3. Proposed denomination of the variety as given in Form No 1: 4. Information on origin, maintenance and reproduction of the variety 5. Characteristics of the candidate variety to be given (the number in Note column refers to the different states of expression of given characteristic described in column 3. Tick out within the brackets, which best corresponds to the character expression of the candidate variety): 6. Differences of candidate variety from similar varieties: 7. Additional information, if any, which may help to distinguish the variety

Specific guidelines • For specific requirements, one has to decide about seed quantity, its quality, method of submission, test plot design, methods & observations, grouping characters, table of characteristics, explanation on table of characteristics, TQ etc. • Plot size, number of rows, row length, row to row/plant to plant distance, expected plants/replication, number of replications etc. • Similarly the number of plants/parts of plants to be observed

Table of characteristics The major columns in this table; Characteristics Different states of each characteristic Notes for different states of characteristics Name of example varieties Stage of taking observation for a particular character Type of observation – VS, VG, MS, MG

Table of characteristics S. No

Characteristics

States

Note Example Stage of varieties observation

1.

Coleoptile: colour

colourless green purple

1 2 3

2. (*)

Basal leaf: sheath colour

green light purple purple lines uniform purple

1 2 3 4

Rasi Annada

Type of assessment

10

VS

40

VS

* These are important characteristics for DUS testing and should be used for all varieties in every growing periods and included in variety description . + These are characteristics for which diagrams or methodology is required in the guidelines

Diagram

Method Grain : phenol reaction of lemma Grains are soaked in 1.5 percent aqueous phenol solution for 24 hours, drained and air-dried. Hull colour is then recorded unstained and stained. (Chang T.T. and E.A. Bardenas 1965).

Seed submission and standards The applicant is required to deposit prescribed quantity of seed/ planting material. The seed material should not be subjected to any chemical or bio-physical treatment. The applicant shall have to ensure its quality like germination.

Reference Collection

Both living material & descriptive information of varieties are used. Only if seed material is available. Theoretically full reference collection is to be used however, in practice, it is narrowed down to varieties of similar environmental regions. Can be further reduced to only closely similar varieties using information given by the breeder in TQ.

Example varieties Wherever possible in the table of characteristics, example varieties are indicated against the state of expression of different characteristics Example varieties are included in the test conducted for testing candidate varieties for DUS. These are used only as a help. The testing would become too difficult if example varieties have to be used for each state of expression of all the characteristics of a species out of the example varieties indicated in the National Guidelines the authorities responsible for testing will choose the ones, which they consider most appropriate for the solution of a given problem.

Procedures Application (Technical Questionnaire)

The breeder seeking protection for his new variety is required to submit an application form and a detailed technical questionnaire Be accompanied by a statement containing a brief description of the variety bringing out its characteristics of novelty, distinctiveness, uniformity and stability as required for registration Although the breeder is required to describe the characteristics of his new variety to the best of his ability in the questionnaire, his description is not regarded as defining the limits of his claim to registration. Its main function in practice is to guide the authorities in carrying out trials on the living plant material, including the selection of suitable control varieties for the purpose of comparison

Recommendation and Grant • By the end of the second year, all the necessary recording from the growing trials should have been taken the examiners prepares

analyze his

the

data

recommendation

and on

whether or not each candidate variety meets the DUS criteria.

Preparation for PPV&FR Act implementation

In 1990s, while discussions were going on at national & international level for PVP, the preparations started at ICAR namely: We, in NSP (Crops) started work on characterization of varieties under a big ad-hoc project Characterization of varieties in 14 crops” in 1998 at 8 centres under NSP (Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, bajra, gram, pigeon pea, mung, urd, groundnut, soybean, sunflower, castor & cotton). The project continued for 5 years. More than 1000 varieties were characterized as per DUS in this project. This provided the solid foundation for data base of reference varieties.

Since the Govt. of India or the Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmers’ Rights Authority does not have infrastructure for DUS Testing, ICAR has been given this responsibility. ICAR started exercise in this direction in 2001. ICAR constituted a ‘Core Group’ under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. P. Sharma/ Dr. R. K. Chowdhury) for the development of DUS Test Guidelines and other advisory role to the ICAR. Later on Project Coordinator, NSP, which is now upgraded to Directorate of Seed Research, was asked to formulate a complete project on various mandates/activities, identification of centres, facilities required for them etc. through which activities of DUS Testing are implemented, coordinated and monitored.

A full fledged project of DUS Testing “Preparation for Plant Variety Protection and DUS Testing through ICAR – SAU System”, was developed having five sub projects: 1. Developing National Guidelines for DUS (Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability) Testing. 2. Equipping and strengthening the designated centres to have preparedness and facilitation for DUS Test 3. Development and digitalization of data base of extant notified plant varieties. 4. To facilitate training/capacity building, awareness at National level through seminars/workshops/trainings etc. 5. Capacity building through International Training/exposure in the area of Plant Varieties Protection and DUS Testing.

The Govt. of India selected 35 crops to start with. Field crops- 25, Vegetable crops-8 & flower crops-2 Cereals- Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, bajra, Pulses- Gram, pigeon pea, mung, urd, lentil, pea & rajma. Oilseeds- Groundnut, soybean, sunflower, castor, safflower, sesame, linseed & rapeseed mustard. Fibre crops- Cotton & Jute. Sugar crops- Sugarcane Forage crops- Berseem & lucerne Vegetables- Potato, tomato, brinjal, okra, cauliflower, cabbage, onion & garlic Flowers- Rose & Chrysanthemum

We, in India, have decided to develop our own guidelines named as National Test Guidelines for DUS of different crops.

DUS Testing • New-Tested in replicated trial with suitable reference varieties over 2 similar growing seasons for recording of a number of phenotype characters. • Common Knowledge- Similar tests but for 1 season. • Farmers’- Paired row tests for 1 season at 2 locations. • Trees & vines- Field & multi-location test for 2 similar seasons & special test lab based. Also option for on-farm test sites -2 seasons. • If field test fails than Special tests- physical, biochemical, molecular, response & organo-leptic parameters.

Requirements of DUS Testing: 1.

Guidelines

2.

Digitalized data bank of reference varieties

3.

Selection of DUS test centres

4.

Pure seed of extant/notified varieties and their safe storage

5.

Required agronomic practices

6.

Soft ware for data base / analysis

7.

Special Tests

8.

Awareness / capacity building

Highlights of National Test Guidelines Rice – An example Seed Material Required The minimum quantity of the seed to be provided by the applicant shall be 3000 gram in the case of the candidate variety or hybrid and 1500 gram for each of the parental line of the hybrid. Each of these seed lots shall be packed and sealed in ten equal weighing packets and submitted in one lot. At least 100 panicles, each representing the normal ear size and drawn from the main tiller of the candidate variety shall be submitted.

The seed and ears submitted shall have at least 85 % germination, 98% physical purity, highest genetic purity, uniformity, sanitary and phytosanitary standards. In addition the moisture content of the seed shall not exceed 8 - 9% to meet the safe storage requirement.

The seed material shall not be subjected to any chemical treatment.

Rice - Conduct of tests The field test shall be conducted under conditions favouring normal

growth and expression of characteristics. Each test shall include about 2500 plants, in the plot size and planting space specified below across three replications. Test plot design Number of rows

:

30 (Total)

Row length

:

6m

Row to row distance

:

30 cm

Plant to plant distance

:

20 cm

Expected plants/replication :

900

Number of replications

3 for irrigated and shallow lowland 5 for upland, saline-alkaline, semideep water and deepwater tests.

: :

Observations should not be recorded on plants in border rows. Additional test protocols for special test shall be established by the PPV & FR Authority.

Rice - Methods and observations For the assessment of distinctness and stability, observations shall be made on 30 plants or parts of 30 plants, which shall be equally divided among 3 replications (10 plants per replication). For uniformity on the plot as a whole, the number of aberrant or odd plants or parts of plant shall not be exceeding 4 in 1500. A panicle row having at least one aberrant plant will be treated as aberrant row. A variety shall be deemed uniform when the number of such aberrant panicle-rows shall not exceed 2 in 50.

Rice - Grouping Characteristics i.

Basal leaf: sheath colour (characteristic 2)

ii. Time of heading (50% of plants with panicles) (characteristic 20) iii. Stem: length (excluding panicle; excluding floating rice) (characteristic 29) iv. Decorticated grain: length (characteristic 54) v. Decorticated grain: shape (in lateral view) (characteristic 56) vi. Decorticated grain: colour (characteristic 57) vii. Endosperm: content of amylose (characteristic 59) viii.Decorticated grain: aroma (characteristic 62) Total No. of characteristics = 62 Essential characteristics = 29

Requirements for the application Applicants are required to provide information i) Origin of the genetic/parental material for the development of the variety & it is lawfully acquired, ii) Not using the Genetic Use Restriction Technology or “Terminator Technology” /“GURT”. (Affidavit required). iii) Complete passport data including that of parental lines and geographical location of the parental line iv) Contribution of any community/others in the breeding/evolution or development of the variety, v) Photographs of the distinct characters. vi) Authorization by the breeder in case of an institutional application(PV-1) & proof of right to make application (PV-2).

Cont. Applications in English/Hindi & in triplicate shall be submitted to Registrar, with registration fee, prescribed seed and DUS test fee. For farmers’ variety, application is required to be endorsed by concerned Chairperson Secretary of the Biodiversity Management Committee/District Agricultural Officer/ District Tribal Development Officer or Director of Research (State Agricultural University).

Seed submission and standards The applicant is required to deposit prescribed quantity of seed/ planting material as per Sec 27. In case of extant varieties, the applicant shall have to submit 2/10 quantity specified for new varieties and for Farmer’s verities as well as verity of common knowledge, ½ the quantity of seed material/planting material specified for new varieties of same crop species. The seed material should not be subjected to any chemical or bio-physical treatment. The applicant shall have to submit along with the seed a certified data on germination test made not more than one month prior to the date of submission from an accredited laboratory.

Indian Reference Collection To start with, we may include the following in the Indian Reference Collection of given crop. All notified varieties which are in seed multiplication chain, i.e. whose breeder seed is being produced. All important varieties in common knowledge. All new candidate varieties of DUS test year. Foreign varieties which are multiplied and certified in India.

Launching of Registration Registration for twelve crop species (wheat, rice, sorghum, maize, bajra, chickpea, pigeon pea, mung, urd, lentil, pea, rajma) was launched on Feb. 20, 2007 by Union Minister of Agriculture. Sh. Sharad Pawar.

Registration for new varieties started w.e.f. May 20, 2007.

Progress of PVP Legislation By now, 54 crop species (cereals, pulses, cotton, jute, oilseeds, vegetables, spices etc) have been notified. No. of applications received New -1008 Extent -1470 Farmers’-994 EDV - 10 Total -3482

No. of varieties registered 17 314 3 334

No. of applications received for Rice(1313), followed by cotton(703), maize(273), pearl millet(189), brinjal(134), bread wheat(129) etc.

Details of crops/species notified • The notified crop/species: Cereals-8, Fibre crop species-6, Grain legumes-7, Oilseed crop species-11, Sugar crop-1, Vegetables-8, Flowers-2, Spices and condiments-4, Fruits-1, Medicinal & aromatic plants-5, Plantation crop-1. • More than 40 species are under evaluation, varietal characterization and development of DUS descriptors. • Some of the prioritized crops includes pome and stone fruits, citrus species, banana, litchi, guava, papaya, Indian gooseberry, pomegranate, grapes, ber, date palm; forestry species like bamboo, deodar, chir pine; vegetables like bottle gourd, cucumber, pumpkin, pointed gourd, watermelon and muskmelon etc.

Some of the Crops/species notified Cereals: Rice, wheat, bajra, sorghum, maize. Pulses:

Pigeon pea, Mung, Urd, Lentil, Field pea. Chickpea Rajmash.

Oilseeds: Groundnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Sesame, Linseed, Rapeseed & mustard. Sugar crops: Sugarcane. Fibre crops: Cotton, Jute. Vegetable crops: Brinjal, tomato, okra, cauliflower, onion. Flowers:

Chrysanthemum.

Spices:

Ginger, cardamom, turmeric, black pepper.

Please see website: plantauthority.in

Thank You

Challenges in Forage Seed Production in India

Dr. R. K. Chowdhury Consultant (Seed Develop.), IFFDC (IFFCO), Gurgaon Former Project Director (OSD), DSR, ICAR Septemb er 2013

Indian Scenario • India has 2.4 % area of world • India has 4 % water resources of world • But supports 17 % population Hence, every effort is needed to increase productivity of crops & also animals

Major Pillars of Agriculture • Farmers • Govt. Policies- Including MSP & credit to farmers etc. • ScientistsFor Better varieties & production technology. • IndustryFertilizer, Insecticides/ Pesticide, Processing etc. • Irrigation • Seed Industry

How to Increase Production? • Increase the land. Most unlikely in India. • Save wastage of food grains in supply chain. A maximum of 20% can be saved. • Increasing the productivity of land & water. Water availability may be a big problem in India. • By improving Agronomic management (50%) & crop improvement (>50 %). • Quality seed- Farmers prefer buying hybrid seed every year in case of bajra, maize, sorghum, cotton etc. • Shortage of farm labour- need to look technologies that save labour use & costs.

Seed The importance of Quality Seed or Planting material (seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, grafts etc materials) has been recognized with the inception of agriculture. The importance of seed is increasing with the time and need of human being. Parameters of Quality Seed: • Improved Variety / hybrid • High Genetic / Physical Purity • High Germination, High Vigour • Free from Seed-borne pathogens/insects/weed seeds • Value-addition • Safe moisture content

Why Quality Seed Seed is the basic requirement for higher productivity. Seed is the natural delivery system for

enhancing

profitability

and

productivity, resource

use

efficiency. Faster dissemination and adoption of new varieties and hybrids. Transfer of new technology. Improves household and nutritional security.

Importance of quality seed Reduces losses during storage Improvise handling during sowing Better crop establishment Better uniformity and purity of crop & also produce Enhances production and productivity Elimination of weeds, pests & diseases Improves quality of produce

Impact of quality seed Higher Productivity –Better Economy Better quality of produce Employment generation Better food & shelter Better health Better clothing Better education Development of seed industry Development of pesticide and fertilizer industry

SEED PRODUCTION UNIVERSITY/ ICAR INSTITUTES

SEED CORPORATIONS/ PVT. AGENCIES

Quality control

NUCLEUS/ BREEDER SEED

FOUNDATION / CERTIFIED SEED

MONITORING

FIELD LEVEL

CERTIFICATION

SEED LEVEL

FIELD LEVEL

SEED LEVEL

Certification at Field level • Source of seed • Preceding crop requirement • Isolation to avoid cross- pollination From same species From other species Disease • Inseparable other crop plants • Objectionable weed plants • Plants infected with objectionable diseases • Rogue

Processing Pre conditioning Basic cleaning Grading

Testing at Seed level • Physical purity analysis By number o Other crop seed o Total weed seed o Objectionable weed seed By weight Physical purity & MC Germination • Viability • Moisture • Seed health o Disease o Insect pest o Parasite • Genetic purity o ODV o GOT

Seed lot Sampling

Primary Composite Submitted Working

The growth of seed sector in India • The availability of high yielding dwarf varieties of wheat & rice & hybrids of maize, sorghum, pearl millet in 1960s created need of seed industry & thus the National Seed Corporation was established in1963. • SFCI & UP Seeds & TDC in 1969. • Seed Act in 1966, implemented in 1968. • IMSCS in 1971. • Then other SSCs & SSCA. • New Seed Policy 1988. Since then, we have traveled a lot.

Our Strengths- Seed Industry • One of the largest NARS in the world. • AICRP mode of development of varieties/ production technologies. • A large number of varieties in different crops. • NSC & SFCI. • 19 State Seeds Corporations. • 14 State Seed Cert. Agencies. • 105 notified Seed Testing Labs and Quality Control System. More than 6 lakhs samples are tested. • Law Enforcement agencies. • Well built seed production/ distribution system. • Varied agro-climatic conditions. • Fast developing private seed sector (about 500 Pvt. Seed Companies).

Achievements About 450 varieties of FC & 500 0f HC released by now through AICRP. About 50% of these varieties are under commercial cultivation. Breeder Seed- 1,15,866 q compared to 3,914 q in 1981-82. Quality seed- 353.62 lakh q produced. Food grain production- 259.29 m t in 2011-12 against 50.3 m t in 1951-52. 82 m t food grains in central pool. Seed market is about 6000- 7000 crores annually. India holds fourth position with Brazil (US$ 2000) after USA (12000), China(6000) & France (2400) in seed export in the World.

Achievements The SRR has improved in some cases like cotton, mustard, soybean, vegetable crops. The SRR in vegetables has gone from 20% in 80s to >90%. Seed market is about 1500 crores. Out of 110 hybrids released by AICRP, 60 % are from Pvt. India is largest producer of spices (over 100 plants), India is second largest producer in rice (104.3 m t), wheat (94.88 m t), sugarcane (355.52 m t), fruits (63.5 m t), vegetable crops after China (100 m t). • Total exported agriculture produce—2.32 lakh crore in 2012-13 • Largest exporter of rice (surpassed Thialand) • Second largest exporter of cotton, sugar, wheat Our cropping intensity increased from118.6% in early seventies to 133 8% in nineties.

Concerns related to Seed • •

• • • • •

Increased requirements of seed/ planting material. Modern agriculture / higher productivity may require Hybrids, Tissue culture material, GMOs, Molecular Breeding, Seed free from Seed Borne Diseases, Value addition etc. Globalization- movement of seed across countries, Competition. Awareness for quality both at planners & farmers, including movement from one state to another. International agreements like WTO, CBD etc. National Laws like; PVP Act/ IPR Issues, National Biodiversity Act, DBT Rules / regulations, New Seed Bill, Geographical Indications.

Major steps required - Seed • • • • • • • • • •

How to produce more seed? How to produce more seed per unit area? Minimize cost of production. How to produce better quality seed? How to retain planting value of seed? Value addition to seed quality. Reduce losses during processing/storage. Improve Law Enforcement. Improve distribution/marketing net-work. Nursery management in crops where transplanting is to be done particularly in vegetable & horticultural crops.

Improving Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR) There is need to increase SMR for making seed program more effective & economical. Crops with high SMR; Sesame- 1:250; Sorghum-1:150; Rice- 1:150, Cotton- 1:100; Mustard- 1:100, Maize- 1:80 ; Bajra1:120, Arhar- 1:100 Crops with low SMR or concern; Ground nut- 1:12, Soybean- 1:18, Pulses (mung, urd, gram, pea) - 1:12 For improving SMR, we have to think of: • Better varieties/ female inbred lines to be more stable & productive along with tolerance to biotic & a-biotic stresses. • Better areas/seasons. • Better & new seed production technologies.

Improving SMR • Summer production of groundnut in MS- 1.5 to 2 times higher productivity. • Use of polythene mulch in groundnut - 1.5 to 2 times higher productivity. • Can this technology of polythene mulch is applied in some other crops like maize, bajra. • Seed production only under assured conditions particularly irrigated conditions. • Ridge plantation/ SRI technique in rice etc. • Seed production under protected conditions of vegetable /horticultural crops. • Reducing number of male rows through adoption of seed village concept. • Management of insect pollinators in crops like mustard, pigeon pea.

Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) • With all our efforts, our SRR is still about 30 %. Even in case of hybrids, it has not reached to 100%. For ideal agriculture or maximizing production, the SRR should be 100 even in self-pollinated crops like wheat & rice. AP state is trying to target 100 SRR. Others should follow. • In some crops, higher/increased SRR has been realized in recent years like cotton, mustard, soybean, rice, wheat. • There are crops, which have very low SRR like groundnut, pulse crops, forage crops.

Planting value of seed Genetic purity

Yielding ability

Physical purity

Germination capacity

Seed vigour

Seed Objection able health weed

Plant population

Yield per unit area

Soil health

Value Addition or Seed Enhancement Techniques There are techniques which can improve the quality of seed in addition to processing technology offering: • Improved germination, its rate & uniformity • Helps in adverse conditions like drought. • Protects from soil/ seed borne/storage pests/pathogens. • Breaks dormancy. • Helps in mechanical/precision planting.

Seed Enhancement Techniques Various Techniques are: Seed Fortification: Soaking seed in bioactive chemicals especially growth regulators to enhance germination, growth & yield. Seed Hardening: Hydration & dehydration process which help seed to germinate under adverse conditions. Seed Priming: Controlled hydration up to pregermination level followed by dehydration. Film Coating: Application of precise amount of active ingredients along with a liquid material with out changing the shape of the seed. Seed Coloring: Application of precise amount of dyes or pigments on seed to improve its brand identity & marketability. Seed Pelleting: Process of enclosing seed with small amount of ingredients along with filler material to produce a globular unit of standard size to facilitate precision planting.

Indian Share in International Market • Total Global Seed Market

: 42 billion US$

• Contribution of India : 2000 million US$ (ranked 5th) after USA (12000), China(6000), France(2400), Brazil(2000). Updated March 2011

• India has:

Lot of research achievements Large scientific manpower Varied agro-climatic conditions One of the biggest NARS System Cheap labour Hence, we should strive hard to increase our share.

Seed Export National Seed Policy has projected seed export to the level of 12,000 million US $ by 2020. To achieve this target, the following action plan is suggested: • Launching a Technology Mission on Seed Exports or establish a Seed Export Promotion Council. Establishing Seed Export Promotion zones. Maintaining and updating accurate and exhaustive database covering all the relevant particulars related to seed export. • Rationalize the terminology, nomenclature, classification, grouping reporting/ recording system. Suitable crops/areas to be identified for export potential.

Public Private Partnership • In any country, the R&D and seed production activities starts with public/ Govt. funding. So is the case in India. • Public sector in India has done very well & brought India from importing country to self sufficiency/ export country. • The private sector started in 60s on small scale. Got momentum in 1988 with New Seed Policy. • To day, the private sector in India is well grown. It is producing more than 50% of seed. • In some cases, it is main/major player like cotton, maize, sunflower, vegetables i.e. low volume and high value crops and hybrids.

Public Private Partnership • Private sector is investing heavily now. Some big companies have good network / facilities for R&D, seed production, processing & storage & quality assurance. • At this time, there is need of proper understanding of roles of both sectors and partnership. • Public sector has to support basic research, germ plasm, high volume low value crops, needs of difficult areas etc. • Private sectors will continue to concentrate more on low volume, high value / hybrids etc. • Private sector is strong and efficient in seed production particularly of hybrids and their marketing.

Importance of Forage Crops • We are agriculture based country & thus animal wealth is very important. • Rural population/economy largely depend on animals. • Milk & milk products are major source of our diet/nutrients/habits. • Similarly other uses like; meat, draught, leather etc. • To sustain animal wealth, forage crops are needed for nutritional fodder/feed. • The area under pastures & cultivable wasteland is limited/declining.

Major Problems in FC • Because of breeding/selection pressure for more of vegetative/leafy growth, reproductive /seed production capacity is low in majority of forage crops. • Because of above selection pressure, reproductive/ seed formation stage in majority of forage crops coincides with adverse/harsh conditions like winter or summer. • Hence, the seed quality becomes very low. • Forage crops like grasses are adapted to stress conditions & thus low in seed yield. • The harvesting of seed in such crops is very difficult. • The seed rates are higher for forage crops.

Major Problems in FC • The separation of single seed in some crops like grasses is very difficult. • The organized seed program is very week. • Private seed industry is not interested in forage seed except in few cases. • Farmers’ awareness & knowledge & seed availability is very limited. • Since land availability is limited, farmers prefer to grow food/cash crops rather than forage crops. • The area under forage crops is very limited (1-2 %).

Private Sector involvement • Private seed industry, in general, is not interested in forage seed for economic reasons except in few cases like multicut sorghum. • No organized data available on forage crops. • In US, New-Zealand, European Countries where land availability is not limiting, Private Sector is engaged in grass seed & forage legumes

Important Forage Crops Sorghum, bajra, maize, teosinte, oats, berseem, lucerne, guar, cowpea, methi, grasses

Some crops not grown for fodder but contribute lot of fodder Wheat, barley, paddy, sugarcane, grain sorghum, bajra, baby corn

Strategy • In addition to forage characteristics, we have to have varieties/ parental lines having high seed production capacity. • Dual purpose varieties (sorghum, bajra, guar). • Stay green varieties/hybrids. • Multi-cut varieties. • Varieties suitable perennial cultivation. • Improved agronomic management. • Value addition like pelleting/coating.

Seed Net India Portal A National initiative on quality seeds. On this, information are available on: • Availability of breeder seed & quality seeds at different SAUs. • Govt. orders, Acts/Control Orders, Rules, Quality Control Measures, Extension services etc. • Export/import of seeds. • Programs/Schemes of Central Govt. • Salient features of varieties. • Complete seed supply chain from indent to allocation.

Thank You C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My Documents\Sudhir\Rkc\2007\March\New Opprortunities in Indian Ag.

Seed testing in Forage Crops – Quick viability test

S.Natarajan, S.Rajendra Prasad, M.Vetriventhen, Umesh Kamble & Dhandapani R DSR, Mau

Grasses cover a wide range of genera with over 600 species currently used for grazing and livestock feed from about a total of 10 000 grass species that occur in the world. Over 1500 species of legumes (from about a total of 17 000 legume species worldwide) can be used as feed for livestock, although only about 60 species have been developed and widely used as cultivated forages. Use of forage legumes is estimated to be as old as 11 000 years, with some species first being used as grain for human consumption and more recently only used for fodder or pasture, or vice versa (Mathison, 1983). Estimated total requirement of seeds

Quantity (t)

Cultivated fodder

350,000 t

Range grasses & legumes

3000 t

Tree seeds

0.5 t

*

* 6.9 Mha Area under cultivated fodder crops & annual targeted area of afforestation with grass and tree seeds (1.5 Mha)

Availability of quality seeds Cultivated fodders

Range species

15-20 %

2-5 %

Grass covers of India • Sehima – Dichanthium cover

• Dichanthium -Cenchrus – Lasirus cover • Phragmites – Saccharum – Imperata cover • Themeda – Arundinelia cover • Temperate-Alpine cover

Details of quantity and percentage of breeder seed of forage crops produced in different centres under AICRP –NSP (crops) during 2008-09.

IARI,

MAU,

Parbhani 6.9;

0%

Karnal

IGFRI , Jhansi

SKUA &T, Srinagar

194.6; 13%

30.47; 2%

15.76; 1%

4% PAU, Ludhiana

1%

MPKV, Rahuri 23.75;

66.5;

143.5; 9%

UAS, Bangalore 18;

CSKHPKV, Palampur

CCSHAU, Hisar

2%

76.17; 5%

GBPUA&T, Pantnagar 2.29; 0%

JNKVV, Jabalpur

NDUA&T, Faizabad

115.2; 8%

2.65; 0%

RAU, Bikaner 836.5; 55%

21 State Seed Certification Agencies

National Seed Research and Training Centre (NSRTC) Varanasi 110 Notified Seed Testing Labs

Seed Certification standards

Specific crop standards

General Seed Certification standards

Field standards

a) Land requirement b) Minimum isolation distance c) Inspections d) Minimum specific crop standards- off types Diseases OBW Insep crop plants

Specific seed standards Purity analysis - Pure seed (min.) - Inert matter (max.) - Other crop seed (max.) a) Weed seeds (max.) b) Objectionable weed seeds c) Germination (min.) d) Moisture content (Ord. & VP)

Forage seed testing and Quality - Pasture grasses & legumes -Annual seed requirement on pasture seed is 2500 t (Singh R.P & C.R. Hazara, 1995) -Neglected and underutilized area -Archetypal structure -wild characteristics and behavior ripening & persistent dormancy

after

Requirements

Berseem

Lucerne

Stylosanthes

Guar

Rice bean

Senji

F.S

C.S

F.S

C.S

F.S

C.S

F.S

C.S

F.S

C.S

F.S

C.S

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

10.0

10.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

OCS (max.)

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

None

5 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

Total Weed seeds

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

None

None

5 / kg

10 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

Obj. weed seeds (max.)

5 / kg

10 / kg

5 / kg

10 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

10 / kg

20 / kg

Germination (incl. H.S)

80

80

80

80

70

70

70

65

65

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

10.0

40

70

Moisture (max.)

40

10.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

10.0

10.0

Vapour proof

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

7.0

7.0

Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.)

1Chicorum 2Cuscuta 3Plants

sp

98

98

98

98

90

90

98

98

98

98

98

98

intybus

affected by seed borne diseases – BLB –X.c.pv.cyamopsidis, Anthracnose C. lendimuthianum Ascochyta Ascochyta spp

Seed requirements Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.) OCS (max.) Total Weed seeds Obj. weed seeds (max.) Germination (incl. H.S) Moisture (max.) Vapour proof

C. ciliaris & seti. F.S

80

C.S

80

Chryopogon, A.monticola, A.monatus F.S

80

C.S

80

20 20 20 20 20 / kg 40 / kg 20 / kg 40 / kg 20 / kg 40 / kg 20 / kg 40 / kg 30 10.0 8.0

30 10.0 8.0

15

10.0 8.0

15

10.0 8.0

P. pedicellatum F.S

95

5.0 20 / kg 20 / kg

50

10.0 8.0

C.S

Panicum maximum F.S

C.S

Melilotus sp (Sweetclovers)

F.S 98 95 80 80 5.0 20 20 2.0 40 / kg 20 / kg 40 / kg 10 / kg 40 / kg 20 / kg 40 / kg 10 / kg 10 / kg 65 50 20 20 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.0

C.S 98 2.0 20 / kg 20 / kg 20 / kg 65 10.0 7.0

D.annulatum F.S

C.S

10.0 10 / kg 10 / kg 10 / kg

10.0 20 / kg 20 / kg 20 / kg

10 8.0

10 8.0

90

40

90

40

Seed requirements Seed standards Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.) OCS (max.) Total Weed seeds Obj. weed seeds (max.) Germination (incl. H.S) Moisture (max.) Vapour proof

Seed requirements Seed standards Pure seed (min.) Inert matter (max.) OCS (max.) Total Weed seeds Other distinguishable weed (max.) Obj. weed seeds (max.) Germination (incl. H.S) Moisture (max.) Vapour proof

Seatria anceps F.S C.S

95

5.0 20 / kg 20 / kg 50 10.0 8.0

B.Napier

95

-

5.0 40 / kg 40 / kg 50 10.0 8.0

-

Sorghum incl. Sudan grass F.S C.S

97

97

3.0 5 / kg 5 / kg

3.0 10 / kg 10 / kg

0.20 nos

75

12.0 8.0

F.S

C.S

90*

90*

No 20 / kg 0.50 nos None

No 40 / kg 2.0 nos None

Oats

Teosinte F.S C.S

F.S

98

C.S

98

0.20 nos

2 5 / kg 10 / kg 10 / kg 2/kg

2 10 / kg 20 / kg 20 / kg 5/kg

12.0 8.0

12.0 8.0

12.0 8.0

75

85

85

98

98

2.0 5/ kg None -

2.0 10 / kg None -

12.0 8.0

12.0 8.0

80

80

•High quality seeds are a pre requisite for forage crop production and seed production. It pays to invest on high quality seeds, as the amount is small percentage of the total input. Due to the lack of proper package of practices for production and quality control, the availability of the seeds becomes difficult.

•The bottlenecks in quality control are absence of studies on the testing of tropical forage seeds are lacking particularly in developing countries. In forage legumes the production constrains include: • Uneven field establishment • Presence of hard seeds • Indeterminate growth habit • Lack of knowledge on maturity pattern • Pod shattering • Absence of seed quality standards for quality control.

•This is evidenced in the unavailability and the poor quality of the seeds in the local market.

Improvement in the quality of tropical pasture legume seed will increase trade. The minimum guarantees of fair dealing depend on the objective testing of seed quality and correct labeling, sophistication of tropical pasture seed production will lead to more certification schemes (Humphreys and Riveros, 1986).

Tetrazolium testing of Forage species – range legumes

• To make a quick estimate of the viability of seed samples in general and those showing dormancy in particular. • In the case of particular samples which at the end of a germination test reveal a high percentage of dormant seeds , to determine the viability of individual dormant seeds or the viability of a working sample (ISTA)

Principle- A colorless solution of 2, 3, 5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (indicator) reacts with hydrogen released by the reduction process in living cell due to action of enzyme dehydrogenase. It produces a red stable and non-diffusible substance triphenyl formazan to distinguish from the colorless dead ones. Reagent- An aqueous solution of 0.1% to 1.0% (W/V) of tetrazolium chloride or Bromide at pH 6.5-7.5 is made in water and stored in amber colored bottle. Preparation of Solution Solution 1 - Dissolve 9.078g KH₂PO₄ in 1000 ml water Solution 2 – Dissolve 9.472g Na₂HPO₄.2H₂O in 1000 ml water Now, 400 ml of Solution 1 and 600 ml of Solution 2 are mixed together , in which 10 gm of tetrazolium salt are dissolved to make 1% of Tz solution of 7.2pH. Dissolve the correct amount of tetrazolium salt in this buffer to obtain the right concentration. e.g. 1g salt per 100 ml buffer gives a 1% solution.

Preparation procedure Working Sample – Four replications of 100 seeds each from the pure seed fraction of physical purity test or seeds observed as ungerminated at the end of the germination test are used for testing. Premoistening the seeds Premoistening is a necessary preliminary to staining for some species and a highly recommended for others. Imbibed seeds are generally less fragile than the dry seeds and can be cut or punctured more readily. In addition, staining is more even in color and this facilitates evaluation. 1. Slow moistening The seed is allowed to imbibe on top of or between paper according to the method used for germination testing . The technique should be used for those species that are inclined to fracture if immersed directly in water. Old and dry seeds of many species may also benefit from slow moistening. In some species slow moistening will not result in full imbibition and a further period of soaking in water will be necessary. 2. Soaking in water Seeds should be fully immersed in water and left until completely imbibed. If the soaking period is more than 24 hrs, the water should be changed. If the percentage of hard seeds of the Leguminosae is to be determined for the purpose of issuing an International Certificate, the seed should be soaked in water at 20ᵒC of 22 hrs. Other producers may lead to excessive variability in results.

Physical dormancy (PY)  PY (dormancy class D according to Baskin and Baskin, 2004) is caused by one or more water-impermeable layers of palisade cells in the seed or fruit coat (Baskin et al. 2000, Baskin, 2003, Baskin and Baskin 2004).

 PY is associated with the main mechanical covering layer(s) of the seed and/or fruit coat. In seeds PY-seeds, prevention of water uptake develops during maturation drying and the covering layer(s) control water movement (often associated with hard seededness). Seeds will remain dormant until some factor(s) render the covering layer(s) permeable to water.  In most hardseeded species a palisade of radially elongated cells prevents water uptake. This palisade layer(s) prevent water uptake by their physical arrangement as a tissue and the chemical coatings/impregnates of the cells (heavy lignifications, suberin-cutin matrix, waxes). In several cases specialized structures are associated with the control of water-impermeablility (Baskin et al. 2000, 2003)

 In nature, these factors include high temperatures, widely fluctuating temperatures, fire, drying, freezing/thawing and passage through the digestive tracts of animals. In seed technology, mechanical or chemical scarification can break PY dormancy.  The mechanism for PY-break must therefore be fine-tuned to the environment.



The figure below shows the testa (seed coat) structure of a typical legume seed (Fabaceae). Water-impermeability of PY-dormant legume seeds is due to a palisade layer of Malphighian cells in the exotesta. The lens (strophiole, not shown) is the specialized structure localized in the hilum region that controls water-impermeability.

•Chipping in Seed Near Embryo

•Chipping in seed opposite to the embryo

Artifact damages due to mechanical injury during preparation

Evaluation VIABLE (Normal Staining) - entire embryo evenly stained – Vital regions needs to be uniformly stained - endosperm will not stain - unstained outside edge of scutellar region acceptable -greenish-colored pericarp acceptable if entire embryo stains as normal (particularly over embryonic region)

NON-VIABLE (abnormal or no staining) - any essential part of the embryo unstained - greenish-colored pericarp with off-color or unstained embryo - mottled or broken embryonic tissue -soft or flacid stain over embryonic region

Endosperm may have an orange or yellow coloration, but should not stain dark red like embryo. Immature seed which stains light or pale pink with yellow endosperm is considered ‘viable’.

Tissue Characteristics (i) Sound tissues Staining proceeds gradually and uniformly from the exposed surfaces inward. Changes in the intensity of colour are gradual without distinct boundaries. The colour intensity is lesser but lustrous in sound tissues than the bruised, damaged or aged tissues. A gradual reduction in colour intensity from the surfaces to the interior of the seed indicates slow absorption and firm, sound unstained tissues indicate the lack of penetration of the tetrazolium solution. (ii) Weak viable tissues Such tissues tend to stain greyish red or brighter red than normal. '[be apical tips of leaves. coleoptiles and radicle tend to reveal earlier evidence of deterioration than do other areas. Weak and aged tissue also lose the turgidity of the sound tissues. they appear flaccid and develop mottled stain. (iii) Weak non-viable tissues Tissue colour is often mottled, it may be purplish. brownish or greyish red its intensity may very from abnormal dark to pale pink. Cut surfaces may appear off white. while the inner tissues may appear dark red. 1be unstained tissues look flacid, liquid-logged, blurred, chalky white and lacklustre. A definite boundary docs not necessarily occur between the non- viable, abnormally stained. stained and unstained tissues. Both types of tissues arc therefore considered dead, regardless of colour differences. Seed structure and the seed as a whole must be considered while evaluating staining pattern. Seed may be considered non- germinable even when there is only one fracture or one small broken or missing spot in a vital position such as the point of attachment of roots and cotyledons. Seed is considered dead when unstained areas include mesocotyl and seminal roots in grasses and tips of coleorhizae in wheat and rye.

Need for Tz testing in forage spp • Range grasses

-

14-28 days

Quick viability test - Tetrazolium test In comparison to field crops scanty information was available for quick viability studies on major cultivated fodder spp and range species and hence verification and validation of existing procedures on berseem and lucerne was carried out with different seed lots. Comparison of the concentrations of tetrazolium solution Comparing the intensity of the staining in the seeds of Berseem variety JHB 146 and Wardan soaked in 0.2 % and 0.5 % Tz solution, it is found that the 0.2 % is having a less intensity of staining. After soaking for 90 minutes, the staining of colour in 0.5% is faster than in 0.2%. Results of the tetrazolium and standard germination test were found to be in close agreement in most of the seeds lots of berseem, lucerne and oats.

Tetrazolium testing protocols for seeds of tropical forage species as prescribed by ISTA Preconditioning Name of species

Avena sativa (Oats)

Brachiaria spp

Medicago spp

Method

Period (h)

BP,TP

BP,W

W*

Preparation

6-18

Remove glumes and cut longitudinal through embryo + ¾ embryo

6-18

Cut/incise transversely near to embryo

22

Seeds intact

Staining at 30°C Preparation solution evaluation percentage

Evaluation Maximum area of for unstained, flaccid, or necrotic tissue permitted

0.1-0.5% (2hrs)

Root area except 2 Cut longitudinally root initials, ⅓ through embryo extremities of and observe scutellum

0.5% 2-4

⅔ radicle measured Remove glumes to from radicle tip expose embryo

0.5-1.0 % 6-24 h

⅓ radicle measured from radicle tip, ⅓ Remove seed coat distal area of to expose embryo cotyledons, ⅓ if superficial

Trifolium spp

W*

22

Seeds intact

0.5-1.0 % 4-24 h


Panicum spp

BP, W

6-18

Cut or incise transversely near embryo

0.5-1.0 6-24 h

Expose embryo by ⅔ radicle measured cutting or tearing from radicle tip

0.5-1.0 % 6-24 h


Melilotus spp

W*

22

Seeds intact

•If percentage hard seed is not being determined, the seed coat can be incised at distal end of cotyledons BP =Between paper TP= Top of paper, W- Water

Oats

Guinea

Crop & variety Berseem (wardan) -II lot Bundel berseem -3 II lot Berseem BL -22 Berseem (Mescavi) cv. RL-88 Crop & variety Oat cv. JHO-851 (04-05) Oat cv.JHO-851 (05-06) Oat cv.JHO-851 (2005) Oat cv.Kent (03-04) Oat cv.Kent (05-06) Oat cv.JHO-822 (04-05) Oat cv.JHO-822 (05-06)

Tz test (%) 93 81 76 92 72

Germination (%) 95 82 78 92 72

Tz test (%)

Germination (%)

97 86 86 82 90 88 93

95.0 87.0 85.5 80.5 93.5 75.5 96.5

Oats

Discrepancies between the results of the tetrazolium and the germination test may be due to interference of the hard seeds and due to the mushy nature of the oats endosperm interfering with the interpretation of staining pattern. Results yet to be published

Tz staining pattern in Medicago sativa cv. RL 88

Progressive deterioration of seeds quality of berseem due to aging

Quick viability test in seeds of Rice bean

S.seabrana

0.5% 3h

Desmanthus virgatus

0.5%, 6 h

0.2%, 6 h

Clitoria ternatea •Presoaking after making incision •Nipping off seed coat •Interpretation of staining pattern

0.25%

0. 5%

0.75%

1.0%

Centrocema

Atylosia

Atylosia

Atylosia

Seed Quality Assurance: Formulation of Seed Standards

by

Dr SK Jain Professor Division of Seed Science and Technology Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012

SQA: An Old Age Practice • The importance of seed quality has been recognized with the inception of agriculture • SUEEJAM SUKSHETRE JAYATE SAMPADYATE

- the Manu Smriti

Why Seed Quality Assurance? • Assurance to the farmer: better planting • Guidance to the producer: by fixing achievable standards

Why Quality Seed ? • Seed is the cheapest input for higher productivity in comparison to the other agricultural inputs namely, the fertilizer, pesticide and water • It is the catalyst that affect the dividends of all other inputs applied like fertilizer, irrigation, weed control and insecticides etc.

What is Seed Quality Testing? • It is “the key for seed quality assurance” • It is termed as - analyzing the seed lots to measure its quality parameters

Means to Assure Seed Quality • Quality maintainance: By generation system of seed multiplication (precautions for quality check from production to packaging at each stage) • Quality assurance:: Seed producer/ organization/ seed companies provide seed quality assurance • System of quality control:: Government enforces the measure for seed quality assurance

Professor Friedich Nobbe • a German scientist, was the first, in 1869, to give the concept of seed quality • hypothesis was based on scientific investigations on the vegetable and flower seeds offered for marketing in European countries • advocated that the seeds must be tested prior to sowing • The first seed testing laboratory was established at Tharand (Saxony) in West Germany (1876) • The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) was founded at Norway (1924)

Indian SQA Programme

Initiated during the 2nd five yr plan (1956-61) Establishment of CSTL, Botany Division, IARI (1958) Functioning of CSTL started in 1960 Basic equipments from the Rockfeller Foundation During the same period, 03 state STLs, one each at Patna (Bihar), Ludhiana (Punjab) and Hyderabad (AP) Labs were equipped under USAID

Establishment of NSC (1963) with the objectives of production of high quality seed establish quality control system promote the development of healthy seed industry

Seed Testing Network in India The need of good STLs in India was recognised in the late 60s Steps were taken to establish one laboratory per state. In 1968, there were 23 STLs At present one NSRTC at Varanasi and approx 120 State STLs • Out of which 81 labs were notified under Section 4 of the Seeds Act • GOI, time to time strengthened STLs, by grant-in-aid, during – 6th five year plan Rs.100 lakhs (12 Labs), – 7th plan Rs. 134.40 lakhs (22 Labs) – 8th plan Rs.150 lakhs (10 Labs) – 9th plan Rs.225 lakhs (main emphasis to add computer facility) and 10th five year plan Rs. 1547.50 lakhs, respectively to create facilities (Anon, 2011)

• • • •

ISTA Accredited Labs In India 1. Advanta India Limited (Seed Testing Laboratory ) 2. Indo-American Hybrid Seeds (India) Pvt Ltd (Seed Laboratory) 3. Mahyco Seeds Limited (Mahyco) (Quality Assurance Laboratory) 4. Namdhari Seeds Pvt.Ltd (Seed Production and Testing) 5. Nuziveedu Seeds Limited (Seed Testing Laboratory) 6. Seed Testing Laboratory Monsanto, Bellary

Indian Seeds Act • To control the quality of seed during production and marketing, Govt. of India enacted Seeds Act in 1966 and framed the Seed Rules in 1968 for effective implementation of the act

Indian Seeds Act - Major Provisions • • • • • • • • • • •

Minimum Seed Certification Standards Certification voluntary but labeling is compulsory Label should contain necessary information Central Seed Testing Laboratory State Seed Testing Laboratories Central Seed Certification Board Central Seed Certification Agency State Seed Certification Agencies State Seed Corporations Seed Inspectors Seed Analysts

Seed Testing Principles • Seed quality testing can not make the seed better, but based on test results, measures can be taken; to avoid hazards in agriculture production or remedy poor seed quality

Seed Testing Rules • The Indian Seed Testing Rules were published (1968) • Seed Rules were based on ISTA Rules • The procedures of seed testing were published in the form of Seed Testing Manual (Chalam et. al., 1969) • Seed Testing Manual have been adopted to a greater extent

Aims of Seed Testing • Is to obtain accurate and reproducible results for a given seed lot

Seed Testing Serves • • • • • • • •

Farmer Seed producer Seed industry Seed processor Seed dealer Seed consumer Seed certification and Law enforcement officials

Seed Testing Results are generally utilized for • Knowing the planting value of the seed lot before sowing • Identification of seed quality problems and their probable reasons • Upgrading the seed quality • Labeling of the seed lots • Providing a basis for price fixation and among seed lots (marketing) • Seed certification • Seed quality control (meeting the standards) or • Enforcement of law and regulations are also of vital significance in the • Conservation of plant genetic resources and • Plant quarantine

Wrong Evaluation of Seed Quality may cause problems in – Marketing (wrong labeling) – Quality control operations and – Large scale rejection of the quality seed lots – Irreparable damage to the farmers and – Seed industry Therefore, it is essential that seed quality evaluation be made in accordance with the established practices and prescribed procedures

Essentials of Seed Testing • Seed testing or seed quality evaluation is a highly specialized job • A STL be accomplished with the established norms and procedures

Seed Quality Attributes • Are the sum of all those attributes, which differentiate the seed from grain • Which governs the seed quality, these include – physical or mechanical purity – genetic purity and identity – moisture content – germination – seed health and – seed vigour • Additionally, a good quality seed lot – be of uniform size – having good luster – must conform to the prescribed standards

Tests Provide Information on • Pure seed, other crop seeds, weed seeds and inert matter (by %age & no/kg) • Normal, abnormal seedlings, fresh, hard and/or dead seeds • Moisture content • Certain labs have special staff and facilities to tests – Varietal purity/Genuineness of cultivar (in field, green house or lab) – Seed health (insect and mechanical damage) and – Seedling vigour

Pre-requisites for Seed Testing • Establishment of a STL for the seed industry (including farmers) • Leaders with scientific background to serve the lab and the seed industry (including farmers) • Availability of the sets of seed testing procedures, rules and manuals • Seed herbarium of the crop variety and weed seed species of the area for correct identification • Controlled-environment, rat –proof sample storage room for guard and test awaiting samples

Seed Testing Procedures • Seed analyses results, to a greater extent, are dependant on the sample submitted to a STL, representative of a seed lot • The seed lot be homogenous • Seed sample be drawn in accordance with the prescribed procedures (following the rules) • Random sample be drawn from the individual containers/bags • Primary samples be mixed together to make a composite sample • The size of submitted samples vary with the kind of seed, usually ten times of working sample for purity analysis, limited to 1000 gms (maximum)

Submitted Seed Sample • For germination, weighing equivalent to 4000 seed number, be packed in any moisture-pervious (porous) container eg cloth or good quality paper bags • For moisture, weighing 50/100 g, be packed in any moisture-proof containers eg polythene (700 gauge) or aluminum or tin packaging • Be placed for germination within 24 hr of its receipt, to avoid further deterioration in seed quality (during handling/seed testing operations)

Norms for Seed Testing • International – three basic tests namely, physical purity, germination and moisture • National - four components namely, the pure seed, other crop seeds, weed seeds and inert matter • Obligatory to identify and report the nature of inert matter • Kind of other seeds with latin names • Other Determinations – seed health, tetrazolium test, vigour, OCS, weed seed and ODV • Be reported, under column-specified in ISTA Analysis Certificate/ Seed Analysis Certificate

For Global Seed Trade • Analyze the sample in accordance with ISTA Rules • Desirable to update the rules and procedures in conformity to the international level • The orange certificate issued only by accredited ISTA lab, indicative of seed lot under reference meet the international requirements • Referee Testing programme at national level, to upgrade the uniformity in test results • Regular monitoring of the technical programme • Corrective measures be opted to support the seed programme, based on past experiences and those of ISTA

International Procedures • ISTA rules are mandatory, for issuing ISTA certificate • ISTA has established international rules and guidelines in seed testing • ISTA certificate is just a declaration of test results • ISTA certificate makes no judgment on seed quality – decision is up to buyers • Made provisions for reporting seed quality on special certificates (ISTA) both for export and import • Any lab, government or any private, may acquire ISTA membership, if a lab is well equipped and have trained manpower • ISTA support/promote research in all related aspects of seed science by organizing conference, workshops and training courses

Applied Seed Testing • Is the final step in judging a seed lots’ eligibility for certification • To assess seed quality characters (for certification standards) • To enforce legislation (specifies quality requirements) for seed sale (essential) • Official samples are drawn and sent for testing, when seed is being marketed

Seed Enterprises • Must use seed testing every day to regulate the seed quality at all stages – From receiving unclean (raw) seed to – Drying – Processing – Storage and – Distribution • Unclean seed is tested to establish the basis of payment to the grower • Likewise, marketing groups need information on seed they purchase and sell • The seed testing labs do these tests may be official or a part of enterprise

Service Testing • Enable farmers to identify their own seed lot (poor quality, if any) • Encourage the farmers to send their seed samples to a nearby STL • Seed testing is cheaper or subsidized than dealing with food shortages resulting from use of poor seed

Applied Seed Science Research • Seed, being living and biological material, affected by many external factors • Problem may occur at any stage of the seed multiplication and distribution • Seed technologists are the first to notice potential threats to seed production • The main official lab (CSTL) be encouraged to undertake/conduct applied research • Many countries don't have rules for certain species • Seed testing staff should help establish appropriate seed certification standards, based on testing • Staff be given time to study the new techniques and to conduct research as per of local needs

How A Seed Lab to Work? • Analyze seed sample in systematic manner, following international norms • Be organized in such a way that the accurate analysis results are made available promptly • Should have separate working areas for sample receipt and registration, physical purity, germination, moisture, seed health, records and guard sample for storage • Each section be headed by a supervisory staff, to maintain all equipments in working conditions • Arrange timely supplies and guidance to the seed analysts

A STL MUST • Enjoy the functional autonomy in its working • Be headed by a person with sufficient experience in seed analyses work • Be with a STO, who is well-acquainted with the procedures, rules and regulations • Enjoy the administrative and financial powers for effective and efficient functioning of the laboratory

Production Storage

Harvest

Seed Quality Testing Treating

Drying Processing

Seed Quality Testing is the “HUB” of any Successful Seed Programme

Summary • • •

• •

Desired level of perfection in seed quality testing is yet to be achieved Seed quality testing programme in the country has not received adequate support and care from the concerned organizations Most of the labs in India are either ill equipped or without adequate infrastructural facilities and trained manpower resources It would be desirable to update the seed testing rules and producers in conformity to the international level Need to develop proper seed testing protocols for – Horticultural crops (Fruits and vegetables) – Organic seeds and planting materials – Medicinal plants – Spices – Tuber crops – Transgenic crops Contd…

Summary contd…

• Simplicity and speed of molecular techniques are important features that could help seed companies to assess hybrid seed purity with efficacy in reduced time compared to the classical in vivo techniques and act as quality control tests • Seed quality testing has assumed greater importance to avoid hazards in agriculture and maximizing agriculture production • Seed quality testing has been considered as a hub of the any successful seed programme • Any seed quality control programme is pointless unless involve seed quality testing.

How to Develop Seed Standards?

Ashwagandha [Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal]

- A case study

Ashwagandha • • • • •

Synonym - asgand A self-pollinating plant Belongs to Solanaceae Used as herbal medicine, also known as “Indian Ginseng” Occurs in subtropical areas, grown all over northwestern and central India • Easy to cultivate and ready for harvest within one year of crop growth • All plant parts viz., the roots, bark, leaves, fruit and seed are used • Estimated production (roots) - approx 1500 t, whereas, the annual requirement - 7000 t

Experimental Materials • Ashwandha seed lots were collected from various ecological regions of the country • Mainly three different sources – Government institutions – Seed traders/ commercial market (Engaged in the trade for over two decades) – Farmers (engaged in the crop production for over two decades) • Procured seed lots were used for investigating the seed quality parameters viz., germination, moisture content, physical purity and seed health testing

Seed Lots Details Seed lot No.

Source

Institution

Variety/ Strain

Year of harvest

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute

College of Agriculture, Mandsaur College of Agriculture, Mandsaur College of Agriculture, Mandsaur College of Agriculture, Mandsaur College of Agriculture, Mandsaur College of Agriculture, Mandsaur College of Agriculture, Mandsaur JNKVV, Jabalpur JNKVV, Jabalpur IARI, New Delhi

2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2008 2008 2008

11.

Government Institute

IARI, New Delhi

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute Government Institute

IARI, New Delhi CIMAP, Lucknow JNKVV, Jabalpur JNKVV, Jabalpur JNKVV, Jabalpur IARI, New Delhi IARI, New Delhi IARI, New Delhi DMAPR, Anand

JA-20 JA-134 MSW-100 MSW-101 Wild spp (Red berry) ASM-4 RAS-10 JA-20 JA-134 Strain (Yellow berry) Strain (Mix.of yellow+red berry) Strain (Red berries) Poshita L-1 L-2 L-3 L-1 L-2 Strain Strain

2008 2008 2008 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 Contd…

Seed Lots Details 21.

Seed Trader

M/s Vijay Traders, Neemuch

Strain

2009

22.

Seed Trader

M/s Kanpuri & Pandit, Neemuch

Strain (Yellow)

2009

23.

Seed Trader


Strain (White)

2009

24.

Seed Trader


Strain

2009

25.

Seed Trader


Strain

2009

26.

Seed Trader

M/s Adinath Trading Co., Neemuch

Strain (Yellow)

2009

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

Seed Trader NGO’s Seed Trader Seed Trader Seed Trader Seed Trader

M/s Adinath Trading Co., Neemuch Patanjali, Haridwar Khari baoli, Delhi Khari baoli, Delhi Khari baoli, Delhi Khari baoli, Delhi

Strain (White) Strain Strain Strain Strain Strain

2009 2008 2007 2007 2007 2007

33.

Farmer (Phool Chand)

Vill. Kalkot, Ramganj Mandi

Strain

2009

34. 35. 36.

Farmer (Mohan Lal) Farmer (Misan Lal ) Farmer (Pratap)

Vill. Kalkot, Ramganj Mandi Vill. Rawli, Ramganj Mandi Vill. Rawli, Ramganj Mandi

Strain Strain Strain

2009 2009 2009

37.

Farmer (Phool Chand)

Vill. Rawli, Ramganj Mandi

Strain

2009

38.

Farmer (Bhagat Ram)

Vill. Rawli, Ramganj Mandi

Strain

2009

39. 40. 41. 42.

Farmer (Prakash) Farmer (Ratan Lal) Farmer (Bal Chand) Farmer (Bhura Lal)

Vill. Vill. Vill. Vill.

Strain Strain Strain Strain

2009 2009 2009 2009

43.

Farmer (Nibhay Singh )

Lodha, Ujjain

Strain

2009

44. 45.

Farmer (Suresh Lal) Farmer (Chetan)

Neemuch Mandi Neemuch Mandi

Strain Strain

2009 2009

Rawli, Rawli, Rawli, Rawli,

Ramganj Ramganj Ramganj Ramganj

Mandi Mandi Mandi Mandi

Seed Quality Parameters Investigated • • • • •

Physical purity Weight of working sample and submitted sample Seed germination Seed moisture content Seed health testing

Physical Purity • Following ISTA rules recommended for other Solanaceous crops • Using a minimum of 2500 seeds • These lots were analysed for – – – – –

pure seed other crop seed (OCS) weed seed (WS) and inert matter (IM) (kind of inert matter was identified and reported)

Weight of Working/ Submitted Sample • 100 seeds x 8 replicates • Following the procedure of ISTA (Anon, 2011)

Seed Germination • Folowing ISTA rules, recommended for other Solanaceous crops and previous experience • 400 seeds (i.e., 100 seeds each in 4 replicates) from pure seed fraction in each seed lot were planted on • Top of paper (TP), 200~300C with 16 hr dark/8hr light for 12/16 days • Seeds were washed in running tap water for a period of 24 hr before planting

Seed Moisture Content • Following, ISTA rules for other Solanaceous crops at constant low temperature oven method (103°C for 17±1 hr) • Seeds were stored with 4, 6, & 8 % mc for two years under Delhi ambience • Seed germination was monitored at the start of seed storage and subsequent interval of 06 months up to 02 years of storage

Seed Health • Using standard, roll-towel, Blotter Paper method (ISTA rules recommended for other Solanaceous crop species) • 25 seeds were incubated, for 10 days at 20o±2oC • Seeds were examined for fungal growth at 10X and 25X under stereomicroscope (Leitz Laborlux D) • The seed fungi were identified based on habit characters and morphology of fruiting

Statistical Analyses • Following CRBD • For prescribing the minimum seed standards, mean values derived were subjected to develop the frequency distribution curves and determining its mode value for each parameter • The mode value was considered to prescribe the minimum seed standards

Frequency distribution for pure seed (%)

Frequency distribution for inert matter (%)

Frequency distribution for germination (%)

Frequency distribution for seed mc (%)

Seed Health • Irrespective of yr of procurement, seed lot showed significant variation in seed fungi • Seven fungi were recorded namely – Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium spp., Drecheslera haloides & Stemphylium spp – Of these Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger were the major fungi registered • Fresh seed lots registered – Alternaria alternata (71.0%) & Stemphylium spp. (0.115(%) • Older seed lots registered – Aspergillus flavus, A. niger and Curvularia lunata were predominant • Public Sector Organisation had better quality seed • Thus, no specific standards of seed fungi for ashwagandha seeds are recommended

Inference Recommended minimum seed weight for various tests in ashwagandha are: – For submitted seed sample to a lab : 60 g – For working sample - physical purity : 06 g – For the count of other species : 60 g – For submitted sample - moisture content : 50 g

Recommended Seed Standards for Ashwagandha Parameter

Standard for each class Foundation

Certified

Pure seed percentage (Minimum)

98.0%

98.0%

Inert matter (Maximum)

2.0%

2.0%

Other crops seed (Maximum)

None

5/kg

Weed seed (Maximum)

None

5/kg

Germination percentage (Minimum)

80.0%

80.0%

Moisture content (Vapour impervious)

6

6

Moisture content (Vapour pervious)

8

8

Thanks for Your Patience

Water quality management in Brahmaputra Basin of India: impact of agricultural land use

U.C. SHARMA Vice President, International Commission on Water Quality (IAHS)

Brahmaputra basin in northeastern region of India

Major Constraints in Water Quality Management in Brahmaputra Basin 1. Population growth 2. Shifting cultivation 3. Land tenure system 4. Size of land-holding 5. High intensity rainfall 6. Un-hospitable terrain 7. Lack of suitable cropping patterns 8. Deforestation 9. Lack of finance 10. Lack of will

Area under shifting cultivation in Brahmaputra basin of India State

Annual area (km2)

Total affected area (km2)

Shifting period (years)

Arunachal Pradesh

700

2100

3-10

Assam

696

1392

2-10

Meghalaya

530

2650

5-07

Nagaland

190

1913

5-08

2116

8055

2-10

Total

Land Tenure System in the Brahmaputra basin

• Land belonging to the village chief • Land with community • Land in individual names

Land Degradation in the Brahmaputra Basin in India

Arunachal Assam

Degraded land (000’ ha) 2654 2999

Degraded land as % of total area 31.7 38.2

Meghalaya

1102

49.1

Nagaland

482

29.0

Total

7237

34.7

State

Sediment and Nutrient Loss from Brahmaputra basin states State

Sediment yield (Million tones)

Nutrient loss (000’ tonnes) N

P

K

Mn

Zn

Ca

Mg

Arunachal

177.7

217

36.6

153

8.2

4.9

19.1

15.2

Assam

178.4

201

34.4

155

7.6

5.0

20.6

15.1

Meghalaya

57.7

62

7.0

48

1.6

1.1

4.0

3.1

Nagaland

24.9

26

3.2

20

1.3

0.4

2.1

1.5

Total

438.7

506

81.2

376

18.2

11.3

45.2

35.9

Sediment Load in Flood Water Soil/ nutrients Soil NO3-N P-PO4 K2O Zn Mn Cu Fe Ca Mg SO4

Range (mg l-1) 1500-30000 6.4-25.8 2.3-8.5 15.4-33.8 0.3-1.6 0.8-2.4 0.1-0.3 6.3-18.4 2.5-6.4 6.5-14.0 5.0-8.5

Possible sinks for sediments • • • • • • •

Rivers Flood area Streams Valley land Temporary water storages Lakes and reservoirs Sea

Sinks for the soil, nutrients and trace elements in Brahmaputra basin in India Sink

Soil (106)

Nutrients (1003 t) N

P

K

Mn

Zn

River

65.1

58.7

8.8

43.1

1.9

1.4

Flood area

34.9

36.8

5.7

27.6

1.2

0.7

Streams

49.9

54.5

7.8

40.2

1.7

1.4

Valleys

44.0

43.6

6.7

32.5

1.4

1.0

Temporary water storages

22.7

20.7

3.7

15.1

0.6

0.5

Lakes and reservoirs

4.6

5.7

0.9

4.1

0.1

0.2

Sea

233.9

299.1

41.9

224.2

10.1

5.4

Total

455.1

519.1

75.5

386.8

17.0

10.6

Forest area

Desiltation tank I Desiltation tank II Main pond Animal enclosure Rice fields

ZABO SYSTEM

Typical size and shape of paddycum-fish culture plots in Apatani plateau

A view of the rice fields in the valley

Bamboo Drip Irrigation

New Farming Systems Land use

Slope Crops (%)

Soil and water conservation measures

Grasses and fodders

32.0

Maize, rice-bean, oats, peas, guinea grass, tapioca, broom-grass

Contour bunds, trenches, grassed waterways

Forestry

38.0

Alder nepalensis, Albziia lebbeck, Acacia auriculiformis

None

Agro-forestry

32.2

Ficus hookerii, Eucalyptus, pine apple, guava, beans, pulse crops

Contour bunds

Agriculture

32.4

Beans, radish, maize, paddy, ginger, turmeric, upland rice, oats, groundnut, grasses on risers

Bench terraces, contour Bunds, grassed waterways

Agri-horti-silvipastoral

41.8

Ginger, Alder nepalensis, Ficus hookeri, grasses, guava, citrus, lemon, agricultural crops

Contour bunds, bench terraces, half-moon terraces, grassed waterways

Horticulture

53.2

Pear, peach, guava, citrus, lemon, vegetable crops

As above

Shifting cultivation

45.0

Mixture of crops

None

Effect of land use and rainfall on the sediment yield (t km-2) Annual rainfall (mm)

Land use 2195

2705

2770

2599

2388

1992

Mean

Fodders/grasses

14.2

16.3

28.8

18.6

10.6

9.0

16.2

Forestry (trees)

60.1

115.4

141.1

131.7

69.9

65.3

97.2

35.4 3.9

70.2 9.8

75.6 24.3

74.3 22.7

37.6 3.7

27.8 3.1

53.4 11.2

20.1 65.0

18.2 70.5

11.6 51.7

26.6 82.2

Agro-forestry Agriculture Agri-horti-silvipastoral Horticulture Shifting cultivation

37.4 101.4

36.0 124.8

36.5 80.2

2950.0 4580.0

4499.7

3610.0

3419.1 2669.4 3621.3

Mean

447.2

704.3

567.7

518.5

C.D. (p=0.05)

704.2

405.4

Land use = 77.6; Precipitation = 66.2; Land use x Precipitation = 162.5

Vegetation cover, livestock and soil conservation measures in different land use systems Fodders

Slope (%) 32.0

Forest

38.0

Agroforestry

32.2

Agriculture

32.4

Horti-agrisilvi-pastoral

41.8

Horticulture

53.2


45.0

Land use

Crops / Trees Maize, rice-bean, oats, pea, guinea grass, tapioca, broom grass Alder nepalensis, Albziia, lebbeck, Acacia auriculiformis Ficus hookerii, Eucalyptus, guava, pine, pineapple, french bean, pulse crops. Beans, radish, maize, paddy, ginger, turmeric, ground-nut, oat, grasses on risers Beans, vegetables, guava, Citrus, grass ginger, Alder nepalensis,Ficus hookerii Peach, pear, citrus, guava, lemon, vegetables. Mixed cropping

Soil conservation measure Cows, pigs, Contour bunds, trenches, grassed rabbits water-ways None None Livestock

Goats ,rabbits

Contour bunds

Cows

None

Contour bunds, bench terraces & grasses waterways Contour bunds, half-moon terraces ,grassed water-ways same as in above

None

None

pigs, goats

Objectives of PUB • To advance our ability to predict. • Understanding the climatic and landscape controls on the natural variability of hydrological processes. • Hydrological variables for the management of water resources. • Technological capability. • Capacity building to develop appropriate scientific knowledge.

Effect of land use on the range of pH, conductivity (dSm-1) and elements in groundwater (mg/L) Land use

pH

NO3N 2547 1826 2035 3655 2848

SO4

Cl

Ca

Zn

Fe

Mn

Mg

5.15.4 Forestry 5.05.2 Agro5.1forestry 5.3 Agricu5.3lture 5.6 Agri-horti- 5.2silvi-pasto. 5.4

Cond uct. 0.130.19 0.110.15 0.140.18 0.120.19 0.100.18

15.126.2 12.621.3 14.326.8 19.245.6 17.332.9

11.216.0 11.015.6 14.519.5 16.826.2 16.823.0

4663 3650 3658 4870 4672

4.39.5 4.78.2 4.910.1 5.611.8 5.211.1

1.43.3 0.82.4 1.02.8 1.96.4 1.85.5

0.51.4 0.41.2 0.71.3 0.61.4 0.51.3

1628 1323 1325 1233 1230

Horticulture Shifting cultiv.

0.140.19 0.080.09

2750 1827

18.133.2 12.920.0

17.523.6 11.615.0

4068 3049

4.912.2 4.27.4

1.65.6 1.22.5

0.91.7 0.41.2

2028 1017

Fodders

5.15.3 5.25.4

Effect of rainfall regimes on soil loss (t km-2) Annual rainfall (mm) Land use 2195

2705

2770

2599

2388

1992

Mean

Fodders/grasses

14.2

16.3

28.8

18.6

10.6

9.0

16.2

Forestry

60.1

115.4

141.1 131.7

69.9

65.3

97.2

Agro-forestry Agriculture

35.4 3.9

70.2 9.8

75.6 24.3

74.3 22.7

37.6 3.7

27.8 3.1

53.4 11.2

AHSP Horticulture

20.1 65.0

37.4 101.4

36.0 124.8

36.5 80.2

18.2 70.5

11.6 51.7

26.6 82.2

3419

2669

Shifting cultivat.

2950

4580

4499

3610

3621

Land use and rainwater retention 120

Rainwater retention (%)

100

80

60

40

20

0 Grasses

Forestry

Agro-for

Agricult.

Land use

AHSP

Hort.

Shift./cul

Rainfall and soil loss 1/5 root of annual soil loss (t ha-2)

2.45 2.25 2.05 1.85 1.65

Grasses

1.45 1.25

Agro-for. Agric.

1.05

Shift/cult

0.85 0.65 0.45 2195

2705

2770

2599

2388

Annual rainfall (mm)

1992

Effect of land use on groundwater quality 70

Concentration (ppm)

60 50 40

Nitrate Sulphate

30

Chloride Calcium

20 10 0 Grasses Forestry Agro-For Agricult.

AHSP

Agriculture land use

Horti. Shift/cult

Changes in Nitrate-N over the years 60 55 Nitrate-N (ppm)

50 45

Grasses

40

Forestry agro-for.

35

Agri.

30

AHSP

25

Hort.

20

Shif/cult.

15 1

2

3

4 5 6 7 Years after start

8

9

10

Mean Annual Nutrient Loss and In-situ Recharge in Different Watersheds Parameter

Live- Fore AgriAgriHorti- Shifting stock stry culture horticulture cultivabased pastoral tion

In-situ recharge 98.1 (% of rainfall)

92.9

95.6

98.3

96.9

66.3

N (kg ha-1)

0.09

1.36

0.42

0.27

1.95

7.4

P (kg ha-1)

0.02

0.21

0.07

0.06

0.59

0.9

K (kg ha-1)

0.07

1.08

0.29

0.27

1.38

4.5

Mn (g ha-1)

6.16

34.88 18.2

17.10

49.04

205.0

Zn (g ha-1)

4.28

24.15 11.6

12.06

25.14

112.0

Ca (g ha-1)

0.02

0.27

0.23

0.18

0.45

0.6

Mg (g ha-1)

0.01

0.15

0.12

0.10

0.27

0.5

Effect of land use, rainfall and their interactions on the groundwater recharge (mm) Land use

Rainfall (mm) 2195

2705

2770

2599

Mean 2288

1992

Grasses and fodders

738

1212

1294

1101

835

555

956 (39.0)

Forestry

426

729

746

663

477

338

563 (22.9)

Agro-forestry

560

954

984

870

633

459

742 (30.2)

Agriculture

731

1219

1289

1102

831

570

957 (39.0)

Agri-horti-silvipastoral

679

1134

1198

1021

769

526

888 (36.2)

Horticulture

516

897

914

815

590

420

692 (28.2)


152

260

274

231

168

125

202 ( 8.2)

543 (22.1)

915 (37.3)

957 (39.9)

829 (33.8)

615 (25.1)

426 (17.4)

714 (29.1)

Mean

Change in Al content of soil in different land use systems over the years 140

Al (mg-1)

120 100

Livestock

80

Forestry Ag-forest

60

Agric.

40

ASHP Hortic.

20

Sh/cult.

0 1

2

3

4

5

6 7 Years

8

9

10

11

Change in Fe content of the soil in different land use systems 60

Fe (mg kg-1)

50 Livestock

40

Forestry Ag-forest

30

Agric. 20

ASHP Hortic.

10

Sh/cult. 0 1

2

3

4

5

6 7 Years

8

9

10

11

Change in Phosphorus content of the soil in different land use systems with time 30

25

Available P (kg ha-1)

20 Livestock Forestry Ag-forest

15

Agric. AHSP 10

Hortic. Sh/cult.

5

0 1

2

3

4

5

6 Years

7

8

9

10

11

pH

Change in pH of the soil in different land use systems over time 6.5 6.3 6.1 5.9 5.7 5.5 5.3 5.1 4.9 4.7 4.5

Livestock Forestry Ag-forest Agric. AHSP Hortic. Sh/cult. 1

2

3

4

5

6 7 Years

8

9

10

11

Steps in land use planning 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Establish goals and terms of reference Organize the work Analyse the problems Identify opportunities for change Evaluate land suitability Appraise the alternatives: environmental, economic and social analysis 7. Choose the best option 8. Prepare the land-use plan 9. Implement the plan 10. Monitor and revise the plan

1. Establish goals and terms of reference 1. Define the planning area, Contact the people

involved, Acquire basic information about the area, Establish the goals, Identify the problems and opportunities. 2. Identify constraints to implementation. 3. Establish the criteria by which land-use decisions will be made. 4. Set the scope of the plan. 5. Set the planning period. 6. Agree on the content and format of the plan. 7. Decide operational questions.

2. Organize the work Many tasks have a long lead time. Supporting services must be organized; Supplies and materials must be obtained. Training, travel, review meetings and consultancies must be scheduled months ahead.

3. Analyse the problems • Migration to towns Low rural incomes Lack of employment opportunities Poor health and nutrition Inadequate subsistence production Shortage of fuel and timber Shortage of grazing land Low, unreliable crop yields Encroachment on forest and wildlife reserves Conflicts among farming, livestock and non-agricultural uses Visible land degradation, e.g. eroded cropland, degradation of woodland, flooding etc.

UNDERLYING CAUSES RELATED TO LAND USE Social problems Population pressure on land resources, unequal distribution of land, capital and opportunities, restrictions of land tenure and landownership Natural hazards and limitations Inadequate water supply, Irregular relief, Poor drainage, Diseases Mismatch between land use and land suitability Related rural planning problems Inadequate power, Lack of fertilizer and pesticides, Lack of markets, Lack of finance, Inadequate transport, Lack of technical support

4. Identify opportunities for change

Focus on questions regarding what action can be taken within the plan.. Consider alternative land-use strategies. Identify a range of possible solutions. Develop options within the extremes.

5. Evaluate land suitability • For any specified kind of land use, which areas of land are best suited? • For each land-use type, determine the requirements, e.g. for water, nutrients, avoidance of erosion; • Conduct surveys necessary to map land units and to describe their physical properties, e.g. climate, slope; • Compare the requirements of the land-use types with the properties of the land units. • Rice has high water requirements and most varieties grow best in standing water; • Tea, sugar cane and oil-palm need efficient transport to processing plants.

6. Appraise the alternatives: environmental, economic and social analysis

Following are examples of the environmental effects to be considered: • Soil and water resources. • Pasture and forest resources. Degradation of rangelands, clearance or degradation of forests.

7. Choose the best option • The decision-maker must take into account a variety of practical considerations, including: • The expressed preferences of the local people; • The interests of minority groups; • National policies; • Constraints, e.g. of land tenure and availability of inputs; • The maintenance of environmental standards; • Practicability - potential implementing agencies should be consulted; • Costs and the availability of funding.

8. Prepare the land use plan • What

should be done? • How should it be done? - logistics, costs and timing. • Reasons for the decisions taken. • Itemize the needs for: land improvements; supporting services; physical infrastructure; credit and other internal financial services, seed, fertilizers, by type; pesticides; irrigation equipment. • Identify who is to be responsible for which activity. • Discuss the details of the arrangements with the decisionmaker: - feasibility and acceptability; availability of advisory staff; availability of logistic support; availability of supervision.

9. Implement the plan The planning team has several important contributions to make for implementation. The first is simply to ensure that the measures recommended in the plan are correctly understood and put into practice. Representatives of the planning team form an essential link between planning and implementation. It can assist in institution-building, the strengthening of existing institutions or, where necessary, the formation of new ones. This can include staff education and training.

10. Monitoring and revising the plan • Are the land-use activities being carried out as planned? • Are the effects as predicted? • Are the costs as predicted? • Have the assumptions on which the plan was based proved to be correct? • Are the goals still valid? • How far are the goals being achieved?

CONCLUSIONS Anthropogenic factors prevailing in the Brahmaputra basin, have mostly contributed to the fresh water quality. The practice of shifting cultivation as a method of food production is no more economical and sustainable and has become a resource depleting practice causing huge soil erosion from the hill slopes, silting of river beds, floods and environment degradation.

CONCLUSIONS (cont.) Introduction of eco-friendly, sustainable and socially acceptable crop land use systems. The present land tenure system requires modification by enacting suitable laws by the Government . Judicious management of rain water so that maximum quantity of water could be retained insitu to reduce runoff and associated sediment loss. Judicious and restricted use of inorganic fertilizers and plant protection agricultural chemicals, and enhance their use efficiency

Acknowledgement I am extremely grateful to IHP/HWRP, Germany for providing me financial support to participate in the 6th International Conference on Water Resources and Environment Research, from 03-06-2013 to 07-06-2013, at Koblenz Germany. This has helped me in presentation of my work and I will remain ever grateful.

THANKS FOR YOUR KIND ATTENTION

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS Sl No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

APPLICANTS AMOL VINAYAKRAO DAHIPHALE, Jr. Agrostologist Dr. BalasahebSawantKonkanKrishiVidyapeeth, Dapoli-415 712, Maharashtra. [email protected] Mobile--09421087974 KAIPU BAYYAPU REDDY, Scientist (Seed Science & Technology), ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad [email protected] Mobile No: 944101044 DrDinkar T Deshmukh, Associate Proff.(Agrl Botany), PDKV, Akola [email protected] [email protected] 09923585117 Dr V S MOR, Assistant Scientist, CCSHAU, Hisar [email protected] 09468337001 Praveen Singh, Jr Scientist cum Asst Prof, SKUAST, Jammu, J&K [email protected] 09419220574 DrSundeep Chaudhary, AsstProff/SMS, KVK, Khekra, Baghpat [email protected] 09412311502 DrMukesh Kumar Bhargava, SMS(Agronomy), KVK, Shivpuri [email protected], [email protected] 09926360869 Dr SS Bhadauria, TO/Asst Professor, RVSKVV, Gwalior [email protected] 07489407897

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Prof PrasanaPunamchandSurana, Asst Prof of Botany, MPKV, Rahuri [email protected] 07588541238 V VAnsodariya, Asst Res Scientist, JAU, Junagadh, Dhari station [email protected] 09426156656/09824156656 DrAmbreesh S Yadav, SMS Agronomy, KVK, Sitapur [email protected] 09452820176 Mulayam Singh, AsstProff/SMS (Agrl Extension), KVK, Banda [email protected] 09792746334 DR. MUKESH CHAND, Subject Matter Specialist, Soil Conservation, KrishiVigyan Kendra, Bharari, Jhansi mukesh_chand12@ yahoo.com 9451333378 DR. NAMBOODIRI RAJI VASUDEVAN, Assistant Professor (Plant Breeding & Genetics), Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, College of Agriculture, PADANNAKKAD, Kerala [email protected] 9495326220 DrVikas Singh, SMS (Vet Science), KVK, Dhaura, Unnao [email protected] 9451050863 Dr. Santosh Pandey, Lecturer, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BundelkhandUniversity,Jhansi, U.P. PIN- 284128 [email protected] 09415718210 Mahesh Mani Tiwari, Jr Breeder (Linseed), Crop research Centre, Mauranipur, Jhansi-284204

18

19

20

21

22

23

Mob: 9935778390 Dr Som Veer Singh, AsstProff., Crop research Centre, Mauranipur [email protected] 09236485206/08765568776 Dr Mahipat Singh Yadav, Lecturer, Dept of Seed Tech, Inst of Agrl Sciences, Bundelkhand Univ. [email protected] 09792250372 Dr Ashok Kumar, Lecturer (Seed Technology), Inst of Agrl Science, BU, Jhansi [email protected] 9936363807 Asharam Scientist NRCAF Jhansi AnirudhaMaity, Scientist, IGFRI [email protected] Vinod Kumar Wasnik, Scientist, IGFRI [email protected] 09452311408

LIST OF RESOURCE PERSONS Sl No.

NAME & Address

1

Dr. P.K. Ghosh Director, IGFRI

2

Dr. D. R. Malaviya Head, Div. of Seed Technology, IGFRI

3

Dr. D. C Joshi Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

4

Dr.Tejveer Singh Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

5

Dr. P. Kaushal Head, Div. of Crop Improvement, IGFRI

6

Dr. Sahid Ahmed, Sr. Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

7

Dr. U.C. Sharma Vice President, International commission on water quality & Ex National Coordinator, NATP

8

Dr. Satya Priya Sr. Scientist, SS Division, IGFRI

9

Dr. B. Narasimhulu Sr. Scientist, FMPHT Division, IGFRI

10

Dr. K. K. Dwivedi Sr. Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

11

Dr. D. Vijay Sr. Scientist, S.T. Division, IGFRI

12

Dr. R.K. Agrawal Principal Scientist, CP Division, IGFRI

13

Dr. M.K. Srivastava Sr. Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

14

Dr. R.V. Kumar Head, Div. of Grassland and Silviculture Management, IGFRI

15

Dr. Sunil Kumar Head, Crop Production Division, IGFRI

16

Dr. A.K. Dixit Sr. Scientist, CP Division, IGFRI

17

Dr. C.S. Sahay Sr. Scientist, FMPHT Division, IGFRI

18

Dr. P K Pathak Head, Div. of Farm Machinery and Post-Harvest Technology, IGFRI

LIST OF RESOURCE PERSONS Sl No.

NAME & Address

19

Dr. S. K. Singh Sr. Scientist, FMPHT Division, IGFRI

20

Dr.Vikas Kumar Scientist, SS Division, IGFRI

21

Dr. C.K. Gupta Scientist, ST Division, IGFRI

22

Dr. A.K. Rai Sr. Scientist, CP Division, IGFRI

23

Dr. V.K. Yadav Pr. Scientist (PB), CI Division, IGFRI

24

Dr. A. Radha Krishna Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

25

Dr. P. Saxena Principal Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

26

Sri. R.B. Bhaskar Sr. Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

27

Dr. D. Bahukhandi Sr. Scientist, ST Division, IGFRI

28

Dr. N. K. Shah Pr. Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

29

Dr. Durgesh Kumar Scientist, CI Division, IGFRI

30

Dr. A.K. Roy Project Coordinator, AICRP-Fodder Crops, IGFRI

31

Dr. S. Natarajan, Sr. Scientist, Directorate of Seed Research, Mau

32

Dr. Bhupinder Singh, Principal Scientist, Nuclear Research Laboratory, IARI

33

Dr. B. P. Kushwaha Principal Scientist, PAR Division, IGFRI

34

Dr. S. K. Mahanta Principal Scientist, Div. of Plant Animal Relationship, IGFRI

35

Dr. R. K. Choudhary, Ex-PC NSP, IARI

36

Dr. S.K. Jain Professor, Div. of Seed Technology, IARI