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Selecting the right number of knots for B-spline parameterization of the dielectric functions in spectroscopic ellipsometry data analysis D.V. Likhachev* GLOBALFOUNDRIES Dresden Module One LLC & Co. KG, Wilschdorfer Landstr. 101, D-01109 Dresden, Germany Keywords Dielectric function; Parameterization; B-splines; Information criteria; Data analysis; Spectroscopic ellipsometry
B-spline representation of the dielectric functions provides many theoretical and practical benefits for material modeling in spectroscopic ellipsometry. However, the number of knots (and their locations, in general) defines actual performance of B-splines in ellipsometric data
analysis. On the one hand, too large number of knots can result in serious overfitting of the experimental data. On the other hand, this number should be sufficient to fit all essential spectral features. Selection of the right number of knots is, in practice, a very subjective and empirically-driven task. In this paper, we discuss the choice of the number of knots utilizing three well-established versions of statistical information criteria in form of Akaike, corrected Akaike and Bayesian Information Criteria (AIC, AICc and BIC, respectively). The criteria establish a compromise between over- and underfitting of experimental data and allow formalized selection of the right number of knots. Effectiveness of the proposed methodology is illustrated using a few real-data examples.
1. Introduction B-spline (or Basis-spline) parameterization is a popular and relatively new approach to express the dielectric function of materials in a purely mathematical way which has been introduced by Johs and Hale [1]. Since then, it has been proven to be very effective for multiple applications in spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) [2–11]. B-splines are constructed from piecewise polynomial functions connected smoothly at a set of points on the x-axis * Electronic mail:
[email protected]. 1
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called “knots”. B-splines of any order can be evaluated by using simple recurrence relation (for more details, see Ref. [12]). One of obvious advantages to employ B-splines is that there is no necessity for physical oscillator parameterization of the optical constants. Therefore, this approach is quite useful in cases where typical physics-based oscillator models cannot be easily applied. Moreover, B-splines allow the Kramers–Kronig consistent formulation and, therefore, guarantee physical validity of the line shape of the dielectric function in considered spectral range. The authors of Ref. [1] also provided a quite detailed discussion on the practical use of B-splines to parameterize dielectric functions including, in particular, knot termination and possible issues with presence of absorption features outside of the spectral range. However, together with all advantages mentioned in Ref. [1], B-spline parameterization possesses a non-trivial practical problem of choosing the number (and location) of knots. Usually, the number of knots used in ellipsometric data analysis is determined and tuned empirically based on quite often ambiguous decisions and optimal knot number selection is an extremely complex undertaking. It is a matter of fact that if, for simplicity, we assume equally spaced (equidistant) knots in B-spline model of the dielectric function, then increasing the number of knots above optimal value will “overfit” the data, i.e., overfitting causes the model to fit the noise in the data and the dielectric function will contain some artificial features rather than actual behavior. Since "one picture is worth ten thousand words" [13], we illustrate the problem with two examples of B-spline parameterization for ~200 Å-thick TiN film deposited on ~4000 Å-thick SiO2 layer on c-Si (Fig. 1). It appears that the parameterization with 53 knots (Fig. 1a) fits, figuratively speaking, the “von Neumann’s elephant” [14,15]. In other words, such parameterization looks too adaptable and a few fine structures observed in real (ε1) and imaginary (ε2) parts of the TiN dielectric function at 2.75, 3.95, 5.0, and 6.0 eV are nothing more than modeling artifacts due to small knot spacing. Reduction of the number of knots clearly eliminates these unrealistic features although, expectedly, deteriorates the quality of fit (increases the mean squared error (MSE) value) (Fig. 1b). Thus, a feasible compromise needs to be found between sufficiently large number of knots to fit the data satisfactory, i.e., getting low MSE value, and obvious necessity to avoid data overfitting.
There are different approaches to avoid overfitting by spline parameterization. Recently, Gilliot et al. [16] used special form of splines, so-called “constrained cubic splines”, under particular constraints on first order derivatives to model the dielectric function of zinc oxide ZnO. With regard to B-splines, it is advantageous to introduce a penalty to restrict flexibility 2
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of dielectric function parameterization by splines and prevent the overfitting. It is achieved by putting some constrains on the B-spline coefficients. In this kind of penalized splines, known as P-splines [17–21], the penalty degree is easily controlled by a certain smoothing parameter. Due to the penalty P-splines possess very interesting the “power of the penalty” property: “The number of B-splines can be (much) larger than the number of observations. The penalty makes the fitting procedure well-conditioned. This should be taken literally: even a thousand splines will fit ten observations without problems.” [20]. Actually, use of Psplines replaces the problem of knot selection by a task of choosing the smoothing parameter using various approaches [22–25]. In spite of all these advantages, the lack of available spectroscopic ellipsometry modeling software packages with implemented P-spline parameterization of the dielectric function currently makes this approach less practical than simply and solely use of existing software with already built-in B-splines, for instance, CompleteEASE® software from J.A. Woollam Co., Inc. (Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.), and apply some systematic method(s) to select optimal knot distribution.
Fig. 1. Real (ε1) and imaginary (ε2) parts of the complex dielectric function of ~200 Å-thick TiN film parameterized using B-spline with 53 knots (a) and 11 knots (b) equally spaced in the spectral range 1.25–6.45 eV (or 192–992 nm).
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In general, splines can be considered as mathematical models and, therefore, a natural idea is to apply well-known and well-tested statistical model-selection techniques to optimize placement and number of knots in B-spline parameterization of the dielectric function. Our objective in this paper is to discuss application of classical MSE-based approaches, namely, the Akaike information criterion (AIC) [26,27] and the Bayesian information criterion (BIC), also known as Schwarz information criterion (SIC) [28] (a comprehensive overview on the information criteria (IC) methodology can be found, for instance, in Refs. [29–31]). These methods are extensively used in various disciplines and recently their effectiveness has been demonstrated also in ellipsometric applications [32,33]. Both criteria were developed as an objective way to compare performance of different models (often called “candidate models”) to describe given measurement data and select a model with optimal complexity. For instance, if we are interested which model better fits our ellipsometric data, we can form a set of various physics-based (multi-)oscillator models with different numbers and combinations of independent parameters and use the models from this set to fit the data. Typically, with increasing number of fitting parameters in each particular model the quality of fit will improve. Natural question, of course, is when to stop introducing additional model parameters to avoid data overfitting and not lose model’s generality. This is when the AIC and BIC come into play. The information criteria include a penalty term which reduces accomplished gain in the data fit quality due to extra parameters (increasing model’s complexity). Thus, the criteria select the best model which is the one with the lowest AIC or BIC score, - in other words, the model achieving the best fit with minimal number of parameters.
In regard to model selection for the task of careful knot choice, we consider, for simplicity's sake, equally spaced knots in B-spline model of the dielectric function, thus reducing drastically a large amount of candidate models (B-splines with different number and location of knots) to choose from. In that case, the complexity of each spline model is characterized by the number of knots only. Such equidistant knot arrangement could be also justified because in our analysis the sample size (number of data points) is not small and spectroscopic data are distributed uniformly in the considered wavelength range. Optimal number of knots will correspond to the lowest AIC (or BIC) value. Thus, the IC technique serves as a practical and also objective guidance, as opposite to intuition and various “rules of thumb”, for selecting the number of equidistant knots for B-spline parameterization. A similar approach to select the number of knots for curve-fitting smoothing using only the Akaike information 4
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criterion has been applied previously by Atilgan and Bozdogan [34] and Yanagihara and Ohtaki [35]. However, use of the AIC only might be not always a good idea due to a difference in the AIC and BIC penalty terms. In fact, the BIC applies a heavier penalty and, therefore, under some circumstances will select a simpler spline model, i.e., with fewer number of knots, than the AIC. Because both criteria were introduced to pursue the same aim of selecting the best model, it has been recommended in the statistical literature to use the AIC and BIC together (see, for instance, Ref. [36]).
2. Theory We briefly review here the main facts from the theory of spline functions and the modelselection approach based on information criteria.
2.1. Ellipsometric data analysis and B-splines Proper data analysis in spectroscopic ellipsometry requires modeling of the dielectric functions of materials as functions of photon energy (dispersion models). Conventional analytical physics-based dispersion models are introduced for ε2, the imaginary part of the dielectric function, and then the real part of the dielectric function can be found by KramersKronig integration. Here we parametrize the ε2 spectrum by using B-splines. A spline curve Y(x), which represents ε2, is constructed in terms of weights (spline coefficients) bi and basis functions Bip ( x) of degree p: Y ( x ) bi Bip ( x ).
(1)
i
The functions from the B-spline basis are piecewise polynomials with local support, i.e., are equal to zero outside defined interval, and smoothly connected at the knots. By summing more or fewer Bip ( x) with different weights we can create the curves of various shapes and complexity. As pointed out by John Rice, “One should view B-splines as new elementary or special functions, analogous to sines or Bessel functions.” [37]. The B-spline basic functions of any order can be recursively calculated from the lower-order functions using the Cox-de Boor recursion formula [12]:
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1, if ti x ti 1 Bi0 ( x) , 0, otherwise
(2a)
Bi ( x) i ( x) Bi ( x) (1 ( x)) B p
p
p 1
p i 1
p 1 i 1
x t , if ti p ti ( x), where i ( x) ti p ti . 0, otherwise p
(2b)
Here t = (ti) (i = 0, …, l) is the knot vector, i.e., a non-decreasing sequence of real numbers of length at least p + 2 (t0 ≤ t1 ≤ … ≤ ti ≤ ti+1 ≤ … tm).
Fig. 2. B-spline basis functions of different degrees.
The spline coefficients bi can be readily obtained from a least-squares fit to the SE experimental data using suitable multi-parameter non-linear optimization algorithm and minimizing merit function, i.e., the function which determines the quality of fit.
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Fig. 2 shows some examples of the B-spline basis functions of different degrees. It demonstrates that the basis functions of degree p have support only over p+1 intervals and they are exactly zero outside the finite range [ti, ti+p+1].
Fig. 3. Some examples of arbitrary weighted B-spline basis functions of degree 3 (black dashed lines) and their linear combinations (red solid lines) illustrating various resulting spline curves for equidistant knots. 7
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Fig. 3 gives a few examples of arbitrary weighted B-spline basis functions of degree 3 and their linear combinations. In these examples all spline coefficients were selected on purpose to be positive, - it guarantees that all spline curves are positive in compliance with “convex hull” property [38]. Therefore, B-spline parameterization provides a simple and elegant way to ensure that the imaginary part of the dielectric function ε2 ≥ 0 [1]. 2.2. Commonly used information criteria Given a set of experimental data y j 1 , we fit measured data points by functional relations n
FΨ,Δ for ellipsometric angles Ψ and ∆ derived by using an appropriate optical model formed with B-spline parameterization of the complex dielectric function of a particular layer under study. The least-square fit estimates unknown spline coefficients bi as well as other model parameters by minimizing a (weighted) sum of squared residuals (residual sum of squares, RSS) between the measured yj and modeled Fj (Yi | xj) data
n
min y j , M FM (Yi | x j ) , 2
(3)
j 1 M
where Yi b, B p is the spline function defined by Eq. (1), index i denotes the interior knots within the analysis spectral range and summation over subscript M corresponds to different ellipsometric angles (Ψ or ∆). A set of possible models with different numbers of knots forms a series of candidate models which can be fitted to measured data one after another to evaluate the quality of fit. Then the information criteria should be applied to calculate respective IC scores and select the “best” spline model from the set.
Many MSE-based model selection techniques have been proposed and widely used in various fields. We will use three most common and well-founded criterion functions, namely, AIC [26,27], BIC [28] and corrected AIC (AICc) [39,40]. In terms of the residual sum of squares IC are given by a common functional form
RSS(m) IC(p) n ln m, n
(4)
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where m is the number of model parameters (consists of the number of interior knots and other model variables, like film thicknesses) and is the penalty term of different kind for various information criteria:
Akaike information criterion (AIC): Corrected AIC (AICc): Bayesian information criterion (BIC):
2
2n / (n m 1) ln n
The corrected AIC has been introduced for model selection in cases when the number of model parameters m is not small compare to the number of data points n and the ordinary AIC sometimes performs poorly selecting models with excessive number of parameters (there is a simple “rule of thumb”: the sample size is considered to be small if n/m is less than 40 [29]). If n is large relative to m, n >> m, then the correction to original AIC’s penalty term becomes negligible and the AICc asymptotically tends to AIC. Therefore, it is highly recommended in practice to use AICc rather than AIC [29,30]. Due to the differences in their penalty terms, the IC might disagree from time to time on the ranking of candidate models. In these instances, the IC appear to indicate at least upper and lower bounds for the range of suitable models [36].
Instead using raw AIC, AICc or BIC values for model selection, other associated measures are usually used [29–31]:
IC differences:
ΔICk
ICk ICmin ,
k 1, ..., q,
(5)
where k is the number of candidate models under test (for instances, with different knot numbers), ICmin is the score of the “best” candidate model, i.e., the minimum IC score among all candidate models;
IC weights:
wr (IC)
exp( ICr / 2) q
exp(IC k 1
k
/ 2)
q
,
w (IC) 1. k 1
k
(6)
The IC differences can be interpreted as the evidence for support of the kth model by comparison with the “best” model from a set of candidate models. By convention, the
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models, if any, with ΔIC < 2 should be considered almost as good as the “best” model. Models with ΔIC > 10 are very unlikely and thus should be ruled out from consideration. Models with intermediate IC values are significantly less plausible and fall into the grey area. The IC weight, wr (IC), simply indicates a probability that the rth model is the “best” among q candidate models and, therefore, its numerical value always lies between 0 and 1. The ratio of the IC weights of two different models ER wA / wB ( wB 0), often called “the evidence ratio”, points out how much model A is more likely than model B. Hence, the evidence ratio can be very helpful in more accurate interpretation of the IC results than pretty rough “cut-off rules” for the IC differences mentioned above (see Example 1 in subsection 3.1).
3. Application examples In this section we provide a few real-data examples to demonstrate efficiency and versatility of our approach to selection of the number of equidistant knots for B-spline parameterization of the dielectric functions.
3.1. Example 1: 200 Å TiN / 4000 Å SiO2 / Si The first example is a set of ellipsomteric data taken from an unpatterned test wafer with TiN/thick SiO2/c-Si film structure. The ellipsometric measurements were performed by using VUV-VASE® GEN-II rotating-analyzer spectroscopic ellipsometer from J.A.Woollam Co., Inc. at 65°, 70° and 75° angles of incidence (AOIs). The measured data in the spectral range of 1.25–6.45 eV (992–192 nm; 105 data points) were analysed with CompleteEASE® software (version 4.86). The optical properties of the TiN layer were described by using the “B-spline Layer” (with enforced Kramers-Kronig consistency) dispersion model available in the software. Good starting optical properties for the layer to set up the B-spline model have been obtained using various oscillator models from WVASE32® software which provides the global fit option to avoid false solutions. The silicon substrate and silicon dioxide optical constants were taken from the CompleteEASE® database of materials. The optical models with different numbers of equidistant knots in the B-spline layer form a set of candidate models which were used to fit the experimental data. The fitting parameters include the thicknesses of the roughness, TiN and SiO2 layers as well as the B-spline coefficients. The optical properties of the roughness layer were obtained by mixing those of the underlying TiN film with 50% of “void” via the Bruggeman effective medium approximation.
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Table 1 The AIC, AICc and BIC results for B-spline parameterization of the TiN film. No.of
AICk
ΔAICk
BICk
ΔBICk
wr(BICk)
35
188.2
11.5
0.0020
233.1
48.5
0.0000
289.0
64.6
0.0000
27
182.3
5.6
0.0380
207.4
22.8
0.0000
261.9
37.5
0.0000
21
182.6
5.9
0.0328
197.6
13.0
0.0014
246.3
21.8
0.0000
18
178.1
1.5
0.2971
189.3
4.7
0.0876
233.9
9.5
0.0087
15
176.6
0.0
0.6301
184.6
0.0
0.9104
224.4
0.0
0.9839
14
194.0
17.3
0.0001
201.0
16.4
0.0003
239.1
14.7
0.0006
12
194.8
18.1
0.0001
200.2
15.6
0.0004
234.6
10.2
0.0060
11
201.7
25.1
0.0000
206.4
21.8
0.0000
238.9
14.5
0.0007
10
211.1
34.4
0.0000
215.1
30.5
0.0000
245.6
21.1
0.0000
9
217.1
40.4
0.0000
220.4
35.9
0.0000
248.9
24.5
0.0000
knots
wr(AICk) AICck ΔAICck wr(AICck)
Note: No.of knots = number of used equally spaced knots for B-spline model k; ΔAICk = [AICk – min(AIC)], ΔAICck = [AICck – min(AICc)], and ΔBICk = [BICk – min(BIC)]; w(AIC), w(AICc), and w(BIC) are the corresponding IC weights (please, see text for details).
Fig. 4. Determination of the right number of knots: the AIC, AICc and BIC values plotted against the number of fitting parameters in B-spline parameterization of the TiN dielectric function. The thin vertical line indicates minima of the AIC, AICc and BIC functions.
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The IC results for B-spline parameterization of the TiN film, along with associated measures ΔIC and w(IC), are shown in Table 1 and also plotted in Fig. 4 as a function of the number of fitting parameters. Table 1 and Fig. 4 indicate that the minima of all IC measures (AIC, AICc as well as BIC) occur at the number of fitting parameters m = 18 which yields i = 15 as the optimal number of knots. The B-spline model with 15 equidistant knots received 63% (AIC), 91% (AICc) and 98% (BIC) of the total weight for the set of candidate models. The fact that the winning model demonstrates obviously lower support in terms of the AIC weight (63% vs. > 90% for AICc and BIC) is a clear indicator that the corrected AIC should be used since the number of fitting parameters (m ∈ [12..38]) is not small enough compare to the sample size (n = 105). It is important to note that according to the above-stated cut-off rule for AIC, the 18-knot B-spline model is suitable almost as the best one with 15 knots (since its difference ΔAIC < 2). However, the probability of that is more than two times less than for 15-knot model as it demonstrated by the evidence ratio: w15-knot(AIC)/w18-knot(AIC) = 0.63/0.30 = 2.1. Thus, this example clearly illustrates that AIC has a tendency to overparameterize a model while AICc (and BIC) tend to select simpler parameterization. The corresponding real and imaginary parts of the complex dielectric function are illustrated in Fig. 5 (solid lines). Comparison of the dielectric functions obtained by B-spline fit and pointby-point data inversion procedure [41] shows very good agreement (Fig. 5) which supports our strong confidence in obtained results.
Fig. 5. Real (ε1) and imaginary (ε2) parts of the complex dielectric function of ~200 Å-thick TiN film. Solid lines show results based on B-spline parameterization, reported as the best by the IC approach, with 15 equally spaced knots, while circles represent the results obtained via
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a point-by-point fit. Note that the B-spline parameterized dielectric function does not contain modeling artifacts (compare to Fig. 1).
3.2. Example 2: 250 Å Ta / 3300 Å SiO2 / Si As a second example, the measured data from a test wafer with Ta/thick SiO2/c-Si film structure were examined. The ellipsometric spectra were acquired using rotating-compensator variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsometer M-2000® from J.A. Woollam Co., Inc. at AOIs 50°–75° with step 5°. All fits were performed using CompleteEASE® software (version 4.86) in the spectral range of 1.24–6.21 eV (1000–200 nm; 503 data points). Similar to the first example, the coefficients of the B-spline model of Ta and the roughness, Ta and SiO2 thicknesses were fitted to the measured data.
Table 2 The AIC, AICc and BIC results for B-spline parameterization of the Ta film. No.of
AICk
ΔAICk
BICk
ΔBICk
wr(BICk)
39
437.4
31.6
0.0000
445.3
37.6
0.0000
614.7
120.3
0.0000
33
426.9
21.1
0.0000
432.6
24.9
0.0000
578.8
84.4
0.0000
28
419.1
13.4
0.0011
423.3
15.7
0.0004
550.0
55.6
0.0000
25
414.4
8.6
0.0116
417.8
10.1
0.0056
532.5
38.1
0.0000
22
411.8
6.0
0.0418
414.5
6.8
0.0288
517.3
22.9
0.0000
20
411.2
5.5
0.0560
413.5
5.8
0.0475
508.3
13.9
0.0006
18
405.8
0.0
0.8590
407.7
0.0
0.8834
494.4
0.0
0.6172
17
412.5
6.7
0.0300
414.2
6.5
0.0337
496.9
2.5
0.1778
15
421.0
15.3
0.0004
422.4
14.8
0.0006
497.0
2.6
0.1679
14
437.6
31.9
0.0000
438.9
31.2
0.0000
509.4
15.0
0.0003
13
433.1
27.4
0.0000
434.3
26.6
0.0000
500.7
6.3
0.0267
12
439.5
33.7
0.0000
440.4
32.8
0.0000
502.8
8.4
0.0094
11
473.6
67.8
0.0000
474.4
66.7
0.0000
532.7
38.3
0.0000
10
497.4
91.7
0.0000
498.2
90.5
0.0000
552.3
57.9
0.0000
9
539.0
133.3
0.0000
539.7
132.0
0.0000
589.7
95.3
0.0000
8
579.3
173.5
0.0000
579.8
172.1
0.0000
625.7
131.3
0.0000
knots
wr(AICk) AICck ΔAICck wr(AICck)
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Table 2 presents the results for B-spline parameterization of the Ta film. For better visualization, Fig. 6 depicts the obtained results as a function of the number of fitting parameters. It is evident from Table 2 and Fig. 6 that all criteria select the B-spline model with the number of fitting parameters m = 21 and, therefore, with the optimal number of knots i = 18. It is interesting to note that in this example the AIC and AICc demonstrate purely comparable weights values of 86% and 88%, respectively. This is due to substantially larger sample size (n = 503), which makes the correction to the AIC’s penalty term much less important. Fig. 7 compares the complex dielectric function of the Ta film obtained from the B-spline model (with 18 equidistant knots) and point-by-point data inversion procedure.
Fig. 6. Determination of the right number of knots: the AIC, AICc and BIC values plotted against the number of fitting parameters in B-spline parameterization of the Ta dielectric function. The thin vertical line indicates minima of the AIC, AICc and BIC functions.
In Fig. 8 three resulting curves for the real part of the dielectric function, obtained with different number of basis knots (8, 18 and 49), are shown. It can be clearly seen that the curve with 49 equidistant knots, which yields lowest MSE value of 2.010, contains noticeable wiggly artifacts between 3 and 4 eV and, therefore, measurement noise is not filtered out efficiently. At the same time, the curve with only 8 knots produces higher misfit (MSE = 3.028) and, therefore, misses some essential spectral features. The curve generated with selected by both information criteria optimal number of 18 knots displays the absence of apparent artifacts and yields acceptable MSE value of 2.061. 14
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Fig. 7. Comparison of the real (ε1) and imaginary (ε2) parts of the complex dielectric function of ~250 Å-thick Ta film obtained from the B-spline model (with 18 equidistant knots) and point-by-point data inversion procedure.
Fig. 8. Comparison of the real parts of the dielectric function for ~250 Å-thick Ta film obtained from the B-spline model with different number of basis knots: 8, 18 (optimal) and 49 knots. For better visibility, the curves for 18 and 49 knots are shifted up vertically by one and two units, respectively.
3.3. Example 3: 250 Å TaN / 3000 Å SiO2 / Si Finally, the last example is just like the second one, except for the top layer, where the Ta film was replaced by TaN, and slightly lower SiO2 layer thickness. Here we have used the same measurement and analysis setup as in previous example. The results from B-spline 15
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model of the TaN film are summarized in Table 3 and shown in Fig. 9. Examining obtained results, one can clearly see that all three criteria choose B-spline representation with 14 equidistant knots (and total number of fitting parameters m = 17). Looking at Table 3, we note that there are 72%, 79% and 96% chances, according to AIC, AICc and BIC, respectively, that the above-mentioned number of knots is really optimal for our TaN Bspline model. Fig. 10 compares the complex dielectric function of the TaN film obtained from the B-spline model (with 14 equidistant knots) and point-by-point data inversion procedure.
Table 3 The AIC, AICc and BIC results for B-spline parameterization of the TaN film. No.of
AICk
ΔAICk
BICk
ΔBICk
wr(BICk)
39
803.0
37.2
0.0000
810.8
43.7
0.0000
980.2
142.7
0.0000
33
791.4
25.6
0.0000
797.2
30.1
0.0000
943.4
105.8
0.0000
28
783.5
17.7
0.0001
787.7
20.6
0.0000
914.3
76.8
0.0000
25
778.9
13.1
0.0010
782.4
15.3
0.0004
897.1
59.5
0.0000
22
774.8
9.0
0.0079
777.6
10.5
0.0042
880.3
42.8
0.0000
20
768.7
2.9
0.1708
771.0
3.9
0.1113
865.8
28.2
0.0000
18
772.5
6.7
0.0252
774.4
7.4
0.0199
861.1
23.6
0.0000
17
772.9
7.1
0.0211
774.6
7.5
0.0183
857.3
19.7
0.0001
15
771.1
5.3
0.0514
772.5
5.4
0.0524
847.1
9.5
0.0083
14
765.8
0.0
0.7198
767.1
0.0
0.7904
837.6
0.0
0.9623
13
777.0
11.2
0.0026
778.1
11.1
0.0031
844.5
7.0
0.0292
12
796.7
30.9
0.0000
797.7
30.6
0.0000
860.0
22.5
0.0000
11
797.0
31.2
0.0000
797.9
30.8
0.0000
856.1
18.6
0.0001
10
827.6
61.8
0.0000
828.4
61.3
0.0000
882.5
44.9
0.0000
9
844.3
78.5
0.0000
844.9
77.9
0.0000
894.9
57.4
0.0000
8
863.8
98.0
0.0000
864.3
97.3
0.0000
910.2
72.7
0.0000
knots
wr(AICk) AICck ΔAICck wr(AICck)
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Fig. 9. Determination of the right number of knots: the AIC, AICc and BIC values plotted against the number of fitting parameters in B-spline parameterization of the TaN dielectric function. The thin vertical line indicates minima of the AIC, AICc and BIC functions.
Fig. 10. Comparison of the real (ε1) and imaginary (ε2) parts of the complex dielectric function of ~250 Å-thick TaN film obtained from the B-spline model (with 14 equidistant knots) and point-by-point data inversion procedure.
4. Conclusions In this paper, we have applied three widespread and well-established information criteria (AIC, AICc and BIC) to non-trivial problem of selecting the number of equidistant knots in B-spline parameterization of the dielectric functions. This approach demonstrates a great 17
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potential as an efficient tool to avoid overfitting of experimental data and achieve higher model accuracy and predictability. A few application examples illustrated the use of the IC techniques and interpretation of the obtained results. An important advantage of the IC approach is that it provides an objective and unambiguous guidance for choosing the number of knots in B-spline models and, thus, removes possible ad hoc decisions by an ellipsometry user. Further possible enhancement of our approach should also include a procedure for selecting optimal knot locations, especially when the number of knots is small (for instance, employing various “knot deletion and adjustment” techniques [42–44]). A simplified approach may include initially manual placement of knots with denser distribution near particular spectral features like critical points and then application of our suggested way of minimizing the information criteria to select appropriate knot number. However, it requires some prior knowledge on the material under test optical properties. Otherwise, an automatic knot adjustment will require a global search over entire set of possible knot locations and counts and that rapidly becomes computationally impracticable due to slow convergence to a global minimum and higher computation cost.
Acknowledgements The author wish to acknowledge Dr. Martin Weisheit (GLOBALFOUNDRIES, Dresden, Germany) for providing original VUV-VASE ellipsometric data for the TiN film used in present work.
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