Selfconcept and mood changes associated with aerobic dance

134

Self-Concept and Mood Changes Associated With Aerobic Dance Adrian D. Mclnman Department of Human Movement University of Western Australia

Bonnie G. Berger, Ed.D. Department of Physical Education Brooklyn College of the City Universrty of New York This study examined relationship between short-term changes in self-concept and mood associated with aerobic dance participation. Female aerobic dance participants (n = 75) and female university students (n = 42) completed multidimensional measures of mood (Profie of Mood States; Shacham, 1983) and selfconcept (Self-DescriptionQuestionnaireXI& Marsh, 1992)before and after their respective activities. Analyses revealed significant positive changes for aerobic dance participants on specific dimensions of mood, whereas controls showed minimal changes. Similar analyses for self-concept revealed significant, but weak changes on 10 of 13 scales by aerobic participants. Controls showed one positive and one negative change. Neither extent of mood change, nor Social Physique Anxiety, mediated changes in selfconcept. Generally, correlations between selfconcept and mood scales wen not high, although emotional stability self-concept, physical appearance self-concept, and global self-concept correlated moderately with specific dimensions of mood.

Since the late 1970s there has been a resurgence of interest in self-concept (Rosenberg & Kaplan, 1982) with special focus on its fundamental structure (Markus & Wurf, 1987). One basic concern is whether self-concept is malleable or stable (Markus & Kunda, 1986; Rosenberg, 1986). Many researchers have noted the stable nature of selfconcept (Mortimer & Lorence, 1981; O'Malley & Bachman, 1983; Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976). Typically, longitudinal studies have revealed high test-retest correlations (Marsh, Richards, & Barnes, 1986). Mortimer and Lorence (1981) noted a striking stability with individuals from adolescence to early adulthood on five self-concept dimensions over a 14-year period. This stability is all the more remarkable when compared with a German study (Glatzer, 1984; cited in Schwarz, Strack, Kommer, & Wagner, 1987) researching the construct of well-being. Glatzer found that when subjects were asked about their global well-being twice during a 1-hour interview, the test-retest reliability was usually around 0.40 and never exceeded 0.60. Epstein (1973) suggests that the major reason for stability of self-concept is that individuals, in order to avoid anxiety, shield their significant self-concepts from becoming invalid. Swann and colleagues (Swann, 1985; Swann & Hill, 1982) have revealed how individuals actually seek out consistent and stable self-concepts. They found that individuals with negative self-concepts prefer and search for unfavourable evaluations more often than individuals who possess more positive self-concepts (Swann, Hixon, SteinSeroussi, & Gilbert, 1990). A number of researchen have also shown how individuals tend to reject information that is in opposition to their self-concept (Greenwald & Pratkanis, 1984; Rosenberg, 1979; Tesser & Campbell, 1983). Thus, it is not surprising that extensive psychological interventions have often produced either no, or only slight, changes in individuals' self-concepts (Marsh, Smith, Barnes, & Butler, 1983). Contrary to evidence that self-concept is stable, considerable research has shown self-concept to be situationally specific (Demo, 1985; Higgins & King, 1981) and fluctuates significantly in both experimental (Gergen, 1972) and naturalistic settings (Savin-Williams & Demo, 1983). Positive temporal changes occur when individuals "bask in the glow" of a successful achievement (Cialdini, et al., 1976). Whom a person is with also affects their self-concept. For instance, self-esteem levels of

mothers fluctuate according to whether they are alone, with their children, or with other adults (Wells, 1988). Fluctuations in selfconcept also occur (a) with exposure to nationalistic advertisements (Pedic, 1989). (b) when thinking about one's positive qualities (Gergen, 1972), (c) when comparing oneself with a successful stranger (Tesser, 1988), (d) with evaluative feedback (Jussirn, Coleman, & Nassau, 1989), and (e) in a casual encounter with someone who is competing for the same employment vacancy (Morse & Gergen, 1970). As increasing research is supporting a situation-specific element of self-concept, more researchers are suggesting that, rather than perceiving selfconcept in the traditional manner of definite and fairly stable characteristics (Lecky, 1945; Snygg & Combs, 1949). it may be better to view self-concept as maintaining a stable base, but "subject to momentary fluctuations in self-definition" (Morse & Gergen, 1970, p. 154). A number of models have been suggested to explain this. Rosenberg (1986) proposes a twocomponent model of self-concept. The baseline self-concept is fairly fmed and changes only occur over an extended period of time. The barometric self-concept, however, is more situationally specific, fluctuating from moment-to-moment according to the immediate environment. Thus Rosenberg (1986) argues: "It is possible for the barometric self-concept to fluctuate greatly, even if the baseline selfconcept shows little change" (p. 126). M a r h and her colleagues (Markus & Kunda, 1986; Markus & Nurim, 1986) propose a similar model, even though it was developed from a strikingly different methodology (information processing based). She views self-concept as a system of self-schemas or generalisations about the self derived from past experiences and suggests the notion of a "working self-concept." This working self-concept "is best viewed as a continually active, shifting array of accessible self-knowledge" (Markus & Wurf, 1987, p. 306). As more research reveals the malleable nature of self-concept it is not unreasonable to hypothesise that self-concept may be a function of mood. Little research has examined this possibility. Indirect support for such a relationship has been provided by two studies. Cohen, Towbes, and Flocco (1988) randomly assigned subjects to either a depressed, neutral, or elated condition and obtained significant changes in the self-evaluative dimension of the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List. Similarly, Harter (1986) administered four scales (mood, energy, self-worth, self-

Requests for reprints should be sent to Adrian Mclnman, Human Movement Department, University of Western Australia, PO Box 320 Nedlands, Perth WA 6009, Australia.

Australian Journal of Psychology Vol. 45,NO.3,1993 pp. 134-140

Self-Concept and Mood blame) to children and found that self-worth and mood were highly correlated. She concluded, “the degree to which one is sad or depressed versus happy or cheerful is highly related to one’s general attitude of self - how much one likes oneself as a person” (Harter, 1986, p. 167). Mood seems to affect an individual’s general satisfaction with life, but not with specific domains such as work, income, and housing (Schwarz & Clore, 1983; S c h w a , Strack, Kommer, & Wagner, 1987; Strack, Schwarz, & Gschneidinger, 1985). We propose the effects of mood on self-concept are similar to those affecting satisfaction in that a global dimension of self-concept is more likely to vary with mood fluctuations than are specific dimensions of self-concept. We propose this hypothesis as there is considerable debate concerning the structure and validity of general self-concept (Fleming & Watts, 1980; Harter, 1986; Marx & Winne, 1978, 1980). One argument against a general self-concept is that each individual has experienced such an enormous number of past events, ideas, beliefs, and thoughts that no one could possibly attend to all of this information simultaneously (Markus, 1977; Marsh, Barnes, & Hocevar, 1985). The validity of a general self-concept is further questioned as scales designed to measure such a global construct are not highly related to specific dimensions (Marsh, Barnes, & Hocevar, 1985; Marsh & O’Neill, 1984). We also suggest that specific dimensions of self-concept related to fluctuations in an individual’s mood are more likely to change than are specific dimensions of self-concept unrelated to mood fluctuation. For example, if an individual participates in exercise, we would expect greater changes in physical ability, physical appearance, and emotional stability self-concept than in parental relations selfconcepts. Physical exercise has been associated with changes in global selfconcept, specific self-concepts, and mood (Berger & Owen, 1983, 1988; Jones, 1985; Nagy & Frazier, 1988; Plummer & Koh, 1987). Most studies assessing the effects of exercise on selfcon-ept have employed short-term exercise programs lasting between 3 and 13 weeks (Collingwood & Willett, 1971; Ford, Puckett, Blessing, & Tucker, 1989; McGowan, Jarman, & Pedersen, 1974). Such studies have examined the influences of exercise programs with a pre-, post-exercise program design on self-concept, rather than assessing changes “pre to post” in a single exercise session. One reason for this focus on exercise programs and not single sessions is the traditional view that selfconcept is a trait rather than a state construct. Some studies have reported si@icant improvements in selfconcept after exercising (Hayden, Allen, & Camaione, 1986; May, 1979; Perri & Templer, 1984). Others have reported no change (Jones, 1985; Scudder, 1978; Sonstroem, 1981), or even a decrease in self-concept (Puretz, 1982). Many studies indicate that aerobic dance has been associated with positive changes in selfconcept (Barton, 1980; Plummer & Koh, 1987; Pohl 1985; Shifron, 1983; Tseo, 1983). Jones (1985) and Teng (1982), however, did not find such changes. Although long-term mood changes with exercise either have not occurred (Nagy & Frazier, 1988) or have been impossible to interpret (Berger, Friedmann, & Eaton, 1988) researchers consistently report short-term mood benefits associated with physical exercise such as aerobic dance, running, swimming, weight-lifting, and yoga (Berger & Owen, 1983, 1988; Dyer & Crouch, 1987; Gondola, 1987; McGowan, Pierce, & Jordan, 1991; Sachs & Buffone, 1984). The present study was designed to clarify the relationship between self-concept, mood, and exercise. We examined selfconcept and mood changes associated with participation in an aerobics dance session and the relationships between self-concept and mood. We hypothesised that aerobic dance participants would report mood benefits as reflected by their Profile of Mood States responses. Exercisers were expected to report decreases in Anger, Confusion, Depression. Fatigue, and Tension, and increases in Vigour. Aerobic dance participants also wen expected to report changes in self-concept as measured by the SelfDescription Questionnaire III. It was expected that change was most likely to occur in general self-concept. Other dimensions

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hypothesised to change included Physical Ability, Physical Appearance, and Emotional Stability self-concepts. We also hypothesised that exercisers reporting greater mood changes would perceive larger self-concept changes than those experiencing smaller mood changes. A final hypothesis deals with a possible mediating effect of Social Physique Anxiety on self-concept changes after exercise. Hart, Lcary, and Rejeski (1989) defined Social Physique Anxiety as the “anxiety that people experience in response to others’ evaluations of their physiques” (p. 94). They reported that women who were high in social physique anxiety weighed more, had a higher percentage of body fat, and experienced greater anxiety when their bodies were being evaluated than those low in social physique anxiety. In this study we hypothesised that female aerobic dance participants with high Social Physique Anxiety would report fewer changes in self-concept than those with low Social Physique Anxiety. This may be because individuals who are high in Social Physique Anxiety are more preoccupied with their social physique anxiety and are thus less able to relax and enjoy the exercise session.

METHOD Subjects Female aerobic dance participants (n = 75) at a Perth university recreational exercise centre participated in this study. Participants ranged between 15 and 43 years of age (M = 23.09, SD = 5.19) and differed in aerobic dance experience: 6.25% had participated for less than 1 month, 43.75% participated between 1 month and 1 year, and 50.00% participated for more than 1 year. Second and 3rd-year female physical-education university students and 2ndyear female recreation students from a nearby Perth college of advanced education served as a control group (n = 42). Control subjects ranged in age from 17 to 28 years (M = 20.39, SD = 2.50). Procedure Prior to exercising, participants completed an informed consent form and a demographic questionnaire. They completed the SelfDescription Questionnaire I11 and the abbreviated Profile of Mood States before and after a 60-min exercise class. The authors provided interpretative descriptions for any unclear word by using the alternative word list for the POMS (Albrecht & Ewing, 1989). Exercisers also responded to the Social Physique Anxiety Scale after the class. Each aerobic dance class included a 5-min warm up, a 5-min stretching period, 45 min of intermediate level aerobic and strengthening exercises, and a 5-min cool down. The emphasis was on developing general cardiovascular fitness. There was a strong cautionary flavour to the classes with instructors constantly suggesting easier alternatives for participants who wanted to work at a lower intensity. Each woman was offered a computer analysis and personal interpretation of her scores. Confidentiality was emphasised and women used code names to identify their questionnaires. The testing procedure for the nonexercising control group was identical to that of the exercisers. However, instead of exercising for 60 min. controls participated in a lecture class. Measures Shacham’s (1983) abbreviated version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971) contains 37 items and includes six scales: Anger, Confusion, Depression, Fatigue, Tension, and Vigour. Correlations between the scales from the original 65-item inventory (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971) with Shacham’s scales measuring the same mood constructs are very high ranging from .951 for Tension to 9 7 9 for Fatigue. The POMS has been shown to have good construct validity (Boyle, 1987). The Self-Description Questionnaire III (SDQ ID;Marsh, 1992) is a multidimensional measure of self-concept which comprises 13 self-concept scales: Academic, Emotional Stability, English, General, Hones‘ty, Maths, Opposite Sex Relations, Parental RelaAustralian Journal of Psychology Vol. 45, No. 3, 1993 pp. 134140

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Adrian D. Mclnrnan and Bonnie G. Berger

Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for the Profile of Mood States Scale

Aerobic Participants Mean SD

Controls Mean

SD

TMD 110.00 97.81

17.23 10.98

109.26 108.40

20.31 17.05

2.45 .56

3.87 1.56

1.57 2.81

2.50 4.54

Re 3.29 Post 1.32 Depression Re 2.80 .71 Post Fatigue Pre 5.80 5.69 Post Tension Pre 4.84 Post 1.27 vigour 9.19 Pre Post 11.73

3.06 2.30

3.40 2.38

3.44 2.55

3.62 1.84

3.29 2.29

5.44 3.72

4.27 4.05

7.00 5.31

5.43 4.95

3.95 2.13

3.07 3.02

3.48 3.65

9.07 7.40

5.43 4.36

PIC

Post Anger

Pn Post Confusion

5.05 5.34

’

tions, Physical Ability, Physical Appearance, Problem Solving, Religion, and Same Sex Relations. Each scale includes 10-12 items which subjects respond to using an eight-point response checklist. Factor analysis has contirmed the 13 dimensions and shown that the correlations among the dimensions arc very small (Marsh, Barnes, & Hocevar, 1985; Marsh & O’Neill, 1984). Convergent and divergent validity is also acceptable (Byme & Shavelson, 1986; Marsh, Barnes, & Hocevar, 1985). The SDQ instruments have been reviewed favourably by Boyle (in press). The Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS; Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989) is a 12-itcm. 5-point Likert scale which assesses the degree of anxiety an individual experiences in response to other’s evaluation of hidher physique. Substantial reliability and validity information was provided in their article.

RESULTS Mood Anakyses A 2 (Group) x 2 (Pre-, Post-activity) MANOVA was conducted on the six POMS scales to investigate the relationship between exercise and mood. As expected, the multivariate interaction between group and pre-, post-activity was significant (Wilks = .619, F(6.110) = 11.28, p c ,001). When aerobia participants’ scores were analysed separately, the multivariate prepost activity effect was significant (Wilks = .413, F(6, 69) = 16.34,p c ,001). There were significant univariate effects on 5 of the 6 scales: decreased Anger, Confusion, Depression, Tension, and increased Vigour. There was no significant change in Fatigue (see Table 1 for mean scores). It is important to discuss not only the significance of differences, but also the magnitude of such differences (Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981; Thomas, Salazar, & Lenders, 1991). This can be achieved by the post-hoc estimate Effect Size (ES). Cohen (1990) suggests. that measurement of effect sizes, and not p values, should be the main aim in research. Cohen (1988) argues that effect sizes .c 0.41 reveal only small differences in magnitude. of the five mood scales which revealed significant differences from pre- to post-exercising, three (Confusion, Depression, Tension) had effect sizes > 0.41 (see Table 2). When controls’ scores were analysed separately, there was a Australian Journal of Psychology Vol. 45, No. 3, 1993 pp. 134-140

Table 2 F Ratios, p Values, and Effect Size (ES) Values for the Aerobic Participant‘s Profile of Mood States Scales Scale

F ratio

p value

Es

Tension Confusion Depression Anger Vigour Fatigue

82.37 55.71 35.43 22.08 12.73 0.03

.001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .862

-0.66 -0.54 -0.43 -0.34 0.26 -0.01

significant multivariate pre-post activity effect (Wilks = .417, F(6,36) = 8 . 4 0 , ~< .001). After sitting in a lecture class, controls reported significant decreases in Vigour, F(1, 41) = 9.00, p = .005, and Fatigue, F(1, 41) = 15.72, p c .001. Neither of these two subscales, however, had effect sizes above 0.41 (although Fatigue was close with -0.39). Thus these two changes are of minimal practical consequence. Self-concept Analyses As hypothesised, the 2 (Group) x 2 (Pre-, Post-activity)

MANOVA conducted on the 13 self-concept dimensions revealed a significant Group x Pre-, Post-activity interaction (wilks = .734, F(13,104) = 2 . 8 9 , ~= .OOl). Analysing aerobia participants separately, there was a signif”cant multivariate pre-, post-activity main effect (Wilks = .368, F(13, 62) = 8.20, p < .00l). Univariate F-testsrevealed aerobics participants changed in the predicted positive direction from preto post-exercise on 10 of the 13 scales (see Table 3 for mean scores). After 60 min of aerobic dance, exercisers reported significant increases in Academic, Emotional Stability, General, Honesty, Maths, Opposite Sex Relations, Parental Relations, Physical Ability, Physical Appearance, and Problem Solving self-concept. Of the 10 scales which underwent significant changes h m preto post-exercising, only Emotional Stability self-concept, however, had an appreciable effect size (see Table 4). As hypothesised, there was no evidence of a multivariate change in self-concept for the lecture control group (Wilks = ,575, F(13, 30) = 1.70,p = .112). Similarly, there were few univariate changes. Academic self-concept decreased, F(1, 42) = 5.94, p = .019, and Emotional Stability self-concept increased, F(1,42) = 4 . 9 2 , = ~ .032, but both subscales had ESs substantially lower than 0.41. Thus these apparent changes in self-concept do not have any substantial meaning.

Mood and Self-concept I n t e n d o n A Total Mood Disturbance score (TMD) was computed by addition of the five negative scales and subtraction of the Vigour scale (McNair, Lon, & Droppleman, 1971). Subjects were divided into high and low mood change groups according to a mean split on their TMD change scores. A 2 (Pre-, Post-activity) x 2 Total Mood Change (Large, Small) *OVA with repeated measurea on the last factor was conducted on the 13 self-concept scales for the aerobic dance participants. This analysis examined whether individuals who reported large mood changes were more likely to change their self-concepts than those who reported small mood changes. Results indicated no interaction (Wilks = ,850, F(13,61) = 0.831, p 3: .626) or main effect for Total Mood Change (Wiks = ,753, F(13, 61) = 1.54, p = .128). There was, however, a significant main effect for pre-, post-exerck (Wilks = .364,F(13, 61) = 8 . 2 1 , ~= .00l). This analysis suggests that the degree to which the aerobics participants changed their mood was not a significant factor in their self-concept changes. So& Physique W e 0 and Self-concept A 2 @re-, Post-activity) x 2 (HighSocial Physique Anxiety,

Low Social Physique Anxiety) MANOVA was conducted on the 13 selfconcept dimensions for the exercisers. Aerobic dance participants were separated into two groups according to a mean

Self-Concept and Mood

Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations for the Self-Descrip tion Questionnaire 111 Scale

Aerobic Participants Mean SD

Academic Pre Post Emotional Stability Pre Post English Pre Post General Pre Post Honesty Pre Post Maths Pre Post Opposite Sex Pre Post Parental Relations Pre Post Physical Abilities Pre Post Physical Appearance Pre Post Problem Solving Pre Post Religion Pre Post Same Sex Pre Post

Controls Mean SD

61.96 62.93

9.01 9.11

56.48 55.05

7.98 7.90

53.15 57.15

12.15 12.16

52.79 57.44

11.16 11.08

61.01 61.56

9.08 8.94

54.33 54.79

10.13 10.43

75.12 76.84

12.87 12.37

71.26 71.02

12.49 12.47

76.03 77.88

8.16 8.90

75.37 75.09

7.52 8.39

46.36 48.56

18.24 17.37

45.40 45.95

15.90 14.41

59.01 60.00

10.59 10.91

57.74 57.26

8.91 9.96

58.00 59.20

14.41 13.06

62.88 63.58

11.00 11.81

61.04 62.29

11.49 12.33

66.53 66.12

7.15 7.28

51.45 53.65

11.08 12.18

46.60 46.63

9.55 9.88

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Table 4 F Ratios, p Values, and Effect Size (ESI Values for the Aerobic Participanfs SelfDescription Questionnaire 111 Scales Scale Emotional Stability Physical Appearance Problem Solving Maths Honesty General Academic Physical Ability Parental Relations Opposite Sex Religion English Same Sex

F Ratio

p value

ES

52.42 19.08 13.78 13.34 10.55 9.26 5.56 5.35 5.21 4.52 3.55 1.33 0.67

.001 .001 .001 .001 .002 .003 .021 ,024

0.53 0.32 0.27 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.08 -0.06

.025

.037 .064 2-52 .417

dance participants. Only preexercise scores were analysed. We used this procedure to eliminate any contaminating effects of participating in the exercise class. Most of the correlations were negative. These negative correlations suggest that individuals reporting lower levels of negative affect perceived themselves as having more positive self-concepts. Of the 78 correlations only 11 (14.10%) were equal to or greater than .30.No mood subscale stood out as being more highly correlated with the self-concept scales than other mood scales. Three of the 13 self-concept dimensions (General, Emotional Stability, Physical Appearance) were more highly correlated with the mood scales than the other 10 self-concept dimensions. General self-concept, as expected, was the most highly correlated with mood. Two of the 3 specific dimensions of self-concept hypothesised as being more related to exercise also were highly correlated: Emotional Stability and Physical Appearance self-concepts. More salient dimensions of self-concept are more likely to be related to mood than nonsalient specific dimensions of self-concept.

DISCUSSION Short-term changes in mood were associated with participation in a single aerobic dance session. As hypothesised, aerobic dance participants reported more mood benefits than did controls. Significant mood benefits associated with aerobic dance support pre44.12 15.50 50.12 19.25 vious research on mood benefits of jogging, running, swimming, 19.43 43.91 16.08 51.15 hatha yoga, and fencing (Berger, Friedmann, & Eaton, 1988; Berger & Owen, 1988;Dyer & Crouch, 1987;McGowan, Pierce, 60.58 9.38 9.69 61.35 & Jordan, 1991). The number of mood states enhanced in this 9.29 59.70 8.36 60.91 study was as extensive, if not more so,than that found in other studies (Berger, Friedmann, & Eaton, 1988; Berger & Owen, 1983,1986). Thus aerobic dance appears to be particularly effective in enhancing mood for female exercisers. split on Social Physique Anxiety. Contrary to our hypothesis, the As hypothesised, changes in self-concept were in the global interaction between high and low anxiety and pre-, post-exercise dimension of self-concept (General self-concept) and specific was not significant (Wilks = .783,F(13, 61) = 1.30,p = 237). scales related to the physical activity: Physical Appearance selfHowever, main effects for pre-, post-exercise (Wilks = .366, concept and Emotional Stability self-concept. Dimensions of F(13, 61) = 8.12,p < .001)and for Social Physique Anxiety self-concept (e.g., English, Same Sex Relations, Religion) not (Wilks = .498,F(13, 61) = 4.74,p < .001)were significant. Fol- expected to change however, remained stable. It is logical that a low-up univariate F-tests revealed four of the self-concept single session of aerobic dance significantly enhanced Physical dimensions significantly differed for aerobics participants who Appearance self-concept. Possible reasons are weight-loss mainwere high compared with those low in Social Physique Anxiety. tenance and muscle toning achieved by exercise. Since exercise As expected, individuals with low Social Physique Anxiety had has been closely related to a variety of mood benefits, it is not higher self-concept levels on General (p c .OOl), Physical surprising that women also reported enhanced Emotional StabiliAppearance (p < .00l),Opposite Sex Relations (p = .OOl),and ty self-concept. Physical Ability self-concepts (p = .02). These results suggest The hypothesised change in General self-concept, although that aerobics participants reported changes in self-concept significant, was weak and while it provides some support for its regardless of their level of Social Physical Anxiety. malleable and situational specific nature (Demo, 1985; Marsh, Barnes, & Hocevar, 1985;Rosenberg, 1986). it also suggests a Mood and Self concept Relationships need for further research. General self-concept may be more staPearson product-moment correlations between the 13 self-con- ble than we anticipated. Nevertheless, the findings from this cept dimensions and six mood scales were conducted for aerobic study support-Harter’s (1986) suggestion that we should further

53.11 54.64

9.67 9.63

47.05 46.30

8.06 8.91

Australian Journal of Psychology Vol. 45,No. 3, 1993 pp. 134-140

138 Adrian D. Mclnman and Bonnie G. Berger Table 5 Correlations between the Profile of Mood States and the SelfDescription Questionnaire 111 for Aerobic Participants (n = 75) before the Exercise Class -

Anger

Confusion

-.16 -.27* -.07 -25' -.16

-.37** -.14 -.45** .01

POMS Scales Depression Fatigue

Tension

Vigour

SDQ III Scales Academic Emotional Stability English General Honesty Maths Opposite Sex Parental Relations Physical Abilities Physical Appearance Problem Solving Religion same sex *=p