Senior high school students' job planning for the ...

Revista de Asistenţă Socială, anul XII, 1, 2013, pp. 59-70

Mihai-Bogdan Iovu

59

Senior high school students’ job planning for the future: what factors really matter? Mihai-Bogdan Iovui Abstract. Job orientation, defined as how adolescents anticipate and construct their future employment, is a multidimensional and multistage phenomenon. Studies have indicated that how adolescents anticipate and plan for their future job is greatly influenced by the particular context in which they are placed, but most of the research in this area has been conducted with adolescents from western cultures. As Romanian senior high school students face a complex set of future occupational options, how and if the decision is influenced by personal or social factors is an important question of interest. This study examines future job planning of adolescents in contemporary Romania and its relation to adolescents’ self-confidence, family, peer group and community support. We administered a questionnaire to 905 senior high schoolers. Results show that adolescents’ future job planning is influenced mainly by the level of self-confidence and family support while peer group and neighborhood support were less successful as predictors. Compared with boys, girls are more likely to plan having a job in the near future; adolescents from urban areas are more likely to think about employment. Keywords: adolescents, job planning, self-confidence, family, peer-group, community support, discriminant analysis

INTRODUCTION Adolescence is often seen as an important period for adolescents in transition to adulthood. Multiple systems are involved in this preparation and orientation, resulting in a complex process which operates to propel adolescents toward thinking about and making plans for later adult attainments. The number of adolescents worldwide who make career related decisions each year indicate the importance of future job planning (Witko, Bernes, Magnusson, Bardick, 2006). Thinking about the future and oneself in the future has a bigger role in adolescence than in the other developmental periods of life (Trempala, Malmberg, 2002). Facing this developmental task, adolescents may attempt to place the responsibility for making a career decision onto others and may even delay or avoid making a choice, which could ultimately lead to a less than optimal decision (Gati, Saka 2001). Therefore, it is crucial to determine the factors that influence students’ decisions in order to assist them in this complicated process. To date, there is a quite extensive literature providing both theoretical understanding and empirical data on the timing and occurrence of major life events as career, marriage and parenthood (Farmer, 1985; Seltzer, 2000). Studies show that adolescent career aspirations and planning are shaped by a number of social factors like family and peeri

Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, School of Sociology and Social Work, 128-130 21 Decembrie 1989 Blvd., 400604 Cluj-Napoca, E-mail: [email protected].

60 M.B. Iovu / Senior high school students’ job planning: What factors really matter?

group support (Fisher, Griggs, 1995; Seginer, Shoyer, 2012), school environment (Fisher, Griggs, 1995), socioeconomic status (Snell, Stokes, Sands, McBride, 1994), but also individual factors like gender (Gati, Saka, 2001), ethnicity (Nurmi, Poole, Kalakoski, 1994), and self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, Pastorelli, 2001). The influence of parents on the future job planning of their children has been well researched in the literature. Despite popular beliefs and the growing importance of peer relationships during adolescence, several decades of research have shown that parents continue to be significant figures for their adolescent children (Laursen, Collins, 2009). Family has a strong influence on shaping adolescents’ career development, occupational plans and attitudes toward job success (Steinberg, 2004). Studies have reported that parental support positively predicted career interest and career decision-making among adolescents and college students (Ferry, Fouad, Smith, 2000; Paa, McWhirter, 2000; Turner, Lapan, 2003). Furthermore, Brown (2003 apud. Khasawneh, 2010) states that parents have the biggest influence on future educational and vocational choices of children. Peer group support is also important in helping adolescents make decisions about future career plans (Felsman, Blustein, 1999). As early as 1991, Wilson-Sadberry, Winfield and Royster reported that peers influence the future career aspirations of students. The influence of school environment has also been recognised as an important factor affecting students’ career planning. A study by Leondari, Syngollitou and Kiosseoglou (1998) found that adolescents who had positive outlooks towards their futures also recorded better academic performances. If adolescents are more future oriented they may be more likely to actively work toward being successful in the future. Perceived teacher support also plays an important role in adolescents’ career planning and development (Khasawneh, 2010). The influence teachers have on career choices is ranked by adolescents behind that of parents or peers (Paa, McWhirter, 2000). Individuals who lack confidence in their abilities to make productive career plans will most likely experience frustration and may make premature or poor career decisions (Brown, Lent, 1996; Fisher, Griggs, 1995). Children’s perceived efficacy rather than their actual academic achievement is the key determinant of their perceived occupational selfefficacy and preferred choice of work-life (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, Pastorelli, 2001). In conclusion, previous international research shows that youth who generally perceive their parents, teachers and peers as supportive are more likely to consider work as an important part of their lives, to seek leadership positions in their chosen field and to expect that they will be successful in their chosen careers (Kenny, Blustein, Chaves, Grossman, Gallagher, 2003). But what about Romanian adolescents? Job planning for Romanian adolescents In Romania, starting from 2007, more than 60% students graduate postsecondary education and therefore make the decision to either attend higher education or enter the world of work each year. For the school year 2009/2010 the graduation rate from highschool (with and without graduation exam passed reaches 79.9, the highest from the 2003 (MECTS, 2011). There are few empirical analyses focusing on how Romanian adolescents make decisions concerning their future after exiting formal education. It is believed that young people living in developing countries (such as Romania) have few economic resources, receive only limited education, and tend to take on adult roles (marriage, parenthood, full-

Revista de Asistenţă Socială, 1, 2013

61

time employment) at an earlier age to support their family (UNICEF, 2011). The insertion rate in the work force for Romanian highschool graduates one year after their graduation reaches only 34.3% (MECTS, 2011). Therefore it is not surprising that one third of students do not believe in their future success (Muntean, Roth, Iovu, 2010), therefore their future plans might be ambiguous. If we take into account that 81% of young Romanians think that the most frequent form in which young people are employed is through illegal forms of work (NR, Opinion Poll, 2000), then we can understand why it is important to see why a student makes this decision. Moreover, starting 2013, the option of a professional graduation exam has been included in the education law, so students who are considering entering the work force must pass this exam.

METHODS Aim Because our interest is in Romanian college seniors and because there is little research in this area, we focused on their future planning related to potential employment. This study complements research on adolescents’ orientation and preparation by examining their plans having a job. The main question to be addressed is in what combination of individual, family, peer-group and community variables best distinguishes students who will plan having a job from those who do not. Sources of data Data were collected between May and June 2012. The total valid sample consisted of 905 senior highschool students from 6 Romanian counties (Cluj, Mureş, Covasna, Vâlcea, Timiş, Bucureşti). Questioning adolescents raises some methodological and ethical issues that need to be addressed accurately. Having few alternatives, we choose the same methodological design from a previous study conducted in Romania in 20081 (Roth, 2009; Hărăguş, Roth, Dămean 2010). The reasons were as follows: (a) considering our ageinterest most of adolescents are enrolled in educational process; the ones who are not are already special cases and should be treated as such. Our investigation tried to asses what is happening with the typical adolescent; (b) adolescents can be used as subjects in an inquiry because they have the essential abilities to understand and answer the questions. Therefore, filling in questionnaires will not be seen as a special activity, but a normal one; and (c) grouping respondents in classes has the advantage of applying a large number of questionnaires in a shorter period of time. Sample profile There were slightly more female students in the sample (52.9% compared to 47.1%). By the age 15, 57.8% were living in urban settings and 41.6% were living in rural areas. The students that lived in another country are underrepresented in the sample. Also, the large majority of the sample indicated they were Romanian (80.4%) and orthodox (76.1%). The majority of students declared they came from stable family structures, 82.1% declaring that their parents had never split up (Table 1).


Table 1. Sample characteristics Characteristic Gender Male Female Ethnicity Romanian Hungarian Roma German Other Religion Orthodox Other (Greek catholic, Roman catholic, (neo-)Protestant Other situation Residency by age 15 Romania, urban Romania, rural Another country Family stability Parents never split up Parents never lived together Other situation Parents split up

N (%) 418 (47.1) 470 (52.9) 710 (80.4) 160 (18.1) 8 (0.9) 4 (0.5) 1 (0.1) 643 (76.1) 190 (22.5) 12 (1.5) 505 (57.8) 364 (41.6) 5 (0.6) 712 (82.1) 15 (1.7) 21 (2.4) 119 (13.7) Source: generated by the author

Measures Four continuous independent variables (self confidence, family support, peer group support, and neighbor support) and one categorical dependent variable (future job planning) were used. Self confidence scale (M = 13.34, SD = 2.16) measured the degree youth report a sense of confidence in themselves and positive self-regard. The 3-point likert scale used the following response categories: 1 = Not at all, 2 = A little, 3 = A lot. By summing the responses of the 5 items a total score was generated, with higher scores meaning a high level of self confidence. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the scale for the current data is .86. Family support scale (M = 18.78, SD = 3.04) measured the degree youth report that the people in their home feel a sense of emotional closeness and bonding with one another, do things together, and work together to solve problems. This scale also uses a 3-point Likert response format (1 = Not at all, 2 = A little, 3 = A lot). By summing the response of the 7 associated items a general score was computed where higher score indicates a greater family support. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the family togetherness scale for the current data is .90. Peer group support scale (M = 12.62, SD = 2.62) measured the degree youth perceives their friends as trustworthy and supportive and as responsive to their needs and feelings. The combined 5-item scale utilized a 3-point Likert response format for each item (1=Not at all, 2=A little, 3=A lot). The range of possible scores was 5 to 15, with a higher score indicating a greater peer-group support. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the peer group support scale is .91.


63

Neighbor support scale (M = 17.70, SD = 4.51) measured the degree youth perceive their neighbors as trustworthy and supportive of young people, interested in their welfare, and willing to help them if they have a problem. This scale uses a 4-point Likert response format (1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly agree). By summing the response of the 7 associated items a general score was computed where higher score indicates a greater neighbor support. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the family togetherness scale for the current data is .83. Future job planning is a categorical variable (1 = Yes, 2 = No) identifying adolescents’ plans in finding a job in the near future (For the next 2-3 years do you plan having a job). Demographics. Additional information was obtained regarding racial/ethnic background (Romanian / other), gender (male / female), religion (orthodox / other), family type (never split up / other), and residency (urban / rural). Procedure The questionnaire was self administrated to a sample of 950 students. The number of valid questionnaires reached 905. The average time needed for completion was one hour. A formal agreement from the County School Inspectorates was obtained. Also verbal agreements from the school manager and from the head-class teacher were obtained before the actual empirical research. Respondents were told that their responses would be treated anonymously and that they keep the option of refusing filling in the questionnaires. Data analysis Data were analyzed using the SPSS version 18 for Microsoft Windows. Response frequencies for the survey questions were determined and displayed in tabular formats. After examining the response frequencies discriminant analysis (DA) was run. DA is a parametric technique to determine to determine which weightings of quantitative variables (predictors) best discriminate between 2 or more than 2 groups of cases and do so better than chance (Ramayah et al., 2010). I used DA instead of logistic regression because we have one categorical outcome (or grouping variable) and all independent variables are continuous. Also assumptions of DA were met: the relationship between all pairs of predictors is linear and multivariate normality exists within groups.

RESULTS Adolescents’ future planning in having a job 87.6% of the respondents plan having a job in the near future. There are significant differences in the outcome variable as a function of gender (2 = 4.21, df = 1, N = 768, p = .026), ethnicity (2 = 9.12, df = 1, N = 769, p = .003), religion (2 = 4.35, df = 1, N = 736, p = .028), and residency (2 = 5.53, df = 1, N = 758, p = .012). Family type was not significant (p = .251). As expected, orthodox and Romanian youth were more likely to plan this; interesting enough girls were more likely planning having a job compared with boys and adolescents living in urban setting compared with rural youth.


Self confidence, family, peer group and neighborhood support for senior high school students The majority of respondents report a high level of confidence in themselves and positive self-regard (Table 2). Significant differences in reported level of self confidence are according to ethnicity (t224.23 = 5.73, p = 10-7), religion (t279.21 = 4.81, p = 10-5), and residency (t738.25 = 2.24, p = .025). As expected, Romanian, orthodox and urban youth experience higher levels of self confidence. Table 2. Descriptive analysis of the self confidence scale How well the following statements describe you I feel good about myself I am satisfied with myself I am able to do things as well as most other people I have a number of good qualities I have confidence in myself

Not at all 4.4% (40) 3.3% (30) 2.1% (19) 2.5% (23) 4.5% (41)

A little A lot 27.1% (245) 68.5% (619) 29.7% (267) 67% (603) 20.9% (188) 77% (694) 30.8% (278) 66.6% (601) 23.9% (216) 71.6% (647) Source: generated by the author

The majority of youth report that family members help developing a sense of emotional closeness and bonding with one another, do things together, and work together to solve different problems (Table 3). The smallest percentage is for ‘conducting activities together’ but considering the age of respondents, we consider this as a normal trend. Significant differences in reported level of family togetherness are according to family stability (t188.52 = -3.93, p = 10-3), ethnicity (t237.17 = -2.94, p = .004). As expected, youth from families where partners never split up and Romanians, experience higher levels of support from family members. Table 3. Descriptive analysis of family support scale Members of my family... support one another give each other plenty of time and attention talk openly and listen to one another feel loved and cared for by one another do things together play and laugh together work together to solve problems

Not at all 4.3% (40) 3.8% 4.2% (39) 4.3% (40) 6.7% (62) 4% (37) 4.5% (42)

A little A lot 12.8% (120) 82.9% (774) 29.5% (275) 66.8% (623) 23.9% (223) 71.9% (672) 15.6% (145) 80% (742) 37.4% (348) 56% (521) 24% (224) 72% (672) 166% (155) 78.9% (736) Source: generated by the author

Similar levels of support are also reported for the peer-group (Table 4). More than fifty percent of adolescents declare they benefit a lot from peer-group support. In this case significant differences are reported for residency (t857 = -2.46, p = .014). Youth living in urban areas report higher levels of support than their peers from rural areas. Table 4. Descriptive analysis of friends support scale I can trust my friends I am able to tell my problems to my friends I feel close to my friends I can count on my friends for support I can talk to my friends about things that bother me

Not at all 6.5% (61) 8.6% (80) 5.6% (52) 4.5% (42) 5.6% (52)

A little A lot 38.8% (343) 56.7% (529) 41% (382) 50.5% (470) 32.4% (301) 62% (577) 32.6% (304) 62.9% (587) 34% (316) 60.4% (562) Source: generated by the author


65

The level of community support is not as high as for other variables investigated (Table 5). Youth feel less interest from adults in what is happening within the neighborhood (only 37.3% are really interested), while the biggest support reported is for Adults in my neighborhood seem to like young people (67.9%). Statistically significant differences is reported only for ethnicity (t268.08 = 2.12, p = .035); Compared to others, Romanian adolescents perceive their neighbors as trustworthy and supportive of young people, interested in their welfare, and willing to help them if they have a problem. Table 5. Descriptive analysis of neighborhood support scale Strongly disagree Adults in my neighborhood are interested in 21.2% (191) what young people in the neighborhood are doing If I had a problem, there are neighbors who 18.9% (170) would help me People in my neighborhood really help one 15.2% (136) another out Adults in my neighborhood encourage young 15.2% (136) people to get an education Adults in my neighborhood would say 14.7% (132) something to me if they saw me doing something that could get me in trouble Adults in my neighborhood seem to like young 7% (63) people Adults in my neighborhood can be trusted 11.8% (106)

Disagree

Agree

41.4% (372)

29% (261)

Strongly agree 8.3% (75)

38% (342)

30% (270)

13.1% (118)

39.9% (358) 33.7% (302)

11.3% (101)

25.1% (225) 36.6% (328) 23.2% (208) 29.1% (261) 37.2% (334)

19% (171)

25% (224) 49.8% (446) 18.1% (162) 32.7% (293) 39.8% (356) 15.6% (140) Source: generated by the author

Factors associated to job planning for senior high school students After this descriptive picture on the levels of support and job plans of adolescents was drawn, we asked ourselves what combination of individual, family, peer-group and community variables best distinguishes students who will plan having a job from those who do not. Table 6 presents the summary of the univariate analysis indicating whether the four predictors (self confidence, family support, peer group support, and neighborhood support) could distinguish those who plan having a job from those who did not. The classification results of the model reveals that 63.7% of respondents were classified correctly into ‘planning having a job’ or ‘not planning having a job’ groups. Those planning having a job were classified with better accuracy (66.6%) than those who do not (42.9%). Wilks’ lambda was significant, λ = .98, 2 = 10.21, p=.037, which indicates that the model including these four variables was able to significantly discriminate the two groups. Family support was the strongest predictor while self confidence was next in importance as a predictor. These two variables with large coefficients stand out as those that strongly predict allocation to the planning or not planning having a job group. The positive sign they carry means that higher the self confidence and the family support, more likely to plan having a job in the near future they are. Peer group and neighborhood support were less successful as predictors.

66 M.B. Iovu / Senior high school students’ job planning: What factors really matter? Table 6. Summary of interpretive measures for discriminant analysis Independent variable Unstandardized Standardized Self confidence Family support Peer group support Neighborhood support Group centroid ‘yes’ Group centroid ‘no’ Wilks’ Lambda (Canonical correlation)2

.246 .258 .049 -.083

.525 .739 .130 -.367

Discriminant loading (rank) .809 (1) .674 (2) .278 (3) -.032 (4)

Univariate F ratio 4.684* 6.746** .796 .011

.044 -.315 .986* .013 Note: *p< 0.05; **p< 0.01 Source: generated by the author

DISCUSSION High school seniors face a complex set of educational and occupational options, and there are consequences to making the wrong choice (Deil-Amen, Rosenbaum 2002, Long, Kurlaender 2009). Observing if adolescents are basing their options on personal or social factors might be the key to understanding how the same decision affects outcomes in later life. This study examines the ties adolescents have with the self, with their family, peers and communities and the development of a specific future plan. This is important in practice as earlier research has shown that having a personal goal in a certain domain improves self-regulation in that domain (Oyserman, 2001). Personal goals serve to guide and regulate behavior, providing a road map connecting the present to the future (Karoly, 1993). Therefore, this paper employed discriminant analysis in answering a specific research question on adolescents’ future job plan. The following general conclusions can be drawn based on the analysis:  The higher the self confidence adolescents have the more likely they are to plan having a job in the following 2-3 years;  The higher the family support is, more likely senior high school students are to plan for a job;  Peer-group and community support did not play a role in discriminating those planning and not planning having a job in the near future. The discussion is limited to the results of this study and comparisons to relevant research in the area. In countries with different characteristics such as a different high school education system or with different career decision making tasks, senior high school students’ job planning and timing may differ. Thus, crosscultural studies examining senior high students’ career plans and confidence in obtaining their plans may be useful to inform career planning programs (Witko et al., 2006). For most people, career development is a lifelong process starting to think of during the theoretical stage of exploration, during which adolescents begin to crystallize, specify, and implement their occupational choices (Super, Savickas, Super, 1996). Each individual undertaking the process is influenced by many factors, including the context in which they live, their personal aptitudes, and educational attainment (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, Pastorelli, 2001). Contrary to Rojewski’s (1999) findings that students from rural areas are more likely than students from non-rural areas to have to leave their community to pursue a higher


67

level of education or a career opportunity, in our sample students from urban settings indicated that is more important for them to find a job. This may be a reflection of greater opportunities that may be available to students in larger centers. Therefore, they might consider having a job as a developmental opportunity. For many high school students, being able to immediately generate an income after graduation is an appealing thought. Even in countries with a more structured education system, simply graduating from high school does not ensure that a student will be ready for higher education level courses. Despite their and their parents’ high aspirations, not enough students are well-prepared, and not enough are able to complete a college degree as this requires higher levels of academic preparation (Venezia, Kirst, Antonio, n.a.). But as we did not investigated their motivations, is difficult to say why they are planning having a job instead of entering higher education system (do they feel prepared to work, do they feel that they can not complete college, do they have enough resources to relocate in another city to complete a university degree, are they considering working and attending college at the same time etc. – these are all questions they need further attention). This study also adds to the understanding of the critical role that self confidence and family support play in shaping a job choice for senior high school students. Similarly to previous research, more confident students are in their capacities, more likely is for them to establish a job goal (Bandura et al., 2001; Patton, Bartrum, Creed, 2004). In our study, self confidence had the biggest predicting values in discriminating the two groups of highschoolers. Family also maintained its supporting role in shaping future plans of students (Ferry, Fouad, Smith, 2000; Paa, McWhirter, 2000; Turner, Lapan, 2003). Although limited in some respect, these data could inform future policies and practices. No matter the plan a highschooler makes after graduating, it is important to assist them in making choices among existing options, and help them to understand the steps they can take to improve their expected outcomes (Rosenbaum, Person, 2003). Limits These findings might inform social work practice in several ways. However, accompanying the study’s contributions are several limitations. Using data on public school students that attend school limits the generalizability of the results. Also, the crosssectional data are not well suited for identifying causal relationships. Because there are plans to track the sample’s respondents into their early adult years, it will be possible to examine how well adolescents’ expectations and desires about employment predict their actual behavior. Doing so would add to the limited information and expand our knowledge in the field of social work intervention programs for youth. Acknowledgement This study was funded through the project Outcomes of adolescence. A longitudinal perspective on the effects of social context on successful life transitions (PN-II-ID-PCE2011-3-0543) financed by Executive Unit for Financing Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation (UEFISCDI).


REFERENCES Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G.V., Pastorelli, C. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs as shapers of children’s aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development, 72 (1), 187–207. Brown, S.D., Lent, R.W. (1996). A social cognitive framework for career choice counseling. Career Development Quarterly, 44, 354-366. Deli-Amen, R., Rosenbaum, J.E. (2002). The unintended consequences of stigma-free remediation. Sociology of Education, 75 (3), 249-268. Farmer, H.S. (1985). Model of career and achievement motivation for women and men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32 (3), 363–390. Felsman, D.E., Blustein, D.L. (1999). The role of peer relatedness in late adolescent career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 279-295. Ferry, T., Fouad, N., Smith, P. (2000). The role of family context in a social cognitive model for career-related choice and behavior: A math and science perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57 (3), 348-364. Fisher, T.A., Griggs, M.B. (1995). Factors that influence the career development of AfricanAmerican and Latino youth. The Journal of Vocational Education Research, 20 (2), 57-74. Gati, I., Saka, N. (2001). High school students’ career-related decision-making difficulties. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 331–340. Hărăguş, T., Roth, M., Dămean, D. (2010). The Measurement of the Social Dimensions of School Success – A Validity Study of the Romanian Version of the School Success Profile. Studia Universitas Babeş-Bolyai Sociologia, 1, 31-56. Karoly, P. (1993). Goal systems: An organizing framework for clinical assessment and treatment planning. Psychological Assessment, 5 (3), 273–280. Kenny, M.E., Blustein, D.L., Chaves, A., Grossman, J.M., Gallagher, L.A. (2003). The role of perceived barriers and relational support in the educational and vocational of urban high school students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 150, 142-155. Khasawneh, S. (2010). Factors influencing the career planning and development of university students in Jordan. Australian Journal of Career Development, 19 (2), 41-48. Laursen, B., Collins, W.A. (2009). Parent-child relationships during adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. 3rd ed. Vol. 2, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, (pp. 3–42). Leondari, A., Syngollitou, E. Kiosseoglou, G. (1998). Academic achievement, motivation and future selves. Educational Studies, 24 (2), 153–163. Long, B.T., Kurlaender, M. (2009). Do community colleges provide a viable pathway to a baccalaureate degree? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 31 (1), 30-53. Ministerul Educaţiei, Cercetării, Tineretului şi Sportului [MECTS]. (2011). Raport privind starea învăţământului preuniversitar din România. Bucureşti. Retrieved from http://www.edusfera.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Raport-privind-starea-invatamantuluipreuniversitar-din-Romania-%E2%80%93-2011.pdf Mullis R.L., Mullis A.K., Gerwels D. (1998). Stability of vocational interests among high school students. Adolescence, 33, 699–670. Muntean, A., Roth, M., Iovu, M.B. (2010). The role played by the social environment within the future’s plans of youth. Revista de cercetare şi intervenţie socială, 28, 7-22. National report [NR]. (2000). Youth Policy in Romania. Youth Studies and Research Centre, Bucharest.


69

Nurmi, J.E., Poole, M.E., Kalakoski, V. (1994). Age differences in adolescent future-oriented goals, concerns, and related temporal extension in different sociocultural contexts. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23 (4), 471–487. Oyserman, D. (2001). Self and identity. In A. Tessor, N. Schwarz (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology. New York: Oxford University Press (pp. 499–517). Paa, H.C., McWhirter, E.H. (2000). Perceived influences on high school students' current career expectations. Career Development Quarterly, 49, 29-44. Patton, W., Bartrum, D.A., Creed, P.A. (2004). Gender differences for optimism, self-esteem, expectations and goals in predicting career planning and exploration in adolescents. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 4 (3), 193-209. Ramayah, T., Ahmad, N.H. Abdul Halim, H., Mohamed Zaina, S.R., Lo, M-C. (2010). Discriminant analysis: An illustrated example. African Journal of Business Management, 4 (9), 16541667. Rarasati, N., Hakim, M.A., Yuniarti, K.W. (2012). Japanese Adolescents’ Future Orientation and Support for its Effort: An Indigenous Psychological Analysis. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 66, 597-601. Rojewski, J.W. (1999). Career-related predictors of work-bound and college-bound status of adolescents in rural and nonrural areas. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 15 (3), 141–156. Rosenbaum, J.E., Person, A.E. (2003). Beyond College for All: Policies and Practices to Improve Transitions into College and Jobs. Professional School Counseling, 6 (4), 252-261. Roth, M. (2009). Dimensiunile sociale ale succesului scolar [Social Dimensions of School Success], In Roth, M., Damean, D., Iovu, M. Succesul sclar la intersectia factorilor sociali [School success at the intersection of social factors]. Presa Universitară Clujeană: Cluj-Napoca (pp. 13-22). Seginer, R., Shoyer, S. (2012). How mothers affect adolescents' future orientation: A two-source analysis. Japanese Psychological Research, 54 (3), 310–320. Seltzer, J. (2000). Families formed outside marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1247– 1268. Snell, A.F., Stokes, G.S., Sands, M.M., McBride, J.R. (1994). Adolescent life experiences as predictors of occupational attainment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 (1), 131–141. Steinberg, L. (2004). The ten basic principles of good parenting. New York: Simon & Schuster. Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., Banich, M. (2009). Age Differences in Future Orientation and Delay Discounting. Child Development, 80 (1), 2844. Super, D.E., Savickas, M.L., Super, C.M. (1996). The life-span, life-space approach to careers. In D. Brown, D. Brooks, et al. (Eds.), Career choice and development, 3rd edition, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (pp. 21–178). Trempala, J., Malmberg, L-E. (Eds.) (2002). Adolescents’ future orientation. Theory and Research. New York: Lang. Turner, S.L., Lapan, R.T. (2003). Native American Adolescent career development. Journal of Career Development, 30 (2), 159-172. United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF]. (2011). The State of the World’s Children: Adolescence – An age of opportunity. New York, USA. Retrieved from: http://www.unicef.org/sowc2011/pdfs/SOWC-2011-Main-Report_EN_02092011.pdf Venezia, A., Kirst, M.W., Antonio, A.L. (n.a.). Betraying the college dream: How disconnected K12 and postsecondary education systems undermine student aspirations. Final policy report from Stanford University’s Bridge project. The Stanford Institute for Higher Education

70 M.B. Iovu / Senior high school students’ job planning: What factors really matter? Research, Stanford, CA. Available at http://www.stanford.edu/group/bridgeproject/betrayingthecollegedream.pdf. Wilson-Sadberry, K., Winfield, L.E., Royster, D.A. (1991). Resilience and persistence of African American males in postsecondary enrollment. Education and Urban Society, 24 (1), 87101. Witko, K.D., Bernes, K.B., Magnusson, K.C., Bardick, A.D. (2006). Senior high students’ career plans for the future: outcomes of the comprehensive career needs survey in Southern Alberta, Canada. Int J Educ Vocat Guid, 6, 77–94.

1

The social diagnosis of school performance using the School Success Profile (SSP-Ro) and the design of research based intervention methods (Project no. 91063/2007)