Monopoly, Oligopoly, and. Monopolistic Competition. Chapter 8. Copyright ©
2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin
...
Monopoly, Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
Chapter 8
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives 1. Distinguish among three types of imperfectly competitive industries and describe how imperfect competition differs from perfect competition 2. Identify the five sources of monopoly power and describe why economies of scale are the most enduring of the various sources of market power 3. Apply the concepts of marginal cost and marginal revenue to find the output and price that maximizes a monopolist's profits 4. Explain why the profit-maximizing output level for a monopolist is too small from society's perspective 5. Discuss why firms offer discounts to buyers who are willing to jump a hurdle 6. Discuss public policies that are often applied to natural monopolies 8-2
Imperfect Competition • Imperfectly competitive firms have some ability to set their own price: they are price setters – Long-run economic profits possible – Reduce economic surplus
• Three types: 1. Monopoly has only one seller, no close substitutes 2. Monopolistic competition has many firms producing slightly differentiated products that are reasonably close substitutes 3. Oligopoly has a small number of large firms producing products that are close substitutes 8-3
Monopolistic Competition Number of Firms Price Entry and Exit Product Economic Profits Decisions
Monopolistic Competition
Perfect Competition
Many firms
Many firms
Limited flexibility Free Differentiated
Price taker Free Standardized
Zero in long run
Zero in long run
P, Q, product differentiation
Q only 8-4
Oligopoly Oligopoly Number of Firms Price Entry and Exit
Few firms, each large Some flexibility
Perfect Competition Many firms Price taker
Difficult
Free
Differentiated or standardized
Standardized
Economic Profits
Possible
Zero in long run
Decisions
P, Q, differentiation, advertising
Q only
Product
8-5
Imperfect Competition • Examples of monopoly – Electricity and Magic Cards
• Examples of monopolistic competition – Retail gas stations – Convenience stores
• Examples of oligopoly – Wireless phone service – Cement – Automobiles and tobacco
8-6
The Essential Difference • Market power is the firm's ability to raise its price without losing all its sales • Any firm facing a downward sloping demand curve – Firm picks P and Q on the demand curve • Market power comes from factors that limit competition Perfectly Competitive Firm Price
Price
Imperfectly Competitive Firm
D
D Quantity
Quantity 8-7
Five Sources of Market Power 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Exclusive control over inputs Patents and copyrights Government licenses or franchises Economies of scale (natural monopolies) Network economies
8-8
Market Power: Economies of Scale • Returns to scale refers to the percentage change in output from a given percentage change in ALL inputs – Long-run idea – Constant returns to scale: doubling all inputs doubles output – Increasing returns to scale: output increases by a greater percentage than the increase in inputs • Average costs decrease as output increases • Natural monopoly: a monopoly that results from economies of scale 8-9
Market Power: Network Economies • Network economies occur when the value of the product increases as the number of users increases – – – – –
VHS format for video tapes, Blu-ray for DVDs Telephones Windows operating system eBay Facebook and MySpace
8-10
Economies of Scale and StartUp Costs • New products can have a large fixed development cost • Variable cost: sum of payments made to the variable factors, such as labor • Fixed cost: sum of payments made to the fixed factors, such as capital • Start-up costs can be thought of as a fixed cost • Average total cost (ATC): total cost divided by output • A good whose production has a large start-up cost and low variable cost is subject to economies of scale – ATC declines sharply as output increases 8-11
Economies of Scale and StartUp Costs • • • •
Consider an example: Assume marginal cost (M) is constant Variable cost is M*Q Total cost is fixed cost (F) plus variable cost TC = F + M*Q – Total cost increases as output increases
• Average total cost is ATC = F / Q + M – Average total cost decreases as output increases – Average fixed cost = F/Q 8-12
TC = F + M Q F
Average cost ($/unit)
Total cost ($/year)
Economies of Scale
ATC = F/Q + M
M Quantity
Quantity
8-13
Example: Video Game Producers – Different Volumes Nintendo
Playstation
Annual Production (000s)
1,000
1,200
Fixed Cost ($000s)
$200
$200
Variable Cost ($000s)
$800
$960
Total Cost ($000s)
$1,000
$1,160
ATC per game
$1.00
$0.97 8-14
Example: Video Game Producers – Lower Marginal Costs Nintendo
Playstation
Annual Production (000s)
1,000
1,200
Fixed Cost ($000s)
$200
$200
Variable Cost ($000s)
$200
$240
Total Cost ($000s)
$400
$440
ATC per game
$0.40
$0.37 8-15
Example: Video Game Producers – Higher Fixed Cost Nintendo
Playstation
Annual Production (000s)
1,000
1,200
Fixed Cost ($000s)
$10,000
$10,000
$200
$240
Total Cost ($000s)
$10,200
$10,240
ATC per game
$10.20
$8.53
Variable Cost ($000s)
8-16
Example: Video Game Producers – Different Production Levels Nintendo
Playstation
Annual Production (000s)
500
1,700
Fixed Cost ($000s)
$10,000
$10,000
$100
$340
Total Cost ($000s)
$10,100
$10,240
ATC per game
$20.20
$6.08
Variable Cost ($000s)
8-17
Intel's Advantage • • • •
Development cost of a new chip $2 billion Marginal cost of making a chip Pennies Dominating the market Priceless Intel supplies more than 80% of the processors for PCs
8-18
Profit Maximization for the Monopolist • Like all other firms, a monopolist: – Maximizes profits – Applies the Cost-Benefit Principle: • Increase output if marginal benefit > marginal cost • Decrease output is marginal benefit < marginal cost
• Marginal benefit is called marginal revenue: – Change in total revenue from a one-unit change in output – Equal to price for the perfectly competitive firm – Less than price for the monopolist 8-19
Profit Maximization for the Monopolist
Price ($/unit)
• To sell another unit the monopolist must lower price – Total revenue from 2 units = $12 – Total revenue from 3 units = $15 • Marginal revenue = $3
6 5
D
2 3 Quantity (units/week)
8-20
Price & marginal revenue ($/unit)
Monopolist's Marginal Revenue 8
3
D
1 2
-1
3
4
8
5 MR
Quantity (units/week)
Price
Quantity
Total Revenue
$6
2
$12
Marginal Revenue
$5
3
$15
3
$4
4
$16
1
$3
5
$15
-1 8-21
Monopoly Demand and Marginal Revenue • The monopolist's marginal revenue curve:
Price
a
a/2 D
MR
Q0
Q0/2 Quantity
– Has the same intercept as the straight-line demand curve – Has twice the slope of the demand curve – Lies below the demand curve 8-22
Deciding Quantity
• Decrease output – At Q = 8, MC = MR = 2 • The demand curve sets the price at P = $4 – At any output below 8, MC < MR
6 Price ($/unit of output)
• Profit is maximized at the level of output where marginal cost equals marginal revenue • At P = $3 and Q = 12, MC > MR
MC 4 3
D
2
MR 8 12 Quantity (units/week)
8-23
Monopoly Profit • • • • • • •
Profit = Total revenue – total cost Total cost = ATC x Q Profit = P x Q – ATC x Q Profit = (P-ATC) x Q If P > ATC then the firm earns a profit If P < ATC then the firm suffers a loss This can be graphically illustrated
8-24
Monopoly Losses and Profits Economic profit = $400,000/day
Price ($/minute)
0.12
ATC
0.10
MC
0.05
MR
Price ($/minute)
Economic loss = $400,000/day 0.10 0.08
ATC MC
0.05
D
20 24 Minutes (millions/day)
MR
D
24 20 Minutes (millions/day)
8-25
The Invisible Hand Fails
Price ($/unit of output)
6
The monopolist's optimal amount occurs where MC = MR, Q = 8 units and P = $4
4
Deadweight loss from monopoly = $4
The socially optimal amount occurs where MC = MB, Q = 12 units and P = $3
3 2
Marginal Cost
MR
D 8
12
24
Quantity (units/week)
8-26
Monopoly and Perfect Competition Monopoly
Perfect Competition
MC = MR
MC = MR
P >MR P > MC
P = MR P = MC
Deadweight Loss
No Deadweight Loss
8-27
Managing Monopoly: The Breakdown of the Invisible Hand • Monopolies exist for economic reasons – Patents, copyrights, and innovation – Economies of scale – Network economies
• Anti-trust laws attempt to limit deadweight loss – Limiting monopoly has costs • Patents encourage innovation • Economies of scale minimize ATC • Network economies increase benefits
8-28
Price Discrimination • Price discrimination means charging different buyers different prices for essentially the same good or service – Separate the groups – No side trades among buyers
• Many forms of price discrimination – Hurdle method: discounts for identifiable groups (e. g., students, AARP) – Perfect discrimination: negotiate separate deals with each customer 8-29
Carla the Editor: Social Optimum What is the social optimum?
6 papers with an economic profit of $6
• Opportunity cost of Carla's time is $29
Reservation Student Price A $40 B 38 C 36 D 34 E 32 F 30 G 28
Total Revenue $40 $76 $108 $136 $160 $180 $196
What if Carla is a profit maximizer? What is Carla's total revenue?
8-30
Carla the Editor: Marginal Revenue What is Carla's marginal revenue?
3 papers with an economic profit of $21
• Opportunity cost of Carla's time is $29
Reservation Student Price A $40 B 38 C 36 D 34 E 32 F 30 G 28
Total Revenue $40 $76 $108 $136 $160 $180 $196
MR $40 $36 $32 $28 $24 $20 $16 8-31
Carla the Editor: Price Discriminator What if Carla is a perfect price discriminator?
• Opportunity cost of Carla's time is $29
Reservation Total Student Price Revenue A $40 $40 B 38 $78 C 36 $114 D 34 $148 E 32 $180 F 30 $210 G 28 $238
What is Carla's total revenue? 6 papers with an economic profit of $36
8-32
Hurdle Method of Price Discrimination • The hurdle method of price discrimination is the practice of offering a discount to all buyers who overcome some obstacle. – – – – – –
Temporary sales Hard cover and paperback books Multiple car models from one manufacturer Commercial air carriers Movie producers and phased releases Scratch and Dent appliance sales 8-33
Carla Offers a Rebate 5 papers, price $36, rebate $4, economic profit $27
• If reservation price < $36, student will mail in rebate Student A B C
Reservation Price $40 38 36
Total Revenue $40 76 108
Discounted Price Submarket D $34 $34 E 32 64 F 30 90
MR $40 36 32
$34 30 26 8-34
Carla's Choices Program
Social Optimum
Single Price
Perfect Discriminator
Hurdle
Papers Edited
6
3
6
5 = (3 + 2)
Price
$30
$36
Reservation
$36, $4 rebate
Total Revenue
$180
$108
$210
$172
Carla's Time
$174
$87
$174
$145
Economic Profit
$6
$21
$36
$27
Total Surplus
$26
$27
$36
$35 8-35
Monopoly and Public Policy • Challenge: create the greatest increase in total surplus • Policy options – – – –
Government ownership and operation Regulation Competitive bids for natural monopoly services Break up
8-36
State-Owned Natural Monopoly • Marginal cost is always less than average cost – Marginal cost pricing produces losses
• Options – Fund losses from tax revenues – Fixed monthly fee plus usage fee • Fixed fee covers losses
• Limited incentives to innovate and cut costs • Commonly used for water, Post Office, and some electricity 8-37
Regulated Monopolies • Cost-plus regulation sets price at per unit explicit costs plus a mark-up for implicit costs • Used for electricity, telephone, and cable – Policies vary by state
• Disadvantages – High administrative cost – Reduced incentive for cost-saving innovation – Price is greater than marginal cost
8-38
Exclusive Contracting for Natural Monopolies • Government awards contract to low bidder for natural monopoly services – Garbage collection, fire protection, road construction, Department of Defense
• Could achieve marginal cost pricing IF government pays the resulting losses • Asset transfer for large fixed investment is complex
8-39
Enforcement of Anti-Trust Laws • Two landmark laws – Sherman Act of 1890 • Declared conspiracy to create a monopoly illegal
– Clayton Act of 1914 • Outlawed transactions that would "substantially lessen competition"
• Applies to mergers and acquisitions today – IBM avoided break-up; AT&T did not – Microsoft survived
8-40
Another Policy Option: Ignore Monopoly • Two objections to monopolies – Restrict output, decrease total surplus – Raise price, earn economic profits
• Analysis – Discount offers allow some customers to pay less than average cost, though more than marginal cost • Economic profits generated by customers who pay list price – their choice
– About two-thirds of economic profits are taxed away • Remainder accrues to shareholders 8-41
Imperfect Competition Imperfect Competition Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly Sources of Market Power Monopoly Public Policy 8-42
The Algebra of Monopoly Maximization
Chapter 8 Appendix
From Demand to Marginal Revenue • Given a demand curve such as P = 15 – 2 Q • We can write the marginal revenue curve as MR = 15 – 4 Q • Suppose marginal cost is a line with zero intercept and a slope of 1 MC = Q
• The remaining step is to set marginal revenue equal to marginal cost 8-44
MR = MC • Let Q* be the profit maximizing level of output MC = MR Q* = 15 – 4 Q* 5 Q* = 15 Q* = 3
• To find P, substitute Q = 3 into the demand equation P = 15 – 4 Q* P = 15 – 4 (3) P=3 8-45
