Small Hydropower Plants as a New and Renewable Energy Source

Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy

ISSN: 1556-7249 (Print) 1556-7257 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uesb20

Small Hydropower Plants as a New and Renewable Energy Source Ömer Yüksek & Kamÿil Kaygusuz To cite this article: Ömer Yüksek & Kamÿil Kaygusuz (2006) Small Hydropower Plants as a New and Renewable Energy Source, Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 1:3, 279-290, DOI: 10.1080/15567240500397976 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567240500397976

Published online: 22 Sep 2006.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 283

View related articles

Citing articles: 21 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=uesb20 Download by: [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi]

Date: 26 June 2016, At: 03:00

Energy Sources, Part B, 1:279–290, 2006 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1556-7249 print/1556-7257 online DOI: 10.1080/15567240500397976

Small Hydropower Plants as a New and Renewable Energy Source ÖMER YÜKSEK

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Department of Civil Engineering Karadeniz Technical University Trabzon, Turkey

KAM˙IL KAYGUSUZ Department of Chemistry Karadeniz Technical University Trabzon, Turkey The inherent technical, economic, and environmental benefits of hydroelectric power make it an important contributor to the future world energy mix, particularly in the developing countries. Technically feasible hydropower estimated at nearly 15,000 TWh/yr still exists in the world today, mostly in countries where increased power supplies from clean and renewable sources are most urgently needed to progress social and economic development. This article deals with policies to meet increasing energy demand for electricity and domestic heating in Turkey. Air-pollutant emissions due to power generation and their harmful effects on the environment are also presented. We also argue in favor of small-scale dams for sustainable development. Turkey has a total gross hydropower potential of 433 GWh/yr, but only 125 GWh/yr of the total hydroelectric potential of Turkey can be economically used. By the commissioning of new hydropower plants, which are under construction, 36% of the economically usable potential of the country would be tapped. On the other hand, Turkey’s total economically usable small hydropower potential is 3.75 GWh/yr. Keywords small-scale hydropower, new renewables, sustainable energy, large dams

Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life in Turkey, as in other countries. Much of the world’s energy, however, is currently produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially. The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy production, transmission, distribution, and consumption in the country. On the other hand, electricity supply infrastructures in Turkey, as in many developing countries, are being rapidly expanded as policymakers and investors around the world increasingly recognize electricity’s pivotal role in improving living standards and sustaining economic growth. On the contrary, in the coming decades, global environmental issues could significantly affect patterns of energy use around the Address correspondence to Ömer Yüksek, Department of Civil Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, 61080 Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]

279

280

Ö. Yüksek and K. Kaygusuz

world, as in Turkey. Any future efforts to limit carbon emissions are likely to alter the composition of total energy-related carbon emissions by energy source in the country (Kaygusuz, 2004).

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Global Hydropower Potential and Use Hydroelectricity is obtained by a mechanical conversion of the potential energy of water in high elevations. An assessment of its energy potential requires detailed information on the local and geographical factors of runoff water. The total theoretical potential of hydropower energy is estimated at 150 Exajoules a year, while the technical potential of hydroelectricity is estimated at 50 Exajoules a year (see Table 1). Because water discharge varies by region and country, hydro energy is not evenly accessible. Water discharge may also vary in time, resulting in variable annual power output. On the other hand, hydroelectricity generation is regarded as a mature technology unlikely to advance further. But for small-scale hydropower, there is room for further technical development, and with the choice of very favorable sites, the use of existing administrative structures, and existing civil works for flood-control purposes, the cost of small-scale projects could come down substantially. The installed capacity in 2001 is estimated at 690 GW for large hydro and 25 GW for small hydro (Johansson et al., 2004).

Small-Scale Hydropower Small hydropower is in most cases “run-of-river;” in other words, any dam or hydraulic structure is quite small (usually just a weir), and generally little or no water is stored. The civil works purely serve the function of regulating the level of the water at the intake to the hydropower plant. Therefore, run-of-river installations do not have the same kinds of adverse effect on the local environment as large hydro. On the other hand, hydropower has various degrees of “smallness.” To date, there is still no internationally agreed definition of “small” hydro; the upper limit varies between 2.5 and 25 MW. A maximum of 10 MW is the most widely accepted value worldwide, although the definition in China stands officially at 25 MW. In jargon of the industry, “mini” hydro typically refers to schemes below 2 MW, micro-hydro refers to schemes below 500 kW, and pico-hydro refers to schemes below 10 kW. These are arbitrary divisions, and many of the principles involved apply to both smaller and larger schemes (Paish, 2002). Table 1 Global renewable resource base (Exajoule per year)

Hydropower Biomass Solar Wind Geothermal Ocean Total

Current use

Technical potential

Theoretical potential

10.0 50.0 0.2 0.2 2.0 — 62.4

50 >250 >1,600 600 5,000 — >7,500

150 2,900 3,900,000 6,000 140,000,000 7,400 >143,000,000

Source: Johansson et al., 2004.

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Small Hydropower Plants as a Renewable Energy Source

281

Figure 1. Head-flow range of SHP turbines. (Source: Bakı¸s and Demirba¸s, 2004.)

As is shown in Figure 1, there is an important relationship between the type of the turbine, and the head and the discharge of water, which are very important parameters to produce more electricity from any running water. A head is described as the net vertical distance between the entrance and outer side of the penstock. Most small hydropower sites are categorized as a low or high head. A low head refers to a change in elevation of less than 3 m. A vertical drop of less than 0.5 m will probably make a small-scale hydropower system unfeasible. Stream flows can vary over a year. Unless building a storage reservoir is considered, it must use the lowest average flow of the year as the basis for the system’s design. The power output for a system with 53% efficiency is representative of most small hydropower systems. In general, there are two widespread classes of turbines; impulse and reaction. The first, impulse turbines, is the most common type of which there are Pelton, Turgo, and Jack Rabbit. The next is reaction turbines, which are propeller, or Kaplan, turbines (Paish, 2002). In addition, there are pumps that substitute for turbines, Francais, and crossflow turbines (see Figure 1).

Energy Utilization in Turkey Turkey’s natural energy resources are quite diversified; hard coal, lignite, asphaltite, oil, natural gas, hydropower, geothermal, wood, animal and plant wastes, solar and secondary energy resources such as coke and briquettes are produced and consumed. Although Turkey’s oil and natural gas reserves seem limited, lignite and coal reserves are quite abundant. Turkey’s primary energy consumption skyrocketed four times during 1970–2002 from 18.85 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) to 75.46 Mtoe. Concurrently, domestic production of primary energy resources also jumped 1.6 fold to reach 23.64 Mtoe from 14.50 Mtoe (Table 2). On the other hand, energy forecasts show that primary energy demand would be 90 Mtoe in 2005, 117 Mtoe in 2010, 150 Mtoe in 2015, and 200 Mtoe in 2020. However, the share of indigenous productions to meet the energy demand of Turkey is expected to be 40% in 2005, 38% in 2010, 35% in 2015, and 34% in 2020. As it can be seen, the share of indigenous production will decrease progressively. Considering the production objectives and demand forecasts, it will be necessary

282

Ö. Yüksek and K. Kaygusuz

Table 2 Primary energy production and consumption of Turkey during 1970–2002 (Mtoe)

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Energy production

Hard coal Lignite Oil Natural gas Hydropower Geothermal Solar Wood Waste and dung Total

Energy consumption

1970

1980

1990

2002

1970

1980

1990

2002

2.790 1.735 3.719 — 0.261 0.023 — 3.845 2.128 14.516

2.195 3.738 2.447 0.021 0.976 0.060 — 4.730 2.953 17.358

2.080 9.524 3.903 0.193 1.991 0.433 0.028 5.361 1.847 25.478

1.169 10.473 2.541 0.370 2.165 0.360 0.140 5.040 1.378 23.636

2.883 1.732 7.958 — 0.261 0.023 — 3.845 2.128 18.872

2.824 3.970 16.074 0.021 0.976 0.060 — 4.730 2.953 31.973

6.150 9.765 23.901 3.110 1.991 0.433 0.028 5.361 1.847 52.987

8.870 10.603 30.777 16.128 2.165 0.360 0.140 5.040 1.378 75.461

Source: MENR, 2004; WECTNC, 2003.

to import a total 90 Mtoe of energy in 2010 (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR), 2004). In Turkey, lignite has the biggest share in total primary energy production by 40%. The complex geology consisting of high risks inhibited exploration in our country. For this reason, in primary energy production, oil has a share of 13%, and natural gas has a share of 2%. On the other hand, oil has the biggest share (44%) in total primary energy consumption, while natural gas has a share of 12%. Due to diversification efforts of energy sources, the use of natural gas that was newly introduced into the Turkish economy has been growing rapidly. Natural gas consumption (6.8 billion m3 ) is assumed to increase by 11% and will reach 31 billion m3 with a share of 18% in total consumption in 2010. The annual oil consumption of Turkey is around 28 million tons. While 82% of total consumption corresponding to 23 million tons is supplied from imports, only 18% is supplied from indigeneous production. Total oil production of Turkey is now around 2.54 Mtoe, and predictions show that it will be 1.23 Mtoe in 2005, 0.36 Mtoe in 2010, and 0.28 Mtoe in 2015. However, the share of indigenous production to meet the oil demand of Turkey is expected to be 4% in 2005 and 2% in 2010. Like energy, the share of indigenous production of oil will decrease progressively. Oil consumption has an opposite trend, and it is expected to increase to 35 Mtoe in 2005, 42 Mtoe in 2010, and 50 Mtoe in 2015. Considering these production and consumption figures, it seems that Turkey’s total oil importation will reach 60 Mtoe in 2020 (MENR, 2004; Turkish Petroleum Corporation, 2003).

Water and Hydroelectric Power Potential in Turkey Water Resources The annual average precipitation in Turkey is estimated at 643 mm, corresponding to a volume of 500 km3 (Table 3). The average runoff coefficient is 0.37, and the annual runoff is 186 km3 (2400 m3 /ha). Subtracting from this figure the estimated water rights of

Small Hydropower Plants as a Renewable Energy Source

283

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Table 3 Water resources in Turkey Water Resources Mean annual precipitation Volume of the mean annual precipitation Surface Water Annual flow Annual runoff coefficient Present annual consumption Groundwater Annual safe yield Allocated amount Present annual consumption

642.6 nm 501 km3 186.05 km3 0.37 27.5 km3 12.2 km3 7.6 km3 6.0 km3

1 km3 = 1 billion m3 . Source: DSI, 2004.

neighboring countries, minimum streamflow requirements for pollution control, aquatic life and navigation, and topographic and geologic constraints, the annual consumable water potential of 12 km3 should be added to this, bringing the total annual consumable potential to 107 km3 (General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI), 2004). Precipitation differs considerably both from year to year and among the river basins. The annual depth of precipitation is as high as 250 cm in the Eastern Black Sea Region and as low as 30 cm in some parts of central Anatolia. Most of the country’s water potential lies in the southeast (28%) and the Black Sea region (8%). Turkey’s water resources can be considered in twenty-six drainage basins. Table 4 gives the hydroelectric potential in Turkey by the river basins. The most important rivers are the Fırat River (Euphrates) and Dicle River (Tigris), both of which are transboundary rivers originating in Turkey and discharging into the Persian (Arabian) Gulf. The Meriç, Çoruh, Aras, Arapçay, and Asi Rivers are other transboundary rivers. Some 22% of the boundaries between Turkey and the neighboring countries are along international rivers (DSI, 2004; Kaygusuz, 2002). Hydroelectric Power Hydroelectricity is well established as one of the principal energy-producing technologies around the world, providing some 20% of the world’s electricity. In the developing countries, the proportion rises to around 40%. The capacity of large hydroelectric schemes can be several times that of a conventional power station. They are highly efficient, reliable, and long lasting. They are also very controllable and add an element of storage into an electricity supply system, thereby allowing compensation for the varying intensity of other renewable energy sources and for variations in electricity demand. However, the dams and their large lake forms also have major environmental and social impacts (Kaygusuz, 2004). Turkey has rigorous plans for the development of its substantial hydropower potential. Approximately 5500 MW of hydropower capacity is under construction, the largest schemes being Deriner Dam in the north of the country (680 MW) and Berke Dam in the southeast (520 MW). Schemes built on the concept of build-own-transfer (BOT) are

284

Ö. Yüksek and K. Kaygusuz

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Table 4 Hydroelectric potential in Turkey by river basins (2002) Name of river basin

Installed capacity (MW)

Average generation (GWh)

Energy firm (GWh)

Susurluk Gediz B. Menderes B. Akdeniz Antalya Sakarya B. Karadeniz Ye¸silırmak Kızılırmak D. Akdeniz Seyhan Ceyhan Fırat D. Karadeniz Çoruh Aras Van Kapalı Dicle Total Turkey

373.26 123.00 278.80 596.79 1,432.12 1,177.54 507.35 1,270 2,060.51 1,632.12 2,048.29 1,663.20 9,672.93 3,462.55 3,178.90 834.92 62.06 4,969.88 35,539.31

1,336.00 359 1,053.00 2,321.00 5,262.00 2,523.00 1,747.00 5,321.00 6,181.00 6,039.00 8,012.00 5,558.00 3,8072.00 11,346.00 10,706.00 2,539.00 260.00 16,912.00 12,6109.00

955.00 144.00 254.00 769.00 1,762.00 1,515.00 995.00 4,171.00 4,004.00 3,188.00 3,847.00 2,824.00 30,096.00 5,288.00 6,217.00 1,775.00 157.00 10,641.00 78,770.00

Source: DSI, 2004.

being encouraged strongly, and bilateral agreements have been signed with a number of countries to further international cooperation in hydropower development. In Turkey, 566 hydropower projects by DSI (State Hydraulic Works) have been identified for development in total, 130 are already in operation, 31 are under construction, and 405 (with a capacity of 19,951 MW) are planned (Table 5). On the other hand, by the year 2010, Turkey is planning to exploit two-thirds of its hydropower potential, aiming to increase hydro-production to about 75,000 GWh/yr. By 2020, this will rise to 100,000 GWh/yr, and by 2030, it could be 140,000 GWh/yr (DSI, 2004). There are 436 sites available for hydroelectric plant construction, distributed on 26 main river zones. The total gross potential and total energy production capacity of these sites are nearly 50 GW and 112 TWh/yr, respectively. Table 6 gives the total installed capacity of some selected large hydropower plants in Turkey. As an average, 30% of the total gross potential may be economically exploitable. At present, only about 18% of the total hydroelectric power potential is exploited. The national development plan aims to harvest all the hydroelectric potential by 2010. Developments of Small Hydropower in Turkey The development of small hydropower began in the year 1902 in Turkey. Since then, many small hydropower plants have been installed by government organizations, the

Small Hydropower Plants as a Renewable Energy Source

285

Table 5 Distribution of the hydropower potential in Turkey by project implementation status

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Total annual power generation capacity

Number of project

Installed capacity (MW)

Firm (GWh)

Mean (GWh)

130 31 19 21 119 57 40 107 42 566

12,251 3,338 3,570 1,333 6,091 1,978 2,691 3,920 368 35,540

32,984 6,467 7,029 2,492 10,861 4,214 5,674 8,523 526 78,770

44,388 10,845 10,897 4,494 22,324 7,602 9,195 15,184 1,180 125,129

1. In operation 2. Under construction 3. Final design completed 4. Under final design operation 5. Planned 6. Under planning 7. Master plan completed 8. Reconnaissance completed 9. Initial study completed Total potential

Cumulative (GWh)

Mean (%)

44,034 55,233 66,130 70,624 92,948 100,550 109,745 124,929 126,109

35.0 9.0 9.0 4.0 18.0 6.0 7.0 12.0 1.0 100.0

Cumulative (%) 35.0 44.0 52.0 56.0 74.0 80.0 87.0 99.0

Source: DSI, 2004.

private sector, and local municipalities in many parts of the country (Bakı¸s and Demirba¸s, 2004; Hepbaslı et al., 2001; Kaygusuz, 2002). However, until now, as a result of a rapid increase in the field of energy consumption, priority has been given to the development of large-scale hydropower projects to recover increasing energy demand and to provide maximum energy to Turkey’s economy. Some research projects have been conducted to progress the use of small hydropower (SHP) in Turkey. During last three decades, the average annual increase of SHP capacity was 5–10%. As of 2002, the total development of SHP capacity that is accepted as SHP that is less than 10 MW, in Turkey was 850 MW according to the Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIE), and the total annual energy production was 150 MW of

Table 6 Some large hydropower plants in Turkey Name of large dam

River

Location

Sarıyar Seyhan Kemer Hirfanlı Atatürk Oymapınar Suatu˘gurlu Hasanu˘gurlu Keban Altınkaya Karakaya Dicle

Sakarya Seyhan Akçay Kızılırmak Fırat Manavgat Ye¸silırmak Ye¸silırmak Fırat Kızılırmak Fırat Dicle

Ankara Adana Aydın Ankara Urfa Antalya Samsun Samsun Elazı˘g Samsun Diyarbakır Diyarbakır

Source: DSI, 2004.

Type of dam

Height from river bed (m)

Reservoir volume (106 m3 )

Installed capacity (MW)

Annual generation (GWh)

Concrete gravity Earthfill Concrete gravity Rockfill Rockfill Concrete arch Rockfill Rockfill Concrete gravity Rockfill Concrete arch Rockfill + Earthfill

108 77 113.5 83 166 157 38 135 163 140 158 75

1,900 1,200 544 5,980 48,700 300 182 1,073 31,000 5,763 9,580 595

160 54 48 128 2,400 540 46 500 1,330 700 1,800 110

400 350 143 400 8,900 1,620 273 1,217 6,000 1,632 7,354 298

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

286

Ö. Yüksek and K. Kaygusuz

4,125 GWh. However, 130 MW of these power plants were managed, and their annual firm production and average production were 260 GWh and 510 GWh, respectively (DSI, 2004). At the beginning of 2004, the total number of SHP plants in operation throughout the country was 62, with a total installed capacity of 190 MW, about 1.5% of the total hydropower potential in Turkey (DSI, 2004). Table 7 shows the summary of the total situation of SHP development in Turkey. On the other hand, 205 SHP projects with installed capacity less than 10 MW have been developed at various stages. When all these projects are completed, 3,540 GWh energy will be generated annually. Total installed projects capacity of SHP is 2.45%, and the total energy potential is about 2.96%, which is an installed capacity less than 10 MW. At the end of 2004, about 96% of the already-exploited potential was from dams and hydroelectric power plants (HEPP), and the remainder was from run-off river and canal SHP. Neglecting the geothermal, wind, and solar generation, about 65% of the electricity is produced by thermal power plants, and hydropower plants produce about 35% of the remaining electricity. Six SHP projects are under construction and 127 SHP projects are still considered at various stages of the projects, which are in final design stages or in feasibility stages (Table 7). However, topographical and hydrological conditions of the country are suitable to establish many small hydropower plants; water and head potential points along the rivers and their tributaries existing especially in a hilly rivers basin, should be determined. If existing rivers, lakes, and their tributaries are evaluated again according to their head potential points, there might be many available sides to install SHP plants along them, especially in the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey, which is the very rainy region of the country and has more geographic and topographic advantage (Hepbaslı et al., 2001). Owing to Turkey’s regions, most of which are hilly, it can be possible to develop relatively higher heads without expensive civil engineering works so that relatively smaller flows are required to develop for the desired power. In these cases, it may be possible to construct a relatively simple diversion structure and obtain the highest drop by diverting flows at the top of a waterfall. Some small power plants, including run-of-rivers systems in operation and installed capacity less than 10 MW, are given in Table 8. There are intensive investigations to improve the small and large hydropower development in Turkey. For putting this aim into practice, some small hydropower plants are still under construction in Turkey.

Table 7 Small hydropower development in Turkey (2004)

In operation Under construction In final design Infeasibility and prefeasibility Total Source: EIE, 2004.

Number of SHP

Installed capacity (MW)

Energy generation (GWh)

70 6 7 120 203

175.4 21.7 38.8 613.2 849.1

654 130 168 2,671 3,623

Small Hydropower Plants as a Renewable Energy Source

287

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Table 8 Some small hydro plants including run-of-river systems in operation and installed capacity less than 10 MW Name of dam

Opening year

River name/ site name

Development status

Capacity (MW)

Annual generation (GWh)

Ataköy Berdan Botan Ceyhan Defne Denizli Derme Engil Girlevik I ˙Ivriz Kayaköy Kepez II Kernek Kısık Kiti Murgul Seyhan II

1989 1996 1957 1958 1953 1949 1951 1968 1953 1986 1960 1986 1964 1993 1966 1951 1992

—/Tokat Tarsus/Mersin Botan/Siirt Ceyhan/K.Mara¸s —/Hatay —/Denizli Derme/Malatya —/Van Fırat/Erzincan —/Konya Susurluk/Kütahya —/Antalya —/Malatya T.çayı/K.Mara¸s Aras/Kars Murgul/Artvin Seyhan/Adana

Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev

5.00 10.0 1.60 3.60 3.00 1.20 4.50 4.60 3.00 1.10 3.80 5.80 0.80 9.60 2.80 4.70 7.50

8.00 10.00 6.00 12.00 15.00 10.00 10.00 14.00 16.00 2.00 12.00 21.00 3.00 32.00 6.00 10.00 33.00

Source: DSI, 2004; EIE, 2004.

Additional Potential for Small Hydropowers Preevaluation of twenty-six hydrological river basins has been done by DSI for the first estimate of the total additional hydropower potential. Until the last decade, authority in Turkey has done no comprehensive investigation on SHP development. However, in recent years, a commission has been established to determine the progress of additional hydroelectric power and potential of SHPs as well as economic potential of the country (DSI, 2004). The hydrological and topographical condition of the country shows that there is considerable SHP potential. According to the results obtained from a preevaluation study by DSI, about 15% of increase in exploitable energy of 122,322 GWh might be achieved by means of additional SHP potential. This study gives very rough results about additional SHP potential of the country. This potential should be worked out again more precisely, which is in extent of comprehensive master-plan studies to be carried out in each twenty-six river basins. Table 9 shows some small selected hydropower projects in Turkey. An investigation focused on working out economic additional hydropower potential of the country according to the present condition of twenty-six river basins is being carried out by EIE. Presently, reevaluation of the potential of three river basins has been completed, investigations for the potential of nine river basins are still continuing, and the remaining fourteen basins are at the planning stage (EIE, 2004). In Turkey, the technical and economical hydropower potential is only 216,000 GWh and 122,322 GWh, respectively. According to the results obtained from a preevaluation

288

Ö. Yüksek and K. Kaygusuz Table 9 Some selected small hydropower projects including run-of-river systems in five river basins of Turkey (2003)

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Name of basin and small hydropower B. Karadeniz: Total De˘girmenönü Corbacı Ahlar Gediz: Total Kalınharman Topuz Susurluk: Total Dombay-1 Ovabayındır Kayalıdere Ege: Total Mıhlı D. Karadeniz: Total Kutulu Ortaca˘g Turhan Horyan ˙Iftelan Canakcı Cinali Kösecik Kadiralak Hasık Kızılev A˘gkolu Ballıca Akaya Akköy

Type of dam

Reg. Reg. Reg. Dam Dam Reg. Dam Dam Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Reg. Dam Dam Dam

Installed power (MW)

Average generation (GWh/yr)

21.90 2.88 2.84 2.93 39.08 5.31 5.68 23.74 3.02 3.94 3.98 4.76 1.69 245.3 6.22 2.73 4.72 2.61 7.09 9.22 3.17 5.29 3.75 3.58 6.75 3.81 6.65 7.97 6.74

113.86 13.82 12.04 12.82 159.40 23.35 20.0 110.55 13.91 19.73 19.84 20.33 6.83 1,324.8 38.43 16.53 27.69 17.25 40.95 54.21 18.33 29.06 22.12 20.59 31.67 22.24 43.88 41.62 36.14

River name/ site name

Average flowrate (m3 /s)

Gross water head (m)

K.cehen./Kastamonu Zari çayı/Kastamonu Kanlı ça./Kastamonu

1.75 1.90 3.95

145 205 75

Gediz nehri/U¸sak Eyne¸s çayı/U¸sak

10.10 3.50

45 100

Dombay ç./Bursa Simav çayı/Balıkesir Simav çayı/Balıkesir

0.42 18.33 11.45

705 25 45

Mıhlı der./Balıkesir

0.92

155

6.26 1.05 4.03 1.12 2.86 2.36 2.45 2.91 2.90 4.98 6.34 7.20 19.07 21.74 5.86

105 285 105 230 255 405 135 155 135 65 105 50 50 45 100

Askaroz deresi/Rize Orta dere/Trabzon Kokasor dere/Rize Horyan dere/Trabzon Yanbolu d./Trabzon Çanakçı d./Trabzon Kalyan der/Trabzon Fol dere/Trabzon Kadiralık d./Trabzon Tuma suyu/Ordu Kızılev dere/Giresun Melet ırma˘gı/Ordu Solaklı der./Trabzon Pazar suyu/Giresun Görele dere./Giresun

Source: Varlık, 2003.

study, about 15% of technical potential decreases from 216,000 GWh to 183,600 GWh, while economic potential increases from 122,322 GWh to 154,722 GWh. The difference between the technical and economical potential is about 61,278 GWh. It means that there still exists a lot of technical hydropower energy to exploit. The important point is what percentage of this technical energy can be contributed to the country’s economy. On the other hand, two-thirds of this potential (61,278 GWh), which corresponds to 40,852 GWh, has been estimated as economical hydropower energy. Approximately 50% of 40,582 GWh is considered as large, while the rest is considered SHP potential. Thus, with a very rough estimation, 20,000 GWh of SHP potential might be gained as an additional potential to the country’s energy amount. As a result, economic hydropower potential of Turkey will increase from 122,322 GWh to 163,174 GWh, while SHP potential will rise from 3.0% (3,670 GWh) to 12% (19,760 GWh) by means of the construction of about 1,300 SHP plants (DSI, 2004; EIE, 2004).

Small Hydropower Plants as a Renewable Energy Source

289

Table 10 Gross electricity generation by source in Turkey

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

Total thermal generation

Total hydropower generation

General total

Years

GWh

%

GWh

%

GWh

%

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

11,927 12,385 17,165 27,779 19,031 34,315 40,705 47,657 54,303 68,703 93,934 95,539

51 47 56 70 40 60 60 61 57 62 75 74

11,348 14,167 13,426 11,873 28,950 23,148 26,568 30,586 40,475 42,229 30,879 33,683

49 53 44 30 60 40 39 39 43 38 25 26

23,275 26,552 30,613 39,695 48,049 57,543 67,342 78,322 94,862 111,022 124,922 129,395

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: WECTNC, 2003.

Conclusions In Turkey, hydroelectrical potential evaluation studies were started by EIE on small rivers three years ago in order to investigate the unexploitable part of the rivers with regard to energy generation and to increase economically feasible hydropower potential. In this context, studies have been in progress on twelve of the total twenty-six main river basins, and the investigation on the remaining fourteen main river basins are planned to be completed within four years time. On the other hand, according to studies carried out up to 2002, the exploitable hydroelectric energy of Turkey has been determined as 125,350 GWh/yr. As of 2002, hydroelectric energy generation is 33,683 GWh/yr (Table 10). This figure indicates that only 26% of the exploitable hydroelectric energy has been developed. Table 10 also shows that the share of the total hydropower generation decreases while the share of the total thermal generation has increased steadily in recent years. But this policy is not good because hydropower is a renewable and domestic energy source for the country. The following conclusions can be extracted: • Small hydropower can provide a positive social and economic contribution to the community through employment creation and good quality of life by contributing to an assured supply of electricity. • Small hydropower projects must incorporate features to ensure that the overall life-supporting capacity of the river ecosystems is safeguarded. Although there will be some effects on natural resources, the provision of measures that ensure the migration of fish species is not restricted. Providing a minimum flow in the river bed and incorporating the planting of appropriate riparian vegetation should safequard the health of the river ecosystems overall.

Downloaded by [Karadeniz Teknik Universitesi] at 03:00 26 June 2016

290

Ö. Yüksek and K. Kaygusuz • Small hydro utilizes a source of energy (water) that is both renewable and abundant throughout the year in many parts of Turkey, especially in the East Black Sea region. • Small hydro generally produces negligible greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuel use and therefore contributes little to global warming. By increasing the generation of electricity by small hydro, there will be less need to generate electricity by power stations burning fossil fuels. In this way, small hydropower can assist in minimizing the contribution of greenhouse gases arising from electricity generation. • It may be possible to site a small hydropower project near a growing electricitydemand area to provide local and modular additional energy supply. This will minimize costs and effects of upgrading transmission networks and associated power losses in Turkey, because the costs and power losses of transmission networks in the country are very high. • Hydropower projects can also be used in conjunction with other renewable projects. For example, small hydropower could be used as a storage system for wind power projects by utilizing the energy generated by wind to pump water into a storage system for use later in hydropower generation. • By investing in a SHP system, it is possible to reduce the country’s exposure to future fuel shortages and price increases and help reduce air pollution. There are many factors to consider when buying a system, but with the right site and equipment, careful planning, and attention to regulatory and permit requirements, SHP systems can provide to any region of the country a clean, reliable source of power for years to come.

References Bakı¸s, R., and Demirba¸s, A. 2004. Sustainable development of small hydropower plants (SHPs). Energy Sources 26:1105–1118. General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI). 2004. Statistics on hydropower. Ankara, Turkey. http://www.dsi.gov.tr General Directorate of Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIE). 2004. Hydroelectric Power Activities of the EIE. Ankara, Turkey. http://www.eie.gov.tr Hepbaslı, A., Ozdamar, A., and Ozalp, N. 2001. Present status and potential of renewable energy sources in Turkey. Energy Sources 23:631–648. Johansson, T. B., McCormick, K., Neij, L., and Turkenburg, W. 2004. The potentials of renewable energy. In International Conference for Renewable Energies, Bonn, Germany. http://www. renewables2004.de Kaygusuz, K. 2002. Sustainable development of hydropower and biomass energy in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management 43:1099–1120. Kaygusuz, K. 2004. Hydropower and world’s energy future. Energy Sources 26:215–224. Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR). 2004. Energy Statistics of Turkey in 2001. Ankara, Turkey. http://www.menr.gov.tr Paish, O. 2002. Small hydropower: Technology and current status. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 6:537–556. Turkish Petroleum Corporation. 2003. Energy overview in Turkey. Ankara, Turkey. http://www.tpao. gov.tr Varlık, Y. 2003. EIE Tarafindan Küçük Akarsular Üzerinde Yapılan ˙Ilave HES Potansiyel Belirleme Çalı¸smaları. Enerji Bülteni 7:6–13. World Energy Council Turkish National Committee (WECTNC). 2003. Energy Statistics of Turkey in 2002. Ankara, Turkey. http://www.dektmk.org.tr