Social and individual factors in second language ... - APA PsycNET

Social and individual factors in second language acquisition R.CLEMENT University of Ottawa R. C. GARDNER AND P.C. SMYTHE University of Western Ontario

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of social factors on motivational aspects of second language acquistion. Indices of attitude, anxiety, motivation, personal contact with anglophones, fear of assimilation, intelligence, and achievement were obtained from 223 grade 11 francophone students from Montreal. Results of a factor analysis of the data suggested that self-confidence with English develops through the individual's opportunity for contact with members of the second language community. Furthermore, fear of assimilation was found to be negatively related to the Integrative Motive factor. A possible dynamic relationship between the integrative motive and self-confidence is suggested, and the implications of the influence of threat to ethnic identity are discussed.

Considerable research has demonstrated a relationship between motivation to learn a second language and attitudes toward the second language community (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner & Santos, Note 1; Gardner & Smythe, Note 2; Lukmani, 1972; Smythe, Stennett, & Feenstra, 1972). This attitude-motivation cluster, referred to as an "integrative motive," has been a recurrent dimension in various factor analytic studies concerned with motivation in second language acquisition. This motive has been associated with persistence in second language study (e.g., Gardner & Smythe, Note 2), with reported frequency of use of French in an interethnic contact situation (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977a; Desrochers & Gardner, Note 3), with student participation in French classroom activities (Gliksman & Gardner, Note 4), and with achievement in the second language (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Most of the research described above involved anglophones learning French as a second langauge. Only two studies have examined the factor structure of indices of attitude, motivation, intelligence, and achievement in English by francophones. Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) collected data from grade 10 and 11 francophone students from Montreal. Factor analyses of these data supported the conclusion that achievement was a function of both aptitude and motivation. Measures of motivation, This research was supported by a grant from the Language Administration Branch of the Office of the Secretary of State of Canada under its program to encourage language research in Canada. The authors are grateful to the school principals and the coordinators of the Montreal Catholic School Commission for facilitating access to their students. CANAD. J. BEHAV. SCI./REV. CANAD. SCI. COMP. 12(4), 1980

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however, contributed to two factors: one identified as an Integrative Motive, and the other as a Self-Confidence with English factor. This latter dimension involved a lack of anxiety when speaking English and high self-ratings of proficiency, and was more strongly associated with indices of competence in the second language than the Integrative Motive. Similar results were obtained by Clement, Major, Gardner, and Smythe (1977), who identified a Self-confidence factor among grade 7 and 8 francoOntarian students. These results suggest that a motivational component not found for anglophones learning French (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner & Smythe, Note 2) might be involved in the acquisition of English by francophones. That is, for francophones, the motivation to learn a second language seems also to involve feelings of self-confidence which are themselves influenced by the opportunities to speak English. Individual characteristics such as an integrative motive or selfconfidence with English have not been the only aspects hypothesized to affect language competence. Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor (1977) argued that the "ethnolinguistic vitality" of a language within a community influences the individual's level of competence. They defined ethnolinguistic vitality in terms of such factors as the social status of the language, the demographic distribution of its speakers, and its institutional support (i.e., whether it is used in school, etc.). To the extent that the social status of a language is low, its members are scattered, and institutional support is lacking, Giles et al. (1977) argued that speakers of the language would become assimilated into the language group that has more vitality. This, potentially, can lead to what Lambert (1974, 1978) referred to as "subtractive bilingualism" wherein, in some contexts, the acquisition of a second language can lead to the loss of the first cultural heritage. Giles et al. (1977) described the influence of structural variables on the characteristics of a linguistic group. It is possible, however, that such structural factors might influence the individual characteristics of the members of that group. Results obtained by Berry, Kalin,and Taylor (1977) suggest that, to the extent that they feel secure with their own language and culture, individuals will develop positive attitudes toward outgroups and, more generally, multi-culturalism. Taken together, the concept of "ethnolinguistic vitality" and the results obtained by Berry et al. (1977) suggest that social factors that are adverse to "linguistic vitality," and by the same token, present a threat to one's cultural identity, may influence the extent to which some individuals will strive to learn a second language. Lambert (1974, 1978) and Taylor and Simard (1975) suggested that Quebec francophones might be subject to losing their own language and culture as a result of learning English. Although a majority in their own province, the Quebecois are a minority in North America. Quebec fran-

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cophones might, therefore, perceive learning English as a step toward assimilation into the English culture, and this could be a potent motivational aspect lowering their interest in learning English. Supporting this hypothesis, Taylor, Meynard, and Rheault (1977), in a study involving Montreal francophone university students, report a negative relationship between self-ratings of proficiency and the extent lo which learning English is perceived as leading to assimilation. Furthermore, they report that threat to ethnic identity tends to decrease with added personal contact with anglophones. The Taylor et al. (1977) study sought to relate demographic characteristics of a community (i.e., the availability of the other group), perceived consequences of learning English (i.e., assimilation), and self-ratings of English proficiency. No attempt was made to relate these social factors to the individual's effort to learn the language or actual competence in it, or to partial out the effect of language aptitude. The bulk of the research and theorizing in the area of second language acquisition is integrated, however, within an individual processes model (see Gardner, 1979) which includes linguistic competence and language aptitude. If, indeed, the social factors studied by Taylor et al. (1977) do have an impact on second language competence, it should be important to trace their relationship to the individual processes postulated in the past. Specifically, the Selfconfidence factor obtained by Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) was related to self-ratings offluencyin English. In the Taylor et al. (1977) study, self-ratings were related to threat to ethnic identity. It is possible, therefore, that fear of losing one's ethnic identity might constitute a source of anxiety or lack of self-confidence when using a second language. The present study was designed to assess, through factor analysis, the relationship between attitudes, motivation, the social factors isolated by Taylor et al. (1977), language aptitude, and fluency in a second langauge. METHOD Subjects Subjects in this study were 223 grade 11 students attending two schools of the Montreal Catholic School Commission. The two schools were chosen to ensure the selection of students who differed considerably in economic status. One school, drawn from a lower socio-economic class area of Montreal, provided 78 students (35 males, 43 females), while the second, representative of a middle socio-economic class area, yielded 145 students (58 males, 87 females). Materials Twenty-eight variables were investigated in this study (see Table 1). Variable 1 (Sex) was coded 1 for boys and 2 for girls. Variables 2 to 16 are described in Clement, Smythe, and Gardner (1976) and Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b). The measures for variables 17 to

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24 were designed or modified specifically for this study. A description of each of these, including their respective Cronbach Alpha coefficients computed on this sample, follows. (17) Generalized Inter-personal Anxiety. This scale is derived from the Audience Sensitivity Index (Paivio & Lambert, 1959) and assesses the feeling of discomfort experienced by the student whenever he or she is in the presence of other people. Three positive and three negative items constituted this scale. A high score (maximum = 42) reflects a high degree of reported anxiety when in the presence of other people (a " .57). (18) French Classroom Anxiety .This scale is adapted from the Gardner and Smythe (Note 2) General Classroom Anxiety Scale and assesses the anxiety felt by students whenever they have to speak in the French class. Three items were worded positively and three negatively. A high score (maximum = 42) reflects a high degree of anxiety in the French classroom (a = .80). (19) English Test Anxiety. This scale is based on the Mandler and Sarason (1952) Test Anxiety Questionnaire, and assesses feelings of anxiety before and during a written English examination. Six items (three positive and three negative) constituted this scale. A high score (maximum ™ 42) indicates a high degree of anxiety when writing English exams (a = .76). (20) Threat to Ethnic Identity. This scale, comprising 6 items (3 positive, 3 negative), assesses fears of assimilation experienced by the students whenever they speak English. Typical items are: "When I speak English I have the impression of losing my cultural identitiy" and "1 feel sure of myself as a francophone when I speak English." A high score (maximum = 42) suggests that each time the individual speaks English he or she feels that their ethnic identity is threatened. This scale was designed to assess the subjective feelings related to the perceived consequences of learning English as given by Taylor et al. (1977) (a = .69). (21) Behavioural Intention of Re-enrolling in English. Students rate the probability that, given the choice, they would re-enroll in English the following year. Ratings were made on a seven-point scale defined at one end by "definitivement oui" (definitely yes) and at the other end by "definilivement non" (definitely not). The following three variables were assessed by means of tests designed by the Montreal Catholic School Commission and modified slightly for this study. (22) Aural Comprehension. This subtest includes 20 items and assesses the ability of the student to understand spoken English. The students listened to a tape recording and indicated on their answer sheets the meaning of the speaker's utterance by choosing among five alternatives. The maximum score was 20 (a - .80). (23) Reading Comprehension. In this subtest the students read a short passage and answered 12 questions assessing their comprehension of the passage. A maximum score of 12 was possible (a = .65). (24) Grammatical Knowledge. This test included 15 items (maximum score = 15) assessing the student's knowledge of English syntactic constructions (a = .86). The final four measures were obtained from the records of the Montreal Catholic School Commission. Variable 23 is an index of the students' intelligence, used here as reflecting language aptitude, based on tests administered at the end of grade 8. Variables 26, 27, and 28 are measures of proficiency in French, Mathematics, and Knglish, respectively, based on standardized tests administered at the end of grade 9. Procedure Testing was conducted during two one-hour class periods scheduled one month apart. In the first session, the experimenter read instructions informing the students of the general purpose of the study and stressing the confidentiality of their answers. The students then proceeded to answer the attitude/motivation battery. In the second session, a different experimenter

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TABLE I Varimax rotated factor matrix I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Sex Degree of Instrumentality Degree of Integrativeness English Classroom Anxiety English Use Anxiety Attitude toward English Canadians Attitude toward Learning English Attitude toward Americans Frequency of English Use Motivational Intensity No. of Years Studying English No. of Languages Spoken at Home Self-rating — Writing Self-rating - Understanding Self-rating - Reading Self-rating — Speaking Generalized Interpersonal Anxiety French Classroom Anxiety English Test Anxiety Threat to Ethnic Identity Behavioural Intention to Re-enrol in English Aural Comprehension Reading Comprehension Grammatical Knowledge IQ

Standardized Test Score of French Standardized Test Score of Mathematics Standardized Test Score of English

II .07 .67 .78 .06

-.10 „ .78 .79 .50 .66 .63

-.10

.20 .18 .08 .11 .12 .10

.26

-.06 -.40

.55

-.04 .03 .03

-.17 -.14 -.08

.02

III

-.10 -.16 .04

-.76 -.74

.22

-.02 -.10

.01 .04

.01 .25

-.22

-.09

-.02 -.04

.37 .32 .35 .57 .75 .74 .80 .86

-.41 -.16 -.62 -.21

.00 .39 .18 .33 .02

-.03 -.09

.18

.07 .08

-.04 -.03 .18 .29 .16 .07 .00

-.02 -.23 -.22 -.02 .55 .66 .75 .68 .82 .78 .76

administered the test of proficiency in English. Students were assured that their performance on the proficiency test would not affect their academic record and were urged to do their best.

RESULTS

The data were first standardized within each school in order to eliminate differences between the two schools. The correlation maxtrix was factor analysed by means of the principal axes procedure using communalities estimated after iteration (see Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975, p. 480). Upon application of the scree test (Cattell, 1966), three factors were judged "non-trivial" and rotated by means of the varimax rotation procedure. The resulting factor matrix is presented in Table 1. Factor I receives appreciable loadings (greater than ±.3) from nine variables. The pattern of the loadings suggests that the individual who has a positive attitude toward learning English (Variable 7) also has a positive attitude toward English Canadians (Variable 6) and is both "integratively" and "instrumentally" oriented (Variables 3 and 2, respectively). Such an individual also tends to frequently speak English with anglophones (Vari-

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able 9), is motivated to learn English (Variable 10), intends to continue studying English (Variable 21), and tends to have a positive attitude toward Americans (Variable 8). Finally, these individuals report an absence of threat of assimilation when speaking English (Variable 20). The composition of this factor is comparable to that obtained in previous research (Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & Smythe, Note 2; Smythe et al., 1972) and, in keeping with much of this research, it seems best to identify this as an Integrative Motive factor. 11 should be noted here that the Integrative Motive is associated negatively with feelings of threat to ethnic identity. Factor II receives appreciable loadings from 14 variables. These loadings suggest that individuals who rate themselves as relatively competent in their ability to speak, read, write, and understand spoken English (Variables 13, 14, 15 and 16) report little anxiety when speaking in an English class (Variable 4), speaking in public (Variable 5), writing an English exam (Variable 19), or simply when in the presence of others (Variable 17). Such individuals also report frequently speaking English with anglophones (Variable 9), studying English for many years (Variable 11), and speaking many languages at home (Variable 12). Finally, these individuals are motivated to learn English (Variable 10) and evidence a relatively good knowledge of English on tests of aural comprehension (Variable 22) and grammatical knowledge (Variable 24). This factor describes an individual who is not anxious when using English, has prior experience in doing so, and is self-assured with respect to his or her own English proficiency. The composition and interpretation of this factor are highly similar to those reported by Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) and Clement, Major, Gardner, and Smythe (1977) and, consistent with that research, the factor seems best labelled as Self-confidence with English. Factor III receives appreciable loadings from seven variables. The configuration of loadings suggests that the individual who has a relatively high level of English proficiency (Variables 22, 23, 24, and 28) is also intelligent (Variable 24) and competent in French (Variable 25) and Mathematics (Variable 27). Because this factor receives its major loadings from variables assessing various aspects of academic achievement it is best labelled as an Academic Achievement factor. DISCUSSION

The present results parellel closely those obtained by Clement, Gardner, and Smythe (1977b) and Clement, Major, Gardner, and Smythe (1977), and support previous research indicating that achievement in the second language is related to both motivation (Variable 10) and ability (Gardner, 1979;

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Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & Santos, Note 1; Smythe et al., 1972). The index of motivation, Motivational Intensity, as well as the frequency of use of English outside the classroom were related to two factors, the Integrative Motive and Self-confidence with English. Furthermore, Threat to Ethic Identity loaded negatively on the Integrative Motive dimension. Consistent with previous studies (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977b; Clement, Major, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977), these results suggest that two motivational components are involved in the acquisition of English by francophone students. One, the integrative motive, seems affectively based, owing to its relationship to variables assessing attitudes toward communities which speak the second language. The second one, selfconfidence with English, appears to stem from the individual's actual use of the language outside the school setting and at home. The individual who has contact with anglophones will develop self-confidence with his or her English skills, will be motivated to learn English, and will be relatively proficient. Personal contact, therefore, seems to be an important factor in the development of the self-confidence with English motive. The self-report of frequency of use of English outside the school setting loads appreciably on both the Self-confidence and the Integrative Motive factors, suggesting a possible link between the two processes represented by these factors. Previous research (Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977a; Desrochers & Gardner, Note 3) suggests that an integrative motive encourages frequent contact with members of the other ethnic group, and facilitates an individual's use of the language. If the other group is available for contact in the immediate environment and if such experiences are pleasant, it is likely that the individual will develop feelings of self-confidence with the language. According to this interpretation, whether the individual will actually interact with members of the second language-speaking group when given the opportunity, and thus become more self-confident, is dependent upon an integrative motive. As suggested by the negative loading of the Threat to Ethnic Identity variable on the Integrative Motive factor, this latter tendency might not be operative if learning a second language implies, for the individual, the loss of the first language and culture. The correlational nature of this study makes of the causal mechanism presented above an hypothesis, at best. It has implications, however, for our understanding of the findings obtained in this and other relevant studies. According to this model, the integrative motive fulfils a basic function in the second language acquisition process. Its role has been well documented in the research involving English Canadians learning French. The present results and those already obtained in other studies of French

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Canadians (i.e., Clement, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977b; Clement, Major, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977) detract from previous results in that they associate second language achievement most strongly with self-confidence with English as opposed to the integrative motive. Although the dynamics might be the same for both cultural groups, socio-cultural factors present in the two milieux might influence the relative importance of both motivational factors. Within the North American context, the Quebecois are a linguistic minority while anglophones constitute the majority. According to the framework elaborated by Giles et al. (1977), continued contact between linguistic minority and majority groups could eventually bring about the assimilation of the minority group. As a consequence, fear of losing one's ethnic identity might influence francophones and not anglophones. It appears possible, therefore, that within the socio-historical context of Canadian francophones, the integrative motive might not be related to achievement in the second language if learning English implies losing one's first language and culture. As past research has demonstrated this would not be the case for English Canadians. The preceding socio-cultural perspective also has implications for the interpretation of the self-confidence evidenced by francophones who are relatively fluent in English. If, indeed, frequent contact between members of minority and majority groups eventually causes the assimilation of the members of the minority group into the more potent group, the selfconfidence evidenced by high-contact francophones might be due to the fact that they have relinquished membership in the French group. As a result, they would no longer feel any discomfort in using English. If this were the case, the negative relationship between amount of contact and threat to ethic identity reported by Taylor et al. (1977) should be interpreted as caused by the fact that, as assimilation progresses with increased contact, fear of losing one's cultural identity is no longer an issue. Assimilated individuals who are comfortable in their new role as members of the second language group would not fear assimilation. In the context of a minority learning a majority's language, self-confidence with the second language would then be a symptom of assimilation into the second language-speaking group. Alternatively, self-confidence could be a sign of additive bilingualism or integration, viz., the sharing of two cultures. Self-confidence would then be characteristic of individuals who, assured of their first language and culture, gain competence in a second language and culture. This might, in fact, be the case for anglophones learning French in a bi-cultural setting (see Gardner, 1979) or any majority learning the language of a minority. In Canada, whether self-confidence reflects integration or assimilation could

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be a function of the relative "ethnolinguistic vitality" of French and English in a specific community. RESUME

Htude des effets produits par des factcurs sociaux sur les aspects motivationncls dans I'apprentissage d'une langue seconde, chez 223 etudiants francophones de Montreal, dont on mesure I'attitude, l'anxiete, la motivation, ('intelligence et le progres realise. Les resultats d'une analyse factoriellc des donnees suggerent que I'assurance qu'on a vis-a-vis de 1'anglais se developpe par les occasions de contact avee des membres dc la colleclivite parlant cette langue seconde. De plus, la crainte dc l'assimilation est negativement liee au facteur de "motivation inlegrative." La discussion suggere la possibility d'une relation dynamique entre motivation integrative et confiancc en soi el releve I'importance qu'il faut accorder aux facteurs qui menacent l'identite ethniquc.

REFERF.NCE NOTES

1. Gardner. R C & S a n t o s , E.H. Motivational variables in second language acquisition: A Philippine investigation. Research Bulletin No. 149, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 1970. 2. Gardner, R.C., & Smythe, P.C. Second language acquisition: A social psychological approach. Research Bulletin No. 332, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 1975. 3. Desrochers, A., & Gardner, R.C. Cross-cultural contact: Correlates and consequences. Research Bulletin No. 455, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 1978. 4. Gliksman, I.., & Gardner, R.C. Some relationships between students' attitudes and their behaviour in the French classroom. Research Bulletin No. 5, Language Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 1976.

REFERENCES

Berry, J.W., Kalin, R.I., & Taylor, D.M. Attitudes a I'egarddu multi-culturalisme et des groupes ethniques au Canada. Ottawa: Ministere des Approvisionnements et Services du Canada, 1977. Cattell, R.B. The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioural Research, 1966,/, 245-276. Clement, R., Gardner, R.C, & Smythe, P.C. Inter-ethnic contact: Attitudinal consequences. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1977, 9, 205-215. (a) Clement, R., Gardner, R.C, & Smythe, P.C. Motivational variables in second language acquisition: A study of francophones learning English. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1977,9, 123-133. (b) Clement, R., Major, L., Gardner, R.C, & Smythe, P.C. Attitudes and motivation in second language acquisition: An investigation ofOntario francophones. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 1977,12, 1-20. Clement, R., Smythe, P.C, & Gardner, R.C. Echellcs d'attitudesetde motivations reliees a I'apprentissage de 1 anglais, langue seconde. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1976,

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Gardner, R.C. Social psychological aspects of second language acquisition. In H. Giles &R. St. Clair (Eds.), Language and social psychology • Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1979. Gardner, R . C , & Lambert, W.E. Motivational variables in second language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1959, 12, 266-272. Gardner, R . C , & Lambert, W.K. Attitude and motivation in second language learning. Rowley: Newbury House, 1972. Giles, H., Bourhis, R.Y., & Taylor, D.M. Toward a theory of language in ethnic group relations. In H. Giles (Ed.), Language, ethnicity andintergroup relations. London: Academic Press, 1977. Lambert, W. E. Culture and language as factors in learning and education. In F. E. Aboud & R.D. Meade(Eds.), Cultural factors in learning and education. Bellingham: Western Washington State College, 1974. Lambert, W.E. Cognitive and socio-cultural consquences of bilingualism. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 1978,34,537-547. Lukmani, Y.M. Motivation to learn and language proficiency. Language Learning, 1972, 22,261-273. Mandler, G., & Sarason, S.B. A study of anxiety and learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1952,47, 166-173. Nie, N.H., Hull, C.H., Jenkins, J.G., Steinbrenner, K., & Bent, D.H. Statistical package for the social sciences, (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Paivio, A., & Lambert, W.E. Measures and correlates of audience anxiety ("stage fright"). Journal of Personality, 1959,27,1-7. Smythe, P . C , Stennett, R.G., & Fecnstra, H.J. Attitude, aptitude and type of instructional program in second-language acquistion. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1972,4, 307-321. Taylor, D.M., Meynard, J., & Rheault, K. Threat to ethnic identity and second language learning. In H. Giles (Hd.), Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations. London: Academic Press, 1977. Taylor, D.M., & Simard, L.M. Social interaction in a bilingual setting. Canadian Psychological Review, 1975,16, 240-254. First received 26 January 1979