Society for American Archaeology

Society for American Archaeology

Climate Change and the Archaic to Woodland Transition (3000-2500 Cal B.P.) in the Mississippi River Basin Author(s): Tristram R. Kidder Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 71, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 195-231 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40035903 . Accessed: 08/09/2011 14:39 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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ARTICLES

CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ARCHAIC TO WOODLAND TRANSITION (3000-2500 cal B.P.) IN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER BASIN Tristram R. Kidder

Archaeologists frequ~nt/y assume th~ culwra/ trtmsitionfrom Archmc to Woodland (ca. 3000-2500 cal B.P.) in th~ MisHsstppt RIVer basin is a gradual process. In the Iowa Mississippi Vall~y, haweve~ there is an abrupt gap in the archaeological seqwmce a/ this time and pronounced differences between Ltlu Arclwtc and Early Wood Ia lUi archaeological remaill!!. Elsewhere in the basin, this transiaon is marked by an occupation hiatus Qr decline and is accompanied by Hgnificant changes in se/1/ement and matenal culrure organi2allon. In most parts of the floodplain oft he Mississippi R1un and as mbuta/US theM are few sites dnting to this interval suggesting the rwer bottom was aband;medfor several hundred years as a Wcatwnfor sustai11ed habitation. High-resoluticm climate data demonstrates an episode of raptd gWbal clii1Ulte change involvmg Significant altermwru; in temperature an.d pruipitation in the penod ca. 3000-2600 cal B.P. The praxirrw_te cause ofthts global cl1mate occurrence u change m galactic cosmic ray inMnsity an.d solar irradwnonpossibly amplified by variations in the earth's geomag~Uttc fieM Global climate changes led to greatly increasedfloodfrequen.cies and rrw_gmtudes in the Mississippi River watashed during the sh1jr from Late Archatc to Early Woodland. In northecut Louisiana, increased floodmg led to mdJOr fluvwl reorganization that caw;ed sertlement abandonment and IS associated with the demise of Paverry Point culture. Climate change and associatedfloodmg is implicated as one cause of major cultural reorganization at the en_d_ of the Arclw.lc througlwut much of eastern North Amufca. Los arquedlogos frecuentemmte aswne11 que Ia traru;icidn del perioda Arcaico hacw el Woodlanil (ca. 3000-2500 cal A.P.) en/a cuenca del r{o Mississippifue W1 proceso gradual_ Sin embargo, en e/ Valle BaJa del Mtssissippi se obserua un abrupto cone en/a secuencia arqueo/Ogu:a dural!/e nte momento, ademds de una pronunciada diferen.cwciOn entre los restos arque· oldgtcos del Arcaico Tardfo y Woodland Temprano En 0/111S partes de la cuenca, esta transici6n se encuemra 11Ulrcada por W1 hiato a descenso en /a ocupacidn, acompafiadnpor cambws signijicaavos en los asentamiel!los y Ia organizacidn de Ia cuirum l>ltltenaL Esto sug1ere que las partes bajas del dofuemnahamlonadas por vanos ctenwsde aiios cottW un Iugar de asenramiel!la sostenido. Daros cltmdticos de alta resoluctOn muestran un episodio de rdpido cambia climdtJCO gWbal que a su vez produjero11 alteraciones significarivas en /a rempera/Ura y preClpUaC!Onfiuvial dura/!le e/ periado ca. 3000-2600 cal. A.P. Lo. causa probable de este evel!lo se encue11tra en el cambia de Ia mteru;idad de los rayos cOsmicos y la radiacidn sola~ posiblemente ampltjicados por las variac/ones mel campo geo1114gn
he Archaic of eastern North America (ca. 1 !,450-3000calB.P.) was a time when cultures adapted to fluctuating post-Pleistocene environments and developed numerous cultural and technological achievements. The pinnacle of cultural elaboration for the Archaic Period is the Poverty Point culture of northeast Louisiana (Gibson 2000; Webb 1982). Emerging after ca. 4000

T

cal B.P. and developing over several ensuing centuries, Poverty Point culture involved unprecedented levels of mound construction and interregional exchange exemplified at the type site, Poverty Point (16WC5), a 3 km2 complex of over 750,000 m3 of mounded earth in six nested, elliptical half-rings, two massive mounds, and a few smaller conical and flat-topped earthworks (Ford

Tristram R. Kidde.r • Oe.partme.nt of Anthropology, Washmgton University in St. L:Juis, St. L:Jms, MO 63130 ([email protected])

American Antiquity, 7!(2). 2006, pp. !95-23! Copyright© 2006 by the Society for American Archaeology

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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

and Webb 1956; Gibson 2000; Kidder 2002a; Kid-

der at a!. 2004 ). Other settlements of Poverty Point affiliation were distributed across an approximately 1813 km1 areacentered on the type site, with more

distant communities participating through exchange with core groups (see papers in Byrd 1991).

Poverty Point and its elaborate trade and mound building ceased ca. 3100-3000 cal B.P. (Saunders and Allen 2003). There is a chronological gap between ca. 3000--2600 cal B.P. in many parts of the American midcontinent and at the same time people living on the south Atlantic coast stopped constructing shell rings. A generally unasked but clearly significant question is what became of the stable and seemingly well-adapted Archaic cultures? The shift from Late Archaic to Early Woodland is one of the most notable culture historical, behavioral, and technological transformations recorded in eastern North America (Anderson 2001; Sassaman and Anderson 2004). Although chronologies vary, this transition is dated ca. 3200-2400 cal B.P. Across much of eastern North America there is an abrupt break in regional, local, and site occupations coupled with notable alterations in settlement, economy, and society. The Late Archaic was a time of relatively high population densities, considerable settlement diversity, extensive long-distance trade and exchange, and seemingly complex behavioral patterns (manifest in mound architecture, burial patterns, grave inclusions, and considerable artifact diversity) (Bense 1994; Emerson and Fortier 1986; Emerson and McElrath 2001; Farnsworth and Asch 1986; Farnsworth and Emerson 1986; Fiedel2001; Gibson 2000; Gibson and Carr 2004; Neuman 1984; O'Brienand Wood 1998;Phillips and Brown 1983; Sassaman and Anderson 2004 ). In contrast, Early Woodland societies are less complex looking, with apparently lower population densities, more restricted range of settlements and settlement types, less long-distance trade, and decreased architectural, burial, and artifact diversity (Bense 1994; Emerson 1986; Emerson and Fortier 1986; Emerson and McElrath 2001; Farnsworth and Asch 1986; Farnsworth and Emerson 1986; Fiedel2001; Jefferies 2004:115-118; Neuman 1984; O'Brien and Wood 1998). This paper argues that global climate changes greatly increased flood frequencies and magnitudes

[Vol. 71, No.2, 2006

in the Mississippi River watershed and were one cause of cultural and behavioral changes that mark the end of the Late Archaic in parts of eastern North America. Increased precipitation caused by global climate change led to more floods and to floods of greater magnitude and duration. Greater flooding and associated landscape instability coupled with lower temperatures (particularly summer temperatures) disrupted trade and exchange processes, increased resource instability, decreased resource predictability, and challenged social, economic, and political decision-making processes. Geoarchaeological research in northeast Louisiana illustrates the effects of climate-induced fluvial processes on human settlement in the lower Mississippi Valley. A complex sequence of river avulsion, meander belt shifts, and crevasse splay formation occurred between 5500-2500 cal B.P. Large-scale floods resulted in major changes in settlement organization, especially between 3000--2600 cal B.P. In contrast to prevailing models of cultural continuity in the Mississippi Valley, these data suggest episodic flooding resulted in extensive environmental destabilization and settlement discontinuity. Documenting climate change and understanding its consequences for human societies in the Mississippi River basin (3,212,000 km 2 ; Figure l) has implications for the archaeology and long-term history of much of eastern North America. Large catastrophic floods are common in the historical record, and at least a dozen floods of significant proportion have been documented since the middle sixteenth century (American National Red Cross 1938; Barry 1997; Chin et aL 1975; Daniel 1977; Saxon 1943; Stone and Bingham 1991; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [USACE]1994; United States Congress Senate Committee on Commerce 1898). Given the record of flooding and its known effects on human societies, it is surprising that few archaeologists have turned their attention to understanding how flooding in this river basin affected American Indian communities. Prevailing views of the role of climate as an agent in Holocene cultural history are influenced by the perception that the past 10,500 years were characterized by relatively stable climates (Anderson 2001, Bond eta!. 1997; deMenocal 2001). There is now evidence for significant climatic variation in the Holocene (Anderson 2001; Bondet a!.

Kidder]

CLIMATE CHANGE AND TRANSITION

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Figure 4. Results of calibrations (in outtine) of samples dated to the Late Archaic and Early Woodland in the upper Tennessee/Little Tennessee River valleys (Table 3). The solid black distributions are the result of applying Model 2 (see Table 4) to the data using a Bayesian analysis. The figures in percentages to the right of lab numbers are the agreement indices for the samples.

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND TRANSITION

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Table 1 Late Archarc and Early Woodland Radrocarbon Dates from the Lower Missrssrppr Valley rn Chronologrcal Order. (Conunued).

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Conv~ntwnal

Srte #

Srte name

Lab#

J6WC5 J6CT147 J6WC5 16WC5 l6SJB2 22Ha520 16WC5 16WC5 16WC5 l6WC5 22Hu505 16SJB2 16WC5 16WC5 l6SJB2 l6SJB2 16CT312 160R7 l60R7 l6WC5 l6WC5 16WC5 22Ha581 l6CT354 l6CT3 16WC5 22Ha520 l6SJB2 16WC5 22Hn505 l6SJB2 16SJB2 160R6 16MA20 16SJB2

Poverty Powt Cowpen Slough Poverty Point Poverty Point BayDu Jasmme Cedar Island Poverty Point Poverty Point Poverty Point Poverty Pomt laketown Bayou Jasmine Poverty Point Poverty Point BayDu Jasmme Bayou Jasmine Womack Lutle Oak Island Little Oak Island Poverty Powt Poverty Point Poverty Point

Beta-154367 1-13831 Beta-153803 Tx-5324

Cross Bayou Prcken's Island Poverty Point Cedar Island BayDu JasminE Poverty Pomt Jaketown BayDu Jasmine Bayou Jasmine Erg Oak Island Raffman Bayou Jasm1ne

UG~-7127

UGa-354 Tx-5328 L-195 M-403 UGa-1697 M-216 AA-10586 M-2154 LSU-73-057 UGa-7124 UGa-7128 Beta-66023 UGa-835 UCLA-687 L-272 Tx-5326 Schatzman A UGa-371 UGa-3873 UGa-3873 Tx-8440 UGa-353 UGa-7129 Tx-5327 0-41 UGa-7280 UGa-7126 M-243 Beta-148354 AA-10585

RC a!;e 3000 ± 40 2980 ± 140 2970 ± 40 2970 ± 130 2930 ± JOO 2900 ± 70 2860 ± 220 2860 ± 100 2850 ± 250 2845 ± 115 2830 ± 300 2820 ±50 2820± 150 2815±255 2810±:100 2780 ± 100 2780 ± 100 2740:!; 85 2700 ± 90 2700 ± 100 2690 ± 650 2685 ± 210 2680:!; 75 2680 ± 150 2680 ± 105 2657 ± 44 2650 ;t 70 2630±110 2580 ± 730 2560 ± 100 2550 ± 70 2540 ± 100 2520 ± 200 2510±40 2500 ±50

Cultural comronent

Pnmar):' rdnence

Poverty Pomt LA/Poverty Pomt Poverty Point Poverty Point

Connolly 2002 Ramenofsky and Mrres 1985 Connolly 2002:85 Grbson 1987 148 Hays and Wemstem 1999 Eleutenus and Otvos 1979: 105 Gibson 1987:64 FDrd and Webb 1956:122 Fmd and Webb 1956:122 McGJmsey and van der KDOgh 2001 Ford and Webb 1956:121 Kunruff et aL 1995 Crane and Gnffin 1971 Webb 1977 Hays and Wemstein 1999 Hays and Wemste1n 1999 Hunter et al. 1995 Shenkel 1974 Shenkel 1981 Ford and Webb 1956 122 G1bson 1987 110 Ford and Webb 1956:122 Elenterius and Otvos 1979 105 GrbsDn 1991 McGimsey and van der Koogh 2001 Gibson 1997 Eleuterius and Otvos 1979 105 Hays and We1nstem 1999 Gibson 1987:110 Ford and Webb 1956 121 Hays and w~mstem 1999 Hays and Wemstein 1999 Crane and Gnffin 1958:1120 Kidder 2003 Kuttruff et aL 1995

Tchdunct~

Tchefuncte? Poverty Point Poverty Point Poveny Point Poverty Point Poverty Pomt Tchefuncte Poverty Point Poveny Point Tchefunct~

TchefunctE LA/Poverty Point Tchefuncte Tchefunct~

Poverty Pomt Poverty Point Poverty Pomt Tchduncte? Pov. PtiTchefuncte Tchefuncte Poverty Pomt Tchefuncte? Tchefuncte Poverty Point Poverty Point Tchefuncte Tchefuncte Tchefuncte Tchefuncte Tchefuncte

~

Excluded! Cntena

oame context a~ 7129 uncertam prDvenience

agreement index < 60%b agreement mdex < 60%b surface uncertain pmvenience unknDwn provemence rejected) reJected3 natural shell b~ach unknown provemence agreement index < 60% 0 excesstve erwr unknown lab standards uncntam provemence uncer!ain provemence uncertam provemence humate date uncert~m provemence date not m stratigraphic order excessive error agre~ment index < 60%b date not in stratigraphtc mder uncertain provemence surface

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, c
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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

[Vol. 71, No. 2, 2006

Fig11re 7. Map showing the location of selected archaeological sites in northeast Louisiana and their relation to mapped crevasse splays emanating from Joes Bayou. Note the absence of pre-Woodland age archaeological sites on the surfaces

of thes.._ splays.

seasonally recurring presence of fish contained in

bayous or rivers or that had been left behind in ponds and sloughs as Mississippi River water receded after annual flooding. Because fish would no longer be enclosed in specific bodies of water as a consequence of increased flooding, the effectiveness of Poverty Pomt fishing technology may have significant!y decreased and mass-capture techniques may have been of little or no use. Increased

turbidity associated with floods of extremely large size and duration also may have limited the availability of fish for capture. With fish density diminished and the alluvial bottoms flooded, populations living on or adjacent to the alluvial lowlands may have adapted by emphasizing an upland-based, residentially mobile foraging strategy focused on terrestrial species such as deer and small mammals. Fish still would have been important but may have

Kidder]

CLIMATE CHANGE AND TRANSITION

been less of a focus because their location and abundance would be less predictable. Furthermore, because Poverty Point people were extensively engaged in a complex web of long-distance trade and exchange (Gibson 2000; Webb 1982), massive flooding at the local and regional (and even basin-wide) scale probably disrupted the flow of goods to and from Poverty Point sites in the lower Mississippi Valley. If, as hypothesized, long-distance trade goods provided much of the rationale for the remarkable cultural developments of the Poverty Point culture (Gibson 1996b, 1996c, 1998a, 2000; Webb 1982), sustained disruption of the trade in goods, information, and associated cultural baggage may have been catastrophic. The economic, political, and social consequences of the collapse of Poverty Point trade and exchange likely reverberated throughout the Mississippi basin, amplifymg the negative effects of climatic and ecological changes experienced across much of eastern North America. Conclusion For people living in the Mississippi River basin today, flooding is a common problem. However, at certain times in the past flooding was more than just background noise; instead, it became a significant causal process in the history of people and cultures living in this region. It is time to reassess the model that the history of precolumbian cultures in the basin represents an unbroken continuum from Paleoindians to European contact. At least in the context of the Late Archaic to Woodland transition, the null hypothesis of temporal and thus cultural continuity cannot be sustained based on the available archaeological evidence. Research presented here indicates massive floods in the Mississippi River basin resulted in significant landscape changes, abandonment of parts of the basin, and widespread cultural transformation in the period 3000-2600 cal B.P. The atmospheric and environmental processes leading to flooding of this magnitude were no doubt complex and erratic but they dearly represent a regional expression of global climate change; human responses can be expected to be similarly variable and must be understood at different spatial and temporal scales. The spatial breadth and limited temporal duration of the Late Archaic to Early Woodland transition implicates

'"

climate change as a causa[ agent. Archaeologists have tended to ignore the effects of flooding on human settlement of the Mississippi Valley despite its obvious influence. It is difficult to isolate flooding as a discrete event when it is viewed against complex geological background noise. The geological and climatic record indicates the Mississippi basin witnessed multiple large-scale flood events prior to those documented in this study. Middle Archaic mound building in the lower Mississippi valley terminates ca. 4800 cal B.P., which approximately coincides with one of the more confidently dated rapid climate change episodes identified globally and within the Mississippi basin. At present, however, we lack adequate data with which to assess the hypothesis that climate change and flooding had a causal rote in the demise of Middle Archaic mound building societies. The reason the floods documented in this analysis can be recognized is because the Joes Bayou meander belt and its associated crevasse splays are well preserved and have not been subsequently reworked by fluvial processes. Evidence of flooding, however, is indisputable, and in this instance it is reasonable to hypothesize it played a significant role in how humans organized themselves and where they chose to live. In the end, however, climate change is not the sole cause of culture change. Humans are active participants in guiding and shaping their own lives. Climate change was not instantaneous and humans living in the basin almost certainly had time to respond through existing decision-making processes. Individuals and societies respond to climate events in complex ways that are hard to recognize in the archaeological record, and it is this response that is the real cause of culture change. Climate is only one of many factors influencing the direction of human history. In a recent paper, Van der Leuuw and Redman (2002) argue that archaeologists bring to the study of climatic and environmental issues a long-term perspective that infonns our understanding of contemporary issues. Such analysis requires large, comprehensive data sets that allow careful analysis of the relationship between changes in climate, environment, and culture at different temporal and spatial scales. In the Mississippi River basin and parts of eastem North America we are seeing the fruits of decades of research that have accumulated

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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

extensive regional archaeological and chronometric data bases that can be tested against the rapidly emerging high-resolution climatic evidence. This work demonstrates it is increasingly possible to combine results of diverse research programs (e.g., climatology, oceanography, geology, and geomorphology) with specifically archaeological data to arrive at a better and more comprehensive understanding of how humans have interacted with and have been influenced by their environment More-

over, this study is a first step in the direction of providing a long-tenn, deep historical understanding

and appreciation of human use of a large river floodplain and it points out the potential challenges to the millions of humans who inhabit these river valleys today. Further endeavors of this sort are urgently needed as populations living in floodplains grow larger and climatic and environmental challenges are magnified by this trend. There is no escaping the realization that climate events that occurred in the past can recur; such awareness should give us pause as we contemplate the future. Acknowledgments. I am tndebted to the three anonymous Anthony Ortmann, Lori Roe, Katie Adelsberger, Lee Arco, Liar Weisbrod, Brian Butler, Paul Welch, Thomas Emer~on. Bruce McMillan, Bonme Styles, Mtke Wiant. Joe Saunders, Thurman Allen, Becky Saunders, Kenneth Sassaman, Evan Peacock, Chip McGimsey, Mark Pollard, Whitney Autin, David Anderson, Jay Quade, Stephen Wilhams, John Kelly, Gayle Fntz, and James Brown for ideas and comments. Ttmothy Schilhng helped draft Figures I, and 5-7; Eduardo Machicado translated the abstract into Spanish. This research was supported by the National Geographic Society, The Newcomb Foundation, Washington Umvers1ty m St Louis Graduate School of Arts and Sc,ences, and the Anderson-Tully Company. I am especially grateful for the support of the Louisiana Office of State Parks and Dennis LaBau and David Griffing of the Poverty Point State Htstoric Site. reviewe~.

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[Vol. 71, No.2, 2006

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND TRANSITION

alta Sue, East Baon Rouge Parish, LJuistana. Report on file, Louisiana Divtsiorr of Archaeology, Baton Rouge, LOUlS!MptatiaHs i.n the. Mississippi River Delta_ Natwnal Park SerVJCe, Jean Lafitte National HJstoncal Park, New Orleans. 1984 Early Woodland in Coastal LJuisLana. In Paspecuves on Gulf Coast Prehisrmy, edited by D Davu,, pp 41-7! Umversity Presses of Ronda, Garnes ville. Sims, Douglas C., and John M. Connaway 2000 Updated Chronometric Database for Mississippi. MississippiArchaeology 35:108-269 Sowunmi, M. Adebisi 2002 Environmental and Human Responses to Climatic Events w West and West Cen.tral Africa during the Late Holocene_ In Droughts, Food and Culture: Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa's Latn Prehistory, edited by F. A. Hassan, pp. 95-!04. Kluwer Academrc/Plenum Publishers, New York Spernnza, Alessandra, Johannes van der Phcht, and Bas van Gee! 2000 Improving the Time Control of the Subboreal!SubatlanticTransrtton maCzechPeat Sequence by '"C WrggleMatchlng. Quaternary Sc1e1U:e Reviews 19:1589-1604 Stafford, C. Russell (edltor) 1992 Early Woodland Occuparwns atlhe Ambrose Fl1ck Site in the Sny Borrom ofWesr-CenJral !llinois Center for American Archaeology, Kampsv1Ue Archaeolog,cal Center, CAA Press, Kampsville, Illinois. 2000 The Geoarchaeology of the Great Miami River Confluence, Southeastern Indiana: A ReevaluatJOn_ In lndinl1fl Swdies, edited by J. Oliver and P. Dutta, pp. 23-32. Professional Paper 21 Department of Geography, Geology, and Anthropology, Indlana State Umvers1ty, Terre Haut Stafford, C. Russell, and Steven D_ Creasman 2002 The Hidden Record: Late Holocene Landscapes and Settlement Archaeology in the l