Software Development and Recent Technological ...

Software Development and Recent Technological Innovations for Geographical and Statistical Applications for Population Activities Paper prepared for the First International Health Geographics Conference - Mapping Health into the Future Baltimore, Maryland, 16-18 October 1998. By Patrick Gerland1 and Vu Duy Man2 3

Table of contents Summary .................................................................................................................................. 1 Application of geographic databases for population programmes............................................... 1 Software trends ......................................................................................................................... 4 The challenges .......................................................................................................................... 4 Some strategies ......................................................................................................................... 6 The PopMap experience ...........................................................................................................11 The data conversion issue.........................................................................................................17 MapScan ..................................................................................................................................18 Highlights of the PopMap and MapScan approach....................................................................20 Some lessons learned ...............................................................................................................22 References and further reading materials ..................................................................................23

Summary This paper focuses on issues related to GIS applications in international health and development. The authors review some of the recent developments in electronic atlases and geographical population databases for health and population activities. Various strategies are considered, and the experience of the United Nations Statistics Division is reviewed in the light of the development and dissemination of the PopMap software. The paper offers an in-depth overview of PopMap and MapScan, its companion program. After looking at the historical setting, the software development framework, and the software main features, the strengths and limitations of such an approach are examined in the context of the United Nations technical co-operation programme to support population activities in developing countries.

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Software Specialist, Computer Software and Support for Population Activities, United Nations Statistics Division, DC2-1540, Two UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA, Phone: +1-212-963-4936, Fax: +1-212-963-4116, E-mail: [email protected]. Project Coordinator, Computer Software and Support for Population Activities, United Nations Statistics Division, DC2-1526, Two UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA, Phone: +1-212-963-2054, Fax: +1-212-963-4116, E-mail: [email protected], URL: http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/index.htm. The view expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the United Nations. Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply endorsement by the United Nations. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this paper do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delineation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Software Development and Recent Technological Innovations for Geographical and Statistical Applications for Pop. Activities

Application of geographic databases for population programmes Computerised mapping, geographic databases and Geographic Information System (GIS) have given information new meaning and applications. Originally developed for environmental applications and use by specialists, geographic information systems are now increasingly applied to other fields, from facilities management to marketing health service provision and population census analysis. They are also increasingly used by non-specialists with little or no training in computer and geography. GIS is becoming a vital tool to help nations understand what resources they have and how best to use them (Wilson 1997). What is a Geographic Information System or GIS? Basically, it is a computer-assisted information management system of geographically referenced data. It supports spatial decision-making and is capable of linking descriptions of location (spatial data) with the characteristics of the phenomena (attribute data) found there. The spatial data contain information in the form of digital coordinates, usually from maps or from remote sensing. These can be points (health clinics or villages), lines (roads and rivers), or polygons (administrative districts and climate zones). The attribute data contain information about the characteristics of the spatial features, for example health personnel at a clinic, type of road access, or district population. GIS can address various problems and will answer questions on: locations, what are the attributes at a specific place?, conditions, where are the places that have certain attributes?, trends, how do attributes change spatially over time?, routing, what is the shortest, or least expensive path between places?, and patterns, what is the spatial distribution of attributes and possibly its reason?. GIS is also used to simulate "what if" scenarios. The United Nations report "Geographical Information System for Population Statistics" (Series F. No. 68, New York, 1997) discussed many useful applications of GIS for population-related statistics, such as census preparation/field operation/result dissemination, epidemic studies, reproductive health and family planning service provision and demographic-environmental development studies. There is an increasing need and interest on the use of spatial information for development planning especially at the micro level. Many country projects purchase GIS software and hardware, and request international experts to install the hardware and provide software training. The latest revision of the United Nations Principles and Recommendations for the 2000 Population and Housing Census Round (Series M, No. 67, Rev. 1, New York, 1998) includes new recommendations about computerized cartography, geographic databases and GIS, thematic atlases and data dissemination. Users now realise that geographical information systems are not just some computer software for making maps; they offer strong data management and analytical capabilities. There has been a growing concern on the quality of reproductive health (RH) and family planning (FP) service delivery in developing countries. Easy physical accessibility to basic health care and referral services for specialized care is an important criterion that has to be monitored to improve the qualitative dimension of the RH/FP programmes. GIS is the best tool for studying physical accessibility, and for identifying and locating on the map the families with reduced or limited access to such services. Partnerships between health and RH/FP professional and information specialists are desirable to study the spatial patterns of the distribution of basic health and family planning services, the proportion of population at different levels of accessibility to these services, and the strategic locations of future service centres. There is an urgent need to have maps showing the precise locations of the basic health care service centres, including the RH/FP service centres (geographically in latitude and longitude) and the distribution and population of villages and urban areas. With affordable modern computer technology, developing countries can map health facilities.

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Geographic databases and desktop mapping have changed the way people look and treat information. These dynamic databases link data to a location, making it possible to graphically manage, analyze relates to a geographical location. Where is it located? Why is it there? How do we get there? Automating and managing information assets are essential, and greater support and return of programmes requires a great deal of human and technological resources. Many day-to-day activities are carried out in various locations. Reproductive health services, for Tracking performance and evaluating the quality of services are essential to determine programme effectiveness. Visualizing locations of health facilities, presenting information as maps, and Contraceptive use by village

Natural features and infrastructure

Family planning service delivery points

Service accessibility in Denpasar district (Bali, Indonesia)

Such integrated data analysis can be very helpful in supporting decisions based on: population quality of care, etc. The figures below show how to identify service areas using census data, road network, and family

Geographic databases help detect important events (like knowing where adverse trends are happening so that services are provided where these are most needed); determine the causes of deteriorating most in need of resources; what social, political and economic issues influence health outcomes, and so forth. tremendous capacity to make comprehensive and timely analysis of complex database, and the potential to improve data collection, analysis and visualisation processes.


Software trends Historically most cartographic and graphic visualisation work has been done by hand. This has changed over time with the appearance of easier to use, more powerful, better integration and connectivity between desktop mapping, GIS software, spreadsheet, illustration and graphics presentation, and desktop publishing software. Greater access to computing power, combined with more user-friendly software program interfaces, has made it possible for most non-computer specialists to work directly with maps and data without relying on computer programmers or cartographers. Word processors and spreadsheets are daily commodities for data analysis, presentations, reports and publications. Powerful and easier to use spreadsheets allow anyone to create worksheets, apply formulas, create graphs and even thematic maps (Quick and Schweikart 1996). The need for standalone dedicated programs has decreased to a few number crunching tasks involving either large datasets, fairly complex models, or solving specific problems. Considering the fast pace of technology (CPU speed has doubled every 18 months; commercial hardware and software manufacturers release new products/versions every year), one would believe in-house software development and custom-programs are no longer needed. However, technological challenges in developing Windows software or Internet/Intranet applications produce a complete new generation of programming languages (Java, Visual Basic, Delphi, etc.), development tools and libraries to create new programs and customised applications. The flow of new commercial, shareware and freeware utilities, off-the-self software packages, and on-line web-aware applications demonstrate the dynamics at work. The latest spreadsheet and database generations offer, in addition to the early templates and macro commands, some full-fledged well structured programming languages (e.g. Visual Basic for Application) as well as the capability to work with third party components using OLE (VBX, OCX) or other form of data exchange and dialogs (ActiveX, Java). Multiple commercial mapping and GIS software vendors offer standalone products and development libraries that enable end-users or programmers to add or embed some mapping or GIS functionalities to their own databases or software applications, thus blurring the line between GIS and traditional information systems. In addition, the widespread use of the Internet offers an increasing level of cooperative distributed computing. This allows an ever greater number of users and applications to share, access and use resources dispersed in multiple locations. It is only a matter of time (in fact it is a reality for users in countries with good Internet connectivity), that anyone using a spreadsheet with some data could rely on the latest data, map or analytical model developed somewhere else in the world. Searching and accessing almost any kind of information as well as communicating and sharing knowledge are major advances provided by the Internet to almost anyone, anywhere, anytime. The latest statement for the time being is over-optimistic. Speed, quality and cost to access the Internet depends on several conditions: computer, modem and phone line or local network and dedicated-line, Internet account, service provider, country connectivity and regulations. To this extent the availability of software, maps and data on CD-ROM is a good complement to the Internet, empowering remote end-users with a comprehensive collection of useful tools and basic datasets for a variety of applications.

The challenges Issues that emerge in designing a widely usable geographical information system are: types of users, benefits expected of the system compared to the actual set-up, time it takes to set it up, skills available locally, sustainability of the activity in terms of training, database development and 4


maintenance, institutional commitment, co-ordination and exchange with other data producers and users, cost of the hardware, software, staff, time, and space. Geographic information system organises and uses geographically referenced, and non-spatial data to develop maps and graphics presentations on information, providing support to planning and decisionmaking activities. GIS is a very powerful and useful tool, but its development and application require considerable planning and skilled use of resources. The implementation requires coordination of prospective suppliers of data and users of the GIS throughout the organisation or across different organisations. The organisational location of a GIS is important in ensuring success, and determines the time and cost of development. Geographic information systems provide services to many organisations and various data producers and data users. The interdependencies of national, state and local government programmes demand cooperation in collecting, processing and disseminating information. The principal collectors and/or producers of information from various government agencies at different subnational levels cover sectors, such as health, education, welfare, labour markets, environment, etc. Collected information is indexed, processed and organised for managing the distribution of the country’s resources. In setting up a GIS, important considerations are hardware and software compatibility, standardisation of data formats, spatial referencing conventions, and selection and definitions of spatial data themes and indicators. Practical steps include, for example, such basic requirements as standard classifications, common geographic codes and administrative structure as well as common file formats for data and maps (Deichmann 1996). To understand and appreciate the full impact and potentials of GIS, proper tools (hardware and software) are required, including GIS-trained people, and development of specific applications for everyday decision-making. A well developed GIS enables easy development of specific applications for supporting everyday decision-making, with computer produced maps showing on a single page (or screen) what will take pages to describe in words and numbers. Unlike many western countries, there is little or no commercial market for maps and data in most developing countries where the public sector is the main producer and primary user of such information. Data and maps in many countries are not always available in printed or digital formats that are suitable for GIS applications. There is massive work to convert data and to digitise maps. In most countries building core databases requires tracing, scanning and converting raster-to-vector maps (Stevenson 1995, Suharto and Vu 1997). In addition, many existing paper maps are often outdated or incomplete, and the quality of the information often needs to be crosschecked. Most countries face rapid changes; urbanisation, migration, and population growth impose frequent revisions to the existing administrative structure. Sub-divisions change, merge or split, and new ones are created. As a result, datasets and maps need to be revised regularly to take these changes into account. In general censuses and administrative registration systems provide the basic framework to collect key information. Surveys can be used to collect more in-depth information on particular issues. Many countries share the same goal of building a spatial data infrastructure at the national, regional and local levels; and creating and maintaining platform- and format-independent maps and datasets that are cheap, easy to use, and sustainable (Wilson 1997). The situation in these countries varies between organisations in natural resources, environmental agencies, infrastructure and utility companies, and the socio-economic and health sectors. Despite the fast growing applications of these techniques, many institutions and individuals of population and related sectors still have difficulties in deploying them. This is due to lack of awareness, skilled people (to compile data and use software), or resources. There are cases where 5


national staff are unable to use commercial software programs successfully despite some training. Foreign experts would install and initially use the software, but upon their departure nationals were unable to continue or maintain the work on their own. This situation is further hampered by the fact that government employees with software skills are offered better paying jobs in the private sector. Developing countries are realising the proven benefits and impact of GIS applications. It is, however, important to acknowledge that a successful GIS activity needs the right combination of people, hardware/software, and data (substantive information and maps) supported by a financial commitment to sustain the initiative. Too often such GIS activity is an ad-hoc project. Once the external funding stops, everything stops. A key point – and it has always been one of the difficult challenges of technical assistance – is in sustaining a GIS initiative, and in transferring knowledge and expertise among national staff.

Some strategies GIS and Desktop Mapping GIS is often referred to high-end systems used by GIS professional with emphasis on spatial analysis capabilities. The distinction between GIS and desktop mapping – software packages that provide most of the functions needed by an average user – is not always clear. There are hundreds of commercial software ranging from professional GIS, desktop mapping, thematic mapping integrated in spreadsheet and statistical packages, to simple map browsers and multimedia viewers. The application of GIS can be expensive. There are many cost components: system design, hardware and software acquisition, training, data capture and conversion, and system maintenance. Therefore, careful planning is essential before implementing a GIS project. This is the reason why in both the conclusions and recommendations of the Expert Group Meeting on Innovative Techniques for Population Censuses and Large-Scale Demographic Surveys (NIDI/UNFPA, The Hague, 22-26 April 1996) and the revised (1998) United Nations Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses, formulations on the use of GIS are rather cautious. Specific GIS technology should only be considered at a level appropriate to the skills and resources available. Complex and expensive GIS solutions are not worth pursuing where simple and inexpensive mapping solutions can satisfy the needs (Pinals 1998, Culpepper 1998). For further reading on GIS and applications in population field: Deichmann (1996, 1997), Tripathi (1995) and United Nations (1997). Multimedia atlases, on-line atlases and map browsers With the advent of the PC revolution – better computer graphics capabilities, combined with the development of graphic user interface such as Windows and hypermedia navigation and display – new ways of visualising and using spatial information have appeared (electronic atlases, cartographic animation and multimedia). Beside the traditional paper atlases, a complete set of electronic atlases (floppy or CD-ROM) offers very attractive and innovative ways to display and browse socio-economic indicators, thematic profiles, map layers. The range of products for the mass-market includes Encarta Virtual Globe (Microsoft), PC-Globe and Maps and Facts (Broderbund), 3D Atlas (Creative Wonders), OneWorld Atlas (Virgin), Small Blue Planet Series: The Real Picture World Atlas and 3D Talking Globe (Cambrix Publishing), Global Explorer (Delorme Mapping), etc. Most electronic encyclopaedias also include maps and basic atlases. With the spread of the Internet, an increasing number of on-line mapping and atlases have appeared providing similar functionalities, often with less multimedia look-and-feel, but with potentially “real 6


time”, or “live” and up-to-date information covering more professional topics or specific areas. Numerous private and public services have setup servers delivering various thematic mapping services, address matching, routing or location maps. Several major GIS commercial vendors like ESRI, MapInfo, Intergraph or Autodesk have been offering for the last year(s) software solutions to enable organisations with vast amount of existing digital information to leverage their investment, and provide organisation-wide, and virtually anywhere in the world through the web, access to various thematic views of their databases (Limp 1997, Plewe 1997). The profusion of nice looking multimedia-rich atlases – or live maps on-line – can easily give the illusion that almost everything is out there, somewhere on the web or on a CD. Such products have educational and informational value, and can provide end-users fairly simple ways to access and visualise a large amount of existing data. However, these products are often closed systems designed to empower end-users with browsing capabilities rather than analytical or advanced computing capabilities. In most cases, information on the screen can only be printed or exported in a bitmap format that is good only for presentation or reports. Vector layers or database attributes can seldom be accessed, used, or exported. Most of the time, user’s local data cannot be integrated or easily added to such systems. National and local electronic atlases For health and planning authorities in many developing countries, the usefulness of such existing products and approaches (focusing primarily on international or developed countries) are limited. Kraak M.J. and F.J. Ormeling (1996) distinguish several types of electronic atlases: view-only, interactive and analytical. The view-only atlases are typically outputs organised and presented in a linear or structured way. End-users can only browse and look at existing views. Examples are many multimedia atlases and web pages with static image maps. Interactive electronic atlases are intended for a more computer-literate audience, but they allow users to manipulate the data sets. The maps and views are dynamically generated based on the user’s interaction. Finally, analytical electronic atlases take advantage of the full potential provided by the electronic environment. Beside queries and data manipulations, users can compute, combine and use their own maps and data. This last category of electronic atlas offers the most potential for many professional applications. Several organisations have produced some electronic atlases in cooperation with a commercial company. By having associated graphing and mapping capabilities, existing databases can greatly increase their usefulness. Aside from having access to existing pre-made templates and outputs, users can extract and export data, generate graphs and/or maps, print or paste them into a report or other applications, etc. Many users want socio-economic data for relatively small areas. While the database may be for one data source, some historical or multi-sectoral information can be included so users can observe prevailing trends or patterns over time and space. An electronic atlas in the context of socio-economic data at the national and sub-national levels is a digital collection of maps with illustrations, information tables and texts. It can combine statistical indicators, tables, texts, maps, graphs, pictures, video, audio and animation into a powerful, effective, and entertaining presentation, enabling better data visualisation and dissemination.

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Tables

Maps

Graphs % Households without Bathroom by Districts in 1993 120 100 80 60 40 Population by Education Level in 1993

20 ANTANANARIVO

FIANARANTSOA

TOAMASINA

0 -20

0

20

40

60

80

100

Urbanization Rate (%)

Sco. jam. tot. 1993 (%) Niv. auc. tot. 1993 (%)

MAHAJANGA

TOLIARY

ANTSIRANANA

Niv. pri. tot. 1993 (%) Niv. sec. tot. 1993 (%)

Internal Migrations by Sex

Niv. sup. tot. 1993 (%)

ANTANANARIVO FIANARANTSOA TOAMASINA

Migra. masc. 1993 (%)

MAHAJANGA

Migra. fem. 1993 (%)

TOLIARY ANTSIRANANA 0

5

10

15

20

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Creating and distributing data in the form of electronic atlases has become an easy, quick and inexpensive undertaking. Electronic atlases offer some distinctive highlights – in particular the interactive and analytical ones: •

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Multiple levels of geographic aggregation e.g. country, subnational administrative units and other user-defined areas and facilities Live links between base maps and statistical data providing visualisation and application possibilities User-friendly graphical interface, easy to use, portable, compact standardised and inexpensive solution to produce and distribute maps and data Interactive and dynamic views: browse selective information in one or multiple windows, pan, zoom, search, identify, query and retrieve geographical and statistical data, overlay and classify, compute, aggregate and manipulate, customise style and presentation, print and export outputs, etc.

Some reasons to make electronic atlases Electronic atlases are not made to replace printed materials, but to complement them and empower end-users and decision-makers with more interactive and analytical abilities to pinpoint specific problems, identify particular situations, test what-if scenarios, and so on (Water and De Leeuw 1987, Kraak and Ormeling 1996). Some major motivations to create electronic atlases are: •

Add value to existing statistics, censuses and other baseline data. Transform numbers and tables into more communicable and marketable forms. Enhance people's awareness of development issues affecting their community, region, state and nation.

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Disseminate data to a larger number of users in the public and private sectors. Maximise information sharing, public access and better awareness. Optimise returns on investments by improving output production quality for greater use of data. 8


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Improve presentation; enhance understanding and meaning of data. In addition to plain tables and texts, use maps, graphs and illustrations to liven up publications and electronic products, and make them easier to read and comprehend.

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See patterns and trends at local and global levels. Use graphs and maps to visualise and better understand relationships and distributions of the most important characteristics of the population in local areas. Increase ability to analyse large amounts of data, determine factors, solve problems and answer questions, test and compare hypotheses.

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Generate new knowledge. Create detailed profiles, compute new indicators, integrate and consolidate datasets from one or several sources, create multi-sectoral databases with time series, update and maintain statistical and cartographical databases.

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Evaluate the success or the impact of government programs. Check inventory and monitor resources and demand; assess progress of a particular development programme or project, measure the impact of specific policies.

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Make better decisions with increased accuracy, rapid and shared access to more data for better public and private service planning, site locations and resource allocations. Building and managing infrastructure — health, education, public safety, transportation — require knowledge of the population's location, age and sex distribution in order to adequately plan and provide facilities and services.

The information required The quantity and detail of information required to build a database varies depending on the scale and scope envisioned. Simple atlases with some maps and indicators can be developed today in a matter of a few hours or days. More substantial databases require more time and efforts to assemble, but they can deliver a richer set of maps and data to end-users. The major maps and datasets required to build a thematic electronic atlas are: National and sub-national maps districts and counties as well as routes, rivers, and other geographical features or information layers. Maps can be imported, drawn or traced using either a mouse, a scanner or a digitizer. profiles for individual administrative units included in the maps. Data can be keyed-in, cut Statistics and information about major towns, villages and human settlements or

Database creation and existing digital databases As seen earlier, several companies have developed mapping software programs and ready-to-use data software packages appropriate for industrialised countries, the lack of standardised databases for other countries remains a major obstacle for applications in developing countries. some years. They provide maps and data layers in formats that are more accessible and manipulable with various software applications, and enable the use of some contents as a starting point in building

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Products in this category include various digital datasets from the US Defense Mapping Agency and on-line server from PennState University4 assembled by various commercial and non-commercial organisations: Global Demography Project (NCGIA) , ArcWorld Supplement and ArcAtlas (ESRI), Africa Data Sampler (WRI)6 Population Database (NCGIA, UNEP/GRID, WRI)7 Asian Population Database and soon the Latin 8 . In addition, specific country data 9 , CIESIN , United Nations Statistics Division and WHO/UNICEF12 and additional layers, including (in some cases) tabular data/statistics. In addition various digital gazetteers , and village databases can provide point level information about locations and eventually health and socio-economic information at the community-level, or However, despite this increasing availability of basic maps and datasets, many organisations at the local or national level need to modify, update, or create their own databases.

Local and regional organisations need browsing facilities and tools for building and maintaining their own digital information systems. Browsing and dissemination of existing databases are an important make up the substantive part of the system are deficient, obsolete or unsustainable. Commercial relational database systems and state-of-the-art GIS on true client-server architecture unrealistic for many less-developed countries or those with limited resources. The key issue is database sustainability. Limited capabilities and frequent staff turnover combined high-tech applications. It is more beneficial to choose a simple and robust design that many more users can easily understand and maintain, and transfer to software packages independent of any

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Digital Chart of the World Data Server. The Pennsylvania State University Libraries. (http://www.maproom.psu.edu/dcw/). The Global Demography Project. National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis - University of California (http://ncgia.ucsb.edu/~uwe/). Africa Data Sampler: A Geo-Referenced Database for all African Countries (CD-ROM and User's Guide). World Resources Institute. (http://www.wri.org/data/ads-home.html). African Population Database. National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis - University of California, United Nations Environment Programme / Global Resource Information Database (UNEP/GRID) Sioux Falls, and the World Resources Institute. (http://grid2.cr.usgs.gov/globalpop/africa/). Asia Population Database. National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis - University of California, United Nations Environment Programme / Global Resource Information Database (UNEP/GRID) and the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (http://grid2.cr.usgs.gov/globalpop/asia/). USAID - Africa Data Dissemination Service, EROS Data Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Sioux Falls. (http://edcintl.cr.usgs.gov/adds/adds.html). Consortium International for Earth Science Information Network - CIESIN (http://www.ciesin.org) and its Socio-economic Data and Applications Center (http://sedac.ciesin.org/). PopMap Sample Country Applications. United Nations Statistics Division – Computer Software and Support for Population Activities project. (http://www.un.org/depts/unsd/softproj/index.htm). WHO/UNICEF Joint Programme on Data Management and Mapping for Public Health - HealthMap – World Health Organization, Division of Control of Tropical Diseases. (http://www.who.int/ctd/html/hmap.html). U. S. Defense Mapping Agency's (DMA) Geographic Names Database of non-US place names - GEOnet Names Server (http://164.214.2.53/gns/html/index.html), and commercial version – GeoName (GDE Systems).

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The strategy followed by the Computer Software and Support for Population Activities project of the United Nations Statistics Division is to promote an open software policy, and to favour low-end packages must be easy to use to allow end-users to build geographical databases without external assistance, and must run in the most commonly available PCs in the field. programmes, government agencies, universities, research and national training institutions in developing countries. These are the statisticians, demographers, analysts, technicians, trainers, little or no prior computer background or experience in database, cartography or mapping and development planning, health, education, information or communication activities. In the early 90’s when the project identified these needs, computer hardware and existing commercial Allen 1992, Smith and Eglowstein 1993). To build and use such information system, a combination of DBMS, spreadsheet, CAD and mapping software was used. It was more expensive and often solutions, but have limited map and database creation capabilities (Marshall 1995). Beside the high cost, mastering various software components requires having a good knowledge of relational greatly limit the use of geographical databases among non-computer specialists. It is in this context that the project decided to develop PopMap and MapScan.

The PopMap experience Background PopMap software development is unique and a model of North-South and South-South collaboration. It is a rare example of a full-fledged software package developed by a national institution in a developing country (Viet Nam) for use in other developing countries. The United Nations Statistics Division, with special funding from the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), developed PopMap for Windows (United Nations 1998b) through the interregional project INT/96/P74 "Computer Software and Support for Population Activities". The development was in collaboration with the Viet Nam Institute of Information Technology. The experience and valuable feedback of many users, technical advisors and national experts from many developing countries that were incorporated at the various stages during the development greatly contributed to fine-tune the program to local needs. Nationals from Algeria, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Ghana, Honduras, Iran, Sudan, Uganda and Viet Nam acted as trainers at regional and sub-regional training workshops, and contributed in producing the French, Spanish and Portuguese versions of the software. The development of PopMap started in late 1989. The first version of PopMap for DOS was released in 1991. Several enhanced versions have been released since then (United Nations 1994). In 1994 the project migrated PopMap into the Windows platform for increased performance, integrity and connectivity, and to remain in the mainstream of technology. After more than three years in the making and more than a year of testing and quality control, along with the valuable support and feedback of many users over time, PopMap for Windows has reached a mature stage. The software is programmed in C language (about 450,000 lines of code) and uses


several state-of-the-art libraries.14 A full set of industrial strength functions and commands empower end-users with a robust integrated environment, and a set of tools to easily create and maintain their geographical and statistical databases. A real application bottleneck of computerised mapping technology can occur with map digitising. To overcome the problem, the project developed MapScan as a tool for automatic map data entry (United Nations 1996b). MapScan uses scanning, optical character recognition, and raster-to-vector conversion technologies. A DOS version was released in 1996, and the Windows version will be released this year as a companion product of PopMap for Windows (see page 18 for further details, and United Nations 1998c). The rationale for the development of PopMap was – and still is – to give developing countries an easy to use tool for producing geographical databases for country, district, and community applications. At the time PopMap was developed in late 1989, only a few mapping software programs existed for the PC platform in the commercial market (Day 1986, Noronha 1987). PCGlobe provided mapping facilities on a world map with pre-made indicators for most countries of the world. Atlas Graphics (Strategic Mapping) was the only one that offered limited digitising capability with an optional module, MapEdit, for users to create their own boundary files. Most mapping software did not follow any database concept. They worked with files that were inconvenient to use when developing a geographical and statistical information system. Since its inception PopMap was designed not simply as mapping software, but an integrated and structured database of statistics and maps. Users work with the names of areas, indicators, facilities, and facility attributes, and not with files. Typical population databases have time series; PopMap incorporated time reference as one of its data dimensions. Data for different statistical units (districts, provinces, schools, clinics, etc.) can be integrated, stored, queried, retrieved and analysed. Instead to work with individual datasets, the possibility to combine and work simultaneously with several of them have multiplied the possibilities to discover patterns, answer questions, and solve problems. Software profile PopMap is an interactive information and decision support system for population activities. Combining database and spreadsheet facilities with mapping and graphic presentation capabilities, PopMap is a versatile tool for organising data required for development planning, and for showing existing, historical, or projected conditions or hypothetical results in meaningful, easily understood forms. In developing PopMap, emphasis is given to facilitate quick application development and maintenance as well as analysis and presentation of the national and subnational information. Best of all, the software hides the complexity of creating and maintaining a database of statistical indicators and community-based facilities data as well as drawing, or importing and updating its own maps. The emphasis on statistical database development for sub-national applications and programme support has enabled PopMap to provide the basic elements for developing a simple, yet sustainable geographical information system for thematic and interpretative analysis and presentation Skill, time, resources and hardware requirements are minimal. The system offers an easy-to-use graphical user interface. It is designed for analysts, researchers, planners and decision-makers with 14

The relational database management is done using the same database engine (Borland Database Engine) used in dBase for Windows, Paradox for Windows, Interbase and Delphi. In addition, spreadsheet and graphing facilities are developed using awards-winning VisualTools Components (FormulaOne and FirstImpression). Additional file import and export formats are provided using OpenExchange library, and raster image support is built-in using Accusoft ImageGear library. PopMap applications are packaged using standard Zip compression library.

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little or no prior computer background or experience in database, computer graphics, programming, cartography and map creation. Its functionalities, ease of use, free access, comprehensive manual in English, French and Spanish enable new users to develop applications without any technical support. PopMap combines many components into one package: tools for creating, editing and maintaining a geographical database with multidisciplinary statistics, map features and community-based facilities; capabilities for retrieving and processing data in a worksheet environment and for creating statistical graphs; options for analysing, interpreting, and developing effective data presentations using maps. Typical applications of PopMap for population activities include among others: • • • • •

Map library, census operations, survey design and use Information Systems and population geographical database Electronic atlas for data dissemination Presentation, visualisation, research and spatial analysis Evaluation and planning, inventory, management support and monitoring, logistic, decisionmaking

Brief overview PopMap for Windows offers an integrated geographical database for statistical data with desktop mapping/GIS software facilities. A task-oriented application software, like PopMap, is more limited than commercial software. However, it has the advantage to offer special support for specific tasks combined with some user-interface enhancements to facilitate its use as well as geographical database development, maintenance, and distribution. The software's main focus is statistical database development for sub-national applications and programme support. The underlying design provides a database application framework for data and meta-information (topics, definition, source, footnote, comments, and attachment). The software includes tools to develop base maps and to create and maintain a geographic database. Developing applications with PopMap is an easy process. There are three main modules Data Retrieval System for the databases users, Data Editor and Map Editor for the databases developers. The first is for establishing a statistical database where the administrative structure is defined, including indicators and facilities occupying the geographic areas. Data is entered manually or imported from other sources. The second is for developing maps and for geo-referencing the administrative boundaries. There are several alternatives to draw maps and, in the absence of digitizers and scanners, the mouse can be used. The third module is for retrieving and presenting the information either through thematic maps, graphs or worksheet data. PopMap has a built-in spreadsheet that performs simple but useful functions. Data retrieval, browsing and mapping The PopMap Data Retrieval System offers a sequence of steps to get the base map and the data, to look at the data as a table or as a graph, and to create thematic maps dynamically. At first glance, PopMap gives the impression of being another “PC-Globe”. This is intended to enable an end-user to use the PopMap application database without any specific training or support. The brief end-user guide is sufficient to operate an existing application. The PopMap Data Retrieval System offers a simple, efficient way to access, analyse, and display data geographically. The built-in spreadsheet provides users with an embedded environment to process data; compute secondary variables; graph data; import, export, sort data. What’s more, the user can do all this without leaving PopMap. Computed and imported data also can be used immediately for mapping.

13


PopMap Data Retrieval System user interface: area selection, map views, worksheets and graphs

geographical database to perform the following functions: •

load administrative map and related features;

•

browse, zoom, “point-and-shoot” information display, locate and select features, measure distance, calculate summary statistics, import/export external data layers (Atlas BNA, MapInfo

Access multimedia information for selected item (Ghana)

Zoom-in with features selection, data browsing and statistics

•

query data and retrieve database information by topic, variable, and time reference;

•

transfer retrieved data to the PopMap spreadsheet for graphing (more than 30 chart types), computing secondary variables, sorting, and import/exporting data with other spreadsheets and databases software (dBase, FoxPro, Clipper, Paradox, Lotus 123, Excel, Quattro Pro, ASCII, etc.);

•

generate multi-layer thematic maps (colour ranges, graduated symbols, dot-density, pie/bar charts, individual value mapping);

•

create, print and save layout of maps, graphs, worksheets and annotations for further use.

14


Thematic mapping: colour range, graduated symbol, dot-density, pie/bar charts

The required inputs for applying PopMap are maps (spatial data) and indicators (attributes data). Maps with boundaries of administrative units at different levels are required, since PopMap mainly features (roads and rivers) can improve logistics study and data display. The degree of map accuracy may vary. Maps of larger scale and higher accuracy will require higher degree of processing. For present spatial relationship between features. The core of the attribute databases should have time-dimensioned statistical indicators for records. If the application's focus is on logistics and/or service provision, point data on service facilities (clinics, pharmacies, schools, nurseries, market places) and human settlements (towns and

Multiple user-defined layers are supported

Thematic mapping and layers overlay

The availability and accessibility of data is an issue by its own. While data are available and accessible for some countries, one can hardly find appropriate data for others (Melgosa 1998). It is important to know data sources and to re-use the maximum of existing data, in paper and in electronic format (for a review on socio-economic data and GIS, see Gerland 1996 and Deichmann 1996b). The application development steps are straightforward. A user starts with the Database Editor by declaring the geographical and statistical database structure. This includes administrative levels, administrative units, topics, indicators, time references, other layers and facilities with their

15


respective attributes. Layers, features and attributes can be defined with a provision to store metainformation such as topics, sources, footnotes, etc. The data can be entered manually or imported from external database and spreadsheet files (dBASE DBF, Paradox DB, Excel XLS, Lotus 1-2-3 WKS/WK1, Quattro Pro WQ1, etc.) and updated into the database. Data can be aggregated to higher administrative levels. Multimedia information, such as texts, graphics and photos, sound and video clips can also be used as attributes of map features. Point data, like service delivery points and human settlements, can easily be included from Global Positioning System (GPS) readings to map service availability and accessibility.

Drawing boundaries and assigning area names with Map Editor

“references” them using administrative unit names that are defined in the database. PopMap stores and manipulates maps in vector format, enabling fairly high-resolution display and (or a reproduction on a transparency) on the screen and tracing the boundaries with the mouse (heads-up digitising). More than 30 graphic file formats are supported, including PCX, JPG, GIF, workshops, and in developing large-scale and complex applications. Both mouse and digitizer support large-scale maps with multiple screen/digitizer size pages, and multiple maps with different digitised only once. Area references and point data features, such as villages and health centres, can be located just by drag and drop. Polygon topology is built by the system and is transparent to the Paper maps can also be scanned and passed to an automatic vectorisation process with specialised software to save time and effort as discussed latter in this paper. If map coordinates exist in AutoCAD format (DXF) and other popular mapping formats such as Atlas BNA, MapInfo MIF and ArcView Shape file.

One of the important advantages of PopMap is facilitating easy access to basic space/time information in the form of electronic atlases. PopMap is a useful tool for data dissemination, and can PopMap applications cover a wide array of organisations and topics. International agencies built customised global databases with time-series of socio-economic and demographic indicators.

16


Government offices and local planning institutions use PopMap to store and disseminate statistical data, display thematic information or manage community services, local resources and infrastructure locations from national to city level and below. PopMap customised applications, such as geographical databases to support MIS for family planning, electronic census atlases and population geographic databases are found in countries such as Algeria, Bolivia, Chad, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Madagascar, Panama, Pakistan, Senegal, Sudan, Syria and Uganda. Statistics offices of Uganda and Madagascar had used PopMap to build electronic atlases for visualising and disseminating data of their latest censuses. Indonesia (BKKBN) and Malaysia (FP association) also developed geographic database to monitor family planning programmes, services and activities at district level. The Dominican Republic Ministry of Health used PopMap to create a Health Atlas. The UN Statistical Institute for Asia and the Pacific, and Njala University College of Sierra Leone, to name a few (see also United Nations 1996a and 1998d), organized PopMap training courses. Many workshop participants were instrumental in developing important applications, such as the Uganda 1991 Census Atlas, the Madagascar 1993 Census Atlas, and the Health Atlas of the Dominican Republic. National experts from Algeria, China, Ghana, Honduras, Iran, Sudan, Uganda, and Viet Nam were resource persons at regional and sub-regional workshops. Nationals from Honduras and Algeria made PopMap software and manuals available in Spanish and in French respectively. In order to facilitate the initial application development work, users of PopMap can download or receive by mail a sample copy of their own country data. There are over 130 sample country applications with base maps and data. Each application includes (taken from the most recent census date available) the basic administrative structure for two, three or more administrative levels with some population-related variables, and a detailed administrative, geo-referenced base map using Latitude/Longitude. PopMap software users are encouraged to take advantage of these ready-made applications, expand them with their own data, and update the existing maps. The project compiled many of these data sets over time. Some were contributed to the various NCGIA and UNEP/GRID population databases (Global Database, Africa, Asia, and Latin America – see page 9) and converted back from Arc/Info format into PopMap. Digitising boundaries is one of the hardest parts of most GIS application development process. Many users wish to have pre-compiled basic country datasets for their initial use. To response to these requests, efforts continue to compile and make available a repository of country datasets. Each dataset will have administrative boundaries of sub-national levels, basic population indicators for the administrative units and possibly other layers such as roads, rivers and human settlements. For further reading on PopMap software and applications: Castillo and others (1995), United Nations (1994, 1996a, 1998bc) and Vu (1996).

The data conversion issue Most computer mapping applications require vector data. However, current tools for converting hardcopy maps to vector format are deficient and still require enormous volume of work. As a result, huge resources are spent on data conversion using highly labour-intensive techniques. Today's tools for obtaining vector data through conversion are manual digitising, scanning followed by heads-up digitising, line following, and automated vectorisation. Manual digitising has been the

17


fastidious work and, in general, requires more time than the other techniques (see Stevenson, 1995). PopMap users have constantly inquired the possibility of using a scanner to produce digitised maps. have a tool that will facilitate the work. Developing the technique to use and convert scanned maps (raster images) into vector format is an software packages available today to do the task are costly and often difficult to use (Gutierrez 1992, Graham 1997). The Computer Software and Support for Population Activities project of the United the considerable time, efforts and resources required. PopMap also was a major priority. Encouraged by the technical challenge and potential benefits, the Artificial Intelligence Department project, worked on the raster to vector image technology. As a result, the first version of MapScan a software package for automatic map data entry – was developed in 1994 (United Nations 1996b).

MapScan GIS/mapping software. MapScan for Windows – the latest release for the Windows platform – accepts various formats of scanned maps or drawings, reads and converts them into vector maps in The scanning process is done outside or inside MapScan (built-in scanning support for any scanner compliant with the TWAIN standard). It is important to produce a good scanned raster image. Some to correct cartographic errors; re-sizing the material using a photocopier to fit the scanner size; tracing the required lines on a tracing paper overlay and scanning the overlay. Large maps, however, reproduce a seamless large map. MapScan combines many components into one package: tools for editing and cleaning raster and layers on colour or grey-scale maps; an advanced OCR engine for recognizing text labels from the raster maps, and for preserving their relative coordinates; state-of-the-art line vectorisation engine reconstruction. In addition, there are facilities to geo-reference vector maps, specify map projections, and comprehensive import and export capabilities for industry standard raster and vector maps file The MapScan functions for optical character recognition, image classification, line thinning, interactive and automatic line vectorisation and topology reconstruction use state-of-the-art applied pattern recognition and image processing. Software processes

Scanning paper maps and saving them as a raster image. MapScan supports black and white, greyPC Paintbrush (PCX), Aldus

18


Tagged Image File Format (TIF), CompuServe (GIF), JPEG/JFIF (JPG), Adobe PhotoShop (PSD), Kodak Photo CD (PCD), MacPaint (MAC), Windows Metafile (WMF), Microsoft Windows BMP and DIB (uncompressed and RLE compressed), Encapsulated Postscript (EPS raster image only), GEM Raster (IMG), WordPerfect (WPG raster image only). Pre-processing or raster image editing to improve the quality of the scanned images like eliminating unnecessary items, draw additional items or correct broken lines, rotating an image, and merging multiple pages into one map image. In addition, several image-processing functions can be applied to improve the quality and to obtain better vectorising results. For example, image erosion can be applied to greyscale and monochrome image respectively to remove image noise. For a colour image, a colour classification (supervised and un-unsupervised) can be used to clean the colour image before vectorising it. Other image processing functions allow to crop a section, set up a region of interest to vectorise and to resample. Smoothing can eliminate speckles for line work and remove noises, hole filling and image dilation can close gaps and produce continuous line work from broken boundary lines, or empty polygons. Text label extraction or Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to locate text identifiers for the regions, areas, cities and towns; identify the reference text and determine the spatial coordinates. The user marks the text labels and MapScan recognizes the marked labels. Recognised texts are removed from the raster image, and a text reference file is generated for use in specific mapping and GIS software. This process is optional. If not applied, text labels will be vectorised together with other map features.

Mark text labels for the recognition

Recognising a text label with the option to edit and confirm the result

Vectorisation. The raster-to-vector conversion is done in automatic or interactive tracing mode. It involves three operations: line thinning (reduces the width of the line work to one pixel); line extraction (converts the series of pixels into lines and generates the coordinates of the individual line segments); and topology reconstruction (determines the adjacency relationships among line segments and creates line features). There are options to control the type of feature vectorisation (centerline or outline), and the quality and the level of line generalisation required. At this stage a vector map file is generated for use in specific mapping and GIS software.

19


Vector map editing

Post-process or Vector map editing. During vectorisation, the raster image can produce unwanted tiny dots and loose small line segments, joining line segments, rotating the map, merging multiple pages into one vector map, selecting line segments and assigning specific layer attributes. Vector import/export options allow to work with most popular CAD/GIS vector file formats. MapScan produces ouputs in a vector map file and a label file (if the text label recognition process (DXF) an open-ended, widely accepted (MIF/MID); and MapScan and PopMap formats When the entire process is completed, the reference text file and the vector map file can be used with a mapping system. It is important to note that MapScan creates map files of line segments (or topology. For further reading: Suharto and Vu (1996), United Nations (1996b and 1998c).

Highlights of the PopMap and MapScan approach The introduction and free-of-charge distribution of PopMap and MapScan have introduced developing countries to this important technological development of geographic databases, and have equipped them with the tools to apply in their population programmes. PopMap – focusing on databases organised along the hierarchical administrative structure – provides a good framework and template for application development in the socio-economic sectors. PopMap gives ordinary data producers and users the confidence and capability of developing applications. The complexity of creating and maintaining geographic databases is simplified by providing constant dialog as the process of computerising database and maps evolves. The result is a friendly, easy-to-use and maintain geographic database that can be distributed or migrated to other commercial mapping and GIS software. Interactive and analytical electronic atlases is one of the important applications of PopMap. It is an excellent tool for data dissemination and, the software's free of charge distribution makes it easy for developing countries to integrate it within a decentralization policy. Some of the key benefits are: •

Integrated database application development framework to store, organise, access and manipulate statistical data and community-based services.

20


•

Cost-efficient and cost-effective. Professional-strength features and application development tools for a fraction of the cost of most commercial alternatives. Available free-of-charge to eligible organisations.

•

Stand-alone and open system, all-in one software solution in an integrated work environment.

•

Easy to use and learn. Enables end-users to create and maintain geographical databases quickly and easily.

•

Provides a consistent analysis framework for geographically referenced data, and for integrating spatial and other types of information.

•

Highly targeted to end-users. Ideal tool for sharing and disseminating centralised information to a wider public using the royalty-free run-time distribution component.

•

Works with any version of Windows (16/32 bit, Windows 3.1, 95 and NT), compatible with all national versions of Windows and multilingual character-sets.

PopMap and MapScan are reliable products with good documentations, support and training materials. They can be obtained on-line or by mail. They can be freely reproduced and distributed. These products serve well target users aligned with UNFPA priorities and objectives. The software are in a unique market that has not attracted commercial GIS vendors, and fit neatly into a market niche between mainstream GIS and simple mapping utilities available with Lotus and Excel. They offer UNFPA and other UN agencies potential savings in supporting mapping and GIS activities by reducing hardware and software cost. Most significantly, MapScan is a cost-effective alternative for digitizers used in creating spatial database. It also can save resources by reducing, or outright eliminating, the need to purchase digitizers and workstation for map digitising. It can facilitate the computerisation of census base maps in countries undertaking population and housing censuses. Furthermore, MapScan can make better use of available skills in developing countries. Many countries now realise the impact and value of visual communication – how maps and graphics are revolutionizing the whole information and decision support systems. PopMap is an appropriate entry-level tool for this. The strong features (ease of use, self-teaching, and high level of comfort from the perspective to “low tech” users) make PopMap ideal for the intended user community in the population programmes. There are no non-commercial alternatives to PopMap or MapScan. Commercial software with some comparable capabilities (including in some cases more analytical, marketing-oriented, logistic or physical planning capabilities exceeding PopMap) cost thousands of dollars and fall short of some basic features most often required, including end-users ability to develop and maintain their own geographical and statistical databases. PopMap and MapScan are examples of an approach to encourage developing country institutions, such as the Viet Nam Institute of Information Technology, to use and produce software at the forefront of technology. There are arguments on whether application developers should begin with a software like PopMap and then move to a high-end GIS package or, conversely, from a high-end GIS product move to PopMap. For the latter, several institutions have converted some of their data and digital maps from a GIS application and then used PopMap to present and distribute data at local levels. It is difficult to generalise on the best direction to take since developing countries have different levels of technical and technological advancement. The trends are, however, that in the long term, more and more digital information will be maintained on high-end systems and servers, and the transfer to low-end systems like PopMap will become most useful for remote users and for data dissemination.

21


PopMap can be used as an application framework to introduce and to promote a set of standards, guidelines and recommendations to build and maintain a basic geographic database that integrates demographic and socio-economic time series at national and sub-national levels. PopMap can be seen as a first step for new users to explore the GIS world, and as an ultimate step for advanced users already familiar with high-end GIS products to share and disseminate data to a wider public.

Some lessons learned The software development process consists of different steps: Analysis (specify user requirements and define software features); Design (plan the technical solution); Coding (write the program); Debugging (correct program errors); Testing, implementation and acceptance (ensure good system performance prior to distribution); Maintenance (ensure good performance and introduce enhancements whenever necessary based on actual user needs and requirements); Documentation (produce software documentation, user manual and tutorials, on-line help), Localisation and multilingual translation (interface, menu, commands, dialogs, messages, documentation, on-line help), Distribution (on-line, mail, disk and CD), Technical Support (on-line, email, fax, mail, user's network, newsletter), Training (on-line tutorial, self-teaching materials, workbooks). In order to ensure that a successful software development strategy is effectively implemented, time and commitment are essential. The work required for a full-scale integrated software package is no longer a one-man job, but a real teamwork. Staff responsible for the software architecture and analysis need to work closely with software development teams at the design phase (study and recommend technical solutions, evaluate/select/supply materials/tools, etc.), testing (through various application development, and under various computer platforms) and maintenance (specify required corrections/modifications, enhancements recommendations, new features, etc.). Documentation can be shared with the software development teams and outside consultants, while the development teams are mainly responsible for coding and debugging. Software development and distribution in the 21st century has reached a new stage of excellence. End-users expect software packages to have a full-set of professional functionalities, uniformed graphic user interface that provides the same look-and-feel as the familiar desktop software, and the ability to drag-and-drop, cut-and-paste, import-export, link, connect, etc. Custom-software development enables a fairly large independence and flexibility in software design, development and distribution. The new level of quality standards expected from most software users imposes a fairly heavy burden and commitment to anyone (independent developer or organisation) to deliver such product. The emerging techniques of GIS and computer mapping have many applications in population and related fields. Software, like PopMap and MapScan, represent easy-to-use and inexpensive tools for building integrated population and related databases and for improving the data management and data dissemination activities. The ease of use, powerful features, and free distribution are attractive to the intended user community, and provide the opportunity for technical capacity building. PopMap and MapScan fill a unique niche in the market place which is not strongly targeted by commercial vendors but directly aligned with country population programme objectives. New software development tools, libraries, and programming languages keep appearing, and make it ever more challenging to sustain over time any independent software development. It is, however, refreshing to see that through the Internet, an increasing number of software programs and collaborative partnerships exist. This provides a balance to the commercial, market-driven software packages designed and created primarily for business applications in developed nations.

22


The strategy for PopMap and MapScan is to decentralise activities of software development, training and technical support to regional focal points, and to rely on a network of national institutions and experts. The main goal is to maximise use of local technical capabilities and expertise in developing countries and, thereby, reduce international operation costs and staff.

References and further reading materials Castillo, D.A., P. Gerland and D.M. Vu (1995). PopMap: Experiences and future plans, a technical paper prepared for the UNFPA-UNDESIPA TSS/CST workshop on data collection, processing, dissemination and utilization, New York. 8 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/papers/csttsspm.htm) Culpepper, R.B. (1998). Desktop GIS for Business Geographics. Business Geographics, May 1998. (http://www.gisworld.com/print/bg/1998/0598/598gis.htm) Day C.O. (1986). Putting your business on the Map, PC Magazine, 30 Sept. 1986, pp. 219-234. Deichmann, U. (1996a). A Review of Spatial Database Design and Modeling. NCGIA technical report 96-3 prepared for the UNEP/GRID and CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), Arendal III Workshop on Use of GIS in Agricultural Research Management. Norway. June 17-21, 1996. 58 pages. (ftp://ncgia.ucsb.edu/pub/Publications/tech_reports/96/96-3/) Deichmann, U. (1996b). Issues in the development of spatially referenced population databases, Technical Notes on Population Statistics and Information Systems, United Nations Statistics Division, December 1996. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/demotss/tcndec96/uwe.htm) Deichmann, U. (1997). Geographical information systems in the census process – Technology options, costs and benefits. Paper prepared for the Workshop on Strategies for the 2000 Round of Population and Housing Censuses in the ESCWA Region. Cairo, 6-10 December 1997. (http://www.undp.org/popin/demotss/escwa97/giscens.htm) Gaughan, T. and P. Allen (1992). Mapping Software: a new world awaits you, Business Publishing, February 1992, pp. 21-27. Gerland, P. (1996). Socio-economic data and GIS: datasets, databases, indicators and data integration issues, Paper presented at the UNEP/CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), Arendal III Workshop on Use of GIS in Agricultural Research Management. Norway, June 17-21, 1996. 28 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/papers/pg_cgiar.htm) Gutierrez, J. (1992). The Paper Chase: automatic vectorizers bring hard copy into CAD, Cadence, October 1992, pp. 85-93. Graham, L. (1997). Modern-Day Magic: options abound for raster-to-vector conversion, GIS World, Vol. 19, No. 7, July 1997, pp. 32-38 (http://www.geoplace.com/print/gw/1997/0797/GW970700feat1.html) Jones, C. B. (1997). Geographical information systems and computer cartography. Harlow, England: Longman, 319 pages. Kendall, R. (1991). Mapping Software: Analysing a World of Data, PC Magazine, July 1991, pp. 249-299. Korte, G. (1994). The GIS book: the smart manager's guide to purchasing, implementing, and running a geographic information system - 3rd ed. Santa Fe, NM: OnWord Press, c1994. 220 pages. Kraak M.J. and F.J. Ormeling (1996). Cartography : visualisation of spatial data. Harlow, England: Longman. Limp, W.F. (1997). Weave Maps Across the Web. GIS World, Sept. 1997. (http://www.gisworld.com/print/gw/1997/0997/GW970900feat1.html) Marshall, P. (1995). Geographical Information Systems: a new look at old data, InfoWorld, July 31, 1995, Vol. 17, No. 31, pp. 68-79. Melgoza, C.M. (1998). Targeting Foreign Markets Using Business Geographics. Business Geographics. July 1998. (http://www.gisworld.com/print/bg/1998/0798/798fmrkt.htm) NIDI/UNFPA (1996). Proceedings of the Expert Group Meeting on Innovative Techniques for Population Censuses and Large Scale Demographic Surveys, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI) and UNFPA, The Hague, The Netherlands, 22-26 April 1996. (http://www.nidi.nl/innotec/index.html).

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Noronha, V. (1987). Choropleth Mapping in a Microcomputer Environment: A Critical Evaluation of Some Commercial Implementations, The American Cartographer, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1987. pp. 139-154. Peuquet, D. (1981). An examination of techniques for reformatting digital cartographic data / part 1: the rasterto-vector process. Cartographica, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 34-48. Pinals, D. (1998). Choosing A Mapping Software Package That Suits Your Company's Needs. Business Geographics. July 1998. (http://www.gisworld.com/print/bg/1998/0798/798mpwre.htm) Plewe, B. (1997). GIS online : information retrieval, mapping, and the Internet.Published. Santa Fe, NM : OnWord Press, 1997. 311 pages. Quick M. and J. Schweikart (1996). Computer Cartography in Social Research: Desktop Mapping with Microsoft Excel 7.0 in EURODATA Newsletter, No. 3 Article 8. Spring 1996. (http://www.mzes.uni-mannheim.de/eurodata/newsletter/no3/nl3_maps.html) Smith B. and H. Eglowstein (1993). Putting your Data on the Map, Byte, January 1993, pp. 188-200. Stevenson, P. (1995). The Problem of Data Conversion, Geo Info Systems, February 1995, pp. 29-32. Suharto, S. and Vu, D.M. (1996). Computerised cartographic work for censuses and surveys, Proceedings of the Expert Group Meeting on Innovative Techniques for Population Censuses and Large Scale Demographic Surveys, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI) and UNFPA, The Hague, 22-26 April 1996. 19 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/papers/sv01.htm) Tripathi, R. R. (1995). Basic concepts of Geographic Information System and its applications in population programmes. Working paper series, No. 1, UNFPA Country Support Team for Southern Africa, April 1995. United Nations (1994). PopMap - Integrated Software Package for Geographical Information, Maps and Graphics Database. United Nations Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, Statistics Division, New York, 345 pages. United Nations (1996a). Population Software Notes. United Nations Statistics Division. New York, Issue 6 [Jan. 1996. 24 pages] and Issue 7 [Dec. 1996. 22 pages]. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/newsletr.htm) United Nations (1996b). MapScan - A Software Package for Automatic Map Data Entry, United Nations Statistics Division, New York. 63 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/software/mapscan.htm) United Nations (1997). Geographical Information Systems for Population Statistics, Studies in Method, Series F, No. 68, Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, Statistics Division, New York, 92 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/demotss/intro2.htm) United Nations (1998a). Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses - Revision 1. Series M, No. 67, Rev. 1, Sales No. 98.XVII.8. Department for Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, New York. United Nations (1998b). PopMap for Windows - Integrated Software Package for Geographical Information, Maps and Graphics Database (User’s Guide). United Nations Statistics Division. New York, July 1998 (3rd Revision.). 185 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/software/popmap.htm) United Nations (1998c). MapScan for Windows - Software Package for Automatic Map Data Entry (User’s Guide and reference Manual - Provisional). United Nations Statistics Division. New York, July 1998. 86 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/software/mapscan.htm) United Nations (1998d). Population Software Notes (Issues 8-9). United Nations Statistics Division. New York, June 1998. 40 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/newsletr.htm) Vu, D.M. (1996). PopMap: geographical census software for developing countries, Proceedings of the Expert Group Meeting on Innovative Techniques for Population Censuses and Large Scale Demographic Surveys, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute (NIDI) and UNFPA, The Hague, 22-26 April 1996. 15 pages. (http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/papers/vdm961.htm) Water, N.M. and G.J.A. De Leeuw (1987). Computer Atlases to Complement Printed Atlases, Cartographica, Vol. 24, No. 1, Spring 1987. pp. 118-133. WHO/UNICEF (1995), Joint programme on data management and mapping for public health - HealthMap, World Health Organisation, Division of Control of Tropical Diseases, Geneva, and United Nations Children's Fund, New York.

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Wilson, J.D. (1997). GIS Goes Global: Technology Builds Management Resources. GIS World, Sept. 1997. (http://www.gisworld.com/print/gw/1997/1097/GW971000feat.html) Wilson, J.D. (1998). GIS Data Collection Drives Scanner Use. GIS World, Sept. 1998. (http://www.gisworld.com/print/gw/current/998scanr.htm)

To know more about PopMap and MapScan The United Nations Statistics Division, with funding from the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), has developed PopMap and MapScan to provide developing country government and academic institutions with appropriate tools for data processing and analysis. UNFPA-supported programmes, government agencies and academic institutions can obtain PoPMap and MapScan free of charge. Requests for software, comments and suggestions should be addressed to: Statistics Division, United Nations, Two United Nations Plaza, New York, NY, 10017, USA, fax: (212) 963-4116, e-mail: [email protected] More information about the project activities, and the software can be obtained on the following Web site: http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/softproj/index.htm

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Optimization and Technological Development Strategies of an ...