Soil and Water Contamination

Soil and Water Contamination from molecular to catchment scale

Marcel van der Perk Department of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Taylor &Francis Taylor &Francis Group

LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

Contents

PREFACE

XI

PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO SOIL AND WATER CONTAMINATION 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Exercises

GENERAL INTRODUCTION Historical perspective Environmental pollution Environmental pollutants Classification of pollutants Background concentrations Anthropogenic sources Ecological impacts Spatial and temporal variability and the concept of scale Outline and rationale of this book

3 3 4 5 5 6 8 8 11 13 14

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9.1 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.10 2.10.1 2.10.2

BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY Introduction Units of analysis Activity Background thermodynamics Phases and phase transitions Phases Thermodynamic considerations an phase transitions Partition coefficient Partitioning between dissolved phase and adsorbed phase Fugacity Chemical equilibrium and kinetics Equilibrium Kinetics Dissolution—precipitation reactions Complexation Acid—base reactions Introduction Acids Bases Buffering Redox reactions Introduction Oxidation state

15 15 15 17 19 21 21 21 22 23 25 28 28 31 33 34 36 36 36 37 38 40 40 40

Sod and Water Contamination

VI

2.10.3 2.10.4 2.10.5 2.11 Exercises

Redox potential Redox reactions and pe pH—Eh diagrams Further reading on basic chemistry

41 44 45 45 47

3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.5 Exercises

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARTMENTS Introduction Soil Definition of soil Sources of soil pollution Soil water Soil erosion Physico-chemical conditions in soil Groundwater Definition of groundwater Sources of groundwater pollution Physico-chemical conditions in groundwater Surface water Definition of surface water Bed sediments Sources of surface water pollution Physico-chemical conditions in surface water Further reading on soils, groundwater, and surface water

51 51 52 52 54 55 56 57 59 59 60 61 62 62 62 63 65 67 68

PART II SOURCES, ROLE, AND BEHAVIOUR OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER

69

4 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 Exercises

SOLID PHASE CONSTITUENTS Introduction Inorganic components Composition and formation Aluminium and fron oxides/hydroxides Clay minerals Organic components Composition and formation Interaction with the aqueous phase Interaction with mineral surfaces Decomposition of organic matter Sorption by soils and sediments

71 71 72 72 74 74 79 79 82 83 84 86 87

5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

MAJOR DISSOLVED PHASE CONSTITUENTS Introduction Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Iron Manganese

89 89 92 94 95 96 97 99

Contents

VII

5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 Exercises

Aluminium Chloride Inorganic carbon Sulphate and sulphide

101 103 105 108 110

6 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 Exercises

NUTRIENTS Introduction Nitrogen Environmental role and occurrence of nitrogen Nitrogen cycle External sources and sinks Phosphorus Environmental role and occurrence of phosphorus Phosphorus cycle External sources and sinks

113 113 115 115 116 118 119 119 121 122 123

7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 Exercises

HEAVY METALS Introduction Zinc Copper Lead Cadmium Nickel Chromium Mercury Arsenic

125 125 128 129 130 131 132 132 133 135 136

8 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.4 Exercises

RADIONUCLIDES 139 Introduction 139 143 Natural radionuclides 143 Terrestrial radionuclides 146 Cosmogenic radionuclides 148 Man-made radionuclides 148 Production and releases 151 Accidental releases 152 Nuclear weapons Environmental behaviour and effects of selected man-made radionuclides 153 154

9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3

ORGANIC POLLUTANTS Introduction Petroleum and derivatives Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Chlorinated hydrocarbons Aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) Hexachlorobenzene (HCB)

157 157 161 162 163 165 165 166 167

Soll and Water Contamination

VIII

Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Dioxins

167 168 168 169

PART III TRANSPORT PROCESSES OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER

171

9.5.4 9.5.5 9.6 Exercises

10 10.1 10.2 10.3 Exercises

SYSTEMS AND MODELS A systems approach The rote of mathematical models Classification of matbematical models

173 173 177 180 181

11 11.1 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.3 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.3.5 11.4 Exercises

SUBSTANCE TRANSPORT Mass balance Advection Advection equation Load calculation and mixing Diffusion and dispersion Molecular diffusion Turbulent diffusion and mechanical dispersion Longitudinal dispersion Transverse dispersion Numerical dispersion Multi-fluid flow

183 183 188 188 195 196 196 196 200 205 207 210 214

12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Exercises

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION Introduction Transport equation Bottom shear stress Sediment deposition Sediment erosion Long-term soll erosion and deposition

217 217 217 218 222 225 226 229

13 13.1 13.2 13.3 Exercises

CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION Introduction Sorption equilibritun and kinetics Biological production and degradation

231 231 232 239 245

14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Exercises

GAS EXCHANGE Henry's law Thin film model Reaeration Gas exchange controlled an the water side Gas exchange controlled an the air side Gas exchange in the subsurface environment

249 249 250 253 255 256 257 259

Contents

15 15.1 15.2 15.3 Exercises

DC

MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION Introduction Model performance criteria Considerations affecting model choice

261 261 265 270 271

PART IV PATTERNS OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER

273

16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.3.1 16.3.2 16.3.3 16.3.4 16.4 16.4.1 16.4.2 16.4.3 Exercises

PATTERNS IN THE SOIL AND IN THE VADOSE ZONE Introduction Variation due to clay and organic matter content Lateral variation Introduction Effects of fertiliser and pesticide application Effects of atmospheric deposition Effects of soil erosion and deposition Vertical variation Introduction Effects of leaching Effects of contamination history

275 275 276 279 279 280 282 283 289 289 290 292 295

17 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 Exercises

PATTERNS IN GROUNDWATER Introduction Hydrological systems analysis Hydrochemical systems analysis Effects of lateral variation in contaminant inputs Effects of temporal variation in contaminant inputs Effects of dispersion Effects of retardation Effects of acid—base reactions Effects of redox reactions

297 297 297 300 302 304 306 309 311 313 320

18 18.1 18.2 18.2.1 18.2.2 18.3 18.3.1 18.3.2 18.3.3 18.3.4 18.3.5 18.3.6 18.3.7 18.3.8 18.4 18.4.1 18.5.2

PATTERNS IN SURFACE WATER Introduction Spatial variation in river water composition Effects of diffuse sources Effects of point sources Temporal variation in river water composition Short-term dynamics Hysteresis response of dissolved concentrations to changes in discharge Release of old water Sediment dynamics Concentration rating curves Significance of hydrological events for substance transport Seasonal dynamics of nutrient concentrations Long-term dynamics Variation in lake water composition Role of lakes in catchment sediment and nutrient budgets Lateral variation

321 321 322 322 324 327 327 327 330 331 332 336 336 337 341 341 342

Sod and Water Contamination

X

18.5.3 18.5.4 Exercises

Vertical variation during summer stratification Temporal variation

REFERENCES



351

APPENDIX I THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS APPENDIX 2 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES INDEX



344 345 349





367 369 379