Soil carbon sequestration: an innovative strategy for ... - Springer Link

Biodivers Conserv (2012) 21:1343–1358 DOI 10.1007/s10531-012-0229-y ORIGINAL PAPER

Soil carbon sequestration: an innovative strategy for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration Pankaj Srivastava • Amrit Kumar • Soumit K. Behera Yogesh K. Sharma • Nandita Singh

•

Received: 11 June 2011 / Accepted: 9 January 2012 / Published online: 20 January 2012 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract Global warming due to increasing greenhouse gases emission and the subsequent climatic changes are the most serious environmental challenges faced by environmental scientists, academicians, regulatory agencies and policy makers worldwide. Among the various greenhouse gases, CO2 constitutes a major share and its concentration is increasing rapidly. Therefore, there is perhaps an urgent need to formulate suitable policies and programs that can firmly reduce and sequester CO2 emissions in a sustainable way. In order to combat the predicted disaster due to rising CO2 level, several CO2 capture and storage technologies and medium are being widely pursued and deliberated. Among them soil carbon sequestration (SCS) is gaining global attention because of its stability and role in long-term surface reservoir, natural low cost and eco-friendly means to combat climate change. Apart from the carbon capturing, the process of soil carbon stabilization also provides other tangible benefits that includes achieving food security, by improving soil quality, wasteland reclamation and preventing soil erosion. The present article aimed to address all these concerns and provide strategies and critical research needs to implement SCS as a mitigation option for increasing atmospheric CO2 level and its future directions. Keywords Global warming Climate change Greenhouse gases Soil carbon sequestration Soil management

P. Srivastava A. Kumar S. K. Behera (&) N. Singh National Botanical Research Institute, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] Y. K. Sharma Environmental Science Division, Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, India

123

1344

Biodivers Conserv (2012) 21:1343–1358

Introduction During the last few decades, there is growing evidences that increasing greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentration are mainly responsible for global warming and associated climatic changes (WMO 2009). There is a general consensus that the climate on earth is changing and this has led to a series of impacts on the environment and human society (Schellnhuber et al. 2006) and affecting the sustainability of various ecosystems and well-beings of human beings. Among the various GHGs, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a key one accounted for 63% of total GHGs emission, whereas methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and the remaining trace gases account for 24, 10 and 3%, respectively (Ravindranath et al. 2006; IPCC 2007). Furthermore, the residence time of CO2 is very long [100 years (Kerr 2001; O’Connor et al. 2001). According to IEA (2009), the total emission of CO2 was increased from 14.1 Gt in 1971 to 29.0 Gt during 1971–2007. In recognition to the adverse effects of increasing GHG emissions on global climate, the United Nations in 1992 adopted a Framework Convention on Climate Change to formulate strategies and possible mechanisms to stabilize atmospheric GHGs and reduce the future emission. As a follow-up, the signatory nations mutually agreed to account for their net carbon emissions to the atmosphere and to execute programs to curtail these emissions to target levels by the accounting period of 2008–2012, relative to the base year of 1990 by a subsequent agreement in 1997 (the Kyoto Protocol). The Kyoto Protocol includes welldefined mechanisms for international emissions trading in which carbon is considered to be a tradable commodity in the international market. Agreements under the Kyoto Protocol initially focused on emission reduction and carbon sequestration (the additional carbon stored during the accounting period) by forestry industries. However, as per the Article 3.4 of the Protocol, carbon sequestered in soil now qualifies for inclusion in the carbon accounting process (Gibson et al. 2002). In general, there are three major strategies being widely pursued to reduce increasing CO2 and to mitigate subsequent climatic haphazard; (i) reducing the global fossil fuel use, (ii) developing low- or no-carbon fuel and (iii) sequestering CO2 from point sources or atmosphere through natural and engineering techniques (Schrag 2007). Apart from these, there are also other innovative strategies like oceanic injection, geological sequestration, etc. have been experimentally demonstrated to sequester CO2 concentration. However, most of these techniques are much costlier than soil carbon sequestration (SCS). Furthermore, SCS is natural, cost-effective and environmental friendly process and it is also helpful to achieve food security by improving soil fertility (Lal 2004a). Literature provides ample evidence on the mechanisms and processes of C-sequestration especially in soils (Ko¨gel-Knabner et al. 2008; Lal 2009; Benbi and Brar 2009; Sigua and Coleman 2009; Jones et al. 2009; Morra et al. 2010). However, the present review was aimed to critically analyze SCS as a carbon mitigation option and its role in agricultural productivity, wasteland reclamation, increment in biological diversity and its future perspectives.

Natural sources of soil carbon sink Soils are a fundamental resource for life on the planet. Furthermore, soil is an important part of the biosphere and has a higher potential to store carbon compared to vegetation and atmosphere (Bellamy et al. 2005). It has been estimated at approximately 3.3 times the size of the atmospheric pool and 4.5 times the size of the biotic pool (Lal 2004a, b; Janzen 2004) (Fig. 1). Therefore, soils have been suggested as a potential sink for

123


1345

Plant Respiration 60pg yr-1

Carbon input

Belowground biomass 60 pg yr-1

Fossil fuel (4130 Pg)

Soil C Pool 2500Pg SOC=1550Pg SIC=950Pg

90 Pg yr-1

92.3 Pg yr-1

Erosion 0.8-1.2 pg yr-1

Fossil fuel combustion 7.0 Pg yr-1

Atmospheric C Pool 760 Pg +3.5 Pg yr-1

Photosynthesis 120 pg

Soil respiration 60 pg yr-1

Biotic C Pool 560 Pg

Ocean C pool 38400Pg +2.3pg/yr Surface layer: 670 Pg Deep layer: 36730Pg Total organic 1000 Pg

0-6 ± 0-2Pg yr-1

Soil microbes

Fig. 1 The sources and sink of carbon and its interplay in pedosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. The carbon stocks in various pools (including fossil fuels) were obtained from Batjes (1996), Lal (2004a, b, 2008), and the carbon efflux (including fossil fuel burning) data were from IPCC (2000, 2007)

atmospheric C (Feller and Bernoux 2008; Mondini and Sequi 2008). The soil C pool mainly comprises soil organic C (SOC) estimated at 1550 Pg (1 petagram = 1015 g = 1 billion ton) and soil inorganic C (SIC) of approx. 750 Pg, occurred up to 1-m depth (Batjes 1996). However, this amount in any place changes over time, depending on photosynthetic carbon added and the rate of its decay (Janzen 2004). There are five principal global C pools. Some soils contain inorganic forms of C (i.e., carbonates), which collectively are termed as SIC. Especially in arid and semiarid environments, SIC can represent a significant amount of C (Lal 2002, 2007; Monger and Martinez-Rios 2001). Other pools include the oceanic (38,400 Pg), geologic/fossil fuel (4,500 Pg), biotic (620 Pg) and atmospheric (750 Pg) (Lal 2004a). The oceanic pool is the largest, followed by the geologic, pedologic (soil), biotic and the atmospheric pool (Lal 2000). Therefore, maintaining soil carbon is essential to improve the soil fertility, agricultural productivity and to curtail increasing atmospheric CO2. Naturally, three main methods of organic C stabilization have been occurred in soil, i.e., micro-aggregation (53–250 lm) formation within macro-aggregates; physically binding with clay and silt particles and biochemically by formation of recalcitrant soil organic matter (OM) compounds (Post and Kwon 2000). Recalcitrant material that is physically or biochemically protected may have turnover times of hundreds to thousands of years (Post and Kwon 2000). Light fractions and particulate OM that do not bind within aggregates (unprotected OM) generally remain more susceptible to microbial decomposition (Six et al. 2002). According to Pulleman et al. (2000), land use history has a strong impact on the soil organic carbon (SOC) pool so that adoption of appropriate management practices (AMPs) can be an important instrument of SOC sequestration (Post and Kwon 2000). Three general trends or patterns are typically reported in the literature regarding the conditions that favour SOC accumulations, i.e., increase the actual to attainable

123

1346


(i) plant-induced increases occur in extreme environments (e.g., arid and semi-arid climates) where the actual level of SOC is low relative to the attainable level (Ehrenfeld et al. 2005), (ii) rates of SOC sequestration tend to increase from temperate to subtropical regions and/or along increasing temperature and precipitation gradients (Post and Kwon 2000). This pattern suggests that the major factor determining the rate of SOC sequestration is plant residue inputs, which increase with temperature and rain-fall and (iii) SOC increases more in the presence of perennial species (Post and Kwon 2000; Zan et al. 2001) through continuous plant-residue-C inputs into the soil system. Lal (2001) estimated the SOC sequestration potential of 0.4–0.7 Pg C year-1 through desertification control in soils of arid and semi-arid regions. Estimates of the potential for additional SCS vary widely. Based on studies in European (Smith and Powlson 2000), US croplands (Lal et al. 1998) and other global degraded lands (Lal 2004a) and based on some global estimates (Cole et al. 1996; IPCC 2000), the estimated carbon sequestration rate is 0.9 ± 0.3 Pg C year-1 (Lal 2004a). Thus, it becomes apparent that any change in soil C pool would have a significant effect on the global C budget. The terrestrial sink capacity for biotic C sequestration especially that in terrestrial ecosystems is low at 50–100 Pg C during 25–50-year period (Lal 2004a, b). The terrestrial biosphere currently sequesters 20–30% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Gurney et al. 2002; Keeling and Garcia 2002). The terrestrial sink is presently increasing at a net rate of 1.4 ± 0.7 Pg C year-1. Thus, the terrestrial sink absorbs approximately 2–4 Pg C year-1 and its capacity may increase to approximately 5 Pg C year-1 by 2050 (Cramer et al. 2001; Scholes and Noble 2001). Tropical forest Tropical forest plays a key role in the global carbon cycle due to the large amount of carbon currently stored there (Dixon et al. 1994). Forest ecosystems contain more than three fourth of the terrestrial vegetation carbon, which is stored in stems, branches, foliage and roots of trees (Bolin and Sukumar 2000). Zhang et al. (2011) reported the distribution of plant diversity and C stocks along successional gradients in a sub-alpine coniferous forest, to examine the influence of environmental factors on C stocks, and to quantify the relationships between C stocks and plant diversity in china. Potvin et al. (2011) compared several pools of C (standing tree biomass, coarse woody debris (CWD), herbaceous vegetation, litter and soil) and fluxes of C (soil respiration and the decomposition of CWD and litter) in a tropical tree plantation established with one, three or six native species. The results demonstrate that tree diversity influences the processes governing the changes in C pools and fluxes following establishment of a tree plantation on a former pasture. Afforestation Afforestation is one of the viable options of C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems (IPCC 1999; Watson et al. 2000; Fang and Moncrieff 2001; Lamb et al. 2005). The rate of C sequestration in US forests, considering all components, is 0.3–0.7 Pg C year-1 (Pacala et al. 2001). Increasing C storage in forest ecosystems may not come easily, however, as the mechanisms that control the input of detrital C and the internal cycling of soil OM are complex (Stevenson 1994). Busse et al. (2009) discussed the SCS and changes in fungal and bacterial biomass following incorporation of forest residues. Applications of biosolids offer another management opportunity for SCS.

123


1347

Witta et al. (2011) reported about the terrestrial C biosequestration and biodiversity restoration potential of the semi-arid mulga lands of eastern Australia by measuring aboveand belowground C and by making floristic biodiversity assessments in old grazing exclosures. SCS is approximately 0.18 t CO2-e ha-1 year-1, with above-ground biomass contributing an additional 0.73–0.91 t CO2-e ha-1 year-1 (Witta et al. 2011).

Management strategies for enhancing the soil carbon pool Carbon sequestration is usually measured in terms of the total carbon stored in the soil but how much carbon is stored, and for how long this carbon can be stored, depends upon the pools (active/labile vs. recalcitrant/passive) and their recycling (Six et al. 2001; Gleixner et al. 2002), form of stabilization (chemical/physical) (Kaiser et al. 2002) and physical location (inter/intra-aggregate vs. free) (Balesdent et al. 2000; Six et al. 2001) of the carbon in the soil. However, the SCS rate can be enhanced by adopting sustainable soil management practices. Sustainable agricultural practices Carbon sequestration by agricultural land has generated international interest because of its potential impact on and benefits for agriculture and climate change. Furthermore, agricultural ecosystems represent an estimated 11% of the earth’s land surface and include some of the most productive and carbon-rich soils (Lal 1995). Increasing plant C inputs include cover crops, and improved crop rotations; decreasing loses include reducing tillage intensity with no-tillage providing the lowest soil disturbance (Lal 2004b; Post et al. 2004; Smith et al. 2008). Kukal et al. (2009) reported the SOC sequestration in relation to organic and inorganic fertilization in rice–wheat and maize–wheat systems and Suman et al. (2009) also reported carbon sequestration in sugarcane under different organic amendment practices (Fig. 2a, b). Agriculture conservation practices such as the use of different cropping and plant-residue management as well as organic management farming can enhance soil carbon storage. Soriano-Disla et al. (2010) discussed the contribution of a sewage sludge application to the short-term carbon sequestration across a wide range of agricultural soils. Tian et al. (2009) reported that a mean net SCS of 1.73 Mg C ha-1 year-1 derived from a 34-year reclamation using sewage sludge on strip-mined lands. Similarly, Freibauer et al. (2004) described the potentials for C sequestration in the agricultural soils of Europe. Tillage practices Several studies reported a significant increase in soil organic matter (SOM) in no-tillage systems compared to conventional tillage systems (Bayer et al. 2006; Lal and Kimble 1997; Sainju et al. 2005; Causarano et al. 2006). Conservation tillage reduces the negative impacts of tillage, preserves soil resources and can lead to accrual of much of the soil C lost during tillage (Lal et al. 1998; Ogle et al. 2003; Caldeira et al. 2004; Paustian et al. 2004). No-till in combination with mulching and crop rotation to enhance the SOC pool (Smith and Powlson 2000) is also a viable strategy for sustainable management of soils of the tropics in general and those of sub-Saharan Africa in particular (Lal 2000). The success of no-till sowing of wheat after rice in the South Asian rice–wheat belt is encouraging

123

1348


Fig. 2 a Effect of different treatments on soil C-sequestration under multi-ratooning sugarcane in Indian sub-tropical condition (Lucknow, UP) (Suman et al. 2009). The treatments were applied at the following rate: NPK chemical fertilizer (150:60:60) and VC vermicompost @ 10 t ha-1, FYM farmyard manure @ 10 t ha-1, BS biogas slurry @ 10 t ha-1, SPMC sulphitation press mud cake @10 t ha-1. The study concludes that organic amendments significantly enhanced soil organic carbon (SOC) and carbon sequestration than chemical fertilizers. b Long-term (32 years) SOC turnover and sequestration rate in rice– wheat and maize–wheat system of a tropical semi-arid region of India (Ludhiana, Punjab). The treatments were farmyard manure (FYM alone @ 20 t ha-1; N120P30K30 (application of 120 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O ha-1; N120 P30 (application of 120 kg N and 30 kg P2O5); N120 (application of 120 kg N). The study reveals that the SOC concentration was higher with FYM than with NPK application in both rice– wheat and maize–wheat systems after a period of 32 years (Kukal et al. 2009)

(Hobbs and Gupta 2004). West and Post (2002) observed that changing plough till to no-till increased SOC pool at the rate of 57 g C m-2 year-1 (or 570 kg ha-1 year-1). It is well established that ecosystems with high plant diversity absorb and sequester more C than those with low or reduced plant diversity. In Georgia, USA, Franzluebbers et al. (2001) and Sainju et al. (2002) observed independently that practicing no-till with hairy vetch can improve SOC. Crop residue and manure Crop residue management is another important method of sequestering C in soil and increasing the soil OM content. Crop residues are not a waste. They are precious

123


1349

commodities and their use as soil amendments is essential for preserving soil quality (Manna et al. 2005). Generally, there is a linear relationship between the OM in the first 15 cm of soil and the quantity of crop residues applied. Surface-applied crop residues decompose more slowly than those are incorporated by tillage, because they have less contact with soil microorganisms and soil water (Lal 2007). Jones et al. (2006) reported the effect of poultry manure, cattle slurry, sewage sludge, NH4NO3 or urea on C cycling and sequestration in silage grass production. The application of manure at the rate of 10 Mg ha-1 to cropland in Europe would increase the SOC pool by 5.5% over 100 years (Smith et al. 1997). Similarly, beneficial impacts of manuring for U.S. cropland were reported by Lal et al. (1998). Use of fertilizers The use of organic fertilizer is considered as an effective way of increasing SCS (Lal 2004b). Long-term fertilization experiments focusing on effects of fertilization on soil quality, fertility and productivity had been carried out by different agronomist under various types of soil and cropping systems (Kundu et al. 2007; Jagadamma et al. 2008; Suman et al. 2009). A study by Bhattacharyya et al. (2010) indicated that the rate of conversion of input C to SOC was about 19% of each additional Mg C input per hectare. SOC content in large size aggregates was greater than in smaller size aggregates, and declined with decreased aggregate size. Thus, long-term soybean–wheat rotation in a sandy loam soil of the Indian Himalayas sequestered carbon and nitrogen. Soil organic C and total soil nitrogen sequestration in the 0.25–0.1-mm size fraction is an ideal indicator of long-term C and N sequestration (Bhattacharyya et al. 2010). Organic agriculture Organic agriculture can help to prevent climate change. North America and Europe show that the best practiced organic agriculture emits less GHGs than conventional agriculture and the carbon sequestration from increasing soil OM leads to a net reduction in GHGs (Maeder et al. 2002; Reganold et al. 2001). A study by Smith (2005) indicated that organic farming is a promising management system for enhancing C storage on cropland. A diverse crop rotation, particularly one that includes legumes, typically enhances fertilizer-use efficiency and improves pest management (Jarecki and Lal 2003; Pimentel et al. 2005; Tillman et al. 2004). Organic systems use water more efficiently due to better soil structure and higher levels of humus (Pimentel et al. 2005). Use of biochar Soil amendment with biochar is evaluated globally as a means to enhance soil fertility and to mitigate climate change. Biochar formed under the proper conditions has remarkable nutrient affinity and enhances the cation exchange capacity of soil, as well as biological processes that lead to improved soil structure, water storage, and soil fertility (Fowles 2007). Charcoal can represent 10–35% of the total SOC and is highly recalcitrant to microbial and chemical decomposition (Skjemstad et al. 2002). Application of biochar has been shown to have many advantages including improvements in soil quality and plant growth (Chan et al. 2007; Chan and Xu 2009; Novak et al. 2009; Steiner et al. 2007).

123

1350


Lehmann et al. (2011) examine the state of knowledge on soil populations of archaeans, bacteria, fungi and fauna as well as plant root behaviour as a result of biochar additions to soil. One of the advantages of using biochar as a soil amendment is that C can be locked in the soil for centuries to store and recycle C more efficiently. Enhancing plant–microbe interaction The rhizosphere is a biologically active region of the soil around plant roots that contains soil-borne microbes as well as bacteria and fungi (Singh et al. 2004). In the rhizosphere, root exudation is a key process for C transport into the soil, influencing the role of soil microbial communities in the decomposition. Root exudates have been shown to increase the mass and activity of soil microbes and fauna found in the rhizosphere (Butler et al. 2003). Recently, the role of root-associated microbes in maintaining soil structure (i.e., aggregate stability) has been recognized; for example, microbes have been identified that produce significant quantities of a glycoprotein, glomalin (Wright et al. 1996) which helps in stabilizing soil aggregates), in stable well-structured field and native forest soils Sen (2003). Glomalin is linked with soil carbon storage via its effect on soil aggregate stabilization (Rillig et al. 2002), and it also presents a potentially important soil C pool (Rillig et al. 2002) and plays a key role in soil stability (Wright et al. 1996; Rillig and steinberg 2002; Bedini et al. 2009). Glomalin acts as a soil particle binding agent, similar to mucopolysaccharides produced by soil bacteria, and contribute to the soil C pool in native grassland (Purin et al. 2006). Like rhizospheric bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) also contribute to nutrient storage in soil directly via the formation of mycelia networks, as well as indirectly by affecting the structure of soil (Miller and Jastrow 2000). Agroforestry Agroforestry has become recognized as an integrated approach to sustainable land use because of its production and environmental benefits. The role of trees as an important means to capture and store atmospheric CO2 in vegetation, soils and biomass products are widely acknowledged (Malhi et al. 2008). Agroforestry systems have higher potential to sequester C than pastures and field crops. Consequently, agroforestry became recognized as a C sequestration activity under the afforestation and reforestation approach (Nair and Nair 2003; Makundi and Sathaye 2004; Kirby and Potvin 2007; Haile et al. 2008; Takimoto et al. 2008; Nair et al. 2009). Agroforestry land use systems are extensively practiced in a number of regions around the tropics (Kumar 2006). Lal (2005) discussed the importance of agroforestry, plantations and other land use and management systems which may restore or enhance SOC pool, improve soil quality and reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric concentration of CO2. Grassland and rangelands management It has been reported that grassland management affects SOC content (Garcia-Oliva et al. 2006), and a variety of management options have been proposed to sequester carbon in grassland (Conant et al. 2001; Ogle et al. 2003). Follett and Reed (2010) discussed the importance of grazing lands for sequestering SOC, providing societal benefits, and potential influences on them of emerging policies and legislation. Stoećio et al. (2009) studies conducted in Brazilian pastures have shown divergent responses for the SOC

123


1351

depending on management practices. They evaluate the effects of management on SOC stocks in grasslands of the Brazilian states of Rondoˆnia and Mato Grosso, and to derive region-specific factors for soil C stock change associated with different management conditions (Stoećio et al. 2009). Jones and Donnelly (2004) describes the processes involved in C sequestration in temperate grassland ecosystems and assesses the influences of altered management practices, climate change and increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration on future levels of C sequestration. Bioenergy crops Biofuels, high on the political and scientific agenda, are related to C sequestration in two distinct but interrelated aspects: (i) SCS through restoration of the depleted SOC pool, especially when agriculturally degraded/marginal soils are converted to energy plantations and (ii) recycling of atmospheric CO2 into biomass-based biofuels. With choice of the appropriate species and prudent management, biofuels produced from energy plantations established by dedicated crops (e.g., Jatropha curcas, Salix herbacea, Panicum virgatum, Miscanthus giganteus, Andropogan gerardii and Pennisetum purpureum) can sequester C in soil, offset fossil fuel emissions and reduce the rate of abundance of atmospheric CO2 and other GHGs (Lal 2008). The establishment of the energy plant on such areas not only reduces GHG emissions but also creates opportunities for impoverished farmers and rural labourers. Contrary to other biofuels, the use of J. curcas represents real advantages over conventional biofuel sources such as corn, sugar cane and palm, which to a large extent grow on converted lands (Makkar and Becker 2009; Behera et al. 2010; Srivastava et al. 2011; Abhilash et al. 2011). Restoration of degraded land through bioenergy plants not only offers rural development for rural populations but also has a huge improvement potential by increasing SCS.

Biodiversity and carbon sequestration Biodiversity regulates the ecosystem functioning including the carbon and other biogeochemical cycling Huston et al. (2000). Hence, carbon sequestration in living plants and soils, either through the sustainable management of mature forests or long-term protection of regrowing forests or afforestation programmes in wasteland and other degraded lands, is likely to have an immediate positive effect on CO2 sequestration, plus a positive effect on biodiversity and other ecosystem services (Matthews et al. 2002; Caparro´s and Jacquemont 2003; Huston and Marland 2003; Williams et al. 2008; O’Connor 2008; Diaz et al. 2009; Yousefpour and Hanewinkel 2009; Witta et al. 2011; Ngugi et al. 2011). Plant diversity and its relationship with soil carbon Lower plant diversity could potentially decline the ability of long-lived carbon (C) pools of terrestrial ecosystems to continue to act as C sinks of atmospheric CO2 (Fan et al. 1998; Pacala et al. 2001). Soils are extremely species rich and store 80% of global terrestrial C. Soil organisms play a key role in C dynamics and a loss of species through global changes could influence global C dynamics. They determine the importance of considering soil biodiversity in relation to C cycling in terrestrial ecosystems (Nielsen et al. 2011). Ecosystem functioning is governed largely by soil microbial dynamics, being microbial communities affected by production practices such as management system (Germida and

123

1352


Siciliano 2001). Ecosystems with high biodiversity generally sequester more carbon in the soil than those with reduced biodiversity (Lal and Akinremi 1983). Ecosystem C storage is tightly coupled with changes in the soil that occur in response to alterations in above- and belowground productivity, rooting depth and root distribution and changes in the quality and quantity of litter (Catovsky et al. 2002; Nair et al. 2009; Valverde-Barrantes 2007). A variety of hypotheses have been proposed to explain the expected relationship between tree diversity and ecosystem C storage. Diaz et al. (2009) along with Catovsky et al. (2002) stated that biodiversity could affect the rates of C gain or loss, the size of C pool and temporal stability and hence the lifespan or stability of C pools. Results from other mixed-species plantations suggest that the identity of the dominant species plays an important role in determining C gained by the trees (Redondo-Brenes 2007; ValverdeBarrantes 2007). The possibility that mixed-species plantations might increase ecosystem C storage has been often cited as a reason for the promotion of reforestation with native species (Diaz et al. 2009; Piotto et al. 2010; Caspersen and Pacala 2001). Forests are supposed to produce an increased diversity of socially sensitive goods and services, interest in using native species for reforestation and restoration is increasing (Garen et al. 2011). Growing leguminous cover crops enhance biodiversity through the quality of residue input and soil organic pool (Singh et al. 1998; Fullen and Auerswal 1998).

Impact of climate change on SCS Heimann and Reichstein (2008) discussed the role of terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. There is a large body of research suggesting that natural ecosystem properties greatly depend on biodiversity and that the functioning of ecosystems is associated with biodiversity (Hooper et al. 2004; Tilman et al. 2005). Pohl et al. (2009) discussed the higher plant diversity enhances soil stability in disturbed alpine ecosystems. They found positive effect of plant diversity on aggregate stability and suggest that high plant diversity is one of the most relevant factors for enhancing soil stability at disturbed sites at high elevation. Due to elevated global temperature, the losses of soil carbon would be prevalent in tropical regions, with large pool of soil OM with a relatively rapid turnover time (cf. McGuire et al. 1995; Trumbore et al. 1996). Field experiments suggest that soil OM increases when plants are grown at high CO2 (Wood et al. 1994; Hungate et al. 1997). We believe, however, that many recent estimates of the global sink for carbon in soils are overly optimistic, because the microbial community in most soils is limited by the availability of organic substrates (Zak et al. 1994). Increased activity of the belowground microbial community was seen in a grassland community in California exposed to elevated CO2 for 3 years (Hungate et al. 1997). Schlesinger and Andrews (2000) believe that in response to global warming, the losses of carbon from soils will be greatest in regions of boreal forest and tundra, which have the largest store of labile OM and the greatest predicted rise in temperature. Large losses of CO2 from these soils could reinforce the greenhouse-warming of Earth’s atmosphere (Woodwell et al. 1995). Cultivation also disrupts soil aggregates, exposing stable adsorbed OM to decomposition (Six et al. 1998). Water limitation may even suppress the effective ecosystem-level response of temperature on soil respiration (Reichstein et al. 2007) conversely, if soil water-holding capacity is low, as in shallow soils, vegetation productivity will be strongly affected by a negative water balance. Hence, under drier conditions, there are predictions of increased SCS by suppression of respiration and of net loss of carbon through decreased productivity (Ciais et al. (2005); Saleska et al. (2003).

123


1353

Conclusions From the above considerations, it can be concluded that SCS is desirable, both for its beneficial effects on GHG reduction and climate change, and for its wider environmental and economic implications. In particular, an increase in the levels of SOM is necessary to cover the loss of organic C in agricultural soil. The decrease in SOM content led to the decline of several soil properties that are essential for soil protection and conservation from both the agronomic and environmental points of view. Proper SOM management is also a prerequisite of a sustainable agriculture capable of dealing with the increasing demand of food and the maintenance of the environment. Appropriate SOM management is therefore an essential turning point for the equilibrium of natural systems and the future of the entire human society. For this, countries should unilaterally desire to undertake policies that have beneficial effects on the productivity and long-term sustainability of agricultural production systems. Acknowledgments Authors are thankful to Dr. C. S. Nautiyal, Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow India for providing facilities and support. Thanks are also due to two anonymous reviewers and the guest editors for their valuable suggestions to the previous versions of the manuscript. The funds to carry out this work were received from CSIR, New Delhi under NWP-020.

References Abhilash PC, Srivastava P, Jamil S et al (2011) Revisited Jatropha curcas an oil plant of multiple benefits: critical research needs and prospects for the future. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18:127–131 Balesdent J, Chenu C, Balabane M (2000) Relationship of soil organic matter dynamics to physical protection and tillage. Soil Till Res 53:215–230 Batjes NH (1996) Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Eur J Soil Sci 47:151–163 Bayer C, Martin-Neto L, Mielniczuk J et al (2006) Carbon sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till. Soil Till Res 86:237–245 Bedini S, Pellegrino E, Avio L et al (2009) Changes in soil aggregation and glomalin-related soil protein content as affected by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species Glomus mosseae and Glomus intraradices. Soil Biol Biochem 41:1491–1496 Behera SK, Srivastava P, Tripathi R, Singh JP, Singh N (2010) Evaluation of plant performance of Jatropha curcas L. under different agro-practices for optimizing biomass: a case study. Biomass Bioenerg 34:30–41 Bellamy PH, Loveland PJ, Bradley RI et al (2005) Carbon losses from all soils across England. Nature 437:245–248 Benbi DK, Brar JS (2009) A 25-year record of carbon sequestration and soil properties in intensive agriculture. Agron Sustain Dev 29:257–265 Bhattacharyya R, Prakash V, Kundu S et al (2010) Long term effects of fertilization on carbon and nitrogen sequestration and aggregate associated carbon and nitrogen in the Indian sub-Himalayas. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 428:549–553 Bolin B, Sukumar R (2000) Global perspective. In: Watson RT, Noble IR, Bolin B, Ravindranath NH, Verardo DJ, Dokken DJ (eds) Land use, land-use change and forestry. A special report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 23–52 Busse MD, Sanchez FG, Ratcliff AW et al (2009) Soil carbon sequestration and changes in fungal and bacterial biomass following incorporation of forest residues. Soil Biol Biochem 41:220–227 Butler JL, Williams MA, Bottomley PJ et al (2003) Microbial community dynamics associated with rhizosphere carbon flow. Appl Environ Microb 69:6793–6800 Caldeira K, Granger Morgan M, Baldocchi D et al (2004) A portfolio of carbon management options. In: Field CB, Raupach MR (eds) The global carbon cycle: integrating humans, climate, and the natural world. Island Press, Washington, pp 103–130 Caparro´s A, Jacquemont F (2003) Conflicts between biodiversity and carbon sequestration programs: economic and legal implications. Ecol Econ 46:143–157 Caspersen JP, Pacala SW (2001) Successional diversity and forest ecosystem function. Ecol Res 16:895–903

123

1354


Catovsky S, Bradford MA, Hector A (2002) Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity: implications for carbon storage. Oikos 97:443–448 Causarano HJ, Franzluebbers AJ, Reeves DW et al (2006) Soil organic carbon sequestration in cotton production systems of the south eastern United States: a review. J Environ Qual 35:1374–1383 Chan KY, Xu Z (2009) Biochar: nutrient properties and their enhancement. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S (eds) Biochar for environmental management: science and technology. Earthscan, London, pp 67–84 Chan KY, Van Zwieten L, Meszaros I et al (2007) Agronomic values of green waste biochar as a soil amendment. Aust J Soil Res 45:629–634 Ciais P, Reichstein M, Viovy N et al (2005) Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature 437:529–533 Cole V, Cerri C, Minami K et al (1996) Agricultural options for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. In: Watson RT, Zinyowera MC, Moss RH, Dokken DJ (eds) Climate change 1995. Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific-technical analyses. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 745–771 Conant RT, Paustian K, Elliot ET (2001) Grassland management and conversion into grassland: effects on soil carbon. Ecol Appl 11(2):343–355 Cramer WA, Bondeau A, Ianwoodward F et al (2001) Global response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and function to CO2 and climate change: results from six dynamic global vegetation models. Global Change Biol 7:357–373 Diaz S, Hector A, Wardle DA (2009) Biodiversity in forest carbon sequestration initiatives: not just a side benefit. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 1:55–60 Dixon RK, Brown S, Houghton RA et al (1994) Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems. Science 263:185–190 Ehrenfeld JG, Ravit B, Elgersma K (2005) Feedback in the plant–soil system. Annu Rev Env Resour 30:75–115 Fan SM, Gloor M, Mallan J, Pacala S, Sarmiento J, Takahashi T et al (1998) A large terrestrial carbon sink in North America implied by atmospheric and oceanic CO2 data and models. Science 282:442–446 Fang C, Moncrieff JB (2001) The dependence of soil CO2 efflux on temperature. Soil Biol Biochem 33:155–165 Feller C, Bernoux M (2008) Historical advances in the study of global terrestrial soil organic carbon sequestration. Waste Manage 28(4):734–740 Follett RF, Reed DA (2010) Soil carbon sequestration in grazing lands: societal benefits and policy implications. Rangeland Ecol Manag 63:4–15 Fowles M (2007) Black carbon sequestration as an alternative to bioenergy. Biomass Bioenerg 31:426–432 Franzluebbers AJ, Stuedemann JA, Wilkinson SR (2001) Bermuda grass management in the southern piedmont USA: I. Soil and surface residue carbon and sulfur. Soil Sci Soc Am J 65:834–841 Freibauer A, Rounsevell MDA, Smith P et al (2004) Carbon sequestration in the agricultural soils of Europe. Geoderma 122:1–23 Fullen MA, Auerswal K (1998) Effect of grass ley set-aside and runoff, erosion and organic matter levels in sandy soils in east Shropshire, UK. Soil Till Res 46:41–49 Garcia-Oliva F, Lancho JFG, Montano NM et al (2006) Soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics followed by a forest-to-pasture conversion in western Mexico. Agroforest Syst 66(2):93–100 Garen EJ, Saltonstall K, Ashton MS, Slusser JL et al (2011) The tree planting and protecting culture of cattle ranchers and 2 small-scale agriculturalists in rural Panama: opportunities for reforestation and land restoration. Forest Ecol Manag 261:1684–1695 Germida JJ, Siciliano SD (2001) Taxonomic diversity of bacteria associated with the roots of modern, recent and ancient wheat cultivars. Biol Fertil Soils 33:410–415 Gibson TS, Chan KY, Sharma G et al (2002) Soil carbon sequestration utilising recycled organics: a review of the scientific literature project 00/01R-3.2.6A prepared for Resource NSW by The Organic Waste Recycling Unit, NSW Agriculture Gleixner G, Poirier N, Bol R et al (2002) Molecular dynamics of organic matter in a cultivated soil. Org Geochem 33:357–366 Gurney KR, Rachel M, Law A, Denning S et al (2002) Towards robust regional estimates of CO2 sources and sinks using atmospheric transport models. Nature 415:626–630 Haile SG, Nair PKR, Nair VD (2008) Carbon storage of different soil-size fractions in Florida silvopastoral systems. J Environ Qual 37:1789–1797 Heimann M, Reichstein M (2008) Terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. Nature 451:289–292 Hobbs P, Gupta R (2004) Sustainable agriculture and the international rice–wheat system. Dekker, New York

123


1355

Hooper DU, Chapin FS, Ewel J et al (2004) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol Monogr 75:3–35 Hungate BA, Holland EA, Jackson RB et al (1997) The fate of carbon in grasslands under carbon dioxide enrichment. Nature 388:576–579 Huston MA, Marland G (2003) Carbon management and biodiversity. J Environ Manage 67:77–86 Huston MA, Aarssen LW, Austin MP et al (2000) No consistent effect of plant diversity on productivity. Science 289:1255a IEA (2009) Report on CO2 emissions from fuel combustion. p. 124 http://www.iea.org. Accessed 14 Oct 2011 IPCC (1999) Land use, land use change and forestry. Inter government panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK IPCC (2000) Special report on land use, land use change and forestry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: climate change impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. IPCC Working Group II, Geneva, Switzerland Jagadamma S, Lal R, Hoeft RG et al (2008) Nitrogen fertilization and cropping system impacts on soil properties and their relationship to crop yield in the central Corn Belt, USA. Soil Till Res 98:120–129 Janzen HH (2004) Carbon cycling in earth systems: a soil science perspective. Agr Ecosyst Environ 104:399–417 Jarecki MK, Lal R (2003) Crop management for soil carbon sequestration. Crit Rev Plant Sci 22:471–502 Jones MB, Donnelly A (2004) Carbon sequestration in temperate grassland ecosystems and the influence of management, climate and elevated CO2. New Phytol 164:423–439 Jones SK, Rees RM, Kosmas D et al (2006) Carbon sequestration in a temperate grassland; management and climatic controls. Soil Use Manage 22:132–142 Jones A, Stolbovoy V, Rusco E, Gentile AR, Gardi C (2009) Climate change in Europe. 2. Impact on soil: a review. Agron Sustain Dev 29:423–432 Kaiser K, Eusterhues K, Rumpel C et al (2002) Stabilization of organic matter by soil minerals: investigations of density and particle-size fractions from two acid forest soils. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 165:451–459 Keeling RF, Garcia HE (2002) The change in oceanic O2 inventory associated with recent global warming. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:7848–7853 Kerr RA (2001) Bush backs spending for a ‘‘global problem’’. Science 292:1978 Kirby KR, Potvin C (2007) Variation in carbon storage among tree species: implications for the management of a small-scale carbon sink project. Forest Ecol Manag 246:208–221 Ko¨gel-Knabner I, Ekschmitt K, Flessa H et al (2008) An integrative approach of organic matter stabilization in temperate soils: linking chemistry, physics and biology. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 171:5–13 Kukal SS, Rasool R, Benbi DK (2009) Soil organic carbon sequestration in relation to organic and inorganic fertilization in rice–wheat and maize–wheat systems. Soil Till Res 102:87–92 Kumar BM (2006) Carbon sequestration potential of tropical home gardens. In: Kumar BM, Nair PKR (eds) Tropical home gardens: a time-tested example of sustainable agroforestry. Advances in agroforestry 3. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp 185–204 Kundu S, Bhattacharyya R, Prakash V et al (2007) Carbon sequestration and relationship between carbon addition and storage under rain fed soybean–wheat rotation in a sandy loam soil of the Indian Himalayas. Soil Till Res 92:87–95 Lal R (1995) Global soil erosion by water and carbon dynamics. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Levine E, Stewart BA (eds) Soils and global change. CRC/Lewis, Boca Raton, FL, pp 131–142 Lal R (2000) Restorative effects of Mucuna utilis on soil organic C pool of a severely degraded Alfisol in western Nigeria. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Stewart BA (eds) Global climate change and tropical ecosystems. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 147–165 Lal R (2001) World cropland soils as a source or sink for atmospheric carbon. Adv Agron 71:145–191 Lal R (2002) Soil carbon dynamics in cropland and rangeland. Environ Pollut 116:353–362 Lal R (2004a) Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304:1623–1627 Lal R (2004b) Carbon sequestration in soils of central Asia. Land Degrad Dev 15:563–572 Lal R (2005) Soil carbon sequestration in natural and managed tropical forest ecosystems. J Sustain Fores 21:1–30 Lal R (2007) Soil carbon stocks under present and future climate with specific reference to European ecoregions. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 81:113–127 Lal R (2008) Carbon sequestration. Phil Trans R Soc B 363:815–830 Lal R (2009) Soils and food sufficiency. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 29:113–133

123

1356


Lal R, Akinremi OO (1983) Physical properties of earthworm cast and surface soil as influenced by management. Soil Sci 135:114–122 Lal R, Kimble JM (1997) Conservation tillage for carbon sequestration. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 49:243–253 Lal R, Kimble JM, Follett RF et al (1998) The potential of U.S. cropland to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Ann Arbor, Chelsea, MI Lamb D, Erskine PD, Parrotta JA (2005) Restoration of degraded tropical forest landscape. Science 310:1628–1632 Lehmann J, Rillig MC, Thies J et al (2011) Biochar effects on soil biota: a review. Soil Biol Biochem pp 1–25 doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.04.22 Maeder P, Fliessbach A, Dubois D et al (2002) Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science 296:1694–1697 Makkar HPS, Becker Klaus (2009) Jatropha curcas, a promising crop for the generation of biodiesel and value-added coproducts. Eur J Lipid Sci Tech 111:773–787 Makundi WR, Sathaye JA (2004) GHG mitigation potential and cost in tropical forestry relative role for agroforestry. Environ Sustain Develop 6:235–260 Malhi Y, Roberts JT, Betts RA et al (2008) Climate change, deforestation, and the fate of the Amazon. Science 319:169–172 Manna MC, Swarup A, Wanjari RH et al (2005) Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on soil organic carbon storage, soil quality and yield sustainability under sub-humid and semi-arid tropical India. Field Crop Res 93:264–280 Matthews S, O’Connor R, Plantinga AJ (2002) Quantifying the impacts on biodiversity of policies for carbon sequestration in forests. Ecol Econ 40:71–87 McGuire AD, Melillo JM, Kicklighter DW et al (1995) Equilibrium responses of soil carbon to climate change: empirical and process-based estimates. J Biogeog 22:785–796 Miller RM, Jastrow JD (2000) Mycorrhizal fungi influence soil structure. In: Kapulnik Y, Douds DD (eds) Arbuscular mycorrhizas: physiology and function. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 3–18 Mondini C, Sequi P (2008) Implication of soil C sequestration on sustainable agriculture and environment. Waste Manage 28(4):678–684 Monger HC, Martinez-Rios JJ (2001) Inorganic carbon sequestration in grazing lands. In: Lal R, Follett R, Kimble JM (eds) Potential of U.S. grazing lands to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 87–118 Morra L, Pagano L, Iovieno P, Baldantoni D, Alfani A (2010) Soil and vegetable crop response to addition of different levels of municipal waste compost under Mediterranean greenhouse conditions. Agron Sustain Dev 30:701–709 Nair PKR, Nair VD (2003) Carbon storage in North American agroforestry systems. In: Kimble J, Heath LS, Birdsey RA, Lal R (eds) The potential of U.S. forest soils to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 333–346 Nair PKR, Kumar BM, Nair VD (2009) Agroforestry as a strategy for carbon sequestration. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 172:10–23 Ngugi MR, Johnson RW, McDonald WJF (2011) Restoration of ecosystems for biodiversity and carbon sequestration: simulating growth dynamics of brigalow vegetation communities in Australia. Ecol Model 222:785–794 Nielsen UN, Ayres E, Walla DH, Bardgett RD (2011) Soil biodiversity and carbon cycling: a review and synthesis of studies examining diversity–function relationships. Eur J Soil Sci 62:105–116 Novak JM, Busscher WJ, Laird DL et al (2009) Impact of biochar amendment on fertility of a south eastern coastal plain soil. Soil Sci 174:105–112 O’Connor WK, Dahlin DC, Nilsen DN et al (2001) Carbon dioxide sequestration by direct mineral carbonation: results from recent studies and current status. http//www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/ o1/carbon_seq/bC2.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2010 O’Connor D (2008) Governing the global commons: linking carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation in tropical forests. Global Environ Chang 18:368–374 Ogle SM, Breidt FJ, Eve MD et al (2003) Uncertainty in estimating land use and management impacts on soil organic carbon storage for US agricultural lands between 1982 and 1997. Global Change Biol 9:1521–1542 Pacala SW, Hurtt GC, Baker D et al (2001) Consistent land and atmosphere-based U.S. carbon sink estimates. Science 292:2316–2320 Paustian K, Babcock B, Kling C et al (2004) Climate change and greenhouse gas mitigation: challenges and opportunities for agriculture. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Task Force Report No. 141, p 120

123


1357

Pimentel D, Hepperly P, Hanson J et al (2005) Environmental, energetic and economic comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems. Bioscience 55(7):573–582 Piotto D, Craven D, Montagnini F et al (2010) Silvicultural and economic aspects of pure andmixed native tree species plantations on degraded pasture-lands in humid Costa Rica. New Forest 39:369–385 Pohl M, Alig D, Ko¨rner Ch et al (2009) Higher plant diversity enhances soil stability in disturbed alpine ecosystems. Plant Soil 324:91–102 Post WM, Kwon KC (2000) Soil carbon sequestration and land-use: processes and potential. Global Change Biol 6:317–327 Post WM, Izaurralde RC, Jastrow JD et al (2004) Enhancement of carbon sequestration in the US soils. Bioscience 54(10):895–908 Potvin C, Mancilla L, Buchmann N et al (2011) An ecosystem approach to biodiversity effects: carbon pools in a tropical tree plantation. Forest Ecol Manag 261:1614–1624 Pulleman MM, Bauma J, van Essen EA et al (2000) Soil organic matter content as a function of different land use history. Soil Sci Soc Am J 64:689–693 Purin S, Filho OK, Sturmer SL (2006) Mycorrhizae activity and diversity in conventional and organic apple orchards from Brazil. Soil Biol Biochem 38:1831–1839 Ravindranath NH, Joshi NV, Sukumar R et al (2006) Impact of climate change on forests in India. Curr Sci 90(3):354–361 Redondo-Brenes A (2007) Growth, carbon sequestration, and management of native tree plantations in humid regions of Costa Rica. New Forest 34:253–268 Reganold J, Glover J, Andrews P et al (2001) Sustainability of three apple production systems. Nature 410:926–930 Reichstein M et al (2007) Determinants of terrestrial ecosystem carbon balance inferred from European eddy covariance flux sites. Geophys Res Lett 34:L01402. doi:10.1029/2006GL027880 Rillig MC, Steinberg PD (2002) Glomalin production by an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus: a mechanism of habitat modification? Soil Biol Biochem 34:1371–1374 Rillig MC, Wright SF, Eviner V (2002) The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and glomalin in soil aggregation: comparing effects of five plant species. Plant Soil 238:325–333 Sainju UM, Singh BP, Yaffa S (2002) Soil organic matter and tomato yield following tillage, cover cropping and nitrogen fertilization. Agron J 94:594–602 Sainju UM, Singh BP, Whitehead WF (2005) Tillage, cover crops, and nitrogen fertilization effects on cotton and sorghum root biomass, carbon, and nitrogen. Agron J 97:1279–1290 Saleska SR, Miller SD, Matross DM et al (2003) Carbon in Amazon forests: unexpected seasonal fluxes and disturbance induced losses. Science 302:1554–1557 Schellnhuber HJ, Cramer W, Nakicenovic N et al (eds) (2006) Avoiding dangerous climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK p. 406 Schlesinger WH, Andrews JA (2000) Soil respiration and the global carbon cycle. Biogeochemistry 48:7–20 Scholes RJ, Noble IR (2001) Storing carbon on land. Science 294:1012–1013 Schrag DP (2007) Preparing to capture carbon. Science 315:812–813 Sen R (2003) The root–microbe–soil interface: new tool for sustainable plant production. New Phytol 157:391–398 Sigua GC, Coleman SW (2009) Long-term effect of cow congregation zone on soil penetrometer resistance: implications for soil and forage quality. Agron Sustain Dev 29:517–523 Singh BR, Borresen T, Uhlen G, Ekeborg E (1998) Long term effects of crop rotation, cultivation practices and fertilizers on carbon sequestration of soils in Norway. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Follet RF, Stewart BA (eds) Management of carbon sequestration in soil. CRC, Bola Ralton, pp 195–208 Singh BK, Millard P, Whitley AS et al (2004) Unravelling rhizosphere–microbial interactions: opportunities and limitations. Trends Microbiol 12(8):386–393 Six J, Elliott ET, Paustian K et al (1998) Aggregation and soil organic matter accumulation in cultivated and native grassland soils. Soil Sci SocAm J 62:1367–1377 Six J, Guggenberger G, Paustian K et al (2001) Sources and composition of soil organic matter fractions between and within soil aggregates. Eur J Soil Sci 52:607–618 Six JT, Conant RT, Paul EA et al (2002) Stabilization mechanisms of soil organic matter: implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant Soil 241:155–176 Skjemstad JO, Reicosky DC, Wilts AR et al (2002) Charcoal carbon in US agricultural soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 66:1249–1255 Smith P (2005) An overview of the permanence of soil organic carbon stocks: influence of direct humaninduced, indirect and natural effects. Eur J Soil Sci 56:673–680 Smith P, Powlson DS (2000) Considering manure and carbon sequestration. Science 287:428–429

123

1358


Smith P, Powlson DS, Glendining MJ et al (1997) Potential for carbon sequestration in European soils: preliminary estimates for five scenarios using results from long-term experiments. Global Change Biol 3:67–79 Smith P, Martino D, Cai Z et al (2008) Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Philos T R Soc B 363:789–813 Soriano-Disla JM, Navarro-Pedrenˇo J, Go´mez I (2010) Contribution of a sewage sludge application to the short-term carbon sequestration across a wide range of agricultural soils. Environ Earth Sci 61:1613–1619 Srivastava P, Behera SK, Gupta J, Jamil S, Singh N, Sharma YK (2011) Growth performance, variability in yield traits and oil content of selected accessions of Jatropha curcas L. Growing in a large scale plantation site. Biomass Bioenerg doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.06.008 Steiner C, Teixeira WG, Lehmann J et al (2007) Long term effect of manure, charcoal and mineral fertilization on crop production and fertility on a highly weathered Central Amazonian upland soil. Plant Soil 291:275–290 Stevenson FJ (1994) Humus chemistry: genesis, composition, reactions, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York Stoećio MF, Stephen M, Ogle M et al (2009) Effect of grassland management on soil carbon sequestration in Rondoˆnia and Mato Grosso states, Brazil. Geoderma 149:84–91 Suman A, Singh KP, Singh P et al (2009) Carbon input, loss and storage in sub-tropical Indian Inceptisol under multi-ratooning sugarcane. Soil Till Res 104:221–226 Takimoto A, Nair PKR, Alavalapati JRR (2008) Socio economic potential of carbon sequestration through agroforestry in the West African Sahel. Mitiga Adapt Strat Global Chang 13:745–761 Tian G, Granato TC, Cox AE et al (2009) Soil carbon sequestration resulting from long-term application of biosolids for land reclamation. J Environ Qual 38:61–74 Tillman PG, Schomberg HH, Phatak S et al (2004) Insect pests and predators in conservation-tillage cotton with cover crops. J Econ Entomol 97(4):1217–1232 Tilman D, Polasky S, Lehman C (2005) Diversity, productivity and temporal stability in the economies of humans and nature. J Environ Econom Manage 49:405–426 Trumbore SE, Chadwick OA, Amundson R (1996) Rapid exchange between soil carbon and atmospheric carbon dioxide driven by temperature change. Science 272:393–396 Valverde-Barrantes OJ (2007) Relationships among litterfall, fine-root growth and soil respiration for five tropical tree species. Can J Forest Res 37:1954–1965 Watson RT, Noble IR, Bolin B et al (2000) Land use, land-use change and forestry: a special report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 127–180 West OT, Post MW (2002) Soil organic carbon sequestration rates by tillage and crop rotation: a global data analysis. Soil Sci Soc Am J 66:1930–1946 Williams M, Ryan CM, Rees RM et al (2008) Carbon sequestration and biodiversity of re-growing miombo woodlands in Mozambique. Forest Ecol Manag 254:145–155 Witta GB, Noe¨l MV, Bird MI et al (2011) Carbon sequestration and biodiversity restoration potential of semi-arid mulga lands of Australia interpreted from long-term grazing exclosures. Agr Ecosyst Environ 141:108–118 WMO (2009) Greenhouse gas bulletin. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland Wood CW, Torbert HA, Rogers HH et al (1994) Free-air CO2 enrichment effects on soil carbon and nitrogen. Agric For Meteor 70:103–116 Woodwell GM et al (1995) Biotic feedbacks from the warming of the Earth. In: Woodwell GM, MacKenzie FT (eds) Biotic feedbacks in the global climatic system. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 3–21 Wright SF, Franke-Snyder M, Morton JB et al (1996) Time–course study and partial characterization of a protein on hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi during active colonization of roots. Plant Soil 181:193–203 Yousefpour R, Hanewinkel M (2009) Modelling of forest conversion planning with an adaptive simulationoptimization approach and simultaneous consideration of the values of timber, carbon and biodiversity. Ecol Econ 68:1711–1722 Zak DR, Tilman D, Parmenter RR et al (1994) Plant production and soil microorganisms in late-successional ecosystems: a continental-scale study. Ecology 75:2333–2347 Zan CS, Fyles JW, Girouard P et al (2001) Carbon sequestration in perennial bioenergy, annual corn and uncultivated systems in southern Quebec. Agr Ecosyst Environ 86:135–144 Zhang Y, Duan B, Xian J, Korpelainen H, Li C (2011) Links between plant diversity, carbon stocks and environmental factors along a successional gradient in a subalpine coniferous forest in Southwest China. Forest Ecol Manage doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.03.042

123