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Jan 20, 2012 - Pankaj Srivastava • Amrit Kumar • Soumit K. Behera •. Yogesh K. Sharma • Nandita Singh. Received: 11 June 2011 / Accepted: 9 January 2012 ...
Biodivers Conserv (2012) 21:1343–1358 DOI 10.1007/s10531-012-0229-y ORIGINAL PAPER

Soil carbon sequestration: an innovative strategy for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration Pankaj Srivastava • Amrit Kumar • Soumit K. Behera Yogesh K. Sharma • Nandita Singh



Received: 11 June 2011 / Accepted: 9 January 2012 / Published online: 20 January 2012 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract Global warming due to increasing greenhouse gases emission and the subsequent climatic changes are the most serious environmental challenges faced by environmental scientists, academicians, regulatory agencies and policy makers worldwide. Among the various greenhouse gases, CO2 constitutes a major share and its concentration is increasing rapidly. Therefore, there is perhaps an urgent need to formulate suitable policies and programs that can firmly reduce and sequester CO2 emissions in a sustainable way. In order to combat the predicted disaster due to rising CO2 level, several CO2 capture and storage technologies and medium are being widely pursued and deliberated. Among them soil carbon sequestration (SCS) is gaining global attention because of its stability and role in long-term surface reservoir, natural low cost and eco-friendly means to combat climate change. Apart from the carbon capturing, the process of soil carbon stabilization also provides other tangible benefits that includes achieving food security, by improving soil quality, wasteland reclamation and preventing soil erosion. The present article aimed to address all these concerns and provide strategies and critical research needs to implement SCS as a mitigation option for increasing atmospheric CO2 level and its future directions. Keywords Global warming  Climate change  Greenhouse gases  Soil carbon sequestration  Soil management

P. Srivastava  A. Kumar  S. K. Behera (&)  N. Singh National Botanical Research Institute, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] Y. K. Sharma Environmental Science Division, Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Introduction During the last few decades, there is growing evidences that increasing greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentration are mainly responsible for global warming and associated climatic changes (WMO 2009). There is a general consensus that the climate on earth is changing and this has led to a series of impacts on the environment and human society (Schellnhuber et al. 2006) and affecting the sustainability of various ecosystems and well-beings of human beings. Among the various GHGs, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a key one accounted for 63% of total GHGs emission, whereas methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and the remaining trace gases account for 24, 10 and 3%, respectively (Ravindranath et al. 2006; IPCC 2007). Furthermore, the residence time of CO2 is very long [100 years (Kerr 2001; O’Connor et al. 2001). According to IEA (2009), the total emission of CO2 was increased from 14.1 Gt in 1971 to 29.0 Gt during 1971–2007. In recognition to the adverse effects of increasing GHG emissions on global climate, the United Nations in 1992 adopted a Framework Convention on Climate Change to formulate strategies and possible mechanisms to stabilize atmospheric GHGs and reduce the future emission. As a follow-up, the signatory nations mutually agreed to account for their net carbon emissions to the atmosphere and to execute programs to curtail these emissions to target levels by the accounting period of 2008–2012, relative to the base year of 1990 by a subsequent agreement in 1997 (the Kyoto Protocol). The Kyoto Protocol includes welldefined mechanisms for international emissions trading in which carbon is considered to be a tradable commodity in the international market. Agreements under the Kyoto Protocol initially focused on emission reduction and carbon sequestration (the additional carbon stored during the accounting period) by forestry industries. However, as per the Article 3.4 of the Protocol, carbon sequestered in soil now qualifies for inclusion in the carbon accounting process (Gibson et al. 2002). In general, there are three major strategies being widely pursued to reduce increasing CO2 and to mitigate subsequent climatic haphazard; (i) reducing the global fossil fuel use, (ii) developing low- or no-carbon fuel and (iii) sequestering CO2 from point sources or atmosphere through natural and engineering techniques (Schrag 2007). Apart from these, there are also other innovative strategies like oceanic injection, geological sequestration, etc. have been experimentally demonstrated to sequester CO2 concentration. However, most of these techniques are much costlier than soil carbon sequestration (SCS). Furthermore, SCS is natural, cost-effective and environmental friendly process and it is also helpful to achieve food security by improving soil fertility (Lal 2004a). Literature provides ample evidence on the mechanisms and processes of C-sequestration especially in soils (Ko¨gel-Knabner et al. 2008; Lal 2009; Benbi and Brar 2009; Sigua and Coleman 2009; Jones et al. 2009; Morra et al. 2010). However, the present review was aimed to critically analyze SCS as a carbon mitigation option and its role in agricultural productivity, wasteland reclamation, increment in biological diversity and its future perspectives.

Natural sources of soil carbon sink Soils are a fundamental resource for life on the planet. Furthermore, soil is an important part of the biosphere and has a higher potential to store carbon compared to vegetation and atmosphere (Bellamy et al. 2005). It has been estimated at approximately 3.3 times the size of the atmospheric pool and 4.5 times the size of the biotic pool (Lal 2004a, b; Janzen 2004) (Fig. 1). Therefore, soils have been suggested as a potential sink for

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Plant Respiration 60pg yr-1

Carbon input

Belowground biomass 60 pg yr-1

Fossil fuel (4130 Pg)

Soil C Pool 2500Pg SOC=1550Pg SIC=950Pg

90 Pg yr-1

92.3 Pg yr-1

Erosion 0.8-1.2 pg yr-1

Fossil fuel combustion 7.0 Pg yr-1

Atmospheric C Pool 760 Pg +3.5 Pg yr-1

Photosynthesis 120 pg

Soil respiration 60 pg yr-1

Biotic C Pool 560 Pg

Ocean C pool 38400Pg +2.3pg/yr Surface layer: 670 Pg Deep layer: 36730Pg Total organic 1000 Pg

0-6 ± 0-2Pg yr-1

Soil microbes

Fig. 1 The sources and sink of carbon and its interplay in pedosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. The carbon stocks in various pools (including fossil fuels) were obtained from Batjes (1996), Lal (2004a, b, 2008), and the carbon efflux (including fossil fuel burning) data were from IPCC (2000, 2007)

atmospheric C (Feller and Bernoux 2008; Mondini and Sequi 2008). The soil C pool mainly comprises soil organic C (SOC) estimated at 1550 Pg (1 petagram = 1015 g = 1 billion ton) and soil inorganic C (SIC) of approx. 750 Pg, occurred up to 1-m depth (Batjes 1996). However, this amount in any place changes over time, depending on photosynthetic carbon added and the rate of its decay (Janzen 2004). There are five principal global C pools. Some soils contain inorganic forms of C (i.e., carbonates), which collectively are termed as SIC. Especially in arid and semiarid environments, SIC can represent a significant amount of C (Lal 2002, 2007; Monger and Martinez-Rios 2001). Other pools include the oceanic (38,400 Pg), geologic/fossil fuel (4,500 Pg), biotic (620 Pg) and atmospheric (750 Pg) (Lal 2004a). The oceanic pool is the largest, followed by the geologic, pedologic (soil), biotic and the atmospheric pool (Lal 2000). Therefore, maintaining soil carbon is essential to improve the soil fertility, agricultural productivity and to curtail increasing atmospheric CO2. Naturally, three main methods of organic C stabilization have been occurred in soil, i.e., micro-aggregation (53–250 lm) formation within macro-aggregates; physically binding with clay and silt particles and biochemically by formation of recalcitrant soil organic matter (OM) compounds (Post and Kwon 2000). Recalcitrant material that is physically or biochemically protected may have turnover times of hundreds to thousands of years (Post and Kwon 2000). Light fractions and particulate OM that do not bind within aggregates (unprotected OM) generally remain more susceptible to microbial decomposition (Six et al. 2002). According to Pulleman et al. (2000), land use history has a strong impact on the soil organic carbon (SOC) pool so that adoption of appropriate management practices (AMPs) can be an important instrument of SOC sequestration (Post and Kwon 2000). Three general trends or patterns are typically reported in the literature regarding the conditions that favour SOC accumulations, i.e., increase the actual to attainable

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(i) plant-induced increases occur in extreme environments (e.g., arid and semi-arid climates) where the actual level of SOC is low relative to the attainable level (Ehrenfeld et al. 2005), (ii) rates of SOC sequestration tend to increase from temperate to subtropical regions and/or along increasing temperature and precipitation gradients (Post and Kwon 2000). This pattern suggests that the major factor determining the rate of SOC sequestration is plant residue inputs, which increase with temperature and rain-fall and (iii) SOC increases more in the presence of perennial species (Post and Kwon 2000; Zan et al. 2001) through continuous plant-residue-C inputs into the soil system. Lal (2001) estimated the SOC sequestration potential of 0.4–0.7 Pg C year-1 through desertification control in soils of arid and semi-arid regions. Estimates of the potential for additional SCS vary widely. Based on studies in European (Smith and Powlson 2000), US croplands (Lal et al. 1998) and other global degraded lands (Lal 2004a) and based on some global estimates (Cole et al. 1996; IPCC 2000), the estimated carbon sequestration rate is 0.9 ± 0.3 Pg C year-1 (Lal 2004a). Thus, it becomes apparent that any change in soil C pool would have a significant effect on the global C budget. The terrestrial sink capacity for biotic C sequestration especially that in terrestrial ecosystems is low at 50–100 Pg C during 25–50-year period (Lal 2004a, b). The terrestrial biosphere currently sequesters 20–30% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Gurney et al. 2002; Keeling and Garcia 2002). The terrestrial sink is presently increasing at a net rate of 1.4 ± 0.7 Pg C year-1. Thus, the terrestrial sink absorbs approximately 2–4 Pg C year-1 and its capacity may increase to approximately 5 Pg C year-1 by 2050 (Cramer et al. 2001; Scholes and Noble 2001). Tropical forest Tropical forest plays a key role in the global carbon cycle due to the large amount of carbon currently stored there (Dixon et al. 1994). Forest ecosystems contain more than three fourth of the terrestrial vegetation carbon, which is stored in stems, branches, foliage and roots of trees (Bolin and Sukumar 2000). Zhang et al. (2011) reported the distribution of plant diversity and C stocks along successional gradients in a sub-alpine coniferous forest, to examine the influence of environmental factors on C stocks, and to quantify the relationships between C stocks and plant diversity in china. Potvin et al. (2011) compared several pools of C (standing tree biomass, coarse woody debris (CWD), herbaceous vegetation, litter and soil) and fluxes of C (soil respiration and the decomposition of CWD and litter) in a tropical tree plantation established with one, three or six native species. The results demonstrate that tree diversity influences the processes governing the changes in C pools and fluxes following establishment of a tree plantation on a former pasture. Afforestation Afforestation is one of the viable options of C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems (IPCC 1999; Watson et al. 2000; Fang and Moncrieff 2001; Lamb et al. 2005). The rate of C sequestration in US forests, considering all components, is 0.3–0.7 Pg C year-1 (Pacala et al. 2001). Increasing C storage in forest ecosystems may not come easily, however, as the mechanisms that control the input of detrital C and the internal cycling of soil OM are complex (Stevenson 1994). Busse et al. (2009) discussed the SCS and changes in fungal and bacterial biomass following incorporation of forest residues. Applications of biosolids offer another management opportunity for SCS.

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Witta et al. (2011) reported about the terrestrial C biosequestration and biodiversity restoration potential of the semi-arid mulga lands of eastern Australia by measuring aboveand belowground C and by making floristic biodiversity assessments in old grazing exclosures. SCS is approximately 0.18 t CO2-e ha-1 year-1, with above-ground biomass contributing an additional 0.73–0.91 t CO2-e ha-1 year-1 (Witta et al. 2011).

Management strategies for enhancing the soil carbon pool Carbon sequestration is usually measured in terms of the total carbon stored in the soil but how much carbon is stored, and for how long this carbon can be stored, depends upon the pools (active/labile vs. recalcitrant/passive) and their recycling (Six et al. 2001; Gleixner et al. 2002), form of stabilization (chemical/physical) (Kaiser et al. 2002) and physical location (inter/intra-aggregate vs. free) (Balesdent et al. 2000; Six et al. 2001) of the carbon in the soil. However, the SCS rate can be enhanced by adopting sustainable soil management practices. Sustainable agricultural practices Carbon sequestration by agricultural land has generated international interest because of its potential impact on and benefits for agriculture and climate change. Furthermore, agricultural ecosystems represent an estimated 11% of the earth’s land surface and include some of the most productive and carbon-rich soils (Lal 1995). Increasing plant C inputs include cover crops, and improved crop rotations; decreasing loses include reducing tillage intensity with no-tillage providing the lowest soil disturbance (Lal 2004b; Post et al. 2004; Smith et al. 2008). Kukal et al. (2009) reported the SOC sequestration in relation to organic and inorganic fertilization in rice–wheat and maize–wheat systems and Suman et al. (2009) also reported carbon sequestration in sugarcane under different organic amendment practices (Fig. 2a, b). Agriculture conservation practices such as the use of different cropping and plant-residue management as well as organic management farming can enhance soil carbon storage. Soriano-Disla et al. (2010) discussed the contribution of a sewage sludge application to the short-term carbon sequestration across a wide range of agricultural soils. Tian et al. (2009) reported that a mean net SCS of 1.73 Mg C ha-1 year-1 derived from a 34-year reclamation using sewage sludge on strip-mined lands. Similarly, Freibauer et al. (2004) described the potentials for C sequestration in the agricultural soils of Europe. Tillage practices Several studies reported a significant increase in soil organic matter (SOM) in no-tillage systems compared to conventional tillage systems (Bayer et al. 2006; Lal and Kimble 1997; Sainju et al. 2005; Causarano et al. 2006). Conservation tillage reduces the negative impacts of tillage, preserves soil resources and can lead to accrual of much of the soil C lost during tillage (Lal et al. 1998; Ogle et al. 2003; Caldeira et al. 2004; Paustian et al. 2004). No-till in combination with mulching and crop rotation to enhance the SOC pool (Smith and Powlson 2000) is also a viable strategy for sustainable management of soils of the tropics in general and those of sub-Saharan Africa in particular (Lal 2000). The success of no-till sowing of wheat after rice in the South Asian rice–wheat belt is encouraging

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Fig. 2 a Effect of different treatments on soil C-sequestration under multi-ratooning sugarcane in Indian sub-tropical condition (Lucknow, UP) (Suman et al. 2009). The treatments were applied at the following rate: NPK chemical fertilizer (150:60:60) and VC vermicompost @ 10 t ha-1, FYM farmyard manure @ 10 t ha-1, BS biogas slurry @ 10 t ha-1, SPMC sulphitation press mud cake @10 t ha-1. The study concludes that organic amendments significantly enhanced soil organic carbon (SOC) and carbon sequestration than chemical fertilizers. b Long-term (32 years) SOC turnover and sequestration rate in rice– wheat and maize–wheat system of a tropical semi-arid region of India (Ludhiana, Punjab). The treatments were farmyard manure (FYM alone @ 20 t ha-1; N120P30K30 (application of 120 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O ha-1; N120 P30 (application of 120 kg N and 30 kg P2O5); N120 (application of 120 kg N). The study reveals that the SOC concentration was higher with FYM than with NPK application in both rice– wheat and maize–wheat systems after a period of 32 years (Kukal et al. 2009)

(Hobbs and Gupta 2004). West and Post (2002) observed that changing plough till to no-till increased SOC pool at the rate of 57 g C m-2 year-1 (or 570 kg ha-1 year-1). It is well established that ecosystems with high plant diversity absorb and sequester more C than those with low or reduced plant diversity. In Georgia, USA, Franzluebbers et al. (2001) and Sainju et al. (2002) observed independently that practicing no-till with hairy vetch can improve SOC. Crop residue and manure Crop residue management is another important method of sequestering C in soil and increasing the soil OM content. Crop residues are not a waste. They are precious

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commodities and their use as soil amendments is essential for preserving soil quality (Manna et al. 2005). Generally, there is a linear relationship between the OM in the first 15 cm of soil and the quantity of crop residues applied. Surface-applied crop residues decompose more slowly than those are incorporated by tillage, because they have less contact with soil microorganisms and soil water (Lal 2007). Jones et al. (2006) reported the effect of poultry manure, cattle slurry, sewage sludge, NH4NO3 or urea on C cycling and sequestration in silage grass production. The application of manure at the rate of 10 Mg ha-1 to cropland in Europe would increase the SOC pool by 5.5% over 100 years (Smith et al. 1997). Similarly, beneficial impacts of manuring for U.S. cropland were reported by Lal et al. (1998). Use of fertilizers The use of organic fertilizer is considered as an effective way of increasing SCS (Lal 2004b). Long-term fertilization experiments focusing on effects of fertilization on soil quality, fertility and productivity had been carried out by different agronomist under various types of soil and cropping systems (Kundu et al. 2007; Jagadamma et al. 2008; Suman et al. 2009). A study by Bhattacharyya et al. (2010) indicated that the rate of conversion of input C to SOC was about 19% of each additional Mg C input per hectare. SOC content in large size aggregates was greater than in smaller size aggregates, and declined with decreased aggregate size. Thus, long-term soybean–wheat rotation in a sandy loam soil of the Indian Himalayas sequestered carbon and nitrogen. Soil organic C and total soil nitrogen sequestration in the 0.25–0.1-mm size fraction is an ideal indicator of long-term C and N sequestration (Bhattacharyya et al. 2010). Organic agriculture Organic agriculture can help to prevent climate change. North America and Europe show that the best practiced organic agriculture emits less GHGs than conventional agriculture and the carbon sequestration from increasing soil OM leads to a net reduction in GHGs (Maeder et al. 2002; Reganold et al. 2001). A study by Smith (2005) indicated that organic farming is a promising management system for enhancing C storage on cropland. A diverse crop rotation, particularly one that includes legumes, typically enhances fertilizer-use efficiency and improves pest management (Jarecki and Lal 2003; Pimentel et al. 2005; Tillman et al. 2004). Organic systems use water more efficiently due to better soil structure and higher levels of humus (Pimentel et al. 2005). Use of biochar Soil amendment with biochar is evaluated globally as a means to enhance soil fertility and to mitigate climate change. Biochar formed under the proper conditions has remarkable nutrient affinity and enhances the cation exchange capacity of soil, as well as biological processes that lead to improved soil structure, water storage, and soil fertility (Fowles 2007). Charcoal can represent 10–35% of the total SOC and is highly recalcitrant to microbial and chemical decomposition (Skjemstad et al. 2002). Application of biochar has been shown to have many advantages including improvements in soil quality and plant growth (Chan et al. 2007; Chan and Xu 2009; Novak et al. 2009; Steiner et al. 2007).

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Lehmann et al. (2011) examine the state of knowledge on soil populations of archaeans, bacteria, fungi and fauna as well as plant root behaviour as a result of biochar additions to soil. One of the advantages of using biochar as a soil amendment is that C can be locked in the soil for centuries to store and recycle C more efficiently. Enhancing plant–microbe interaction The rhizosphere is a biologically active region of the soil around plant roots that contains soil-borne microbes as well as bacteria and fungi (Singh et al. 2004). In the rhizosphere, root exudation is a key process for C transport into the soil, influencing the role of soil microbial communities in the decomposition. Root exudates have been shown to increase the mass and activity of soil microbes and fauna found in the rhizosphere (Butler et al. 2003). Recently, the role of root-associated microbes in maintaining soil structure (i.e., aggregate stability) has been recognized; for example, microbes have been identified that produce significant quantities of a glycoprotein, glomalin (Wright et al. 1996) which helps in stabilizing soil aggregates), in stable well-structured field and native forest soils Sen (2003). Glomalin is linked with soil carbon storage via its effect on soil aggregate stabilization (Rillig et al. 2002), and it also presents a potentially important soil C pool (Rillig et al. 2002) and plays a key role in soil stability (Wright et al. 1996; Rillig and steinberg 2002; Bedini et al. 2009). Glomalin acts as a soil particle binding agent, similar to mucopolysaccharides produced by soil bacteria, and contribute to the soil C pool in native grassland (Purin et al. 2006). Like rhizospheric bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) also contribute to nutrient storage in soil directly via the formation of mycelia networks, as well as indirectly by affecting the structure of soil (Miller and Jastrow 2000). Agroforestry Agroforestry has become recognized as an integrated approach to sustainable land use because of its production and environmental benefits. The role of trees as an important means to capture and store atmospheric CO2 in vegetation, soils and biomass products are widely acknowledged (Malhi et al. 2008). Agroforestry systems have higher potential to sequester C than pastures and field crops. Consequently, agroforestry became recognized as a C sequestration activity under the afforestation and reforestation approach (Nair and Nair 2003; Makundi and Sathaye 2004; Kirby and Potvin 2007; Haile et al. 2008; Takimoto et al. 2008; Nair et al. 2009). Agroforestry land use systems are extensively practiced in a number of regions around the tropics (Kumar 2006). Lal (2005) discussed the importance of agroforestry, plantations and other land use and management systems which may restore or enhance SOC pool, improve soil quality and reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric concentration of CO2. Grassland and rangelands management It has been reported that grassland management affects SOC content (Garcia-Oliva et al. 2006), and a variety of management options have been proposed to sequester carbon in grassland (Conant et al. 2001; Ogle et al. 2003). Follett and Reed (2010) discussed the importance of grazing lands for sequestering SOC, providing societal benefits, and potential influences on them of emerging policies and legislation. Stoe´cio et al. (2009) studies conducted in Brazilian pastures have shown divergent responses for the SOC

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depending on management practices. They evaluate the effects of management on SOC stocks in grasslands of the Brazilian states of Rondoˆnia and Mato Grosso, and to derive region-specific factors for soil C stock change associated with different management conditions (Stoe´cio et al. 2009). Jones and Donnelly (2004) describes the processes involved in C sequestration in temperate grassland ecosystems and assesses the influences of altered management practices, climate change and increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration on future levels of C sequestration. Bioenergy crops Biofuels, high on the political and scientific agenda, are related to C sequestration in two distinct but interrelated aspects: (i) SCS through restoration of the depleted SOC pool, especially when agriculturally degraded/marginal soils are converted to energy plantations and (ii) recycling of atmospheric CO2 into biomass-based biofuels. With choice of the appropriate species and prudent management, biofuels produced from energy plantations established by dedicated crops (e.g., Jatropha curcas, Salix herbacea, Panicum virgatum, Miscanthus giganteus, Andropogan gerardii and Pennisetum purpureum) can sequester C in soil, offset fossil fuel emissions and reduce the rate of abundance of atmospheric CO2 and other GHGs (Lal 2008). The establishment of the energy plant on such areas not only reduces GHG emissions but also creates opportunities for impoverished farmers and rural labourers. Contrary to other biofuels, the use of J. curcas represents real advantages over conventional biofuel sources such as corn, sugar cane and palm, which to a large extent grow on converted lands (Makkar and Becker 2009; Behera et al. 2010; Srivastava et al. 2011; Abhilash et al. 2011). Restoration of degraded land through bioenergy plants not only offers rural development for rural populations but also has a huge improvement potential by increasing SCS.

Biodiversity and carbon sequestration Biodiversity regulates the ecosystem functioning including the carbon and other biogeochemical cycling Huston et al. (2000). Hence, carbon sequestration in living plants and soils, either through the sustainable management of mature forests or long-term protection of regrowing forests or afforestation programmes in wasteland and other degraded lands, is likely to have an immediate positive effect on CO2 sequestration, plus a positive effect on biodiversity and other ecosystem services (Matthews et al. 2002; Caparro´s and Jacquemont 2003; Huston and Marland 2003; Williams et al. 2008; O’Connor 2008; Diaz et al. 2009; Yousefpour and Hanewinkel 2009; Witta et al. 2011; Ngugi et al. 2011). Plant diversity and its relationship with soil carbon Lower plant diversity could potentially decline the ability of long-lived carbon (C) pools of terrestrial ecosystems to continue to act as C sinks of atmospheric CO2 (Fan et al. 1998; Pacala et al. 2001). Soils are extremely species rich and store 80% of global terrestrial C. Soil organisms play a key role in C dynamics and a loss of species through global changes could influence global C dynamics. They determine the importance of considering soil biodiversity in relation to C cycling in terrestrial ecosystems (Nielsen et al. 2011). Ecosystem functioning is governed largely by soil microbial dynamics, being microbial communities affected by production practices such as management system (Germida and

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Siciliano 2001). Ecosystems with high biodiversity generally sequester more carbon in the soil than those with reduced biodiversity (Lal and Akinremi 1983). Ecosystem C storage is tightly coupled with changes in the soil that occur in response to alterations in above- and belowground productivity, rooting depth and root distribution and changes in the quality and quantity of litter (Catovsky et al. 2002; Nair et al. 2009; Valverde-Barrantes 2007). A variety of hypotheses have been proposed to explain the expected relationship between tree diversity and ecosystem C storage. Diaz et al. (2009) along with Catovsky et al. (2002) stated that biodiversity could affect the rates of C gain or loss, the size of C pool and temporal stability and hence the lifespan or stability of C pools. Results from other mixed-species plantations suggest that the identity of the dominant species plays an important role in determining C gained by the trees (Redondo-Brenes 2007; ValverdeBarrantes 2007). The possibility that mixed-species plantations might increase ecosystem C storage has been often cited as a reason for the promotion of reforestation with native species (Diaz et al. 2009; Piotto et al. 2010; Caspersen and Pacala 2001). Forests are supposed to produce an increased diversity of socially sensitive goods and services, interest in using native species for reforestation and restoration is increasing (Garen et al. 2011). Growing leguminous cover crops enhance biodiversity through the quality of residue input and soil organic pool (Singh et al. 1998; Fullen and Auerswal 1998).

Impact of climate change on SCS Heimann and Reichstein (2008) discussed the role of terrestrial ecosystem carbon dynamics and climate feedbacks. There is a large body of research suggesting that natural ecosystem properties greatly depend on biodiversity and that the functioning of ecosystems is associated with biodiversity (Hooper et al. 2004; Tilman et al. 2005). Pohl et al. (2009) discussed the higher plant diversity enhances soil stability in disturbed alpine ecosystems. They found positive effect of plant diversity on aggregate stability and suggest that high plant diversity is one of the most relevant factors for enhancing soil stability at disturbed sites at high elevation. Due to elevated global temperature, the losses of soil carbon would be prevalent in tropical regions, with large pool of soil OM with a relatively rapid turnover time (cf. McGuire et al. 1995; Trumbore et al. 1996). Field experiments suggest that soil OM increases when plants are grown at high CO2 (Wood et al. 1994; Hungate et al. 1997). We believe, however, that many recent estimates of the global sink for carbon in soils are overly optimistic, because the microbial community in most soils is limited by the availability of organic substrates (Zak et al. 1994). Increased activity of the belowground microbial community was seen in a grassland community in California exposed to elevated CO2 for 3 years (Hungate et al. 1997). Schlesinger and Andrews (2000) believe that in response to global warming, the losses of carbon from soils will be greatest in regions of boreal forest and tundra, which have the largest store of labile OM and the greatest predicted rise in temperature. Large losses of CO2 from these soils could reinforce the greenhouse-warming of Earth’s atmosphere (Woodwell et al. 1995). Cultivation also disrupts soil aggregates, exposing stable adsorbed OM to decomposition (Six et al. 1998). Water limitation may even suppress the effective ecosystem-level response of temperature on soil respiration (Reichstein et al. 2007) conversely, if soil water-holding capacity is low, as in shallow soils, vegetation productivity will be strongly affected by a negative water balance. Hence, under drier conditions, there are predictions of increased SCS by suppression of respiration and of net loss of carbon through decreased productivity (Ciais et al. (2005); Saleska et al. (2003).

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Conclusions From the above considerations, it can be concluded that SCS is desirable, both for its beneficial effects on GHG reduction and climate change, and for its wider environmental and economic implications. In particular, an increase in the levels of SOM is necessary to cover the loss of organic C in agricultural soil. The decrease in SOM content led to the decline of several soil properties that are essential for soil protection and conservation from both the agronomic and environmental points of view. Proper SOM management is also a prerequisite of a sustainable agriculture capable of dealing with the increasing demand of food and the maintenance of the environment. Appropriate SOM management is therefore an essential turning point for the equilibrium of natural systems and the future of the entire human society. For this, countries should unilaterally desire to undertake policies that have beneficial effects on the productivity and long-term sustainability of agricultural production systems. Acknowledgments Authors are thankful to Dr. C. S. Nautiyal, Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow India for providing facilities and support. Thanks are also due to two anonymous reviewers and the guest editors for their valuable suggestions to the previous versions of the manuscript. The funds to carry out this work were received from CSIR, New Delhi under NWP-020.

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