Speech Act Theory, Discourse Structure and Indirect Speech Acts ...

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Speech Act Theory. 1. 1.1 Introduction. 1. 1.2 The Seminal Work of Austin. 2. 1.3 Searle's. Theory of Speech Acts. 3. 1.4 The Formal Theory of Speech Acts. 8.
Speech Act

Theory,

Discourse

Peter

Submitted

in

Accordance

Wilfred

with Doctor

Structure

Hesling

and Indirect

Smith

the Requirements of Philosophy

The University Department of September

Speech Acts

for

the

Degree

of

of Leeds Philosophy 1991

The Candidate that the work submitted confirms has been given where that appropriate credit made to the work of others.

is

his

own work and has been reference

Abstract Speech Act is concerned Theory in the with ways which language be It originated but Austin, can used. with was developed by Searle. The theories Searle of Austin and are described it is to and several If problem areas are identified. be a viable theory of language usage, speech act theory must be to integrate because able with a theory of discourse structure, if it speech acts are identifiable then as units of language, include them in a model must be possible of discourse. The second discourse chapter examines structure, examining two theories: the discourse rival the analysis approach and is broadly Discourse conversational analysis approach. analysis to theory, sympathetic speech act whereas, conversational is The claims analysis not. of conversational analysis are in several to be wanting Speech examined and are found respects. is then Act discussed Theory the a particular with emphasis on larger to each other problem of relating speech acts a within It is noted by including that Austin, the of discourse. unit for the possibility expositive class of speech acts, allows of between description Searle's relations speech acts, whereas of between speech acts effectively rules out any relations speech acts. The third develops in terms chapter speech acts of a schematic model consisting of cognitive states, a presumed The cognitive effect of the speech act and an action. states are represented modal using and deontic operators on the proposition logic. idea description This within epistemic of the of a in terms is developed in Chapter speech act of cognitive states Four. Chapter In Four, speech acts are a related using to pair two speech together communicated cognitive state acts into It is noted the that a primary and secondary speech act. idea the of a primary and secondary speech act is present within discourse form (in the the of analysis model of discourse initiation-response in the cycle of also exchanges) and (in the form to discourse conversational analysis approach of is that from this the two the The conclusion adjacency pair). incompatible first approaches as are perhaps not so might appear. deals types grammatical sentence and with their It also possible use in communicating cognitive states. examines auxiliary and their modal verbs possible relationship to the modal and deontic operators state used in the cognitive model. Six, In Chapter theories of indirect speech acts are described. is developed An explanation of indirect speech acts to and cognitive explain using pragmatic maxims states why indirect forms leads This to a theory certain are chosen. of linguistic and a use model of speech acts. politeness Chapter

Five

Contents

1.

2.

Speech

Act

Theory

1

1.1

Introduction

1.2

The

1.3

Searle's

1.4

The

1.5

Indirect

1.6

A Critique

1.7

Sadock's

1.8

The

1.9

Some Criticisms

1.10

Computational

1

Seminal

Work

Theory

Formal

Speech of

Speech

8

Acts

19

Acts Searle's

Linguistic

Inferential

2.1

Introduction

Theory Approach

Approach of

Models

Speech

Act

Act

Acts

2.2

Linguistic

Acts

25

Theory

27 31

Acts

35

41

Approaches

Computational

2.4

Other

Structure

of

Discourse

Intelligence

Discourse

3.1

Introduction

3.2

Speech Acts

3.3

A Description

of

54

Structure

Approaches

to

56

Structure

The Deconstruction

45

48

Analysis

Artificial

in

Discourse

45

Models

Discourse Issues

to

Analysis

Conversational 2.3

23

Theory

Speech

of

Speech

to

to

Speech

Speech

of

41

Discourse

3.

of

3

Acts

Structure

Discourse

2.5

Speech

of

Theory

2

Austin

of

60

Analysis

Speech Act

Verbs

69

69 79

as Schemas of

Assertive

Speech Acts

87

3.3.1

Claim

87

3.3.2

Assure

88

3.3.3

Argue

90

3.3.4

Inform

91

3.3.5

Conjecture

93

3.3.6

Swear

94

3.4

3.5

Commissive

5.

95

Promise

95

3.4.2

Consent

97

3.4.3

Refuse

98

Directive

Speech Act

Verbs

100

3.5.1

Request

100

3.5.2

Tell

102

3.5.3

Require

104

3.5.4

Permit

105

Declarative

3.7

Evidence

and Expressive Support

to

Child

4.

Verbs

3.4.1

3.6

the

Speech Act Cognitive

Verbs

Thesis

What is

3.9

Formal

the

107

Cognitive

Speech Acts

State

Hypothesis?

110

and Expressives

117

Conclusions

Speech Acts

119

and Discourse

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Cognitive

4.3

Speech Act

4.4

Discourse

4.5

The Thesis

106

in

Language

3.8

3.10

Speech Act

Structure

120

120 States

and

Context

125

Schemas and Logical Pairs

and Cognitive

Schemas

129

States

146

Restated

From Speech Act

to

5.1

Introduction

5.2

The

5.3

Speech Acts

5.4

Modal

152

Utterance

156

156

Four

Basic

Sentence

Types

and Sentential

Structure

and Cognitive

Auxiliaries

159

162

States

166

Will

166

Can

170

May

170

Shall

172

Should,

Ought

173

and Must

5.5

The Logical

and Pragmatic

Use of

5.6

Speech

and Discourse

Markers

5.7

On a Taxonomy

5.8

Summary and Formal

Acts

Generation

for

Modal

Speech Acts Model

of

Auxiliaries

173 177 180

Utterance 181

6.

Speech Acts

Indirect

6.1

Introduction

6.2

Searle's

6.3

A New Theory

185

185 Theory

Indirect

of

6.3.1

Introduction

6.3.2

Indirect

6.3.3

Pragmatic

Speech Acts

Indirect

of

193

Speech Acts

193 Speech Acts Maxims,

and Authority

Politeness

195

and Indirect 196

Speech Acts 6.4

Politeness

and Face

6.5

Strategies

for

197

Indirectness

Based on Cognitive 202

States 6.6

Indirect

6.7

A Schematic

6.8

Summary

Speech Acts Model

of

and Pragmatic the

Speech Act

Maxims "Request"

213 217 224

226

References Appendix

187

1

233

Figures

and Tables

Figure

1.1

The Semantic

Tableau

for

Assertives

13

Figure

1.2

The Semantic

Tableau

for

Commissives

14

Figure

1.3

The Semantic

Tableau

for

Directives

15

Figure

4.1

The Basic

Table

4.1

Conversation

The Structural

for

Action

Relationships

of 137

ASSERT/STATE(P)

Table

4.2

The Structural

for

Relationships

140

SUGGEST(P) Table

4.3

The Structural

for

Relationships

140

FORBID(P) Table

4.4

The

Structural

State

Table

4.5

bel(S

Possible want(S

126

Relationships

P))

the 144

pP)

Hearer do(H

of

Responses

to 144

Acknowledgements

I

started

how long

realising into

be put

it.

I started

out

and only

October

1985,

or how much effort

take

would

in

thesis

with

slowly

have

would

some vague

notions

moved into

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little

Natural

of

area

to

of

speech

took

place

theory.

act

There during from

my work Leeds

Leeds

on the

thesis.

The first

City

to

were

no real

University.

However,

I will

station

University.

problems the

if

be sorry

not

to

develop

to

located

think

I don't

my thoughts

have to

far

from

often

very

so

were

about

away

immediately

proved

journeys

train

me time

allowed

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of

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as

my life

to

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ideas.

at

Doncaster

wait

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second

Christopher, joyous

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exhausted

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and weekends

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and with

much done.

get

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thesis,

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within

of

course

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of

I would

theory.

act

and

my

completion

me through

guiding

speech

for

Ide

to

parts

for

Holdcroft

evenings

of

one single

found

I also

various

the

frequently

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to

to

through

and this thesis.

1988,

December

slept

birth

the

was

threat

home during

it

David

mysterious

life

on the

in

major

never

of

year

my life

place a

Christopher first

in

change

this

event,

thesis. his

major

Polytechnic

there

and

two

were

beneficial,

to

it

Processing

Language

on my Ph. D.

work

more

like

also

me

an

interest

to

me

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to in

politeness.

idea

I

must

thank

of

face

and for

My thanks Leeds

to

University

some aspect and Peter Peter

of

members of

whom I have

with

my thesis.

the

admit Duble

the

some of the

that

I spent

Muzio

Department at

Harry

more time

Gambit

or

at

some stage

Potts,

Timothy

Chinese

examples.

Philosophy

had discussions

I mention:

I must about

explaining

me with

providing

various

Millican.

Millican

Sim for

my wife

the

on

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talking

to

Marshall

Attack. I University,

acknowledge who also

with provided

thanks

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me with

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in

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stages

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up with

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of

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financial

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acknowledge

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my wife

(as well

thesis.

forebearance

Saturday

on Friday, the

and

be

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week)

word processor.

I must

whom

grudgingly

Polytechnic

evenings

Finally, to

I also

like

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Sunday

upstairs

there.

of

course

immense it

a gentleman.

thank

debt

an honour

of to

my supervisor

What

gratitude. know

David

and

to

have

Holdcroft

can worked

I

say? with

-1-

1.

Speech

1.1

Act

Introduction

The exactly as

Theory

a speech

a theory

that been

used

use

language,

within

problems

that

developed

by

cognitive

level.

the

of

that

manner

theory

remainder

and

in.

Chapter as is

speech

act

may be

included

an

looks

at

Harnish

and

particular theories

of

of

is

the in

at

have

that

discourse.

(Bach

claim

Chapter

attention

to

the

linguistic

politeness.

and use

acts Harnish of

thrown

and

Artificial

a by

theory

act

describes Chapter Six

might

acts

Five

indirect

be

what

the acts

extends

this

to

pragmatic 1979).

fit

speech

attempts

using

up

may

of how

act

into

research

description

Four

been

of

of

speech

By

held

speech

how speech

indirect

is

am assuming

traditional

of

forms.

a

1979).

an exploration

surface

at

a non-rule-like

is

of

particular

view

how speech

a model

to

out

theory. I

a description

Chapter

set

some detail

Linguistics

a kind

provide

in

includes

form"

acts

acts

which

describing. in

in

several

speech

achieved

problems

particularly

recently

speech

will

theory,

rejecting

One looks

Two

to

comprehensive

is

has

paying

a

(Dreyfus

the

of

a "logical

explanation

Bach

some

Three

represented

it"

do Chapter

of

Structure

and

just

Chapter

Discourse

exists,

theory

to

I

explored

act

ways

up

sufficient

also

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more

of

be

speech

understanding

research

Intelligence.

in

acts

act

thesis,

what

originated

thrown

framework,

will

to

explain

view

this

and

that

a level

outlines

recent

In

to

and

longer

no

structure

approach

"we

is

Theory

has

use

explore

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speech

traditional

a wider

speech

language

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linguistics

use.

One issue

such

of

in

the

within

indirect

that

or The

idea

acts

a cognitive

Dreyfus

by

language

Speech

wider

Searle

discourse

to

that

that

be.

then

This

be to

will

since

context

and

of

attention

priori

but

indicate

speech

taking

should

models.

Austin

thesis

Philosophy

a wider

an explanation

role

or

the

computational

explore

is

act

this

of

within

we can

in

direction

main

It speech

provide

maxims also acts

as pays in

-2-

1.2

The Seminal

Speech his

Act

William

(Austin

1962).

Austin

fact

of

all

to

described

also

... at

are

uttering

of

op. cit.

was

and

he

that

stated

they

are

things

that

described

and

on

utterances

with

to

He

analysed

to

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Although

for

utterances,

happy

entirely

both

utterances

I

But here; in

the

other

(Austin

op.

sense

who have

Austin all

analysed

in

wrong

Having

made

to term he

anything the

doing

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of

of

described

as

entailments.

about

utterances

performative

and

is

there

at

least

there

is

has

often

a very

he was

ought,

performative

say that

Austin

presupposition.

and

I

cut

constative

involving

to

he

performative

constative

entails

the

of

clear

of

and

that

notion

wrong

utterances

made

want

two

apparently

'implications'

entailment

go

performatives,

performative

I promise

type doctrine

This

this

ship...,

Additionally

this

of

implicature of

name this

with

performative

have

that

I

as

discoveries

the

not

constative

parallel

any close

parallel

cases... p. 54).

cit.

unease to

here

extend

his

could

some detail

nature

overlooked

a specific

be verified the

been

by

many

ideas.

by identifying

started

statements

a

However

performative.

go

with

attempted

the

which]

be

such

the

example,

of

fact.

[for

normally

and

sort

some

do not only

Austin's

do

entailment,

saw

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'unhappy'.

as

compare 'certain

respect

of

constate

utterances

constative

with

utterances'.

that

view

a desire

a part

utterance

infelicities.

then

not

performative

be

between

went

of

'false'

distinction

the

because

and

is

or

utterances

so much can

as

is,

to

class

when

not

1955

p. 3)

this

called

in

He believed

of

or

and 'false'

would

here

referring

University

statements.

'report'

or

'true'

which

(Austin

in

which

a sentence

something.

summarised

some way.

statements

'describe'

action

in

had arisen

as verifiable

saying

He

by examining

problems

not

Harvard

at

be verifiable

to

statements

all

an

presented

straightforward

do not

J. L. Austin,

with

started

ought

utterances

"constative"

not

originated

many philosophical

treat

he

Theory

Austin

James Lectures

statement that

Work of

as true of

problem or

performative

false.

viz. He

statements,

that then but

-3-

then

to

attempted

types

of

loose all

dimension,

and he argued

1.3

Searle's

Theory

key

A Searle,

the

developing His

and from

differs

Searle

Holdcroft emphasis

illocutionary

(1978).

A

speech

The

act.

type

particular term

by

force

to

those

get

the

suggestion

would

carry

a stronger

force.

speaker

the of

central

plank

illocutionary

has

been

fit.

Searle

directions i)

of

fit

in

Word-to-World, state

fact

exhibits

World-to-Word, propositional

der

These the

where of

content

"four

in

the of

the of

the in

different

meaning

gradation directive

of

a

of

a

as by

the

then

action,

a

carry

would force formal

his

a

as

theory

1985). individual

with

notion

that

direction

of and

of four"

only

are:

direction

where

and

Another idea

the

fits

utterance

affairs

this

Veken

force.

are

to

the

concerned

is

about

illocutionary in

was more

there

language.

Austin and

a command

of

Van

theory

that

work

attempts

an

whereas

illocutionary

Searle's

maintains

existing

ii)

with

Searle

discussed

of

are

particularly

hand

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is

force

out

idea

and

is

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we accept

carry

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(Searle other

by

promoted

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theory,

less

and

acts

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on the

acts

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force

for

approach

a form

if

used

of

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Thus

veak

by

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firstly

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on the

act.

a

are

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act

to

area

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a speech

hearer

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somewhat

was

Searle

Searle

logic

Austin, speech

of

which

(1985).

distinction

and

was

illocutionary

acts.

speech

describe

to

was a

responsible

respects:

instead

second

Austin

of

and

an utterance.

this

Veken

Searle

preferring

placed

was required

in

locutionary,

of

description

in

several

whereas

distinction,

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or unhappiness

problems

form

the

der

Van

and in

acts,

and

works

between

perlocutionary

into

important

Austin's

distinguished

of

that

dimension

who was primarily

theory

act

most

(1969,1979)

questions

Austin,

of

speech

known.

these

to

pupil

forces

many

He concluded

what

all

Speech Acts

of

response

that

to

way

had left

a truth/falsehood

illocutionary

of

book,

had a happiness

meaning; range

his

questions.

unanswered

force,

the

a more general

end of

an illocutionary

a locutionary of

of

in

he had examined

that

utterances

the

at

and,

and a lot

strands

study

relate

statements

ideas

these

world the

an

world.

independently

A statement

of

fit

the

fit. is

illocution.

altered

to

An example

of

-4-

such

an act

be

would

a directive

speech

act,

such

world

is

as

an

order. iii)

The

double

to

fit

the

being

The

According

to

we

dimensional

plain

are,

Searle

the

possibility When

I

direction speech

any

Austin

is

I

of

world.

those

where examples

is

is

which

denies

this

that to

speech

point the

Austin's it

of of

view

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likely

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language

of for

necessary

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the

with

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out

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two-

a

then

uttered, however

alien

point

in

purely

words

likely

totally

plain

and

provide

lies

of

most

shall

two-dimensional

a

feelings)

relationships

issue

taken

(i. e.

and

my criticisms

as

have

name

no question

acts

possibilities,

something

Indeed

would

world

is

is word

language

referential

What

fit

acts.

into

other

summarise

of

I

fit.

that

view

no

further.

explored

by

utterance

between

his of

the

argues,

fit

expressing

between

of

altered

example:

there

expressive

direction the

accept

For

Where

of

Searle

is

speaker null

the

of

altered.

fit.

of

success

the

content so

the

when

SS Titanic".

achieving

of

items.

as

direction

null

the

If

propositional

the

ship

is

fit

of

represented

this iv)

direction

Searle's

theory. Searle

different to

types

is

point The

in

one

for

component

of

then been

of

fit

of

language

whole

direction

The

falls have

in

his

idea

whole

described

rests

on the as

of

the

point

of

is

taxonomy

able

illocutionary

The

act.

Searle's

of an act

of

of is

act

fit

of

theory.

a to

particular tell

people to

point

between to

central

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a priori

of

He was

illocutionary

the

falls

be

a

The

the

whole

between fit

falls

direction

two-dimensional

of words

apart

possibilities of

notion

and if

it

the can

it

if

theory,

four

the

and

words

Searle's

apart.

assumption

a relationship

direction

the

force.

fit

above.

of

an assertive

direction

of

type

purpose

considers

the

(1979).

Searle

components

illocutionary

the

Differences

the

of

is

Searle

between

differences:

important

most

the

example, are.

world.

point

point

how things

2.

the

of

illocutionary

type,

the

differences

the

acts

important

twelve

Differences

describe

illocutionary

of

distinguish

1.

to

attempted

view

world. be

shown

The that

-5-

locutions

sometimes

serve

some purpose

than

other

to

the

to

relate

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-50-

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-51-

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p. 21)

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-56-

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-59-

by Dreyfus

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1978). has

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-60-

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-78-

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-79-

3.2

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-80-

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4.2

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6.

Indirect

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acts

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authority. of

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missing

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additional

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act.

or

-194-

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authority

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kill

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-196-

6.3.3.

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-197-

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-198-

The

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-199-

definition

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-200-

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arises

(71)

for

is

possible

to

form

of

of possible

has

I don't could

person

the

speaker

form

of

this

using

not

emphasise

want

are

assert

with the

is

type

being

the

of

somewhat

seems

very

making

the

gives

some

itself.

act

indirection For

used.

else

nobody

I varies

example

with

the

idea

to

that

will. In

request/ask/tell.

hearer

to

and

say:

precondition

hearer

point

case

when

appears

to

case:

beliefs.

their

do P then

you don't

the

the

that

precondition

the

act,

room,

as an indirect

reasons

which

(the the

act

indirection

the

choice that

in

to

indirect

also

impression

sincere

the

the

If

consequences is

very

speech

room.

much to

very

the

second

precondition suggest

are

the

the

the

of

directive

the

The analogous

giving

utterance

leave

you to

politeness.

intense,

in

effect

you leave

that

forms

these

of

lacking

as

be clearer

couldn't

(68)

Both

desired

the

expressing

be

this

draw

to

case

doing

P.

When making

the

desire

the

speaker

does

that

you have

to

to

the

a request

it

attention

hearer

the

give not

to

want

a say

do P), e. g.

you to

you possibly

think do P.

to

do

it

but,

-224-

here

the

and does

not

Other

this

that

speech

there

act

you

little

There

is

emphasising

:_or

to

(Maltby

and Boulblil

asking

for,

cases the

to

the

fact

found

for

he

believing

him.

every

speech

almost

be

to

appears

accepts

one

that

is

requested/asserted

I gave

an

example

of

was known what

reason

why the

speaker

I have

attempted

to

the

precondition.

what

it

where

P,

saw a UFO.

that

hearer

emphasise

hearer.

1989)

but

be

just

I

the the

of

where

do

to

indirection:

of

me but

indirection

wants

also

known

already

believe

reason

are

forms

won't

can

hearer

ask the

any pressure.

likelihood

particularly

to

similar

indirection

of The

speaker

yield

speaker

is

verb.

him under

put

know

the

types

he has no right

acts

I

case

Similar

to

want

(Assert) In

feels

speaker

is

plead/beg

the

speaker

was pleading

was

was

not

known.

6.8

Summary

In

this

indirect

speech

consisted form

section,

of

of

beliefs

or

deontic

to

of

example not

speaker

of

him and is

the

most

which

also

will

enable

appropriate

include

imposed

determine

(to

will

for

prepared

happen

the

speech

speaker form

surface

upon him by a set

considerations

of

or

those in

about a set

of

some extent)

the

hearer.

For

the

hearer

the

may

that

of

uttering

a particular

is

associated

deliver

the

act to

is

effect,

as a result

the

by modal

this. a presumed

contains

speaker

include

from

their

of

things:

knows that

speaker

the

have thought they

receive

in

preconditions

two

express

Secondly, to

act

the

of

act.

the

Additionally,

constraints plans

act

hopes

act.

plans,

they

set

know or to

speaker

an assertive,

with

believe

speech

that

response

The speech the

the

a

also

of

speech

terms

may be modified

to

needs speech

in

assertive,

an

that

states)

speaker

enable

are

a

problem

an action

express

belief

P. This

There

make a given that

states sort

in

belief

the

to

wants

of

contained

which

the

with

description

Hence when making

cognitive

that

plan

speaker

operators.

(presupposed

order

the

wants.

his

expresses

things

a schematic

what

final

The

acts.

deal

by of

maintaining

operating pragmatic face,

with

speech

what

a set in

act

within

the

maxims.

These

the

authority

-225-

between

relationship between

the

the

of

type This

meaning

an

extension

plan

as

act

of

base

the

of

to

recognise

in This

speech

of

an explanation

describes

community.

model

distance

speaker

as

works

it

as

social

act.

a whole

language

the

and the

enable

speech

verb

a particular

act

some

its

detail

may be

the

considered produced

generation

Five.

This

theory

conversational

not

discourse

particular

act I

theories analysis,

is

to

believe of

dissolves

only

analysis

of

explanation

the

a speech

Chapter

Finally,

to

response

of

within

those

The same plans

schematic

use

in

two.

and hearer

speaker

linguistic

(at

the

but

it

be performed

within

this

is

that

work

politeness.

appropriate

a

level)

describes

also

of

between

distinction

the

language

some

importance

and how

a

community. as

an

-226-

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A. (1987).

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1983,7,

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J. (1983).

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Pragmatics

Winograd

Comprehension.

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Wilensky

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Goal-Based Yale

University

Understanding New Jersey.

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Research

1978. Computers

and

-233-

Appendix

I

The

material incomplete,

considered idea

of

speech into

extended dependent

a very

a

telephone

The

starts

to

specified

as

Four it

of

those

been

only

Form,

commonly

rang

you earlier

achieved

dialogue

used

of

response discourse

a proposed

Coulthard.

and

free

a context

in

markers

Sinclair

of

be

heavily

initiation

the

the

can

is

a recorded

with

a description

lines

Backus-Naur

using

(Chomsky to

specify

but

you

Type

2)

computer

languages.

programming

Dialogue

Sample

[1]

is

has

be

how

discourse

this

and

It

demonstrate Chapter

of

best

at

However,

indicating

similar is

grammar

grammar,

pairs

level.

section

along

grammar,

in

analysis

act

must

to

discourse.

conversation, next

appendix

described

for

speech

the

an attempt

detailed

a

rudimantary

The

pairs.

is

pairings

a structure

with

at

it

act

upon

conjunction

in

contained

I

there,

Hello

A:

Possibly

- Report:

[Initiationl

to

explain

reason

for

were not

out.

ringing

earlier]

[2]

B:

D's

mum's.

two.

[12]

[3]

A:

I went

[4]

[5]

[Unexpected

Oh,

and I'll

do coffee

[6]

B:

Itchee

[7]

A:

Insteada

[8]

B: Alright.

I'm

a good hour

well

content]

V's Not -

up about

ringing

tomorrow

V's

in

have been at and a half

to

[re-orientation]

[13]

alright?

[R3]

Yes fine

we've

been

I must

[R2]

then

shopping

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propositional

B: How uz things,

A:

propositional

[Responsel]

Oh [Unexpected

content]

morning.

[Meta-speech

[Meta-speech

[R4 - accept

act

tomorrow

[14+]

act

- clarification]

- clarify]

commissive]

actually

[I4]

-234-

[9]

A:

of

supplementary

me to

Coz there's

do it.

material]

B:

Yes

[11]

A:

Yes she's

[12]

B: Oh that's

A:

[R4+]

For

V's

fine

She's

good.

awhile

B:

Yes,

[15]

A:

Yes

[Acknowledge

[16]

B:

And

we're

[18]

[Marker

So

- additional]

it'll

for

went

his

be an opportunity

for

for

me,

X-Rays

sick

summary]

[Repair]

so...

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D

[R6]

on Friday.

for

the

[R5]

night

[IR5

alright.

for his

[I5]

down last

- marker

waiting

on Monday

she?

came with

-M

[14]

he

is

I popped

[16]

[17]

I thought

alright

anyway?

doctor's

[14++

[I4+++]

[10]

[13]

no bag meeting

R6+]

now he has

results,

to

go to

the

[R6+/17]

note.

A: Mm? [R7]

information

So [Supplementary

B:

marker]

how

see

we'll

he

[17+]

gets

on

[19]

A: And is

[20]

B: Yes his

[21]

A:

Oh that's

[22]

B:

Yes

[23]

A: Yes

up on the

[24]

B:

him.

[R10]

[18]

he any better?

back

has been much better

good

[IR8

- expressive]

[R8]

two days.

last

the

The pain's

gone?

[19]

[R9]

[Self

X-rays,

No we'll

You know whether

orientation] or

just

not?

have

anything

will

show

[I10]

to

wait

and

see

But

it's

better

with

-235-

[25]

A: Muscles

[26]

B: Could

A Structure

in

used

(BNF) used

to

this

first

2 (context

free)

it

possible

discourse.

which

has

then

be

roughly

of

a set

it

least

at

not

to

as simple

one

exchange.

a it

as is

structure

exchanges:

upon

forward

put

quite the

of

a means of Based

grammar.

of

the

A

the

its

head a marker

transaction The exchange

conversation.

initiation-response

the has at

has the

in

a topic

heart

exchange

hence

is

level

top

with

its

at

preliminary topic,

the

consists

must

corresponds

it

BNF is

En)

there

where

is

However

At

(E2E3...

Ep

cycle

Backus-Naur

upon

languages.

a Chomsky type

appears.

transaction

based

computer

for

structure

is

section

represent

initiation-response

the

[R11]

Discourse

notation

representing

[Ill]

really.

have been yes

for

The Form

I think

to

pairing.

The

introduce

the

form:

itself

Then a response

body

with

of

consists an optional

an initiation

body

by

followed

comment body.

() body

Initiation set

consists with

elaborations

of

of

an optional

by an

followed

an initiation

terminator. ()*





optional

() is

itself

Initiation Chapter

Four)

Elaboration

:: = primary

speech

by a connective

terminator

of that

The

response

act.

:: = the

speech

act

when the

speaker

Each elaboration hence

marker,



indicates

occurs

normally

primary

act

speech

a primary

:



the

simply

in

(defined

we have



initiation

he has finished

sequence and is

may be connected

section the

after

on

continues

structure:

primary occurs expecting

when

The

act

speech the

speaker

a response.

primary :. = body is quite complex and may consist

speech of

a

act meta-

-236-

section,

a response

Finally the

it

with

or without

may or may not

a preceding

be followed

response

marker.

by an initiation

body

from

hearer.

:. _

I



The

and

is

meta-section

consists

followed

two meta-speech

of

by a normal



in

earlier

:: = secondary consists

discourse

the

be represented

:: = By the is

only

marker

then

defined

(

act

must

By the

of

way is

which

is

the

serves

to

attach

sensistive

here

because

and hence

the

can only

grammar. )

introducing

ways of

recognized one example. speech

act

of

the

initiator

an expressive

normally

:: = andibut

be typed

to

grammar

as follows:

:: = expressive allows

down

free

wayl...

set

a small

to

exchange

finish

speech

act.

another,

it

may

find

is

... to

one sequence

be

absent.

marker may be

:. = Sol ... that

I

have

been

able

to

others.

:. _

I



I

the

-237-



:: = ohi...



The dialogue be thought

to

various

and

act

How uz

B:

Yes

the

meant

respect

to

is

just

the

occurs

there

when

an

Coz

extended,

marks

although

they

where

to

want

but

sometimes, end

the

using

not

marker

material: no bag

there's it'll

be

an

indicate

that

something

me

So

[Marker]

to

do

do coffee

tomorrow

- Not

needs

I it.

part

and

clarifying: [Initiation]

actually

and

[Elaboration]

morning. for

clarification

act

Clarify] -

what

Schiffrin

[Request

V's?

initiation

the

after

tomorrow

up about

ringing

Itchee

for

opportunity

immediately

occcur

I'm

[Initiation].

meeting.

material]

sections

B:

exchange

may be

[Supplementary

I'll

not

alright?

speaker

thought

A:

of

things,

supplementary

usually

with

is

markers.

form

sections

Meta

particularly

it

fine.

Initiation

A:

be an outline,

a response:

A:

always

to

meant

as exhaustive

simplest

initiation

of

of

non-speech The

is

structure

:. = wellt...

- Meta-speech

act] A:

[Response]

B: Alright. for

markers information

expected

I rang

B:

Oh

that

pattern. acts

as responses.

we've

been

I in

the

must

you were have

a good

hour

(1987)

response as a

and

follow

does not

means

decoding

of

[Initiation]

out.

been

calls

propositional

an unexpected

may serve

but

you earlier

[Orientation]

But

indicate This

speech

A:

indicate

often

They may also

indirect

and

orientation management

content. the

[Meta-speech

V's.

Insteada

at

D's

a half

[Response]

mum's. to

two.

[Initiation].

A:

Oh

shopping

[Orientation] then.

well

[Information

management]

I

went