TECHNICKÁ UNIVERZITA V LIBERCI
Spoken and Written Academic Discourse
Gladice Hughes Ivana Pekařová Věra Bitljanová Lucie Příšovská Liberec 2012
recenzent: doc. PhDr. Lucie Betáková, M.A., Ph.D. © Gladice Hughes, MSc, PhDr. Ivana Pekařová, M.A., Mgr. Věra Bitljanová, M.Ed., Mgr. Lucie Příšovská ‐ 2012
ISBN 978‐80‐7372‐900‐4
Contents:
I. Job Search and Application Support Documents ................................................ 2 1. CV/Resume .................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 CV Structure and Contents ............................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Personal Details ............................................................................................ 2 1.1.2 Profile (Optional) .......................................................................................... 2 1.1.3 Work/Professional Experience ................................................................ 3 1.1.4 Education ........................................................................................................ 3 1.1.5 Personal Skills and Competences .......................................................... 3 1.1.6 Additional Information ............................................................................... 3 1.1.7 Referee (Optional) ....................................................................................... 3 1.1.8 Date and Signature ..................................................................................... 3 1.2 CV Writing Tips ...................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Example CV and Useful Language .................................................................. 4 2. Cover Letter .................................................................................................................. 7 2.1 Cover Letter Example (Response to a Job Posting) ................................ 7 2.2 Cover Letter Structure and Useful Language ............................................. 8 2.2.1 Contact Information ................................................................................... 8 3. Reference Letter ......................................................................................................... 11 3.1 Reference Letter Example ................................................................................ 11 3.2 Reference Letter Structure and Useful Language ................................... 12 3.2.1 Salutation and Addressing ...................................................................... 12 3.2.2 Connection to the Person ........................................................................ 12 3.2.3 Relevant Information about the Person ............................................. 12 3.2.4 Closing ............................................................................................................ 13 II. Writing Business Documents ................................................................................... 15 1. Elementary Etiquette Rules for Business Writing .......................................... 15 1.1 Rule 1. ...................................................................................................................... 15 1.2 Rule 2. ...................................................................................................................... 16 1.3 Rule 3. ...................................................................................................................... 16 1.4 Rule 4. ...................................................................................................................... 16 1.5 Rule 5. ...................................................................................................................... 16 2. Structuring Your Communication ........................................................................ 18 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 18 2.2 Details....................................................................................................................... 18 2.3 Response/Action ................................................................................................... 18 2.4 Close ......................................................................................................................... 18 3. Deadly Sins in Business Documents................................................................... 19 4. Fundamental Parts and the Layout of Business Documents in English20 5. Types of Correspondence ...................................................................................... 26 5.1 An Invitation of a Keynote Speaker/Conference Participant ............. 26 5.2 Request for a Price Quote ................................................................................ 27 5.3 Placing an Order (or Complaining about Delivery) ................................ 28 5.4 Offer of a Study Opportunity .......................................................................... 29 5.5 Request for Software Training ....................................................................... 30 i
III. Writing Effective Grant Proposals ........................................................................ 32 1. How to Prepare for Writing a Grant Proposal ................................................ 32 2. Filling in Personal Details and Information about Institutions Involved ............................................................................................................................................... 35 2.1 Personal Information ......................................................................................... 35 2. 2 Details about the Institution ......................................................................... 36 3. Project Narrative ....................................................................................................... 37 3.1 Structuring, Formulating and Formatting the Proposal Narrative .... 38 3.2 Objectives and Methods ................................................................................... 39 3.3 Dissemination ....................................................................................................... 40 3.4 Evaluation ............................................................................................................... 41 4. Wrapping It All up ..................................................................................................... 42 IV. A Journey to Successful Presentations .............................................................. 44 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 44 2. Preparing a Presentation ........................................................................................ 45 2.1 Planning Your Presentation ............................................................................. 45 2.2 Structuring Your Presentation ........................................................................ 48 2.2.1 Getting Started ........................................................................................... 48 2.2.2 Linking the Parts ........................................................................................ 50 2.2.3 Finishing off .................................................................................................. 53 3. Delivering a Presentation ....................................................................................... 55 3.1 Meeting the Audience ........................................................................................ 55 3.2 Language ................................................................................................................ 56 3.3 Non-Verbal Communication ............................................................................ 57 3.3.1 Voice ............................................................................................................... 57 3.3.2 Body Language and Eye Contact ......................................................... 58 3.4 Presentation Techniques .................................................................................. 58 3.4.1 Using Visuals ............................................................................................... 58 3.4.2 Powerful Techniques ................................................................................. 59 3.5 Handling Questions ............................................................................................ 60 4. Last Word ...................................................................................................................... 61 V. Teaching in English ..................................................................................................... 63 1. Guidelines .................................................................................................................... 63 2. Useful Language Expressions ............................................................................... 64 VI. Academic Writing ........................................................................................................ 72 1. Pre-Writing Techniques .......................................................................................... 72 1.1 Generating Ideas ................................................................................................. 72 1.2 Freewriting ............................................................................................................. 72 1.3 Brainstorming ....................................................................................................... 73 1.4 Clustering ............................................................................................................... 73 1.5 WH-Questions ....................................................................................................... 73 1.6 Cubing ..................................................................................................................... 74 2. Critical Reading .......................................................................................................... 75 2.1 Determining Main Claims ................................................................................. 76 2.2 Examining Evidence ........................................................................................... 76 ii
2.3 Evaluating Arguments ....................................................................................... 77 2.4 Practical Guidelines ............................................................................................ 77 2.5 Annotating ............................................................................................................. 78 2.6 Taking Notes ......................................................................................................... 79 2.6.1 Know What Kind of Ideas You Need to Record .............................. 79 2.6.2 Do Not Write Down Too Much ............................................................... 80 2.6.3 Label Your Notes Intelligently ............................................................... 80 2.7 Outlining .................................................................................................................. 81 3. Managing Source Material ..................................................................................... 83 3.1 Quoting ................................................................................................................... 84 3.2 Paraphrasing ......................................................................................................... 84 3.3 Summarizing ......................................................................................................... 85 3.4 Synthesizing .......................................................................................................... 87 3.5 Avoiding Plagiarism ............................................................................................ 89 4. Citing Sources ............................................................................................................ 92 5. Paragraphs ................................................................................................................... 93 6. Essays ............................................................................................................................ 97 6.1 Structuring the Essay ........................................................................................ 97 6.2 What Is a Thesis Statement? ......................................................................... 97 6.2.1 Introduction & Conclusion ...................................................................... 99 6.2.2 Body ............................................................................................................... 101 6.3 Essay Types .......................................................................................................... 102 6.3.1 Expository .................................................................................................... 102 6.3.2 Process Analysis ....................................................................................... 104 6.3.3 Cause & Effect ............................................................................................ 105 6.3.4 Classification ............................................................................................... 107 6.3.5 Argumentation .......................................................................................... 108 7. Drafting, Revising, Editing & Proofreading ..................................................... 111 7.1 Stages of Writing ................................................................................................ 111 7.2 Distinguish between Revising, Editing, and Proofreading .................. 111 7.3 What Is Involved in Revising Drafts? ......................................................... 113 7.4 Editing & Proofreading ..................................................................................... 114 VII. Grammatical Issues and Mechanics of Writing ............................................ 117 1. Grammatical Issues ................................................................................................ 117 1.1 Sentence Structures and Word Order ........................................................ 117 1.2 Noun, Adjective and Adverbial Clauses ..................................................... 119 1.3 Reduced Adjective and Adverbial Clauses ............................................... 120 1.4 Subject – Verb Agreement (S-V Agreement) .......................................... 121 1.5 Articles ................................................................................................................... 123 1.6 Passive Voice ....................................................................................................... 124 1.7 Tenses .................................................................................................................... 125 1.8 Gerund, Participle and Infinitive .................................................................. 126 2. Mechanics of Writing .............................................................................................. 127 2.1 Punctuation ........................................................................................................... 127 2.2 Capitalization ....................................................................................................... 130 iii
2.3 Comparisons ........................................................................................................ 131 2.4 Correlative Conjunctions ................................................................................. 132 2.5 Transitional Phrases .......................................................................................... 133 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 1 Printed Materials ................................................................................................................ 1 Digital Sources in Chapter I. ....................................................................................... 3 Digital Sources in Chapter II. ...................................................................................... 3 Digital Sources in Chapter III. .................................................................................... 3 Digital Sources in Chapter IV. ..................................................................................... 4 Digital Sources in Chapter V. ...................................................................................... 4 Digital Source in Chapter VI. ....................................................................................... 4 Digital Sources in Chapter VII. ................................................................................... 6
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Foreword The purpose of this handbook is to provide useful and practical guidelines, models, and practice activities for English language learners at all levels of proficiency to draw on when they are working to complete particular writing tasks and/or preparing to present orally in English. An important aim during its development was to condense or “boil down” the material presented here to include only the most essential aspects while eliminating all the elements that were not of direct and immediate relevance. In so doing, the content is made available to the reader in an easily accessible manner while also providing an abundance of links to further explanations, examples and exercises designed to support the learning process. The content areas included here have been deliberately organized in an order from the most commonly required and applied items to those which are the most specialized. Therefore, chapters about writing emails, for instance, placing orders and making complaints, will be found closer to the beginning of the handbook as will those for writing CVs and cover letters. However, the chapters covering components of academic writing, for example, which are more frequently utilized by those working on dissertations or academic articles, will be found towards the end of this book. It is also important to point out that the contributors to this practical guidebook do not have identical language backgrounds. Out of the four composers of its contents, the majority are not native speakers of English. In fact, only one of the authors can make such a claim; she is from the USA though a long‐term permanent resident of the Czech Republic. The other three are of Czech origin with British being the predominant English that has shaped their command of the language. Due to these language background variations, it is expected that a combination of North American and British English will be represented in the following pages. Moreover, allowing for both Englishes to coexist in this publication was a conscious decision emphasizing an impartial view where varieties of mother tongues are concerned. After all, diversity is the spice of life. We hope you not only enjoy the flavors awaiting you but also that your writing and speaking skills will be spiced up in the process.
I. Job Search and Application Support Documents
Věra Bitljanová In this chapter we will focus on the most important documents a personnel file should consist of. There are several reasons why proper record keeping is important. Above all it proves extremely useful to have accurate information handy and organized in cases when we encounter the need to produce it. One by one, advice will be provided below on compiling a CV/resume, on structuring a cover letter and on formulating a reference letter.
1. CV/Resume CV (curriculum vitae) and resume are both expressions used for the document the purpose of which is first, to attract an employer’s interest, and second to provide an employer with brief and relevant information about one concrete person, his/her skills, education, experience and interests. Therefore it must be structured, clear, easy to follow, truthful, and in good English. In this part you will learn about the contents of a structured CV together with useful tips for writing, study useful language and examples, and finally you can complete your own document.
1.1 CV Structure and Contents 1.1.1 Personal Details At the top of your CV/resume write the following information: Name Permanent address Telephone number Email Nationality Date of birth
1.1.2 Profile (Optional) Provide a brief summary of your experience, skills at work, creativity, your ability to work in a team and to solve problems, etc. Describe your personal qualities in general. Tips! Present yourself in a way that will attract the employer’s attention. Do not use examples or details. Do not use “I” form.
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1.1.3 Work/Professional Experience List the dates, the name of the company and its location. Describe your responsibilities and your achievements for each job you did. List important conferences you have participated in (year, name of the conference, place, title of your presentation) if it is relevant. List your major publications (name/s, title, publisher, year, ISSN / ISBN) if it is relevant. Tips! Write this part in reverse chronological order, i.e. your recent/latest experience goes first. When listing your responsibilities choose only one verb form, i.e. either managed or managing.
1.1.4 Education List the dates/years of study. Write the name and address of the university/secondary school and of the degree(s) completed. Describe major projects and training courses you have participated in. Tips! Write this part in reverse chronological order. Write your highest qualification first. Explain correctly degree/s and qualification/s that are non‐English. If you are still a student, put this part before your work experience.
1.1.5 Personal Skills and Competences In this part present all skills and any other qualification, for instance, computing skills, language skills, driving licence etc. Tips! Describe your level of foreign languages. For instance, for foreign languages use CEFR scale (for the scale see Chapter III or Bibliography). If you have certificates, mention them. For instance, IELTS B2 (2011), FCE B1 (2010) for English, or any other certificates for other languages.
1.1.6 Additional Information It is not necessary to include this part in your CV. However, the information about your interests can help the employer to learn about your personality. Tips! Do not make this part too detailed and write only things that may be relevant for the job you are applying for.
1.1.7 Referee (Optional) (a person who gives information about your character and ability, usually in a letter) It is not necessary to include this part in your CV, if it is not requested. If requested, use the maximum of three or four referees. Provide the details concerning the institution or company, and the manager/s of your former jobs.
1.1.8 Date and Signature Write the date and your name. If your CV is not sent electronically, sign its hard copy. Tip! With the exception of PhD, academic titles are not used in CVs written in English.
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1.2 CV Writing Tips Remember! Your CV should not be too long; no more than two pages. All the parts of your CV should be clearly presented. Your CV should look attractive and easy to read. Write short sentences. Use bold for important words. Use bullet points for lists. Correct spelling and grammar are crucial; therefore, have your CV checked by another person. Avoid negative descriptions; you want to get the job/position, not to discourage the employer from employing you. Choose the Appropriate Type of CV! Chronological CV is the most common format for CV. Your work experience needs to be presented in reverse chronological order, i.e. from the most recent job to the most former one. For an example of a chronological professional CV go to: http://jobsearch.about.com/library/samples/blresumechronolog.htm Targeted CV focuses on a specialized job. Therefore in this type of CV you should eliminate all the qualifications which are not relevant or necessary for the job you are applying for. For an example of a targeted CV go to: http://jobsearch.about.com/library/samples/blhrresume.htm
1.3 Example CV and Useful Language Přemysl Všechnozná Any street and number Liberec, Czech Republic Tel. 123456789 (office) 987654321 (mobile)
[email protected] Nationality: Czech (optional) Date of birth: March 15, 1975 (optional) Profile Energetic and motivating leader with proven ability to effectively manage both personnel and projects. Self starter and strong independent worker. Excellent at analysing products and procedures to generate new ideas to improve efficiency and production quality. Highly adaptable to ever changing circumstances. Key member in any team developing and executing strategic business plans. Work/Professional Experience 2006–present Microsoft, Silicon Valley, US – Software testing Manager Managed daily operations of... Developed an effective marketing campaign and restructured ...resulting in... Implemented new ...process... Provided feedback as to efficiency of ... with regards to... Trained and supervised work teams in more efficient... 2000–2006 Technical University of Liberec, the Czech Republic senior lecturer teaching (any subject) 4
tutoring student research (research area/s) designing course/ study programme (name of the course/ study programme) research team leading (focus of the research) tutoring diploma theses/PhD dissertations (other positions: researcher, lecturer, technician, head of department, deputy head of department, project manager, secretary, etc.) Conferences 2011, Global Warming Conference, Berlin, Monitoring Increasing Pollution in Cities, in conference proceedings on www. GlobalWarmingBerlin.com Publications Všechnozná, Přemysl, Inverze na Ostravsku a dětské alergie. (Inversion in Ostrava Region and Allergic Children) 2010, in Zdraví, no.6, ISSN 123456 Education and Training 2009–present, Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, xx year PhD course. Dissertation title: …. .(in Czech and translation) 2007–2009, Ing. – Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, 2–year general Mechanical Engineering degree course. Diploma thesis title: …. . (in Czech and translation) 2004–2007, Bc. Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, 3‐year general Mechanical Engineering Bachelor degree course. Bachelor thesis title: .... (in Czech and translation) 2000–2004 – technician Skoda Auto, courses in design, management and... 1996–2000 – Secondary Technical School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Liberec, “maturita” (school leaving exam) in mathematics, physics, and …. (any subject) Personal Skills and Competences IT Skills Word, Excel, Access, PowerPoint, Internet and Email Operation System: Windows XP – Windows Vista Microsoft Office, Google Office (Google docs) WebDesign: Adobe DreamWeaver Programming language: HTML/XHML – ASP – CFML – Javascript Language Skills Mother tongue: Czech English B2 (CEFR), oral and written, FCE 2010 German B1 (CEFR). Oral, A2 written
Driving Licence Full/Clean
Additional Information Interested in reading, travelling, gardening and listening to classical music. Member of Green Peace, Czech Republic
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TASK: Write your CV. Complete the following Curriculum Vitae Model for yourself. Personal Details Work/Professional Experience positions and responsibilities conferences publications Education and Training post‐graduate studies pre‐graduate studies secondary studies any other relevant courses Personal Skills and Competences Languages Computer Skills and Competences Driving Licence Additional Information Tip! Create your CV online: https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/CVonline
Resources: http://jobsearch.about.com/library/samples/blresumechronolog.htm http://www.curriculumvitaesample.org/curriculum_vitae_models/curriclum_vitae_model.htm http://speakspeak.com/a/html/d2j_english_cv.htm http://www.aansoek.com/English_CV.asp#English_CV http://www.worknowcanada.info/cv‐templates.html http://www.jaknapsat.cz/cv‐v‐anglictine/
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2. Cover Letter Cover letter is a document that is sent along with your CV when you are applying for a job or another position. The purpose of the cover letter is to complement your CV and provide the employer with the details regarding your qualification and experience from your CV. Therefore the cover letter should not repeat all the information in CV. It should be specific to the position you are applying for, relating your skills and experience to those listed in the job posting. Your cover letter is your first and best chance to make a good impression, go successfully through the first round, i.e. CV/resume screening, and get invited for an interview. In this section an example of a cover letter is followed by the description of the cover letter structure together with useful language examples. Remember! If you are writing in response to a job posting, indicate where you learned of the position and the title of the position. If you are writing a prospecting letter – a letter in which you inquire about possible job openings – state your specific job objective. If you are writing a networking letter to approach an individual for information, make your request clear.
2.1 Cover Letter Example (Response to a Job Posting)
Mr John Brown Manager ABCD 75, any road any city, 25603 any country November 11, 2011
Ms Mary Green 13, any road any city, 25603 UK 5678910 (home), 756498123(mobile)
[email protected]
Dear Mr Brown, I am writing to apply for the position of Media Relations Manager. ABCD is a fast‐moving global institution and an outstanding communications pioneer, now poised to guide the direction of print journalism. As a recent graduate of the State University with significant experience in finance, administration and media, I bring the energy and commitment to excellence necessary to thrive in ABCD's innovative environment. As the current Media Relations Coordinator of the XYZ company, I am a practiced business liaison and an able administrator. These strengths, combined with deep and varied employment and internship experience as a journalist and media consultant with FGH and LMD, prepare me to make a strong and immediate impact at ABCD. 7
I am excited about the opportunity to join the ABCD team as it moves to the centre of the print media conversation. Thank you for your time and consideration. Sincerely, Mary Green Source: http://jobsearch.about.com
2.2 Cover Letter Structure and Useful Language 2.2.1 Contact Information The first section of your cover letter should include information on how the employer can contact you. If you have contact information for the employer, include that. If not, just write your information. Your Contact Information Your Name Your Address Your City, State, Zip Code Your Phone Number Your Email Address Employer Contact Information Name Title Company Address City, State, Zip Code Date Addressing Dear Mr/Ms Last Name / Dear Sir or Madam First Paragraph The first paragraph of your cover letter should include information on the position you are applying for, including the job title. You should also mention where you have learned about the job/position. If you have been referred to a potential employer by a friend or acquaintance, be sure to mention this contact by name. It is likely to encourage your reader to keep reading. Useful Language I am writing in reply to your advertisement in...for (the position of ) a...(e. g. lecturer) I am writing with regards to the position of..., as advertised on Chyba! Odkaz není platný. I am applying for the ... position posted on www.Boston.Monster.com I have been referred to the position by Mr, Mrs, Ms XY
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Middle Paragraph/s The next section of your cover letter should describe what you have to offer the employer. Say why you are qualified for the job and how your skills and experience match the position for which you are applying. Make connections between your abilities and their needs. Try to support each statement you make with a piece of evidence. Useful Language I am a qualified and experienced... with a sound knowledge/experience of… My background in… (e. g. human resources) and training within the (e. g. insurance sector) is also, I feel, particularly relevant to your company. At the moment, I am working at… / I am working full time as a ... at ... (name of institution) My responsibilities range from ... (e. g. organizing timetables and managing instructors to giving classes and...) This role involves working with... I have been working for the...(institution) for ... years I had a temporary position as a...(e. g. assistant researcher) As you will see from my CV I have over x years of experience of … I recently participated in … My jobs have taught me a wide range of skills that are valuable at / connected with my work. I have written several articles for ... I believe my experience and expertise would be excellent for the position of ... I am very interested in working for ... I would like the opportunity to work in … I would like to develop my skills in a full time position with more responsibility. I would like to work in a team environment. I would/will be available to start work from … I am willing to consider any/a different kind of work. Closing Paragraph Conclude your cover letter by thanking the employer for considering you for the position. Include information on how you will follow‐up. Useful Language Please see my attached CV and do not hesitate to contact me if you have any questions/ requirements. I would be pleased to discuss this letter and my enclosed CV. I would love to find out more about the position you are looking to fill. I would welcome the opportunity to tell you how my skills and ideas can benefit … Thanks for your consideration. I look forward to hearing from you soon. Useful Language for Closing Yours faithfully, Sincerely/Respectfully yours,
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Signature Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter) Typed Signature Tips! Interpret what you have written in your CV, do not repeat that. Provide only relevant information. Use formal language throughout the letter. (e. g. full forms of verbs, useful phrases, no colloquial expressions) Use several shorter paragraphs or bullets rather than one large block of text. Ask someone to read and check your cover letter before you send it. Remember, the correctness of your English is an essential part of your cover letter. Adapted from: http://jobsearch.about.com http://www.curriculumvitaesample.org http://www.resumecoverletterexamples.com
TIMS, Nicholas, Chris REDSTON and Gillie CUNNINGHAM. Face2face. 5th print. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 96 p. ISBN 978‐052‐1676‐847. Other sources: http://speakspeak.com http://www.aansoek.com http://www.worknowcanada.info http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu http://www.jaknapsat.cz/cv‐v‐anglictine/ http://www‐CVwriting.net
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3. Reference Letter A reference letter is usually written to testify to a person’s skills, character and/or achievements. Sometimes a reference letter is known as a “recommendation letter”. It is a formal document, and should be typed and written in a serious and business‐like style. (http://www.dailywritingtips.com) Reference letters are required in a variety of situations. The following ones are the most common: for an employee or a colleague who is changing a job or applying for another position or a grant, for a student applying for an academic course or a study to support their application, for a student applying for funding. In this section an example of a reference letter is followed by the description of the reference letter structure together with useful language examples.
3.1 Reference Letter Example December 6, 2011 To Whomever It May Concern I highly recommend Michelle Johnson as a candidate for a teaching position. I have worked with Michelle in my position as Principal of St. Paul's School. While a student, Michelle was employed in various teaching related‐positions including teaching a museum program to fourth grade classes in the Huntington School District. Since then she has substituted at a variety of schools in the Long Island area, including St. Paul's. Michelle has a wonderful rapport with people of all ages, especially children. Her ability to connect with her students and her talent at teaching simple concepts, as well as more advanced topics, are both truly superior. She has excellent written and verbal communication skills, is extremely organized, reliable and computer literate. Michelle can work independently and is able to follow through to ensure that the job gets done. She accomplishes these tasks with great initiative and with a very positive attitude. I recommend Michelle to you without reservation. If you have any further questions with regard to her background or qualifications, please do not hesitate to contact me. Sincerely, Mary Haddock Principal St. Paul's School Source: http://jobsearch.about.com/od/referenceletters/a/academic.htm
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3.2 Reference Letter Structure and Useful Language The exact structure of a reference letter depends on the type of reference it is (employment, personal, academic). The following structure, however, can be taken as a good basic outline:
3.2.1 Salutation and Addressing Use the formal letter format and include the recipient’s name and address (if available), and address the recipient. Useful Language “Dear [name]”. If the recipient is unknown, use “Dear Sir/Madam” or “To Whom It May Concern”. Candidate: the person who the reference letter is about. Recipient: the person receiving the letter
3.2.2 Connection to the Person Introduce yourself in the first couple of lines and provide brief information explaining your position and your relationship to the candidate. Useful Language I confirm that I have known (candidate’s name) for XY years. I am writing this reference at the request of (candidate’s name) who is applying for the (name of the program) at XYZ University. I have known (candidate’s name) for XZ years in my capacity as a (your position) at (name of the school). (candidate’s name) has been an employee/student here at (name of institution) for the past XY years.
3.2.3 Relevant Information about the Person Confirm the facts the candidate supplies in their CV and cover letter. For example:
the person’s job title, and role within the institution, the dates which the person was employed from and until, or the person’s academic grades. Provide your judgment upon the candidate’s skills and qualities. State that their contributions to your institution/ class / project etc. were highly valued. Point out any exceptional qualities that the candidate has, e. g. drive and enthusiasm, attention to detail, or their ability to lead, etc. If appropriate, give a couple of concrete examples when the candidate excelled. (It is possible to ask the candidate to tell you about any extra projects or activities they have been involved in).
Useful Language (candidate’s name) took (classes you taught) from me and earned superior grades in those classes.
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Based on (candidate’s name) grades, attendance and class participation, I would rate (candidate’s name) academic performance in my class as superior. has been a pleasure to work with. was employed by (institution/company) as a (position) from 2002 to 2005. was responsible for ... including (e. g. word processing, scheduling appointments and creating brochures, newsletters, and other office literature). has excellent communication skills. communication and people skills are excellent. has some very innovative ideas. In addition, she is extremely organized, reliable and computer literate. can work independently and is able to follow through to ensure that the job gets done. is flexible and willing to work on any project that is assigned to him/her. was quick to volunteer to assist in other areas of company operations. At all times I have found (name/him/her) to be e. g. dependable, reliable, hard‐working, conscientious, honest, peace‐loving, courteous, as helpful as possible, etc.
3.2.4 Closing Close your letter positively. If you are willing to receive further information about the candidate’s application, make this clear. Include your contact details too. End appropriately for a formal letter. Useful Language In conclusion, I would highly recommend (candidate’s name) for this (academic program/job, position). If her performance in my class is any indication of how she will succeed, (candidate’s name) will be a positive addition to the program. (candidate’s name) is well suited to the challenges the programme/the job/the project provides. (candidate’s name) would be a tremendous asset for your company. I highly recommend (candidate’s name) as a candidate for... I can highly recommend her for the opportunity that you have available. (candidate’s name) has my highest recommendation. If you have any further questions with regard to her background or qualifications, please do not hesitate to call me. If you should need any additional information you can feel free to contact me at 123456789 or by email at
[email protected] anytime. If you need any additional information, please contact me. I’m happy to provide further information if required. Yours sincerely when you are writing to a named recipient. Yours faithfully when you do not know who will be receiving the letter. Adapted from: http://www.dailywritingtips.com http://jobsearch.about.com
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Tips! If asked to write a reference letter make sure you: Know the candidate reasonably well. Know the candidate in a capacity which allows you to write a meaningful reference. (e. g. you have worked with the candidate). Provide an honest and positive reference. Try to focus on areas which will give the recipient the most useful and relevant information about the candidate. Never lie or mislead in a reference letter. Tell the candidate to look for another referee if you think that the candidate has no good qualities for you to emphasize, or if you have had a personal clash with them. Other resources: http://www.writinghelp‐central.com http://www.characterreferenceletters.com http://www.boxfreeconcepts.com
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II. Writing Business Documents Ivana Pekařová
This chapter is dedicated to studying the basic characteristics of effective business writing. The world of professionals is already full of texts which are sloppy, poorly written, disorganised, littered with jargon, and unnecessarily too long. There is no need to add more of such repulsive texts. We must aim at producing business texts which are written in such a way which enables readers to understand easily what we are telling them or asking them for.
1. Elementary Etiquette Rules for Business Writing Experts on business compositions (e. g. Taylor, 2004) invite writers in English to follow several basic steps to produce effective business documents. These can be very briefly and principles. First, let us clarify the meaning of these expressed as the acronyms, and then their practical implications will be explained by a set of short rules on what TO DO and NOT TO DO. means
is an acronym standing for
Let us proceed clarify these principles in a short “TO DO” and “NOT TO DO” format.
1.1 Rule 1. Your information has to be correct and it should provide essential details. Your spelling, grammar and punctuation are to be without mistakes, and your formulations ought to be easy to follow. All good writers plan their writing, use a spellchecker and do not send off the first draft without any further proofreading. One more piece of advice is particularly important for Czech users of English. Most experts agree that an average and clear English sentence has about 15 words, not more. Unfortunately, many Czechs overuse odd long sentences, frequently translated word for word from their mother tongue. What is your opinion about the author of the following sentence? The Programme is of vital importance, and would assist in creating a significant improvement in the quality of life of disabled people of all ages, not least as access to transport is a key requirement in education and employment, as well as for social, leisure, health, shopping and other activities. 15
Is it a piece of text created by a sophisticated and careful user of English? Or is it rather a product of somebody careless and clumsy? You can also compare two alternative formulations of a similar idea which follow. Then decide which one you need to read just once to grasp its gist immediately and comfortably. 1. 2.
High‐quality learning environments are a necessary precondition for facilitation and enhancement of the ongoing learning process. Children need good schools if they are to learn properly.
1.2 Rule 2. Respect the feelings of your addressee, answer promptly and in a tactful way. When angry, or annoyed, give yourself time to cool off. In other words, try to put yourself in the reader’s shoes. If you did not want to get this piece of text yourself, do not send it to others. Would you be embarrassed to deliver it in a face‐to‐face context? Then again, give it a second thought before sending it.
1.3 Rule 3. Use an appropriate tone, be consistent, and write in a natural and sincere way. If uncertain, start in a more formal way and stick to it in your whole document. Later, you can always tune in to the less formal tone of the person who writes back. Show genuine interest in the recipient of your message. People can read “between the lines” and will uncover your pretence.
1.4 Rule 4. Avoid unnecessarily complicated and old‐fashioned language and do not use boring clichés. We do not have to oversimplify or sound amateur‐like, but dense technical terms and long‐winded expressions are only likely to lead to misinterpretations. Study the following example: Enclosed herewith please find our catalogue for your reference and perusal. How does it feel when compared to its alternative: Please have a look at the attached catalogue. To sum up this point we could claim that it is a good idea to cut out useless words.
1.5 Rule 5. People used to gobbledygook1 tend to write clauses full of passive voices. These sentences sound bureaucratic and awkward. Very often, their writers also use nominalized forms created from verbs; yet their message may be rather empty, like: The implementation of the method has been done by the team. Compare it to its friendlier alternative: The team has implemented the method. Certainly, there are cases when we do prefer passive verbs. Are you asking when? To avoid blaming somebody directly, to sound less hostile, or to indicate we do not know the doer of the activity: My wallet was stolen last night. Decide yourself if you truly need the passive phrase in your text to avoid falling into the trap of creating misunderstandings. wordy and unintelligible jargon; incomprehensible or pompous specialist´s jargon
1
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For a brief recapitulation of this section, we are going to use another commonly provided 7 C´S recommendation for writing business documents. Make them:
And above all, stick to everyday or plain English as much as possible.
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2. Structuring Your Communication At first sight, guidelines for structuring documents in English and keeping them to the point do not look tricky. There are only four points to be remembered and covered: introduction, details, response or action requested, and close. Yet, do all of us not know that to find something easy we must master it first! Let us explain these four features:
2.1 Introduction We open this part with basic information about the reason for writing and then refer to a previous contact or communication. We also provide an introduction to the matter being discussed. Thank you for/Further to your letter of… I am sorry for the delay in attending to this matter… We wish to hold our annual gathering at a Prague hotel in November It was great to meet you again at last week’s nanotechnology workshop…
2.2 Details Here we state the supporting details to justify our purpose. We either give or request facts and figures in a clear and simple way. Obviously, if we deal with more than one piece of information, it will be easier to follow the message if each fact is taken care of in one separate paragraph. And it goes without saying that the more issues to discuss in one document there are, the less clarity we can expect! We must apologise for the delay in shipping this order. This was due to unforeseen circumstances. However, your order is being dealt with and will be sent without further delay… As you suggested, I will repack the fixtures in their original packaging materials and ship them by UPS using the return invoice which you just emailed to me. I’ll ship the fixtures to your return facility at the provided address.
2.3 Response/Action This section draws the message to its conclusion. It provides a straightforward statement of what we expect from the recipient or a third party, or it states what action we will take as a result of the details provided. Failure to pay on time may affect your ability to purchase merchandise at our store. Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter. I will contact you later this week to schedule an appointment. If you need to get in touch with me, please call me at 420‐224‐011‐111. I look forward to talking with you. If you call our offices within the next fortnight, we will give a 25% discount on all new models purchased in the month of December.
2.4 Close Here comes a complimentary closing part providing the expected formulaic language, and wrapping up the communication started in the first step. Thank you for your continued business. Sincerely yours, Best regards, Enclosures: CC: 18
3. Deadly Sins in Business Documents The widespread piece of advice says that business documents should be said than done! Let us decipher the acronym first. It means:
. Easier
How to implement that in our writing? We have to ask ourselves several questions. To mention just a few: How well do we know our audience? How much do they know about our subject? What type of a message do we want to convey? Who needs to know what we communicate, why and when? Here is an overview of basic components which can go wrong and cause that your . messages are not What the text is about is not clear. The message relies on bad grammar, spelling and punctuation. The level of formality is inappropriately too low or too high, depending on the situation. Run‐on or endless sentences make it uneasy to read. The document is formatted poorly. Too many fonts or other visual arrangements make it impossible to follow. The message utilises ALL CAPS – it means you do not know you SHOULD NOT SHOUT in your message! There is no greeting or salutation, and/or the date is missing. The overall tone is not friendly. No rapport with the reader has been created. The document is sent later than expected or requested. The document is unasked for and sent off without your apology giving it the status of a spam. Copies are sent to “the whole world”. The information provided is not correct. The announced attachments from the text are factually not enclosed.
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4. Fundamental Parts and the Layout of Business Documents in English Basically speaking, each document will have: a letterhead or sender’s address and a recipient’s address, a date and a salutation, content paragraphs and a signature. The sender’s address is usually included in the letterhead. If not, include it at the top of the letter one line above the date. Do not write the sender’s name or title, as it is included in the letter’s closing. Include only the number, name of the street, city, and postcode. Do not forget that the date is written differently in Britain (31/12/2011) and in America (12/31/2011). The name used in the recipient’s address corresponds with the one from the greetings. It is always better to address the letter to a concrete person; only in cases of unknown recipients we might use the phrase: To whomever it may concern. After the introductory greeting, Dear Mr Leutzinger or Dear David, depending on our relationship to the person, we write a comma in British English and a colon in American English. Then we write on the following line, and the first word always starts with a capital letter. A typical letter uses one to three content paragraphs with information relevant to its purpose. Each paragraph covers a single topic or point. In the case of a long letter with multiple pages, the information will be broken into sections with internal headers or bullets to provide clarity. Two spaces below the final paragraph of the letter, we place a traditional closing line, generally sincerely or respectfully. Warmer‐tone alternatives can be cordially, best wishes, or regards. A hand‐written signature comes immediately below the closing phrase; then the sender’s full name is typed together with the full business title (sometimes with the department of the Faculty as well) on the next line. The content paragraphs are usually single spaced with one blank line between them. If you are enclosing additional information with your letter, skip two single lines after your typed name and add Enclosure or Enclosures. You can state the number of enclosures in parentheses. Enclosure (2) A hardcopy business letter is usually sent to one recipient only. Sometimes, we wish to send a copy of the letter to other individuals. At the very bottom of the letter, below all of the closing components, we add a line that begins with cc: followed by the name of the person. Cc: Stephen Walker Other cc: recipients go directly below the first. If you are curious about the cc: abbreviation, it is usually explained as a carbon copy or a courtesy copy. When you want to copy someone on your letter, but you do not want the primary recipient or the cc: recipients to know that you have done so, you can use the bbc: option. Such a recipient is said to be blind carbon copied. 20
Tip!
Fancy fonts
might look interesting, but as soon as they are not generally comfortable for reading, avoid using them.
In the previous points 1. – 4. above, we have spoken about the fundamental etiquette of business documents, their structuring, errors to be avoided and the layout patterns to select from. Numerous publications provide in depth theoretical information on all of the above mentioned items. If you are interested in studying in detail, feel free to consult the sources mentioned in the list of additional learning support at the end of this chapter. Within the limited scope of this publication, we believe that the most important features have been introduced and refreshed sufficiently. Now we will progress to examples and useful language expressions connected with business correspondence types identified by the TUL staff as the ones used most frequently.
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5. Types of Correspondence 5.1 An Invitation of a Keynote Speaker/Conference Participant A Sample Text: Dear Dr. Frankenstein, On behalf of the Scientific Board of our Institute, I would like to extend a formal invitation. We would like you to be the closing keynote speaker at the upcoming 2012 Hospital Care and IT security Conference. The theme of this conference is “Impact of Medical Identity Theft on Health Care Providers.” The conference will be held in Liberec, May 8‐10, 2012. For your information, Mary Shelley will be the opening keynote speaker. The provisional title of her presentation is “Experiments That Will Be Interesting for Everybody.” I will forward a complete draft of the programme to you in a few weeks so that you can know what specific subjects will be covered by the other speakers. We would be pleased and honoured if you would be our closing speaker. I will call you next week to discuss this in more detail. Yours sincerely,
F. Pleased Frank Pleased, Dean of the Institute of Health Studies Other Useful Language Expressions: Dear Professor Quirk, It gives us great pleasure to inform you that we have been chosen to organize the (convention name) which will be held in (Liberec, Czech Republic) from September 15th to 18th, 2012. The programme committee of (AAPT) has acknowledged you as a world class expert capable of providing deep insight into the latest developments in your field. Thus we would like to cordially invite you to serve as a (chair/co‐chair/guest speaker) during one of the sessions of our conference. We have attached a formal invitation letter to this email. Please notify us of your response in writing by (date). We would be deeply honoured to have you. Yours sincerely, Mary Sophisticated, Dean of the Faculty of Education And Another Example: Dear Ms Smith, I am writing to invite you to be the (BIHE) guest speaker at our annual conference. Your expertise and professionalism in our field of work makes you an ideal choice. The conference takes place on June 27 at the Hotel Intercontinental. We would very much like you to be part of the opening ceremony which starts at 9.00 am. 26
If you could let me know as soon as possible whether you can come or not that would be much appreciated. You can contact me, or my colleague Vince Dudeney, for further details. I look forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely, Susan Talkative, Conference Organizer
5.2 Request for a Price Quote A Sample Text: Dear Mr Thrifty, We are currently developing a programme of vendor sources. Therefore, we would appreciate a quote from you on the items listed below: 1. snack food/cold drink combination vendor 2. glass front snack merchandiser 3. hot beverage merchandiser Please return your quote in the prepaid envelope which is enclosed for your convenience. Thank you for your cooperation.
Susan Hungry Susan Hungry, Director of Operations for University Cafeteria Other Useful Language Expressions: Re: Fresh air‐conditioner, model number 1VI2011 Our University needs to replace its air conditioners. I am writing to enquire about the costs of your model, and if there is any discount for bulk purchases. Could you also let us know the estimated delivery time, and if there is a prolonged guarantee with the equipment? If so, how long does it last? Finally, we would like to know if your company operates a maintenance service. I look forward to hearing from you. Or: The Technical University of Liberec, (name of the faculty) – it can be either of these ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Textile Engineering Faculty of Economics Faculty of Sciences, Humanities and Education College of Arts and Architecture Institute of Health Studies Centre of Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation
wishes to conclude a contract for the delivery/provision of (items list). The tendering specifications are enclosed. You may request further information by fax or e‐mail: fax: (number) e‐mail: (address) 27
Your tender should be provided in triplicate. It may be sent by registered mail or private courier company to the address below, posted no later than 1/11/2012, with the postmark as a proof of the date of posting. Address: (complete address)… Tenders must be placed in two sealed envelopes, one inside the other. The inner envelopes must be addressed to the addressee. The public opening of tenders will take place at the Sychrov castle, on 1/12/2012. You will be informed if your tender has been accepted. Enclosures: tendering specification
5.3 Placing an Order (or Complaining about Delivery) A Sample Text: Subject: Order for 100 copies of Mastering Mathematics Dear Mr Hawking, As per our discussions on Monday – 3 October, we are pleased to place an order for 100 copies of Mastering Mathematics, book and CD by Prof. Einstein on the following terms: The cost of each book will be 150 Czech crowns (inclusive of all taxes). Payment terms will be a post‐dated cheque for 50 % in advance with the order. This cheque will be cleared on the day of the delivery. The balance payment of 50 % will be sent 7 days after delivery and after a random inspection. Delivery will be made within 7 days from the order date and at the following address: University Library, 13 Voroněžská, Liberec. If the order is not delivered as per the above terms and conditions, the order stands cancelled. Please find the enclosed cheque number 50‐69‐81‐46581351 dated 31 October, 2011 for 7,500 Czech crowns towards the advance payment for the order. Hoping to have a long business relationship with you. Best regards, Andrea Shortsighted Andrea Shortsighted, Head of Acquisitions, University Library Other Useful Language Expressions: Re: Conference booking TUL is considering holding its conference on nanomaterials at the Hotel Intercontinental. Details as follows: Date: 27 May 2012. Conference room big enough for 500 participants. Time 8.30 am to 7 pm. Buffet lunch at 2 pm, two coffee breaks at 11 am and at 4 pm. I would be very grateful if you could give me a quotation based on the above. Could you also tell me what facilities you provide (microphones, data projector, white board etc.)? Best regards, Susan Needle, Nanomaterials Conference organizer
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Or: We have just received delivery of order no. 2601 placed with you on 20 April. We regret to say, however, that the goods delivered do not meet our requirements. The quality appears to be far below that of the samples which were sent earlier and is therefore not acceptable. Furthermore, as you can see in the copy of the invoice we enclose, we requested 1,500 plates, but have only received 1,400 of those. We have received many requests from our regular clients for catering in our university canteen, but due to the problems with crockery have been unable to fulfil the orders and have lost considerable revenue as a result. We therefore hope you will let us know by June 20 what action you can take to help us solve this present difficulty. If we do not hear from you by that date, we will regretfully be forced to cancel the order and ask for compensation. We look forward to hearing from you soon. Or: Dear Mrs Knitter, On 24 June we received our order GH978 which included three dozen pairs of sports shoes. However, I am sorry to tell you that when we came to check them this morning, we discovered that several pairs were incorrectly labelled. In addition, the laces were missing from some of the shoes. We have repacked the faulty pairs and they await collection. As you know we have dealt with your company for several years, and this is the first time we have had to make a complaint. We would be most grateful if you could replace the faulty pairs as soon as possible. We look forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely, Mary Barefoot, Quality Supervisor
5.4 Offer of a Study Opportunity A Sample Text: The Technical University of Liberec offers 6 study programmes with more than 160 study branches throughout its faculties and institutes. Also, the Centre for Continuing Education at our University offers numerous programmes of lifelong learning. Detailed information about study opportunities, conditions for admission, requirements and ways of verifying them is provided on the websites of the individual faculties. Accredited study programmes one can complete are Bachelor, Master, joint Master or PhD. It is possible to study most of them both full‐time and part‐time; some are taught in English. The standard study period is from three to five years, according to the study type. Applicants apply for the chosen study programme and study branch by submitting a properly completed application against the set deadline. Payment receipt of the administrative charge is required with the application form. During the course of study, ECTS (European Credit Transfer System) is used; graduates get a bilingual supplement to their diplomas (Diploma Supplement). For further information contact Rosalinda Caring at the Counselling service. We are looking forward to meeting you all in Liberec. 29
Adapted from: http://web.tul.cz/en/applicants/possibility‐of‐studies‐at‐tul/ Other Useful Language Expressions: Dear Ms Crystal, Further to our conversation this morning, I am attaching our proposal for your students to come and study at the Technical University of Liberec. If you would like to come and visit the premises and look at the facilities we offer students, please get in touch to arrange a date and time. Alternatively, I can come and talk about the proposal in more detail. I look forward to hearing from you soon. Best wishes, David Expert, Study Counsellor Or: TUL is pleased to announce the following new study programmes. The Technical University of Liberec, International Office provides specialist support and guidance for students, staff and visitors from many countries. Whether you’re an international student interested in applying to Liberec, a current student searching for information on study abroad opportunities, or an overseas institution looking to work with us, we are here to help.
5.5 Request for Software Training A Sample Text: Dear Mr Computer, We have bought your scheduling and course planning software HardLife for our employees. We are interested in providing our users with an opportunity to get in depth insight into using it efficiently. We believe that your training courses will guarantee that. Would it be possible for you to organize f2f seminars for approximately 50 users during November 2012? Ideally, we would prefer our campus building as the location to hold the training. Can we expect you to provide the training free of charge since we have bought multiple licences of your software? Should you need more details or information, do not hesitate to contact us at
[email protected] Thank you very much for your consideration. Yours sincerely, Thomas Doubting, Vice‐Dean, Weed County College
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Other Useful Language Expressions: I have been identified by our dean as the staff member responsible for initiating support requests with your company. I’m writing to ask you about what concrete benefits we are eligible to receive since our investment in your system for entering student assessment into an electronic grade book was really significant. We are extremely interested in providing our tutors with free access to a short series of seminars providing them with the necessary knowledge to be able to use this time‐saving tool effectively. I appreciate your opinion on this matter. Additional Support for Learning about Business Writing In the following materials you can find more examples of useful expressions. The books are all available from our University Library, and the websites were active at the moment of writing. ASHLEY, A. Oxford Handbook of Commercial Correspondence. New ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, 304 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4572‐132. BARNARD, Roger and Dorothy ZEMACH. Writing for the real world 1: An introduction to general writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 138 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4538‐145. BARNARD, Roger and Dorothy ZEMACH. Writing for the Real World 2: An introduction to business writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 134 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4538‐213. EMMERSON, Paul. Email English: includes phrase bank of useful expressions. Oxford: Macmillan, 2004, 96 p. ISBN 14‐050‐1294‐3. http://owl.english.purdue.edu http://writing.colostate.edu/learn.cfm http://www.letterwritingguide.com/ http://www.englishclub.com/business‐english/correspondence‐samples.htm http://www.writinghelp‐central.com/sample‐letters‐business.html http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/BusinessLetter.html Sources http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/653/02/
TAYLOR, Shirley. Model Business Letters, E‐mails and Other Business Documents. 6th ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2004, 497 p. ISBN 02‐736‐7524‐9. http://web.tul.cz/en/applicants/possibility‐of‐studies‐at‐tul/ Fig. 1: http://www.google.cz/imgres?imgurl=http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/branches/elearning/tsl/resources/subj ect_area/ELA/ELARR/index_use_files/application.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/branches/el earning/tsl/resources/subject_area/ELA/ELARR/Special_Forms_of_Writing.shtml&usg=__Isf_yvAReIKBTH‐ 31JQ9ELJikMg=&h=600&w=600&sz=60&hl=cs&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=RaXdniIg4Y5alM:&tbnh=140&tbnw =140&ei=Y8T4TeOLNI7KswaZxeCACQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dparts%2Bof%2Ba%2Bbusiness%2Bletter%26um% 3D1%26hl%3Dcs%26client%3Dfirefox‐ a%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:cs:official%26biw%3D1280%26bih%3D588%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&ia ct=hc&vpx=819&vpy=73&dur=1556&hovh=225&hovw=225&tx=109&ty=124&page=1&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r: 5,s:0&biw=1280&bih=588
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III. Writing Effective Grant Proposals Ivana Pekařová
In this chapter our main goal is to answer the following question:
1. How to Prepare for Writing a Grant Proposal The most important piece of advice seems to be rather easy‐going. Make yourself familiar with the proposal guidelines, start filling in the application well before the deadline is due and follow the instructions very carefully. Guidelines available for applicants usually tell you about:
submission deadlines,
eligibility,
award levels,
proposal format: margins, spacing, restrictions on the number criteria of pages, etc.
timetable,
budgets and their breakdowns,
funding goals and priorities,
evaluation process and criteria,
whom to contact, and
other submission requirements.
What Does It Mean for You? 1.
Plan to submit your proposal on or preferably before the deadline. Begin early. Be realistic about whether you have time to prepare a competitive proposal that meets the deadline.
2.
Determine what the funder requires for submission. Answer all questions. Preempt all unstated questions. Give them what they want. Follow the application guidelines exactly. Be explicit, specific, and concise and avoid needless words. Present information in a logical order. Make explicit the connections between your research 32
questions and objectives, your objectives and methods, your methods and results, and your results and dissemination plan. 3.
Be consistent in one spelling, vocabulary, grammar and punctuation – either British or American English (BRE, AmE). Prefer active voice, avoid changing grammar tenses, focus on positive statements, devote due attention to structuring your sentences and paragraphs, use transitional words to link ideas, use synonyms to make your text pleasant to read, avoid contractions, colloquialisms and slang. When in doubt read aloud to check the grammatical construction of sentences. Proofread!
4. They will decide whether you are creative, logical, analytical and up‐to‐date in the relevant literature of the field, and, most importantly, capable of executing the proposed project. Allow your discipline and its conventions to determine the general style of your writing, but allow your own voice and personality to come through. Be sure to clarify your project’s theoretical orientation. Remember that the proposed result should satisfy the research objectives. 5.
Use a catchy phrase for your title to make the reviewer remember your project.
6. Identify required personnel both by function and, if possible, by name. Contact project consultants, trainers, and other auxiliary personnel to seek availability; acquire permission to include them in the project; and negotiate compensation. 7.
Schedule your timeline when you know about submission deadlines and review timetables. Factor into your schedule time to write multiple drafts, solicit the project officer for review of your draft, gather relevant materials, and prepare an impartial critique of your proposal for clarity, substance, and form. Do not forget that writing a grant proposal is a time consuming activity.
8. Know the funder’s policies on late submissions, exceptions, and mail delays. 9. Find out how the funder will notify you about the receipt and status of your proposal. Factor this information into your timeline. 10. If rejected, revise your proposal and apply again. In a short recapitulation, structure, attention to detail, concise persuasive writing, and a reasonable budget are the critical elements of the writing stage. Grant writing is a circular process and it varies widely across the discipline. It is advisable to draft a timeline that includes the planning phase, the period of searching for funds, proposal writing, and the intended project start date. Then you can periodically update the timeline as you learn more about submission deadlines, award timetables, etc. A good visual summary reference for the stages of the writing process can be found below or at: http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/grant_proposals.html
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Fig. 1 Diagram on the grant writing process
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2. Filling in Personal Details and Information about Institutions Involved 2.1 Personal Information This section is the easiest one. Usually you are asked to tick () one box only. The types of information required about the applicant are notoriously known. Gender/sex is either male (for a man) or female (for a woman). After the first name there might be an option of the middle initial, which is what Czech applicants usually do not have – Jan Marek (M.) Pavlík, Nationality is Czech for most of us. For address, check the correct format of writing an address in the chapter on Writing Business Documents. If you have special needs, for example due to a disability, give details of any additional arrangements that are necessary to enable you to take part in the project (e. g. an accompanying person). In justified cases the grant amount can be increased. When you need to describe your knowledge of foreign languages, do it in the correct way. The Common European Framework for Languages (CEFR, 2001) has been accepted for a general usage round Europe. According to the CEFR, the levels are as follows: A1
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
A2
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e. g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.
B1
Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
B2
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialization. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
C1
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well‐structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organizational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
C2
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarize information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.
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If you are in doubt about your level of language knowledge, consult the book you are studying from or have used recently. Most modern textbooks provide this information on their covers. Towards the end of this section, there is usually some explicit confirmation of correctness of the information to be signed by the applicant, i. e.: I, the undersigned, certify that to the best of my knowledge the information contained in this application form is correct and that I comply with the eligible criteria for this action.
2. 2 Details about the Institution Then comes the section on your organization. Our full name is: Technical University of Liberec. Do not forget that in a text, the name will usually be connected with the definite article – the. For the item type of organization write university or higher education institution (tertiary level). Our legal status is public, commercial orientation is non‐profit. Number of staff is about 1,140, number of students is about 10,000 and the scope of the organization is regional, national, and international. Explain staffing requirements of your project in detail and make sure it makes sense for an outsider. Be very explicit about the skill sets of the personnel already in place (you will probably include their curriculum vitae – CV – as a part of the proposal – for more ideas on this type of documents see Chapter I. Explain the necessary skill sets and functions of personnel you will recruit. To minimize expenses, phase out personnel who are not relevant to later phases of a project. It is usual that endorsement by the legal representative of the home organization is required towards the end of this section. I, the undersigned, certify that the applicant is a staff member of the organization and I endorse this application: Place: Liberec
Date: (day‐month‐year)
Name and position: Zdeněk Kůs, Ing. PhD., Prof., the Rector of the TUL Signature: Stamp:
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3.2 Objectives and Methods With competition for £/€/$ and Czech crowns so great, well‐articulated objectives are increasingly critical to a proposal’s success. We are going to focus on them first. We should start from the most abstract level and continue to break down a general objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as specific objectives. When expressing them avoid the use of vague non‐action verbs such as to appreciate, to understand, or to study. The more appropriate verbs are, for example, to identify, to determine, to compare, to relate, to verify, to calculate, to describe, to establish, or to use the findings to make recommendations. The formulation of objectives will help you to: focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials), avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified, and organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. Objectives are the measurable outcomes of the project. They define your methods. Your objectives must be tangible, specific, concrete, measurable, and achievable in a specified time period. Grantseekers often confuse objectives with goals, which are conceptual and more abstract. For the purpose of illustration, the following samples have been taken from: http://www.sedi.org./DataRegV‐unified/capnet‐SharedResources/Foundation%20proposal%20guide.pdf
Here is the goal of a project with a subsidiary objective:objective: Goal: Our school club will help children read betterproposal. Objective: Our school club remedial reading programme will assist fifty children in improving their reading scores by one level as demonstrated by standardized reading tests administered after participating in the programme for six months. The goal in this case is abstract: improving reading, while the objective is much more specific. It is achievable in the short term of six months and measurable (improving fifty children’s reading scores by one level). There are at least four types of objectives: 1. Behavioural – Some type of a human action is anticipated. 2. Example: Fifty of the seventy children participating will learn to swim. 3. Performance – A specific time frame, within which we expect some behaviour to occur at an expected proficiency level. 4. Example: Fifty of the seventy children will learn to swim within six months and will pass a basic swimming proficiency test administered by a Red Cross certified lifeguard. 5. Process – The manner in which something occurs is an end in itself. 6. Example: We will document the teaching methods utilized in teaching children to swim, identifying those with the greatest success. 7. Product – There is a tangible item as a result. 8. Example: A manual/video course will be created to be used in teaching swimming to this age and proficiency group in the future. 39
In any given proposal, you will find yourself setting forth one or more of these types of objectives, depending on the nature of your project. Be certain to present the objectives very clearly. Make sure that they do not become lost in verbiage2 and that they stand out on the page. You might, for example, use numbers, bullets, or indentations to denote the objectives in the text. Above all, be realistic in setting objectives. Do not promise what you cannot deliver. Remember, the funder will want to be told in the final report that the project actually accomplished these objectives. Research Strategy and Methodology This section presents the research methods that will be used to accomplish the objectives. It should be presented in a concise manner, together with a rationalization for the strategy selected. The research and sampling design, data analysis and collection techniques should be appropriate. The methods section enables the reader to visualize the implementation of the project. It should convince the reader that your institution knows what it is doing, thereby establishing its credibility. It might be helpful to divide the discussion of methods into the following subsections: how, when and why. How: This is the detailed description of what will occur from the time the project begins until it is completed. Your methods should match the previously stated objectives. When: The methods section should present the order and timing for the tasks. It might make sense to provide a timetable so that the grants decision‐maker does not have to contrive the sequencing on his or her own. The timetable tells the reader when and provides another summary of the project that supports the rest of the methods section. Why: You may need to defend your chosen methods, especially if they are new or unorthodox. Why will the planned work most effectively lead to the outcomes you anticipate? You can answer this question in a number of ways, including using expert testimony and examples of other projects that work.
3.3 Dissemination Most probably you will formulate a commitment to communicating about the project’s development. Partial outcomes will be reached in individual stages, namely awareness‐ oriented, result‐oriented, and finally exploitation‐oriented. The main dissemination strategies include: scholarly or peer reviewed journal publications, conference presentations and posters, demonstrations, workshops, lectures or seminars. It is expectable that you will:
set up a common project design, logo, templates for document and presentations,
create the project website,
overabundance or superfluity of words, as in writing or speech; wordiness; verbosity
2
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design the project information materials, and give introductory presentations in order to
raise awareness among the scientific stakeholders.
Promoting the results is a logical follow‐up stage accomplished by:
updating the materials,
delivering more presentations of research‐oriented scientific results,
submitting high‐level scientific articles to scientific conferences, and
publishing and disseminations of press releases following the finalization of important project milestones.
The exploitation stage can be specifically targeted at potential clients. Thus the activities might include:
participation at exhibitions, fairs and workshops where the results of the project are presented,
offering individualized demonstrations, and
publishing the project methodology and its standardization.
3.4 Evaluation Briefly describe the evaluation process and how the results will be used.
Explain how the organization will measure the effectiveness of the programme. Describe the criteria for success. Describe the results expected to be achieved by the end of the funding period.
Most sound evaluation plans, both formative and summative, include both qualitative and quantitative data. You should also present your plan for how the evaluation and its results will be reported and the audience to which it will be directed. For example, it might be used internally or be shared with the funder, or it might deserve a wider audience. A funder will also have an opinion about the scope of this dissemination. Many funders have suggestions about who should conduct the evaluation, whether it be your own program staff or outside consultants. Some funders allow for the inclusion of the cost of evaluation as part of the project budget.
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4. Wrapping It All up Submitting your proposal is nowhere near the end of your involvement in the grantseeking process. Grant review procedures vary widely, and the decision‐ making process can take anywhere from several weeks to several months. During the review process, the funder may ask for additional information either directly from you or from outside consultants or professional references. Invariably, this is a difficult time for the grantseeker. You need to be patient but persistent. Some grantmakers outline their review procedures in annual reports or application guidelines. If you are unclear about the process, do not hesitate to ask in time. If your hard work results in a grant, acknowledge the funder’s support with a letter of thanks. You also need to find out whether the funder has specific forms, procedures, and deadlines for reporting on the progress of your project. Clarifying your responsibilities as a grantee at the outset, particularly with respect to financial reporting, will prevent misunderstanding and more serious problems later. Nor is rejection necessarily the end of the process. If you are unsure why your proposal was turned down, try to ask. Was it because the funder needed additional information? Would they be interested in considering the proposal at a future date? Now might also be the time to begin cultivation of a prospective funder. Put them on your mailing list so that they can become further acquainted with your organization. Remember, there is always next year. Additional Support for Learning about Writing Good Grant Proposals BROWNING, Beverly A. Perfect Phrases for Writing Grant Proposal. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 2008, 237 p. ISBN 00‐714‐9584‐3. BROWNING, Beverly A. Grant Writing for Dummies. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub., 2005, 340 p. ISBN 07‐645‐8416‐2. CORY, Hugh. Advanced Writing with English in Use: CAE. New ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 160 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4534‐260. EMERSON, Frances B. Technical Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987, 559 p. ISBN 03‐953‐5503‐6. GUSTAVII, Björn. How to Write and illustrate Scientific Paper. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, 168 p. ISBN 978‐052‐1878‐906. KARSH, Ellen and Arlen Sue FOX. The Only Grant‐Writing Book You'll Ever Need. 1st Carroll. Berkeley, Calif.: Distributed by Publishers Group West, 2003, 368 p. ISBN 07‐867‐1175‐2. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/grant_proposals.html http://www.niaid.nih.gov/researchfunding/grant/pages/appsamples.aspx#rpindex http://www.niaid.nih.gov/researchfunding/grant/Pages/samples.aspx http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/extra/extdocs/apprep.htm http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/write_grant_doc.htm http://foundationcenter.org/getstarted/tutorials/shortcourse/index.html
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Sources: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Reprinted. Cambridge, U.K: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 2001, 260 p. ISBN 05‐218‐0313‐6. BUZAN, Tony. Use Both Sides of Your Brain. 3rd ed. New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Plume, 1991, 160 p. ISBN 04‐522 6603‐3. SILVERMAN, David and Amir B.MARVASTI. Doing Qualitative Research: a practical handbook. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2000, 316 p. ISBN 07‐619‐5823‐1. http://www.thinkbuzan.com/uk/promo/imindmap5 http://www.sedi.org./DataRegV‐unified/capnet‐SharedResources/Foundation%20proposal%20guide.pdf
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IV. A Journey to Successful Presentations
Lucie Příšovská For students in TULEN courses, giving a successful presentation in English is essential for their recognition in the academic world. But it can be demanding and quite difficult. Even though the academic staff of TUL, engaged in research and teaching, are used to making presentations of their work outcomes in Czech, presenting in English is something that they are usually not confident about. The presenters need certain skills in English which they might not encounter in the ordinary language courses. Language skills are very important but presentation skills consist of other features as well: sensitivity (style of communication has to be adapted to the specific objective and audience), selecting the best content, adapting the language to the listener, structuring the presentation etc. These are topics you can expect to encounter in this chapter.
1. Introduction After a short needs analysis conducted in one of the TULEN courses, we stated the main problems of the students: 1. I am nervous about speaking in English in front of people. 2. I don‘t know if the presentation structure is the same in English as in Czech. 3. I don’t know expressions to make my presentation coherent and interesting. 4. I am afraid of forgetting the words in English. 5. I am not sure to understand the questions. On the other hand, working with visuals and PowerPoint slides has the same rules in English as in Czech, so non‐native speakers used to presenting in their native language master these in English too. As Williams stated, “giving a presentation is like taking your audience from the start to finish on a journey“ (Williams, 2008, p.10). And it is the same with working on presentation skills. This short manual represents a guide. This guide will lead you through the journey of successful presentations. It will show you the right way, make the necessary stops, explain, give examples and will accompany you towards the last moment – your own presentation in English. In the following pages, you will find some practical advice on how to develop presentation skills in English. The journey starts with the preparation, continues through the delivery and comes up to the finishing straight, the moment of the questions and final words of your presentation. This guide contains several exercises that allow you to practise your acquired skills. While completing the tasks, concentrate on one particular presentation that is related to your work. When you have finished the whole journey of presentation skills, you should give your presentation and evaluate your performance. Now, we are about to set off for the adventure of successful presentations. Let us begin!
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2. Preparing a Presentation
Effective planning is essential for successful presentations. People are different – one presenter loves to plan everything in detail to lower the risks, the other one prefers the improvisation and creative approach. But each of them should take into account their abilities and be sensitive towards their own approach. FEARS TASK 1: What are your biggest fears when it comes to presenting in English? Take time to think about it and try to answer this question for yourself. In his book Professional Presentations (1998, p.4), Malcolm Goodale mentions the most common fears about presenting in English: 1. fear of saying or doing something foolish 2. failure of equipment 3. not being able to find the right word in English. Most of these fears can be beaten by thorough planning and preparation and by frequent practice. You can prevent yourself from stressful situations by taking time to think about your audience, purpose of your presentation, the style and the language you plan to use during the presentation.
2.1 Planning Your Presentation As mentioned before, students of TULEN courses usually possess some of the presentation skills – they know how to work with the equipment (PowerPoint slides etc.), how to use the visuals (graphs, charts, objects etc.). But the biggest problem comes with expressing what they want to say in English and adjusting their style of communication to the audience. The following audience‐centred framework TIPS, taken from Dignen’s Fifty ways to improve your Presentation Skills in English (2007, pp. 2, 3) helps you prepare for international presentations. There are four questions you should ask yourself in the planning stage of your presentation. T I P S
What is the right presentation TARGET for my audience? What do they really want? What INFORMATION should I communicate to my audience? What presentation PROCESS is right for my audience? What communication STYLE will work for my audience?
The answers should influence the way you plan and prepare your presentation. As a presenter, you should be sensitive towards different types of audience and objectives of your presentation.
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TASK 2: Ms Star is an English teacher and she is planning a presentation on Teaching Presentation Skills in English Lessons. Look at her answers. Think of the presentation you are planning on giving in near future. Answer these questions: QUESTIONS
YOUR ANSWERS
MS STAR’S ANSWERS Background of the audience
1. Who are they? How many will be there?
English or Business teachers. Group of 20 (max.)
Target
2. What do they want to hear from me? And why?
They want to get informed about teaching the presentation skills because they are expected to cover the topic in their English/business lessons.
3. What do I really need to present?
I need to provide them with not only the tips but also the exact process of teaching it – with planning, preparation and performance stages. I need to present my research results.
4. What will engage and convince them?
That I show I am personally involved, that the presentation objectives are based on my and their professional needs.
Information
5. What do they know about the subject?
Not much. They have a personal experience with presenting but they have never been trained.
6. Who holds strong opinions about the subject?
Nobody (as far as I know)
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Process
7. How do I proceed? What are the audience’s involvement, organization, personal, language and non‐verbal factors?
The first part will be in silence, the second part interactive – they will be given plenty of examples. They will be encouraged to ask questions during the whole presentation etc.
8. How should I handle different expectations of the presentation process among them?
I will try to meet the expectations with various approaches – using PowerPoint slides with examples, answering all questions etc.
Style
9. How far does my communication style match their expectations?
My preferred presentation style is action‐ focused and quite informal. The audience might appreciate it in connection with this topic.
10. How can I communicate my presentation clearly and accurately?
I will use all possible means to structure my presentation (signposts etc.). I will prepare the key expressions ahead. I will use visual aids to help communicate the meaning. Adapted from: Dignen B., Fifty ways to improve your Presentation Skills in English (2007, pp. 2‐12) and Goodale M, Professional Presentations, Teacher’s Guide (1998, pp.8, 9) Do not forget! After each presentation you must ask yourself how effectively you planned and prepared your presentation and whether the presentation itself was successful. These answers will help you improve the relation between both stages in your next presentation.
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2.2 Structuring Your Presentation It is time for us to continue our journey towards an effective presentation. It started with the planning and once this step was taken, we can move on to the structuring and organizing principles of your presentation. For a presenter, the main objective remains to deliver a clear message with the right impact. Good organization makes things clear. A presentation delivered in English that is well‐structured is easier to follow and understand. Both the non‐native presenter and non‐native audience appreciate the possibility of presentation’s clear layout.
2.2.1 Getting Started The beginning of the presentation is very important. It is when you establish rapport with the audience and when you have its attention. The audience quickly decides whether they are going to like or even listen to your presentation. It is influenced by their first impression of you – the way you are dressed, the expression on your face, the way you stand, whether you establish eye contact etc. The first three minutes will decide about the rest of your presentation. There are two rules that will help you to fight the stress and to establish rapport with the audience – speak slowly and smile. People tend to speak very quickly when nervous. So if you slow down your speech, you will feel more relaxed and confident about your language. And the smile always helps the communication. TASK 3: Which of the following statements do you agree with? Answer yes/no/maybe. At the beginning of presentation you should: 1. Apologize if the subject is complex 2. Apologize if you had no time to prepare 3.
Introduce yourself by giving relevant professional details
4. Tell the audience not to interrupt you with questions 5.
Relax everyone by telling a joke
6. Say how long the presentation will last 7. Tell the audience whether there will be any handouts Answers: 1.no – your task is to simplify, 2. no – if you have not had enough time, never tell your audience, 3. yes – relevant to the presentation, 4. maybe – with a small audience, questions clarify what you are saying, 5. maybe – it is risky, you can offend somebody, 6. yes, 7. yes – it will save your audience time Taken from Goodale M, Professional Presentations, Teacher’s Guide (1998, pp.34) In the English‐speaking countries it is common for the speaker to begin with a joke, an anecdote, a statement made to surprise or provoke in order to make the audience want to listen, to feel relaxed and/or to introduce the subject. This may be risky for non‐ native speakers because telling jokes requires high level of language knowledge and making mistakes might ruin the joke and make the situation awkward. Also, the same
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anecdote would not be appropriate in all contexts. But an example or a story from real life attracts your audience as well. The first impression is important. But to be successful, you need to proceed with several steps to get your presentation started. 1. Get people’s attention 2. Greet the audience 3. Introduce yourself 4. Introduce the title and subject 5. Give your purpose and objectives 6. Announce the length and the outline 7. Answer the questions from the audience In the following task, you can observe a well‐prepared beginning of a presentation. TASK 4: Put the sentences in the correct order: 1. Before we start I´d like to introduce myself 2. to present our recommendations about how the Technical University of Liberec can increase the 3. our agenda for today. First, I will begin with an overview of 4. the data that she gathered from the focus groups 5. decline. Then, Ms Graph will present 6. who will discuss adapting our product to meet market needs, and he´ll 7. limited time today, please hold your questions until the end of the presentation 8. number of students by reaching more of its potential market. You should each have a copy of our handouts 9. Can everyone see? 10. for public relations. As you know, today´s presentation is designed 11. how the number of students has been declining during the past five years, and the reason for that 12. and her ideas for clarifying our target market. She will be followed by Mr Knowshow, 13. Well, good morning ladies and 14. in front of you that correspond to the slide up here on the screen. The first slide shows 15. to those who don´t already know me. My name is Mr Sellitwell and I´m responsible 16. conclude with our main recommendations. Since we have 17. gentlemen. Thank you for coming. Adapted from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/8070515/Business‐Meetings‐3Beginning‐a‐Presentation‐ Transcript
Answers: 9, 13, 17, 1, 15, 10, 2, 8, 14, 3, 11, 5, 4, 12, 6, 16, 7
Language Focus – Getting Started There are many functional expressions you can use for the beginning of a presentation. Here is a list taken from Jeremy Comfort’s Effective Presentations (2009, p. 14) and completed with other expressions regarding the reader’s needs. You do not need to learn all the expressions. Highlight always two or three from each part and learn to use them.
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GREETING, NAME, POSITION Good morning, my name’s … I’m the Head of this department. Ladies and gentlemen. Welcome to our department. Let me start by saying just a few words about my own background. Thank you for coming today. My name's Jane Smith. I'm responsible for the Erasmus programme. For those of you who don't know me, my name's Tom Bean. As you know, I'm in charge of public relations. Let me start by saying just a few words about my own background. TITLE/SUBJECT I’d like to talk to you about the dates of entrance exams. I’m going to present/explain/inform … PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE This morning I'd like to present our new programme in English. Today I'd like to discuss the new results of my research and suggest a new approach to the case. This afternoon, I'd like to report on my study into the German market. What I want to do this morning is to talk to you about our new STAG system. This talk is designed to act as a springboard for discussion. LENGTH I shall only take … minutes of your time. I plan to be brief. This should only last … minutes. OUTLINE I’ve divided my presentation into four parts. They are … The subject can be looked at under the following headings … We can break the area down into the following fields … QUESTIONS If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them as we go along. Feel free to ask any questions. Perhaps we can leave any questions you have until the end? There will be plenty of time for questions at the end. TASK 5: Now, you should try to prepare your own beginning of a presentation. Take the same topic as in TASK 2 (part 2.1 of this Chapter) and write the introduction with the knowledge of your audience and the appropriate steps and expressions from this chapter.
2.2.2 Linking the Parts After you have started your presentation and the audience seems to be interested in what you want to say, continue with structuring the whole speech. Clear structure helps you pass the message of your presentation.
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You can do this effectively by using simple phrases called signposts. Just as when you are driving along a road that you do not know very well, you depend on signs to guide you, you need to guide the audience by using expressions to tell them where you are going. The audience does not know the presentation you have prepared and might get lost. A good presenter will usually use a lot of signpost language, so it is a good idea to learn a few of the common phrases. In his book Presenting in English (2002, p.16), Mark Powell describes nine basic situations in the presentation in which you should use signpost expressions: 1. When you want to make your next point. To move on 2. When you want to change direction. To turn to 3. When you want to refer to an earlier point. To go back 4. When you want to repeat the main points. To recap 5. When you want to give a wider perspective. To expand on 6. When you want to do a deeper analysis. To elaborate on 7. When you just want to give the basics. To summarize 8. When you want to depart from your plan. To digress 9. When you want to finish your talk. To conclude These verbs will help you shape your presentation. The following task will show the signposts in complete sentences. TASK 6: Match the beginnings and endings of the sentences: 1. I’d like to move on a) here for a moment. 2. Let’s turn now b) by leaving you with this thought. 3. I’d like to expand more c) I said earlier. 4. I don’t want to elaborate on d) points of my presentation. 5. I’d like to digress e) to the next point. 6. Going back to something f) on this problem from last semester. 7. if I could just summarize g) a few points from last faculty meeting. 8. I’d like to recap the main h) to our plans for next year. 9. I’d like to conclude i) this topic because of lack of time. Answers: 1e, 2h, 3f, 4i, 5a, 6c, 7g, 8d, 9b You can prepare the signpost expressions in advance and write them down into your notes. While presenting, keep these notes close to the place where you are standing. The expressions will serve as signposts not only for your audience but also for you. This little plan might help you out of some stressful situations during the actual presentation. You should follow Powell’s advice: ”Neat, short signposts are more effective than long explanations of the structure of your presentation. Remember, the simplest way to signpost the end of one stage of your presentation and the beginning of the next is to say: “OK. So …“ (2008, p. 17) Language Focus – Linking Ideas In the following section, you’ll find other examples of linking ideas in your presentation. The list of signpost examples is again from Jeremy Comfort’s Effective Presentations (2009, p. 21). As mentioned earlier, you do not need to learn all the expressions. Highlight always two or three from each part and learn to use them.
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SEQUENCING/ORDERING Firstly, …, secondly, …, thirdly, … Then, … next, …finally/lastly, … Let’s start with … Let’s move on to/go on to … Now we come to … That brings us to … Let’s leave that … Let’s get back to … GIVING REASONS/CAUSES therefore/so/as a result/that’s why … CONTRASTING but/however COMPARING similarly/in the same way CONTRADICTING in fact actually SUMMARIZING to sum up in brief in short CONCLUDING in conclusion to conclude HIGHLIGHTING in particular especially DIGRESSING by the way in passing GIVING EXAMPLES for example for instance such as GENERALIZING usually generally as a rule
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TASK 7: The following extract is from a Departmental meeting. Fill in the gaps with the following expressions: 1. THEREFORE 2. I’LL GO ON 3. LET’S START 4. THEN 5. GENERALLY 6. TO SUM UP 7. IN PARTICULAR 8. LET’S MOVE ON 9. FIRSTLY 10.HOWEVER 11. FINALLY ......a) ________to another topic. We should be entering the last stage of our project. b) _______ it is time c) __________ what we have done so far. d) __________, I’ll give you some background information about our project. e) __________ after outlining the objectives of the team, f) __________ to examine the procedure and the results of the project so far. g) __________, I’ll examine our recommendations for maximising the efficiency of our work on the project. h)_________ with thanking everyone in the team, Mr Doitright i) __________. j) _________ speaking, you have done a good job. k) __________ there is always space for improvements……… Answers: 1b, 2f, 3h, 4e, 5j, 6c, 7i, 8a, 9d, 10k, 11g Now it is time to get back to one of the previous chapters about the planning. We said that while preparing a presentation, you have to adapt it to your purpose and audience. There are many presentation structures that you can choose from. But each presentation is different and will suit a different situation. When you speak to a business group one of the most effective approaches is to state your conclusions first and then follow with supporting information. That would be an effective business speech. During scientific conferences you might use another presentation structure – the scientific method that starts with a problem, followed by a hypothesis, a method, results and conclusion. It is your decision which one you choose – but this decision should be based on the knowledge of the group and the reason of your presentation. TASK 8: Work on your presentation. In the previous chapters, you planned the beginning. Now it is time to prepare the body of your presentation. Use the signpost expressions.
2.2.3 Finishing off The last chapter about preparing a presentation deals with its summary, conclusion and ending. Here you will find tips from a few specialists in the field. Goodale suggests several things you might do (1998, p.26): 1. At the end of a presentation, you should summarize what you have said and answer the questions. 2. The ending should be remembered word by word so that your presentation and its message have the maximum impact on the audience. 3. You should not hurry. As in the beginning, you should take time to express everything that you have planned but saying it quickly does not have the same effect as slowing down and pronouncing your sentences well. 4. You should always include a summary before the conclusion. 5. Relate the beginning to the ending. Use the same story or example from real life. This will ”wrap up“ the message.
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Dignen states five main principles (2007, p. 104): Be short – or you will lose impact. Be consistent – or you will confuse. Be clear – stress the main ideas in simple terms. Be tailored – focus on your audience. Be memorable – do something a bit different. He summarizes his ideas in these three tips (2007, p. 106): 1. Plan something memorable with which to conclude. 2. Choose a closing technique which matches your communication style. 3. Practise your conclusion until you are confident and natural. Language Focus – Finishing off The third language focus on our journey shows various ways of ending a presentation. These expressions were taken from About.com English as 2nd language (http://esl.about.com/od/businessspeakingskills/ss/presenting_8.htm) :
Summarizing We've discussed many points today. Let me quickly summarize the principal points: I'd like to quickly go over the main points of today's topic: Before we end, let me briefly recap what we have discussed here today. Points to Remember: It is important to repeat the main points of your presentation quickly. This recap should be brief and, if possible, using different vocabulary than that used during the presentation. Make sure to focus only on the most important areas of the presentation. Finishing the Presentation Thank you all very much for taking the time to listen to this presentation. Now, if you have any questions, I'd be happy to answer them. I think that's about it. I'd like to thank you all for coming in today. Do you have any questions? Points to Remember: Make sure to thank everybody and leave the discussion open for further questions from participants. TASK 9: Finish the last part of your presentation. Choose the style you feel good about and some of the expressions suggested in this chapter.
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3. Delivering a Presentation
Our journey continues. You have reached the point when you should deliver your presentation. As we said, the first impression is very important. But how can we make sure we will not be nervous about the audience? How can we fight the stress from public speaking in English? Just before the beginning, taking deep breath helps you calm down but then, when the actual speaking starts, you might follow several tips suggested by M. Dignen (2007, p.76): 1. Positive thinking helps overcome the stress. Smile and try to relax. 2. Get excited. What we call stress is very often excitement. So think about your state as a positive effect of your own excitement. 3. Get real. Sometimes, we have unrealistic expectations (I want to be funny, I want to sound like a native speaker, etc.). These expectations cause the stress. Just be yourself. Your English is fine. 4. Get in control. By control, we mean control of the presentation itself (visual aids functioning and ready, key words prepared and practised, etc.) and then control of yourself (body language, stance, posture, etc.)
3.1 Meeting the Audience We have already talked about the importance of getting to know what kind of audience you will be giving your presentation to. If it is a small group of people you know (situations as a business meeting or a project team meeting), you might try to establish rapport and break the ice by simple actions as: welcoming them with a smile asking questions about their journey/country etc. showing knowledge of their work discussing common points But most of the time you will see the audience just a few moments before the actual beginning of your presentation. Here is a short list of steps that help you establish rapport with the audience. Most of them are to be found in the previous or following chapters: Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your audience effectively. 2. Keep the same structure as in your academic articles: introduction (thesis statement), body (strong supporting arguments, accurate information), summary and logical conclusion. 3. Do not read from notes. Write down the key expressions and use them as an outline. 4. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident. Project your voice. 1.
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5. If you make an error, correct it, and continue. Do not apologize. 6. Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, and respond to their reactions. 7. Change your strategy if needed. Remember that communication is the key to a successful presentation. Always be prepared for the unexpected (lack of time, bored audience, incomprehensible questions etc.). Be ready to improvise. 8. Keep audience interested throughout your entire presentation. Use visual aids. Add stories from real life.
3.2 Language Non‐native scientists often deal with major issues concerning choice of language during presentations. They do important and interesting research and write an article about it. The main problems start when they are asked to convert the article into a presentation. The basic rule is that in a successful presentation, language must be simple and clear. J. Comfort (2009, pp. 26, 27) shows the difference in the following table: Written language
Spoken language
Long sentences
Short sentences
Complex vocabulary
Simpler vocabulary
Complex arguments
Simpler arguments
Impersonal style (academic)
Personal style
He also lists the main language features regarding their use in written (impersonal) and spoken (personal) discourse. While giving a presentation, you should: Use active forms. They are more personal than passive forms (e. g. We collected the results vs. The results were collected) Use personal pronouns (e. g. I did, We found) Make reference to the audience (e. g. As I’m sure you know, you may remember...) Comfort also suggests using everyday language as slang. This is very difficult for non‐ native speakers, who may not feel when it is appropriate to introduce it. Tips for Presenters: 1. Avoid reading the text. Use key words as notes; do not write the whole sentences. 2. Use words that your audience understands. Using jargon is fine if in the audience there are specialists. 3. Use short sentences or the audience will not remember your speech. Less complex language is much easier to be remembered – by the audience and also by you as a presenter. 4. Sound natural. Use linking expressions. Add personal stories. Language Focus – Important Impressions E. J. Williams, author of Presentations in English (2008), mentions five important moments in a presentation where we might use signposting expressions, and she shows several examples for each (p. 39): 1. To draw the audience’s attention to something: 56
I’d like us to focus our attention on … Now, I’ll show you … Let’s move on now and look at the figures for … 2. To explain the topic in general terms so that the audience can become familiar with it and understand it: The figures in this table show ... This chart compares ... The blue dotted line represents … The top half shows … 3. To say what the most important part is: What is interesting here is ... It is important to notice that ... I’d like you to think about/ concentrate on … 4. To give a message or conclusion I’m sure the implications are clear to all of us … We can conclude that ... The take‐home message here is … The lesson we can learn from this is … The significance of this is …
3.3 Non‐Verbal Communication The previous section focused on the appropriate language in presentations. But there are other factors besides choice of language that turn your presentation either into a success or a failure: use of voice, eye contact and body language.
3.3.1 Voice The topic of using your voice in presentations contains several features. It is not only the volume and tone but also the use of tempo, chunking and articulation. This chapter will show you how to speak in public to create the effect you want, using techniques for highlighting, pausing and stressing. If you are lucky, you have an interesting, strong voice. But even if it is not your case, you can practise and get much better. Use all skills in pronunciation you have learnt in your language lessons. The aim is to sound relaxed and natural. Here are some ideas to improve the way you speak for presentations. There are five areas to consider: 1. 2.
3.
Volume Project your voice. Make people hear you and listen to you. Tempo Use pauses after all important moments in the presentation. Slow down when you get to the keypoints. And relax. Tone This is the way you sound – either interested, angry, nervous – and it has an enormous impact on your audience. Show them enthusiasm. 57
4. Chunking The biggest impact you can have on your audience is by cutting sentences into chunks of meaning which you emphasize with stress and pausing. In other words, exaggerate the pronunciation of key points. 5. Articulation Be precise in your pronunciation. Study and practise the correct pronunciation of key expressions.
3.3.2 Body Language and Eye Contact Using appropriate body language and maintaining eye contact are useful because they are natural parts of communication. They clarify meaning, maintain interest and emphasize what we are saying. Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving with appropriate gesture or facial expression is much better than sitting down or standing still with head down and reading from your notes. Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Have direct eye contact with individual people in the audience, and from time to time look at the whole audience while speaking. Use your eye contact to make everyone in your audience feel involved. Below are just a few examples of both positive and negative body language from the manual Oral Presentation Skills (Storz et al., 2002, p.17) Positive Body Language 1. Keep eye contact to keep audiences' attention. 2. Your facial expressions should be natural and friendly. Do not forget to smile. 3. Posture – stand straight but relaxed (do not slouch or lean) 4. Movement – to indicate a change of focus, keep the audience's attention 5. Gesture up and down head motion or other movements to indicate importance pen or pointer to indicate a part, a place on a slide shrug of the shoulders to indicate "I don't know!" Negative Body Language 1. Loss of eye contact: looking at notes, looking at screen, at the board, at the floor 2. Do not stare, or look blankly into people's eyes 3. Swaying back and forth like a pendulum 4. Back turned to the audience 5. Nervous ticks 6. Hands in pockets
3.4 Presentation Techniques As in all other skills, you can employ different techniques and strategies to make your presentation more interesting and persuasive.
3.4.1 Using Visuals We should start with using appropriate visual aids. In one of the first paragraphs of this chapter, we explained the needs of TULEN students saying that most of them are used
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to working with PowerPoint slides and other visuals; therefore, this topic will not be discussed in detail. But we would like to present a rule that is often broken during the presentation delivery. It comes from E. J. Williams (2008, p. 37) and tries to teach the way of working with slides: Use
when you present visual information – indicate what is relevant on the slide to the audience, then... to the audience and not to the screen
The general tips below were adapted from Oral Presentation Skills (Storz et al., 2002, p.14): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Have the slides ready and in order. Check to see if the projector is working. Test the visual to see if people at the back of the room can see it. Stand to the side of the screen and face the audience. Mask to reveal only what you want the audience to see. Use a pointer or a pen to draw attention to a specific point. Visuals should supplement the spoken message (do not write whole sentences) Visuals must be large enough for everyone to see (or give out handouts). Don't display too much information, too many colours or typefaces. Check the presentation for spelling and grammatical mistakes.
3.4.2 Powerful Techniques All of the following techniques will emphasize the impact of your presentation. The expressions are taken from Williams (2008, pp. 52 – 56) and Storz et al. (2002, p. 16): Repetition 1. Repetition adds clarity and impact to the statement. You should pause before the repetition. e. g. It’s a fundamental, a fundamental change that we need. 2. We may want to come back to what we have said. e. g. As I've said before or Let me repeat Rhetorical Questions It is a question that you ask without expecting it to be answered. By doing that, you often change the pitch of your voice and catch audience’s attention. e. g. Have you ever seen/heard/experienced ...? How can we explain this? What does that mean? Rule of Three A simple technique is that people tend to remember only three things. The last element is often the most important one. e. g. Cycling is fast, convenient and non‐polluting way to get around. Contrast e. g. China is a smaller market for us than India or The change in the law was the reason for their failure and our success. The changes we have made are designed not to confuse but to simplify. 59
3.5 Handling Questions A lot of presenters feel stressed during the whole presentation only because they feel insecure about the last moment – questions. There are various reasons: They are afraid that they may not understand the question. They are afraid that they may not know the answer. They feel threaten by difficult questions from audience who do not agree. The model (Dignen, 2007, pp. 108, 109) is a five‐step model for processing questions: R RESPOND (e. g. That’s a good question or So, if I understand you properly…) A ANSWER (keep it short and simple, focus on the actual question) C CHECK (e. g. Did I answer your question? or Do you need more details?) E ENCOURAGE (e. g. Are there any more questions?) R RETURN TO PRESENTATION (e. g. If there are no more questions, I think we can finish here) Another suggestion for dealing with difficult questions comes from Storz et al. (2002, p. 12): You should first make sure you understand the question. ask a question to clarify the meaning paraphrase the question to check the meaning ask the questioner to repeat the question To gain some time to think about the answer, use these expressions: Just a minute please. What is a ..? How can I put it? I'm glad you asked that question. That's a good question/point/remark. Can I answer that question later? You can also admit that you are not responsible: I saw that in the work of … You can agree but give an alternative point of view: I agree with you but there is another way of looking at it.
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4. Last Word Our journey of presentation skills finishes here. It was a long way from the beginning to the end. But going through every moment along this path should help you guide your own journey of presentation smoothly and efficiently. In the following table, you can see an overview of important actions you should think about for a successful presentation: PLAN USE PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES USE VOICE
STRUCTURE ↑ ← A PRESENTER→ SHOULD… ↓ USE BODY LANGUAGE AND EYE CONTACT
PRACTISE USE VISUALS
USE SIMPLE AND CLEAR LANGUAGE
Jeremy Comfort (2009, p.52) summarizes the important steps: Before the presentation: define the audience clarify the objectives plan the content design suitable visual aids control the length follow a clear structure: introduction, main parts, summary and conclusion prepare key expressions and important signposts During the presentation: keep eye contact with the audience do not rush, remember to pause articulate clearly and project your voice. Now we have reached the point when you should give the presentation you have prepared. Ask your audience to evaluate your performance. And use their comments to improve it next time. Good luck. Sources COMFORT, Jeremy. Effective Presentations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, 80 p. ISBN 01‐945‐7065‐7. DIGNEN, Bob. Fifty Ways to Improve Your Presentation Skills in English. Oxford: Summertown, 2007, 145 p. ISBN 978‐190‐2741‐864. GOODALE, Malcolm. Professional Presentations: a video based course. 4th edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, 80 p. ISBN 05‐215‐8682‐8. POWELL, Mark. Presenting in English: how to give successful presentations. Boston: Thomson, 2002, 128 p. ISBN 18‐993‐9630‐6.
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WILLIAMS, Erica J. Presentations in English: find your voice as a presenter. 1. publ. Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2008, 74 p. ISBN 978‐023‐0028‐784. Beginning a presentation – transcript. [online], [accessed on 2012‐01‐12], available from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/8070515/Business‐Meetings‐3‐Beginning‐a‐Presentation‐Transcript
BEARE, Kenneth. Key Phrases for Making a Business Presentation. [online], [accessed on 2012‐02‐08], available from: http://esl.about.com/od/businessspeakingskills/ss/presenting_8.htm
STORZ, Carl et al. Oral Presentation Skills: A practical guide. 2002 [online], [accessed on 2012‐02‐06], available from: http://people.engr.ncsu.edu/txie/publications/oral_presentation_skills.pdf
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V. Teaching in English
Věra Bitljanová “When introducing new material we often need also to give explicit descriptions or definitions of concepts or processes and whether we can or cannot explain such new ideas clearly to our students may make a crucial difference to the success or failure of a lesson.” (Ur, 1996).“ The goal of this section is to provide guidelines on effective instruction giving and explaining as well as basic phrases that may help an inexperienced teacher teach their classes in English in different classroom situations. Most of them are routine ones and they repeat more or less in every class as well as the language used. Others, however, require an immediate reaction to an unusual situation or a student’s question. What follows are the lists of useful phrases for routine situations, e. g. social language, instructions, classroom management, error correction and feedback and explanations.
1. Guidelines Plan your instructions in advance. Think about words, illustrations or demonstrations you will use. If it helps you, write them. Do not rely on your ability to improvise clear explanation or instructions, at least for a while. Make sure everybody is listening. Give instructions first, then give out materials or divide students to groups. Use non verbal communication. Use pauses, body language and keep eye contact with your students. Repeat the information. Say the instruction at least twice and/or paraphrase to make sure that everyone understands. Repetition can make a substantial difference. Make your explanations short, simple and clear. Think carefully about what should be included and what could be omitted. Use examples. When giving instructions, demonstrate them and do the activity yourself with the class. When explaining a “theory”, support it with example(s) from real life. Check understanding. “Do you understand?” is not enough. Ask for an action that will show your students’ understanding, e. g. paraphrasing in their own words, providing other illustrations.
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2. Useful Language Expressions From the following lists choose the phrases that suit you best, and, if necessary, adapt them to meet the needs of the class you teach. Keep using them, they will soon become automatic. Social language GREETINGS Entering the classroom Good morning, everybody. Good afternoon, everybody. Hello, everyone. Hello there, James. How are you today, John? How are you getting on? How's life? How are things with you, Mary? Are you feeling better today, Bill? Leaving the class Good bye, everyone! See you again next week/on Thursday/in two days/ tomorrow/next semester/after the holiday/later/ this afternoon/tomorrow afternoon. So, remember next week is a holiday. So I’ll see you in two weeks/ the week after next. See you in room 7 after the break. Have a good holiday/a nice weekend. Enjoy the weekend. Have a good weekend ‐ You too. Enjoy your break. Merry Christmas. Have a good time in... Have a good holiday. Enjoy your vacation.
FINISHING THE CLASS Some time left There are still two minutes to go. We still have a couple of minutes left. We seem to have finished early. We have an extra five minutes. Finishing the lesson It's almost time to stop. I'm afraid it's time to finish now. We'll have to stop here. It's time to stop. That's all for today. You can go now. It’s break time/ Let’s take a break Talking about the next lesson/seminar/lecture/workshop We'll do the rest of this ... next time. We'll finish this ... next lesson. We've run out of time, so we'll continue next lesson/next Monday. Talking about the next lesson … The next class starts at 5 o’clock. We’ll practise that one more time next week. Right, I think we have no more problems with ... now. Next week we will move onto… Today’s work was hard, so we’ll do something a little easier in the next class. I’m on holiday next week, so there’ll be a cover teacher/replacement teacher… We’ll start the next lesson by.../with the next person’s presentation. Please, apologize to your next teacher for me making you late. You’d better hurry to your next lesson. We’ve finished the book/work/project. So, next lesson we’ll do some revision/evaluation before the final/credit test at the end of semester. 64
Beginning the class Introductions My name is Bedřich Hrozný. I'm your new math teacher. I'll be teaching you math this year/semester. I've got five lessons with you each week. Opening the lesson Let's begin our lesson now. Is everybody ready to start? I hope you are all ready for your math lesson. I think we can start now. Now we can get down to work I'm waiting for you to be quiet. We won't start until everyone is quiet. Stop talking and be quiet. Settle down now so we can start. Register Who is absent today? Who isn't here today? What's the matter with Peter Brown today? What's wrong with Jim today? Why were you absent last Friday, Miss Green? Exams Wishing good luck and congratulations Best of luck. Good luck. I hope you pass. Congratulations! Well done!
Apologizing I'm sorry (about that). Sorry, that was my fault. I'm terribly sorry. Leaving the classroom Excuse me for a moment. I'll be back in a moment. Carry on with the exercise/task while I'm away. I've got to go next door for a moment. Feeling ill I'm afraid I can't speak any louder. I seem to be losing my voice. I have a sore throat. I have a headache. I'm feeling under the weather. Do you mind if I sit down?
Expressing sympathy Never mind. Better luck next time. Instructions SIMPLE INSTRUCTIONS Come in. Go out. Stand up. Sit down. Come to the front of the class. Setting up the activity Pay attention, everybody. You need pencils/rulers.
COMPREHENSION Are you ready? Are you with me? Are you OK? OK so far? Do you get it? Do you understand? Do you follow me? What did you say? One more time, please. 65
We'll learn how to ... Are you ready? Open your books at page ... Turn to page ... Look at activity five. Running the activity Again, please. Everybody ...you have five minutes to do this. Who's next? Like this, not like that. Any questions? Come out and write it on the board Could you try the next one? I would like you to write this down. Do you want to answer question 3?
Say it again, please. I don't understand. I don't get it. Like this? Is this OK?
Finishing the activity It might be an idea to leave this till next time. It's time to finish the task/exercise... Have you finished? Let's stop now. Stop now. We’ll have to stop there. Let's check the answers. Have you finished? Okay, just one more time and that’s it. Okay, (this is the) last time Do the next activity. Just five minutes till the end of the class, so just two minutes more for that activity. Just finish that sentence/ exercise/ paragraph/ question and then put your pens down. We don’t have time to do the whole thing, so we’ll just do this exercise/ line/ section and then stop. Close your books. Put your books away. Before we go, we just have to…… It’ll only take a minute. Finishing the test Five minutes to the end of the test. If anyone has finished early you can leave/ please, sit quietly until everyone has finished. 66
That is the end of the test. Pens and pencils down please. Make sure you have written your name on the front/ on every page. I’ll come round and collect the papers/ Please hand your papers in as you leave. No speaking until all the papers are in, please. Homework Setting up homework This is your homework for the next lesson. For homework please/ I’d like you to/ can you… Do exercise 5 on page 55 for your homework. Your homework is... Prepare the next chapter for Monday. There is no homework today. Remember your homework. Take a worksheet as you leave. Before the next lesson/ before next week/at the weekend, I’d like you to… Remember the last piece of homework/ writing/ the last project? Well, I want you to do something like that/ something similar, but… Please revise that for homework and we’ll use that ... in the next lesson/ next week/ in the test. This homework is a bit long/ difficult, so I’ll give you till this time next week to finish it. The same point comes up in your homework. You’ll feel a lot more confident about that when you’ve done your homework, which is…”
Sequencing instructions First... Next... After that... Then... Finally...
Extra practice If you feel like you need more practice, you can do practice at home by… I think we all need some more practice of that, so for homework… If anyone needs any extra practice, I suggest doing exercise 11 and 12 as well. As you have a long holiday/ a big test coming up, I’m going to give you a bit more homework than usual. The people who missed the beginning of the lesson/ the last lesson might also want to do… 67
Checking homework Let’s check your homework from the last lesson/week... I forgot the check the homework/ We didn’t have time to check the homework, so we’ll have to do that next time. I’m going to give you one more chance to do the homework from last week, so anyone who’s already done it can enjoy their free time. Classroom management WORK ORGANIZATION Make groups of four. Move your desks into groups of four people. Turn your desks around. Make a horseshoe shape with your desks. Make a circle with your desks. Make a line of desks facing each other. Make groups of four desks facing each other. Sit back to back. Would you mind switching the lights on/off?
Cooperation Ask your neighbour for help. Work on the task together. Ask other people in the group Ask others in the class. Interview someone else. Ask everyone in the class. Stand up and find another partner.
GROUPING Work together with your friend Find a partner Work in pairs/threes/fours/fives. Work in groups of two/three/four. I want you to form groups. Form groups of three Here are some tasks for you to work on in groups of four. There are too many in this group. There’s one too many in this group. Can you join the other group? Only three people in each group. I asked for four people to a group. Everybody work individually. Work by yourselves. Work independently. Sequencing work First of all, today, ... Right. Now we will go on to the next exercise. Have you finished? For the last thing today, let's ... Whose turn is it to read? Which question are you on? Next one, please. Who hasn't answered yet? Let me explain what I want you to do next. The idea of this exercise is for you to You have ten minutes to do this. Your time is up. Finish this by twenty to eleven. Can you all see the board? Have you found the place? 68
Asking questions Yes/No questions Have you completed your homework? Either /Or questions Is your morning class in E building or in F building? Open end questions Where's the...? Tell me where the... is. What was it like? What do you think? How can you tell?
Error correction and feedback POSITIVE FEEDBACK Right. Yes. Fine. Quite right. That's right. That's it. That's correct. That's quite right. Yes, you've got it. You've got the idea. Very good. That's very good. Well done. Very fine. That's nice. I like that. Marvellous. You did a great job. Magnificent. Terrific. Wow! Jolly good. Great stuff. Fantastic. I was pleasantly surprised by... /how easy you all found that. I’ll have to think of something more difficult for next week.
Are you all ready? Move on to the next activity. Supervising Look this way. Stop talking. Listen to what ... is saying. Leave that alone now. Be careful. I was a bit disappointed with your efforts. Yes, that's right. Fine. Almost. Try again. What about this …? That's interesting! That really is very kind of you. Don't worry about it. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK Not really. Unfortunately not. I'm afraid that's not quite right. You can't say that, I'm afraid. You can't use that ... here. Good try, but not quite right. Have another try. Not quite right. Try again. Not exactly. You still have some trouble with ... You need more practice with ... You'll have to spend some time practising this.
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Support It depends. It might be, I suppose. In a way, perhaps. Sort of, yes. That's more like it. That's much better. That's a lot better. You've improved a lot. You were almost right. That's almost it. You're halfway there. You've almost got it. You're on the right lines. You're getting better at it all the time. You've improved no end. There's no need to rush. There's no hurry. We have plenty of time. Go on. Have a try. Have a go/a guess. Don't worry about your .... Don't worry, it'll improve. Maybe this will help you. Do you want a clue (hint)? Explanations REFERENCE After they left the USA, the Beatles ... The research was started in... . This is a diagram of a.... In the background you can see ... While we're on the subject, ... As I said earlier, ... Let me sum up.
Asking for students‘ feedback Which topic will your group report on? Explain it in your own words. Can you say it in your own words? Can you provide another example? Can anybody correct this? Do you feel more confident (about that skill/ paper) now? Do you feel you’ve improved? Do you think that will be useful (when you go to work for.../ in your work/ in your studies)? Do you need any more practice of that (or not)?
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Focused freewriting follows the same process but begins with a topic:
Put a topic of your choice, or even the topic of your next paper, at the top of a blank page.
Set a time limit and begin free writing. This time, write down things that seem to be related to the topic. Do not worry about order of ideas or grammatical correctness. Do not worry if the ideas seem to be digressions.
When time is up, look over what you have written. Pull out ideas and phrases you can use later.
Practice putting the freewriting into outline form. If you were to use the writing to begin a paper, which points would you make first? Second?
1.3 Brainstorming Much like freewriting, brainstorming involves capturing all of the thoughts, ideas, and fragments in your head and writing them down on paper. Often, brainstorming looks more like a list while freewriting may look more like a paragraph. With either strategy, your goal is to get as many ideas down on paper as you can. For a clear description and example of brainstorming go to this link: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/brainst.html
1.4 Clustering With this technique, you start with a circle in the middle that contains your main idea and then you draw lines to other, smaller circles that contain sub‐ideas or issues related to the main idea. Try to group like ideas together so as to organize yourself. Another word for clustering is mind or concept mapping. The best way to incorporate this strategy into your own prewriting process is to first get some practice using it. The following links are sure to get you going. Go to this link: http://www.studygs.net/mapping/index.htm for an interactive video to teach you what mind mapping is. By scrolling down the page, you will find a variety of other interactive concept mapping exercises to try out. Go to this link: http://www.west.asu.edu/johnso/synthesis/clapton.htm for an example of clustering where the ideas have not been connected in any way to show their relations to each other. How would you link the circles together? Then click “next” to see various ways connections can be made. Go to this link: http://www.lonij.net/wordstorm/wordstorm.php to get online help with brainstorming and clustering. It is a very simple tool to use and will find related meanings for words automatically, which can be extremely inspirational during the pre‐writing stage.
1.5 WH‐Questions As you may know, journalists have six important questions they need to answer about any story they report: who, what, when, where, why, and how. By answering these questions, journalists can be certain that they have provided the most important information about an event, issue, or problem to their readers.
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These questions are also useful to you as writers when you are describing an event or writing an informative essay. This technique also allows you to make sure you have provided all of the important and specific details of a situation. Suppose that you are writing about the political conflict in the Middle East. Using the journalistic technique, you could begin working on the paper by asking yourself the following questions: Who is involved in the conflict? What issues most clearly divide those engaged in this dispute? When did the troubles in the Middle East begin, and how have they developed over time? Where does the conflict seem most heated or violent? Why have those living in this area found it so difficult to resolve the situation? How might this conflict be resolved? Asking WH‐questions helps you focus and narrow your topic while ensuring that all of the important questions have been answered.
1.6 Cubing Cubing enables you to consider your topic from six different directions; just as a cube is six‐sided, your cubing brainstorming will result in six "sides" or approaches to the topic. Take a sheet of paper, consider your topic, and respond to these six commands. 1. Describe it. 2. Compare it. 3. Associate it. 4. Analyze it. 5. Apply it. 6. Argue for and against it. Look over what you have written. Do any of the responses suggest anything new about your topic? What interactions do you notice among the "sides"? That is, do you see patterns repeating, or a theme emerging that you could use to approach the topic or draft a thesis? Does one side seem particularly fruitful in getting your brain moving? Could that one side help you draft your thesis statement? Use this technique in a way that serves your topic. It should, at least, give you a broader awareness of the topic's complexities, if not a sharper focus on what you will do with it. Go to this link: http://survivaltips.blogspot.com/2005/05/cubing‐pre‐writing‐exercise.html for an in‐depth description of cubing and an example of using cubing to develop the topic learning to speak a foreign language. Sources ALLEN, Roberta and Marcia V MASCOLINI. The Process of Writing: composing through critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, c1997, 184 p. ISBN 01‐318‐2114‐8. GOLDBERG, Natalie. Writing down the Bones: freeing the writer within. 2nd ed. Boston: Shambhala, 2005, 200 p. ISBN 15‐903‐0261‐3. University of Richmond, Virginia: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/freewrite.html
The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/brainstorming.html
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2. Critical Reading To non‐critical readers, texts provide facts. Readers gain knowledge by memorizing the statements within a text. To the critical reader, any single text provides only one depiction of the facts, one individual’s perception of the subject matter. Critical readers thus recognize not only what a text says, but also how that text represents the subject matter. They recognize the various ways in which each and every text is the unique creation of a unique author. A non‐critical reader might read a history book to learn the facts of a situation or to discover an accepted interpretation of those events. A critical reader might read the same work to appreciate how a particular perspective on the events and a particular selection of facts can lead to particular understanding. What a Text Says, Does, and Means: Reaching for an Interpretation Non‐critical reading is satisfied with recognizing what a text says and restating the key remarks. Critical reading goes two steps further. Having recognized what a text says, it reflects on what the text does by making such remarks. Is it offering examples? Arguing? Appealing for sympathy? Making a contrast to clarify a point? Finally, critical readers then infer what the text, as a whole, means, based on the earlier analysis. These three steps or modes of analysis are reflected in three types of reading and discussion: What a text says – restatement – talks about the same topic as the original text What a text does – description – discusses aspects of the discussion itself What a text means – interpretation – analyzes the text and asserts a meaning for the text as a whole. Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask students to accomplish certain goals: to recognize an author’s purpose to understand tone and persuasive elements to recognize bias Notice that none of these goals actually refers to something on the page. Each requires inferences from evidence within the text: recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content and language recognizing tone and persuasive elements involves classifying the nature of language choices recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and language Critical reading is not simply close and careful reading. To read critically, one must actively recognize and analyze evidence upon the page. Analysis and Inference: The Tools of Critical Reading Analysis is the tool that helps you discover what to look for and Inference is applied to assist you with how to think about what you find. What to look for – involves recognizing those aspects of a discussion that control the meaning. How to think about what you find – involves the processes of inference, the interpretation of data from within the text. 75
2.1 Determining Main Claims Critical reading means thinking carefully about an author’s claims, rather than accepting these claims at face value. It requires the following skills: identifying the claims or arguments of a text; evaluating the logic of these arguments; determining whether the author has presented sufficient and valid evidence in support of these arguments; and considering alternative evidence and arguments that might challenge the author’s claims. Why bother? Because if you do not read critically, you may miss the main arguments of the text, or – worse – your opinions may be influenced by false arguments. Critical reading is one aspect of critical thinking, which is the ability to evaluate arguments and reach your own well‐reasoned conclusions. In fact, critical thinking may be the single most important skill that you can acquire during your education. In both your professional and your personal life, you will likely be called upon to separate strong from weak arguments, to develop your own opinions based on evidence and careful reasoning, and to sort through and make sense of a confusing mass of information. Critical thinking and reading skills will allow you to do this. So, how can you learn to read critically? It is not hard, and it gets easier with practice. Here is what to do: When you begin each of your readings, keep the following questions in mind, which you can remember by thinking about the word "clear."
Claims: What are the main claims or arguments in the text? What is the author’s main point? 2. Logic: How does the author reach these conclusions? What are the steps in the author’s reasoning or logic? Is this logic sound? 3. Evidence: What evidence does the author present to support the argument(s)? Does the author offer enough evidence? Is this evidence convincing? Can you think of any counter‐evidence that would challenge the author’s claims? 4. Assumptions: Does the author rely on hidden assumptions? If so, are these assumptions correct? 5. Alternative ARguments: Can you think of alternative arguments that the author has not considered? 1.
2.2 Examining Evidence It is essential to consider the quality of the evidence in the reading, as this directly relates to the usefulness of the reading. Is the evidence fact, research, opinion, or personal experience? Objective facts are generally applicable. Information obtained through research is convincing, as long as the methodology is appropriate. 76
Opinions can easily be contradicted by an alternative opinion. They are more likely to be biased. Personal experience may not apply to other cases and so is not easily generalized.
Is the evidence accurate? Does the evidence agree with other sources? Does the evidence agree with your own understanding of the topic? Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion? Does the evidence connect to the reading's conclusion? Is it enough to support the argument? Is the evidence convincing? Is the theory appropriate for this topic? Many readings rely on particular theories or models to make their argument. Is the theory the best fit for this topic? Is the theory properly interpreted and explained in the reading? Does the theory explain the entire conclusion or only part of it? Are there parts of the conclusion not explained by the theory?
2.3 Evaluating Arguments Three Criteria for Evaluating Arguments
Terms are clearly defined. Writers and readers need to agree on what is meant by the key terms. Without agreement on terms, the argument's validity can be questioned.
Information is used fairly. The information used to support the argument is correct and current. It avoids distorting the facts or being one‐sided, i.e., both sides of the argument are represented.
The argument is logical. Arguments can be biased but NOT fallacious. To determine if an argument is logical: 1) consider the "grounds" on which it was based, i.e., personal knowledge, reliable expert opinion, common knowledge, reliable testimony, common sense; and 2) look closely at the claims to make sure they are not fallacious.
Avoiding Logical Fallacies A logical fallacy is faulty logic used in writing or speaking. There are many types of fallacies. You need to be able to recognize them when you read and avoid using them in your writing. Go to this link: http://www.queensu.ca/learningstrategies/grad/reading/module/criticalreading/SomeCommonLogic alFallacies.pdf for a number of examples of common logical fallacies.
2.4 Practical Guidelines
What facts does the author refer to in the text? (One technique that can help you keep track of facts and opinions is to underline facts and highlight opinions.)
How are these facts supported by evidence? 77
What opinions or points of view does the author show in this piece of writing?
Does the author present a balanced picture of the topic?
Does the author present opinion as fact? If so, where specifically?
How would you characterize the author’s tone? How does the tone affect your response to the text?
Does the author distort the ideas of others or present them out of context? Where? Give examples. How do you know?
Does the author cover the topic thoroughly or are there unanswered questions? Give examples.
Does the author's language, tone, or choice of examples reveal any biases? Where specifically? Explain how these biases affect the author’s credibility.
What else has the author written? Do these other pieces add or detract from the credibility of the author?
Who is the author’s employer? Why would this matter?
Some Practical Tips 1. Critical reading occurs after some preliminary processes of reading. Begin by skimming research materials, especially introductions and conclusions, in order to strategically select where to focus your critical efforts. 2. When highlighting a text or taking notes from it, teach yourself to highlight argument: those places in a text where an author explains their analytical moves, the concepts used, how they were used, how conclusions were arrived at. Do not let yourself stress or isolate facts and examples, no matter how interesting they may be. First, look for the large patterns that give purpose, order, and meaning to those examples. The opening sentences of paragraphs can be important to this task. 3. When you begin to think about how you might use a portion of a text in the argument you are generating in your own paper, try to remain aware of how this portion fits into the whole argument from which it is taken. Paying attention to context is a fundamental critical move. 4. When you quote directly from a source, use the quotation critically. This means that you should not substitute the quotation for your own articulation of a point. Rather, introduce the quotation by laying out the judgments you are making about it, and the reasons why you are using it. Often a quotation is followed by some further analysis.
Go to this link: http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/454.htm for an excellent resource to help develop your critical reading skills. Included here is a very effective video that will take you gradually through the entire critical reading process. Also very useful is the exercise in synthesis.
2.5 Annotating Annotating is an important skill to employ if you want to read critically. Successful critical readers read with a pencil in their hand, making notes in the text as they read. Instead of reading passively, they create an active relationship with what they are reading by
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"talking back" to the text in its margins. You may want to make the following annotations as you read: TIPS:
Create headings or categories to identify different sections. Write brief summaries of different sections. Mark the words and phrases you do not know. Highlight or underline a passage you think is important. Recall and express any associations and/or ideas you have in response to the text. Create connections with other information you have read, heard or seen. Ask questions about anything you find confusing.
The following is a general system for annotating offered only as a suggestion. Keep in mind, though, that the more precise your marks are and the more focused your notes and reactions, the easier it will be to draw material from the text into your own writing. But be selective: the unfortunate tendency is to underline (or highlight) too much of a text. The shrewd reader will mark sparingly, keeping the focus on the truly important elements of a writer’s ideas and his or her own reactions.
What are you looking for? Recall your purpose for reading. How will you use what you find? Identify the structure of the text. Double underline the author’s explanation of the main point(s) and jot "M.P." in the margin. (Often, but not always, a writer will tell an engaged reader where the text is going.) Underline each major new claim that the author makes in developing the text and write "claim 1," "claim 2," and so on in the margin. Circle major point, of transition from the obvious (subtitles) to the less obvious (phrases like however, on the other hand, for example, and so on). Asterisk major pieces of evidence like statistics or stories or argument note in the margin the kind of evidence and its purpose, for example, "story that illustrates claim." Write "concl." in the margin at points where the writer draws major conclusions. Locate passages and phrases that trigger reactions. Put a question mark next to points that are unclear and note whether you need more information or the author has been unclear or whether the passage just sounds unreasonable or out‐of‐place. Put an exclamation point next to passages that you react to strongly in agreement, disagreement, or interest. Attach a post‐it note next to trigger passages and write a brief reaction as you read.
2.6 Taking Notes If you take notes efficiently, you can read with more understanding and also save time and frustration when you come to write your paper. These are three main principles:
2.6.1 Know What Kind of Ideas You Need to Record Focus your approach to the topic before you start detailed research. Then you will read with a purpose in mind, and you will be able to sort out relevant ideas. 79
First, review the commonly known facts about your topic, and also become aware of the range of thinking and opinions on it. Browse in an encyclopaedia or other reference work.
Try making a preliminary list of the subtopics you would expect to find in your reading. These will guide your attention and may be useful as labels for notes.
Choose a component or angle that interests you, perhaps one on which there is already some controversy. Now formulate your research question. It should allow for reasoning as well as gathering of information—not just what the proto‐Iroquoians ate, for instance, but how valid the evidence is for early introduction of corn. You may even want to jot down a tentative thesis statement as a preliminary answer to your question.
Then you will know what to look for in your research reading: facts and theories that help answer your question, and other people's opinions about whether specific answers are good ones.
2.6.2 Do Not Write Down Too Much Your final written product must be an expression of your own thinking, not a patchwork of borrowed ideas. Plan therefore to invest your research time in understanding your sources and integrating them into your own thinking. Your notes will record only ideas that are relevant to your focus on the topic; and they will mostly summarize rather than quote.
Copy out exact words only when the ideas are memorably phrased or surprisingly expressed—when you might use them as actual quotations in your essay.
Otherwise, compress ideas in your own words. Paraphrasing word by word is a waste of time. Choose the most important ideas and write them down as labels or headings. Then fill in with a few subpoints that explain or exemplify.
Do not depend on underlining and highlighting. Find your own words for notes in the margin.
2.6.3 Label Your Notes Intelligently
Avoid complications later on by developing the habit of recording bibliographic information in a master list when you begin looking at each source. Then you can quickly identify each note by the author's name and page number; when you refer to sources in your written work, you can fill in details of publication easily from your master list. Keep a format guide handy.
Label the topic of each note. Not only will this keep your note taking focused, but it will also allow for grouping and synthesizing of ideas later.
Leave lots of space in your notes for comments of your own—questions and reactions as you read, second thoughts and cross‐references when you look back at what you've written. These comments can become a virtual first draft of your paper.
Go to this link:
http://cms.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/470327/Reading‐TakingNotesFromTexts.pdf
for useful advice on note taking
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Go to this link:
https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/1_studyskills/study_tuts/notetaking_ll/index.html
for a series of interactive exercises to help build your note‐taking skills.
2.7 Outlining Why create an outline? There are many reasons; but in general, it may be helpful to create an outline when you want to show the hierarchical relationship or logical ordering of information. For research papers, an outline may help you keep track of large amounts of information. Many people find that organizing an oral report or presentation in outline form helps them speak more effectively in front of a crowd. Below are the primary reasons for creating an outline. It: aids in the process of writing helps you organize your ideas presents your material in a logical form shows the relationships among ideas in your writing constructs an ordered overview of your writing defines boundaries and groups How do I create an outline? Determine the purpose of your paper. Determine the audience you are writing for. Develop the thesis of your paper. Then: Brainstorm: Or use another pre‐writing technique to list all the ideas that you want to include in your paper. Organize: Group related ideas together. Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete. Label: Create main and sub headings. Remember: Creating an outline before writing your paper will make organizing your thoughts a lot easier. Whether you follow the suggested guidelines is up to you, but making any kind of outline (even just jotting down some main ideas) will be beneficial to your writing process. Go to this link: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/544/01/ for valuable guidelines on outlining including four Main Components for Effective Outlines; why and How to Create a Useful Outline; types of Outlines and Samples Go to this link: http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/outline_sample.htm for a clear example of an outline Go to this link: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/outline.html for step by step assistance in writing macro and micro outlines.
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Sources http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm
University of Ottawa: http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~rparis/critical.html University of Toronto: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/reading‐and‐researching/critical‐reading http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/lardner_awl/chapter1/custom5/deluxe‐ content.html#3
Additional Sources for Learning about Critical Writing and Reading BEHRENS, Laurence and Leonard J ROSEN. Writing and Reading across the Curriculum. 9th ed. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2005, 849 p. ISBN 0321291158X. SPACK, Ruth. Guidelines: a cross‐cultural reading/writing text. 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 336 p. ISBN 9780521613026.
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3. Managing Source Material Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing are the three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing. They differ with respect to how nearly represented your writing is to the source writing. Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author. Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly. Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material. Why Use Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries? Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to: provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing give examples of several points of view on a subject call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are not your own expand the breadth or depth of your writing Writers frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. As part of a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book, a writer might include paraphrases of various key points blended with quotations of striking or suggestive phrases as in the following example: In his famous and influential work On the Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues that dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious" (page #), expressing in coded imagery the dreamer's unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the "dream work" (page #). According to Freud, actual but unacceptable desires are censored internally and subjected to coding through layers of condensation and displacement before emerging in a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself (page #s). How to Use Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries Read the entire text, noting the key points and main ideas. Summarize in your own words what the single main idea of the essay is. Paraphrase important supporting points that come up in the essay. Consider any words, phrases, or brief passages that you believe should be quoted directly.
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3.1 Quoting There are several ways to integrate quotations into your text. Often, a short quotation works well when integrated into a sentence. Longer quotations can stand alone. Remember that quoting should be done only sparingly; be sure that you have a good reason to include a direct quotation when you decide to do so. You will find guidelines for citing sources in the next chapter. How Much Should I Quote? The focus of your writing should always be on your understanding of the topic. If you include too much quotation, you will crowd out your own ideas. Consider quoting a passage from one of your sources if any of the following conditions holds: The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable. You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the support of an authority on your topic. The passage is worthy of further analysis. You wish to argue with someone else's position in considerable detail. If an argument or a factual account from one of your sources is particularly relevant to your paper but does not deserve to be quoted verbatim, consider paraphrasing the passage if you wish to convey the points in the passage at roughly the same level of detail as in the original summarizing the relevant passage if you wish to sketch only the most essential points in the passage Note that most scientific writing relies on summary rather than quotation. The same is true of writing in social sciences that rely on controlled studies and emphasize quantifiable results.
3.2 Paraphrasing What is a Paraphrase? A paraphrase is when you write published materials in your own words without changing its original meaning. It is usually about the same length as the original, as opposed to a summary which is usually much shorter. It is important that the sentence structure and the vocabulary are not too similar to the original. The main way to paraphrase is to: change the structure of the paragraph change the words. It is not enough to do just one of these; you need to change the structure and the words. You must do this to avoid plagiarism. Changing the Structure of a Paragraph Use the following steps to change the structure of a paragraph. Write down the main ideas & concepts Read the paragraph and write down the main points or words. Do not copy down entire sentences.
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Put the original away Put the paragraph / book away and using the main points, write your paraphrase from memory. This means that you are not copying the text word for word.
Check your version against the original To avoid accidental plagiarism, check what you have written against the original text. You should check that they are not the same as well to see if you have left anything out. Changing the Words To paraphrase a text, follow these steps. Read the sentence to be paraphrased a number of times Read the sentence / paragraph you want to paraphrase a number of times to get the meaning of the text. Once you understand it, write out the sentence in your own words. If you do not fully understand the text, do not attempt to paraphrase it, as you will just copy it. Circle the specialized words Circle the specialized words, i.e. the words that the text is actually about. These will need to be included in your paraphrase, as without these words, the meaning of the paraphrase will change completely. Underline keywords that can be changed By underlining the keywords that can be changed, you now have a starting point to construct your paraphrase. Find alternative words for the keywords Find other words and phrases that have similar meanings that can be used to replace the keywords in the text. Use a thesaurus or dictionary to help if need be.
3.3 Summarizing Summarizing is giving the gist of a chosen passage or work in your own words. An effective summary communicates the main points in a selection but is significantly shorter than the original. Purpose Summarization is a valuable tool for academic and professional writing and can be used for many purposes: to convey a general idea to present only necessary information 85
to set up quoted material to provide support or add credibility to establish background to offer an overview of a topic
Effectiveness Effective summaries use concise, coherent sentences to communicate the key information of a passage. Writing a summary involves deleting extraneous material, highlighting key points, synthesizing overall meaning, and condensing primary ideas. Remember: a summary must remain faithful to the original source’s meaning and emphasis. Avoid giving your own opinions. Instead, maintain a neutral tone as you convey the view expressed in the original. Steps to Summarize Read the passage you are summarizing at least twice to be sure you understand it. Highlight the thesis or main idea. Identify the portions of the text that support the main idea; underline these sections. Use major section headings as a guide for summarizing longer works. For instance, you might include the main points from the key sections of a research study: introduction or problem statement, scope of study, methods section, results section, and discussion/conclusion. Put the original out of sight when you write your paraphrase so you are not tempted to copy it directly. Rephrase the main points into your own sentences, but remember to reflect the purpose and message of the original. It is usually not necessary to include examples and details. Create a thesis that explains the key ideas of the original. Do not just restate the thesis; instead, form your own. This will help you re‐create the meaning of the original so that it makes sense for you. To avoid plagiarizing, be sure not only to rewrite the thesis in your own words, but also to change the structure of the sentences, substitute synonyms for key terms, eliminate jargon, remove extraneous details or examples, and condense information to reflect the essence of the original text. As a general rule, make a summary five to ten per cent the length of the original. Revise and edit to ensure accuracy and correctness. When integrating a summary into your text, let your readers know that the information you are presenting is not your own by introducing the name of the author(s) or source of the summarized material: “In their research on plant diseases, Doe and Deer found that…” or “According to a recent article in The New York Times…” Show readers how the summarized material is relevant to your own argument: “Researcher Jane Deer came to a similar conclusion in her study of…” Remember to cite the passage’s original source information.
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3.4 Synthesizing What is Synthesis? A synthesis is a written discussion that draws two or more sources. It follows that your ability to write syntheses depends on your ability to infer relationships among sources – essays, articles, fiction, and also non‐written sources, such as lectures, interviews, observations. This process is nothing new for you, since you infer relationships all the time ‐ say, between something you have read in the newspaper and something you have seen for yourself, or between the teaching styles of your favorite and least favorite instructors. In fact, if you have written research papers, you have already written syntheses. In an academic synthesis, you make explicit the relationships that you have inferred among separate sources. The skills you have already been practicing will be vital in writing syntheses. Clearly, before you are in a position to draw relationships between two or more sources, you must understand what those sources say; in other words, you must be able to summarize these sources. It will frequently be helpful for your readers if you provide at least partial summaries of sources in your synthesis writing. At the same time, you must go beyond summary to make judgments – judgments based, of course, on your critical reading of your sources. You must draw some conclusions about the quality and validity of these sources; and you should know how much you agree or disagree with the points made in your sources and the reasons for your agreement or disagreement. Further, you must go beyond the critique of individual sources to determine the relationship among them. Is the information in source B, for example, an extended illustration of the generalizations in source A? Would it be useful to compare and contrast source C with source B? Having read and considered sources A, B, and C, can you infer something else – D (not a source, but your own idea)? Because a synthesis is based on two or more sources, you will need to be selective when choosing information from each. It would be neither possible nor desirable, for instance, to discuss in a ten‐page paper on globalization every point that the authors of two books make about their subject. What you as a writer must do is select the ideas and information from each source that best allow you to achieve your purpose. Purpose Your purpose in reading source materials and then in drawing upon them to write your own material is reflected in the particular focus you take. For example, you may be evaluating a text, arguing a position on a topic, explaining cause and effect relationships, or comparing and contrasting items. While you might use the same sources in writing argumentatively as you would in writing a comparison/contrast paper, you will make different uses of those sources based on the different purposes you have in mind. Using the Sources Your purpose determines not only what parts of your sources you will use but also how you will relate them to one another. Since the very essence of synthesis is the combining of information and ideas, you must have some basis on which to combine them. Some relationships among the material in you sources must make them worth synthesizing. It follows that the better able you are to discover such relationships, the better able you will be to use your sources in writing syntheses. Your purpose in writing will determine how you relate your source materials to one another. Your purpose in writing determines 87
which sources you use, which parts of them you use, at which points in your paper you use them, and in what manner you relate them to one another.
Two Types of Synthesis THE EXPLANATORY SYNTHESIS: An explanatory synthesis helps readers to understand a topic. Writers explain when they divide a subject into its component parts and present them to the reader in a clear and orderly fashion. Explanations may entail descriptions that re‐create in words some object, place, event, sequence of events, or state of affairs. The purpose in writing an explanatory paper is not to argue a particular point, but rather to present the facts in a reasonably objective manner. The explanatory synthesis does not go much beyond what is obvious from a careful reading of the sources. THE ARGUMENT SYNTHESIS: The purpose of an argument synthesis is for you to present your own point of view – supported, of course, by relevant facts, drawn from sources, and presented in a logical manner. The thesis of an argumentative essay is debatable. It makes a proposition about which reasonable people could disagree, and any two writers working with the same source materials could conceive of and support other, opposite theses. Techniques for Developing Synthesis in your Writing SUMMARY: The simplest – and least sophisticated – way of organizing a synthesis essay is to summarize your most relevant sources, one after the other, but generally with the most important source(s) last. The problem with this approach is that it reveals little or no independent thought on your part. Its main virtue is that it at least grounds your paper in relevant and specific evidence. Summary can be useful – and sophisticated – if handled judiciously, selectively, and in combination with other techniques. At some time you may need to summarize a crucial source in some detail. At another point, you may wish to summarize a key section or paragraph of a source in a single sentence. Try to anticipate what your reader needs to know at any given point of your paper in order to comprehend or appreciate fully the point you are making. EXAMPLE OR ILLUSTRATION: At one or more points in your paper, you may wish to refer to a particularly illuminating example or illustration from your source material. You might paraphrase this example (i.e., recount it, in some detail, in your own words), summarize it, or quote it directly from your source. In all these cases, of course, you would properly credit your source. TWO (OR MORE) REASONS: The "two reasons" approach can be an extremely effective method of development. You simply state your thesis, then offer reasons why the statement is true, supported by evidence from your sources. You can advance as many reasons for the truth of your thesis as needed; but save the most important reason(s) for last, because the end of the paper is what will remain most clearly in the reader's mind. STRAWMAN: When you use the strawman technique, you present an argument against your thesis, but immediately afterward you show that this argument is weak or flawed. The advantage of this technique is that you demonstrate your awareness of the other side of the argument and show that you are prepared to answer it. The strawman 88
argument first presents an introduction and thesis, then the main opposing argument, a refutation of the opposing argument, and finally a positive argument. CONCESSION: Like the strawman, the concession technique presents the opposing viewpoint, but it does not proceed to demolish the opposition. Instead, it concedes that the opposition has a valid point but that, even so, the positive argument is the stronger one. This method is particularly valuable when you know your reader holds the opposing view. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST: Comparison and contrast techniques enable you to examine two subjects (or sources) in terms of one another. When you compare, you consider similarities. When you contrast, you consider differences. By comparing and contrasting, you perform a multifaceted analysis that often suggests subtleties that otherwise might not have come to your attention. To organize a comparison/contrast analysis, you must carefully read sources in order to discover significant criteria for analysis. A criterion is a specific point to which both of your authors refer and about which they may agree or disagree. The best criteria are those that allow you not only to account for obvious similarities and differences between sources but also to investigate deeper, to more subtle and significant similarities and differences. To see an example of an essay applying synthesis, click here: http://www.cord.edu/faculty/buslig/201Ppr2Exmpl.html
3.5 Avoiding Plagiarism In academic environments, we are continually engaged with other people’s ideas: we read them in texts, hear them in lectures, discuss them in class, and incorporate them into our own writing. As a result, it is very important that we give credit where it is due. Plagiarism is using others’ ideas and words without clearly acknowledging the source of that information. If you use someone else's ideas, you should cite the source. If the way in which you are using the source is unclear, make it clear. If you received specific help from someone in writing the paper, acknowledge it. Types of Plagiarism 1. Direct Plagiarism: This is copying a source word for word without indicating that it is a quote and crediting the author. 2. Vague or Incorrect Citation: A writer should indicate where a borrowing begins and ends. Sometimes, a writer cites a source once, and the reader assumes that the previous sentence or paragraph has been paraphrased, when most of the essay is a paraphrase of this one source. The writer has failed to indicate his borrowings clearly. Paraphrases and summaries should be indicated as such by surrounding them with citation – at the beginning with the author's name, at the end with a parenthetical reference. The writer must always clearly indicate when a paraphrase, summary, or quotation begins, ends, or is interrupted. 3. Mosaic Plagiarism: This is the most common type of plagiarism. The writer does not copy the source directly, but changes a few words in each sentence or slightly reworks a paragraph, without giving credit to the original author. Those sentences or paragraphs are not quotes, but are so close to quotes that that they should 89
be quoted or, if they have been changed enough to qualify as a paraphrase, the source should be cited. Ways to Avoid Plagiarism Give yourself plenty of time to research and write your essay. Do enough research early to determine if your topic is workable. When you cannot find the material you need and do not have enough time to start a new topic, plagiarizing an essay is a great temptation. When you are doing a paper that uses sources, give yourself time to digest the research. If you are working directly from the source book, you may begin to do a mosaic plagiarism. If you write a draft without using the source material, and then go back and incorporate the quotes you need and indicate your borrowings, you may find that you have produced a more original paper. Originality comes from synthesizing what you have read. Take careful research notes that include full bibliographic citations. This will insure that you can easily cite a source when you prepare your final draft. Make it a habit to put parenthetical citations for all the sources you borrow from in each draft you write. This will save you time because you will not have to look up your citations when you are preparing the final draft. Have confidence in yourself. Even the best writers are often unaware of their good ideas and think they have nothing to say when their writing says a lot. Original ideas come from working closely with the ideas of others, not from flashes of inspiration. Go to this link: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ for a view of plagiarism from the perspective of universities in the USA. Additional Support for Learning about Quoting, Paraphrasing, Summarizing & Plagiarism Go to this link: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/03 to see an essay followed by examples of quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing based on it. Go to this link: http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference‐between‐paraphrasing‐ and‐summarizing/ for a clear description of the differences between paraphrasing and summarizing. Go to this link: http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/paraphrase.html to see a passage that has been paraphrased both incorrectly and correctly followed by an example of a summary of the passage. These samples should help you to clearly compare the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing. Go to this link: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/summary.htm for some good tips on how to paraphrase and summarize text. From there, you can click on a further link to see more examples of good and bad paraphrasing. Go to this link: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/notes.htm for guidelines on taking notes, which is a very important step in both the paraphrasing and summarizing processes. Go to this link : https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/paraphrase_ll/activity.html for 3 paraphrasing exercises. To learn all you need to know about plagiarism and how to avoid it, complete the following tutorial online: http://www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/plagiarism/index.cfm 90
Sources LAUDON, Kenneth C. and Jane Price LAUDON. Management Information Systems: managing the digital firm. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002, 614 p. ISBN 01‐303‐3066‐3. Purdue University: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/ University of Toronto: http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/quotations.htmlr RMIT University: https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/paraphrase_ll/index.html
Texas A&M University: http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/2005/how‐to/research‐documentation/summarizing/
MSU: https://www.msu.edu/~jdowell/135/Synthesis.html DePauw University: http://www.depauw.edu/admin/arc/w‐center/plag.asp
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4. Citing Sources When writing a research paper you often need to refer to the work of other people – todescribe their research or ideas, or to quote them, for example. Whenever you refer to, paraphrase, summarize or quote the theories or research of other people, you need to indicate in your paper the source of your information. Thoroughly documenting your sources has a number of advantages; for example, you help your reader to check the accuracy of your description of the source, and the credibility of the source itself. In addition, you demonstrate your knowledge of the literature in your area. Finally, you enable your reader to learn more about particular theories or findings mentioned in your paper. Which Documentation Style Should You Use? You have several different styles of documentation to choose from when citing sources. In most disciplines a specific set of guidelines is accepted as the standard. For any paper that requires documentation, however, you should first determine which citation style is required. The following guidelines and examples are based on the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2004), 5th edition, published by the American Psychological Association or APA and the Modern Language Association Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (Gibaldi, 2008), 3rd edition, published by The Modern Language Association or MLA. APA is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the social and natural sciences in the USA while MLA, also used in the US, is mainly applied in the liberal arts and humanities. Other styles include CBE for biologists and Turabian/Chicago Manual of Styles for history and the fine arts.
Go to this link: http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm for a clear step by step tutorial on citing sources in APA which begins on page 13 and continues until the end of the tutorial on page 26. Go to this link: http://content.tcc.fl.edu/library/activities/mla3/ for an interactive tutorial to learn the MLA system for citing sources. Now, go to this link: http://support.library.ewu.edu/reference/tutorial/flash/citation.html to review what you have learned above and to practice using both APA and MLA to cite sources.
Sources LAUDON, Kenneth C. and Jane Price LAUDON. Management Information Systems: managing the digital firm. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002, 614 p. ISBN 01‐303‐3066‐3. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 5. ed., 7. print. Washington, DC: American Psychological Assoc, 2004. ISBN 978‐155‐7987‐914. GIBALDI, Joseph. MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 3rd ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008, 336 p. ISBN 08‐735‐2298‐2. http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/apa_style.shtml http://www.mla.org/store/CID24/PID363 http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/675/01/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/664/01/
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5. Paragraphs What is a Paragraph? A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas are not presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing). The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph The basic rule with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go. Elements of a Paragraph To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, a Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs. Unity The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas. Coherence Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical and verbal bridges. Logical Bridges The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence. Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form. Verbal Bridges Key words can be repeated in several sentences. Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences. Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences. Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences.
A Topic Sentence A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear‐cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule 93
for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph is about.
Go to this link: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/llc/academic‐writing/index.html for a tutorial on writing topic sentences. You will also find many clear examples as you go through the exercises there.
Adequate Development The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It is a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short. Some Methods to Make Sure Your Paragraph Is Well‐Developed: Use examples and illustrations. Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others). Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases). Use an anecdote or story. Define terms in the paragraph. Compare and contrast. Evaluate causes and reasons. Examine effects and consequences. Analyze the topic. Describe the topic. Offer a chronology of an event (time segments). Go to this link: http://www.waylink‐english.co.uk/?page=61170 for paragraph examples focusing on different kinds of development and do the task there. How Do I Know When to Start a New Paragraph? You should start a new paragraph:
When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers ‐ adding these in will help your writing be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
Transitions and Signposts Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. 94
Signposts are internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has covered and where the article will be going. Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next. Transitional words are used for a variety of purposes and come at the head of signposts and transitions. Here is a transition word list that shows the relationship the transitional words or phrases indicate. Relationship English Transition Words and Phrases Adding information
also, and, as well, besides, equally important, finally, furthermore, in addition, moreover, then, too
Comparing ideas in like manner, in the same way, likewise, similarly Conceding a point agreed, certainly, granted, obviously, of course, to be sure at the same time, but, conversely, even so, even though, however, Contrasting ideas in contrast, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the one hand, on the other hand, still, yet Providing an example
as an illustration, as can be seen by, for example, for instance, in other words, namely, specifically, to illustrate
afterward, before, currently, eventually, finally, first, (second, third, Relating time and fourth, fifth?), immediately, in the future, in the past, later, less order of ideas important, meanwhile, most important, next, often, sometimes, soon, subsequently, then, today, when Resulting from accordingly, as a result, consequently, so, thereby, therefore, thus the previous idea Showing relative adjacent, at the side, between, here, in the back, in the background, location in the distance, in the foreground, in the front, nearby, there, to the side Summarizing ideas
finally, hence, in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, that is, that is to say, to sum up
Practice Activities Go to this link: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/llc/academic‐writing/index.html to practice paragraph building. In the process, you will work with many sample paragraphs. Go to this link: http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/para.html for a tutorial on paragraph writing. Go to this link: http://english‐zone.com/writing/para‐strctr.html for a clear example of a paragraph, a detailed analysis of all its parts and a quiz to practice your understanding. Go to this link: http://www.waylink‐english.co.uk/?page=61160 for more practice with topic sentences and how they are supported.
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Sources Purdue University: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/01/ http://www.waylink‐english.co.uk/?page=61180 http://www.whitesmoke.com/how‐to‐use‐paragraph‐transitions
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6. Essays Constructing clearly defined paragraphs is the key to a good essay. Paragraphs can be seen as being rather like the bricks in a wall. They are all interdependent but they are also independent units. They support each other but they have their own character. Every paragraph will have its own focus and this will be different from that of any other paragraph in your essay. Each paragraph will be one element in your overall answer to the question that has been asked. The main question at this juncture is how all these paragraphs can be organized into a longer piece of writing – the essay.
6.1 Structuring the Essay The most common technique for structuring an essay is the “sandwich” method: a. Introduction. Explains what will be covered and gives a road map for the essay. b. Body. The meat of the essay. Each new point should have its own paragraph. If there is a point that has lots of little subpoints that need to be explored in depth, breaking up the paper into sections using headers is preferable. c. Conclusion. Sums up the thesis. Go to this link: http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/essaybasic.html to see an essay sample with the basic structure identified and discussed. Before we take a closer look at the parts of the essay, we will first focus on the thesis statement which is located in the introduction.
6.2 What Is a Thesis Statement? A thesis statement is an essential component when writing a good essay. It can be made up of one or two sentences and its purpose is to tell the reader what your essay is going to be about. In other words, the main focus of your essay is stated within the thesis statement. It is essential that you learn how to write a thesis statement, if you want to write a high‐quality essay. Where Does the Thesis Statement Appear in the Essay? In most cases writers place their thesis statements somewhere in the beginning of their essays. This may mean that they open their first sentence with it. However, more often it is placed at the end of the first paragraph. This is because the writer is able to draw the reader in with the first paragraph and then to clearly state what the rest of the essay will be about. What is the Purpose of the Thesis Statement? Thesis statements establish for your readers both the relationship between the ideas and the order in which the material will be presented. As the writer, you can use the thesis statement as a guide in developing a coherent argument. In the thesis statement you are not simply describing or recapitulating the material; you are taking a specific position that you need to defend. A well‐written thesis is a tool for both the writer and reader, reminding the writer of the direction of the text and acting as a "road sign" that lets the reader know what to expect.
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Narrowing the Topic Once you have the general topic, the following questions will help you narrow to a thesis statement: How do I state the assigned topic clearly and succinctly? What are the most interesting and relevant aspects of the topic? In what order do I want to present the various aspects, and how do my ideas relate to each other? What is my point of view regarding the topic? Writing a Thesis Statement Using the topic information, develop this formulaic sentence: I am writing about_______________, and I am going to argue, show, or prove___________. What you wrote in the first blank is the topic of your paper; what you wrote in the second blank is what focuses your paper (suggested by Patrick Hartwell in Open to Language, 1982). For example, a sentence might be: I am going to write about senior citizens who volunteer at literacy projects, and I am going to show that they are physically and mentally invigorated by the responsibility of volunteering. Next, refine the sentence so that it is consistent with your style. For example: Senior citizens who volunteer at literacy projects are invigorated physically and mentally by the responsibility of volunteering. Here is a second example illustrating the formulation of another thesis statement. First, read this sentence that includes both topic and focusing comment: I am going to write about how Plato and Sophocles understand the proper role of women in Greek society, and I am going to argue that though they remain close to traditional ideas about women, the authors also introduce some revolutionary views which increase women's place in society. Now read the refined sentence, consistent with your style: When examining the role of women in society, Plato and Sophocles remain close to traditional ideas about women's duties and capabilities in society; however, the authors also introduce some revolutionary views which increase women's place in society. Here are some characteristics of good thesis statements, with samples of good and poor ones. Note that the better examples substitute specific argumentative points for sweeping general statements; they indicate a theoretical basis and promise substantial support. 1. It makes a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained and supported by further discussion: trite, irrelevant Intriguing
Shakespeare was the world's greatest playwright. The success of the last scene in Midsummer Night's Dream comes from subtle linguistic and theatrical references to Elizabeth's position as queen.
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2. It shows the emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument: This essay will show that the North American Free Trade emotional, vague agreement was a disaster for the Canadian furniture industry. Neither neo‐protectionism nor post‐industrial theory explains the steep reversal of fortune for the Canadian furniture industry in the period 1988–1994. Data on productivity, worth attention profits, and employment, however, can be closely correlated with provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement that took effect in the same period. 3. It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements: sweeping, vague
suitably complex
Having an official policy on euthanasia just causes problems, as the Dutch example shows. Dutch laws on euthanasia have been rightly praised for their attention to the principles of self‐determination. Recent cases, however, show that they have not been able to deal adequately with issues involving technological intervention of unconscious patients.
6.2.1 Introduction & Conclusion Introductions and conclusions play a special role in the academic essay, and they frequently demand much of your attention as a writer. A good introduction should identify your topic, provide essential context, and indicate your particular focus in the essay. It also needs to engage your readers' interest. A strong conclusion will provide a sense of closure to the essay while again placing your concepts in a somewhat wider context. It will also, in some instances, add a stimulus to further thought. The following guidelines will help you to construct a suitable beginning and end for your essay. Some General Advice about Introductions You may be the kind of writer who writes an introduction first in order to explore your own thinking on the topic. If so, remember that you may at a later stage need to compress your introduction. It can be fine to leave the writing of the introduction for a later stage in the essay‐ writing process. Some people write their introduction only after they have completed the rest of the essay. Others write the introduction first but rewrite it significantly in light of what they end up saying in the body of their paper. The introductions for most papers can be effectively written in one paragraph occupying half to three‐quarters of the first page. Your introduction may be longer than that, and it may take more than one paragraph, but be sure you know why. The size of your introduction should bear some relationship to the length and complexity of your paper. A twenty page paper may call for a two‐page introduction, but a five‐ page paper will not. Get to the point as soon as possible. Generally, you want to raise your topic in your very first sentences. A common error is to begin too broadly or too far off topic. Avoid sweeping generalizations.
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Your thesis statement will typically appear at the end of your introduction, even though that is not a hard‐and‐fast rule. You may, for example, follow your thesis with a brief road map to your essay that sketches the basic structure of your argument. The longer the paper, the more useful a road map becomes.
How Do I Write an Interesting, Effective Introduction? Consider these strategies for capturing your readers' attention and for fleshing out your introduction: Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you will address. Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first). Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against. Give some background information necessary for understanding the essay. Use a brief narrative or anecdote that exemplifies your reason for choosing the topic. In an assignment that encourages personal reflection, you may draw on your own experiences; in a research essay, the narrative may illustrate a common real‐world scenario. In a science paper, explain key scientific concepts and refer to relevant literature. Lead up to your own contribution or intervention. In a more technical paper, define a term that is possibly unfamiliar to your audience but is central to understanding the essay. Some Pitfalls to Avoid: Do not provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience already knows. Do not give details and in‐depth explanations that really belong in your body paragraphs. You can usually postpone background material to the body of the essay. Some General Advice about Conclusions A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re‐statement of your thesis. If you wish to summarize – and often you must – do so in fresh language. Remind the reader of how the evidence you have presented has contributed to your thesis. The conclusion, like much of the rest of the paper, involves critical thinking. Reflect upon the significance of what you have written. Try to convey some closing thoughts about the larger implications of your argument. Broaden your focus a bit at the end of the essay. A good last sentence leaves your reader with something to think about, a concept in some way illuminated by what you have written in the paper. For most essays, one well‐developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion. In some cases, a two‐or‐three paragraph conclusion may be appropriate. As with introductions, the length of the conclusion should reflect the length of the essay. How Do I Write an Interesting, Effective Conclusion? The following strategies may help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your essay: If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem. Recommend a specific course of action.
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Use a suitable quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached. Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper. If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences. Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that derives from the body of your essay. In a science or social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future research on your topic. Go to this link: http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/essay/drafting‐essay/1.xml to participate in a tutorial that focuses on developing the introduction of an essay as well as recognizing its structure, thesis and many other aspects of essay writing. Included in the tutorial are 2 more excellent examples of essays, one from Oxford, the other from Harvard, with clear and effective introductions and conclusions.
6.2.2 Body Body paragraphs (and truly every paragraph in an essay) should be unified, coherent, and well developed. When a paragraph is unified, every sentence in that paragraph supports the essay's thesis. When a paragraph is coherent, every sentence in that paragraph is presented logically and is arranged in a way that provides strong transitional flow, and again, supports the thesis and overall development of the essay. When a paragraph is well‐developed, evidence and details are provided as concrete, visual proof that supports your thesis. To have a strong body paragraph that is unified, coherent, and well‐developed, you must do four things: Write a topic sentence that illustrates the paragraph’s (or paragraphs') purpose. Supply concrete and specific details and examples to explain generalities and support your essay's thesis. Close the paragraph in a way that restates the topic sentence and ties the paragraph back to the essay's thesis. Have transitions that make for smooth reading within a paragraph as well as between paragraphs. Topic Sentence Remember that the topic sentence is typically the first sentence in a paragraph, and it introduces the paragraph's main idea. Topic sentences are, essentially, “mini‐theses.” The thesis tells the reader what the essay's main purpose is, and a topic sentence tells the reader what each body section's purpose is. Supporting Sentences Supporting sentences come after the topic sentence and make up the body of the paragraph. Supporting sentences give details and evidence that develop and support the topic sentence. Facts, details, and examples are ways to add support to a paragraph.
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Closing Sentence The last sentence of a paragraph (or set of paragraphs – a body section) should summarize the main idea of your paragraph. You want to make sure not to copy/paste your topic sentence as your closing sentence. By doing the three things above, creating a topic sentence, supporting the topic sentence with details, and adding a closing sentence, you will have a self‐contained paragraph (or body section). To supply movement within paragraphs and between paragraphs, you must use transitions. Without transitions, an essay is jarring to read and may cause confusion to your leader (see Transitions and Signposts in section 5. Paragraphs). Additional Support for Constructing Essays Go to this link: http://www.slideshare.net/mrsjeff2u/writing‐an‐essay‐yosemite for clear and simple instructions for writing an essay with each part represented by an example. Go to this link: http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/English/essay/index.html for a clear, colorful, step by step guide to writing an essay using the 3‐part structure mentioned above. An example essay is also included. Go to this link: http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/2001/egacademicessay.htm for an example of an academic essay with the quotations, summaries and paraphrases highlighted. It also contains in‐text citations and references using APA. The topic is how to design navigation for Internet pages. Go to this link: http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/essay_paragraph_ordering.htm to practice ordering an essay. You should look for organizational features in the introduction and conclusion, linking expressions, topic sentences and their supporting evidence to help you decide in what order the sentences should be. Go to this link: http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/essay_checklist.htm for a very useful comprehensive checklist that will help you when writing an essay in areas of content, organization, coherence, cohesion, vocabulary, grammar, style, tone and conventions. Go to this link: http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/practice/practice_thesis.htm to practice with thesis statements for argumentative essays
6.3 Essay Types There are several types of essays used for particular purposes in the academic environment. In this section, the most significant ones are presented. Notice that all of them follow the same basic structure you have been studying above.
6.3.1 Expository Expository essays are simply essays that explain something with facts, as opposed to opinion. Samples of expository essays include: Essays that describe how to do something. Essays that analyze events, ideas, objects, or written works. Essays that describe a process. Essays that explain/describe an historical event. 102
What Is an Expository Essay? While expository is just a synonym for information, strict guidelines of the expository essay ensure that the information it contains is clear and concise. An easy way to understand the essence of writing an expository essay is to remember that the root of expository is to expose. The writer’s job is to totally expose the topic in a way that makes the information unmistakably clear to his/her audience. However, the expository essay is a totally objective composition. Differing from many other types of essay, the writer’s job is to explain and inform without offering an opinion or developing an argument. To that end, the expository essay is an impartial analysis of facts and evidence. Further evidence of its impartiality is that the expository essay is always written in the third person. Know Your Audience More so than in any other type of essay, when composing an expository essay it is important to write to your audience. Judge how much background information you’ll need by asking yourself if your readers are familiar with your topic. It is as important not to "overstate the case” as it is to provide all the relevant information on your topic. In other words, although you want to fully inform your audience, you do not want to patronize your readers by filling your essay with general information. The goal of an expository essay is provide the reader with a full understanding of a complex process or situation. The Expository Essay Format The expository essay follows the standard essay format of Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. Although it is distinctly different from other types of essay, it may use the techniques of compare and contrast, cause and effect, divide and categorize, use examples, statistics and or definitions in order to meet its goal. The expository essay introduction is a statement of the essay’s thesis and the sub‐topics that will be developed within the essay body. The expository essay is generally a short composition that attempts to completely cover a narrow topic. To achieve this objective, the essay thesis needs to be well defined and narrow. Each paragraph of the body of the expository essay must have a dominant point that directly relates to the essay thesis. All supporting sentences within each body paragraph must have a direct and factual relationship to the dominant point. Appropriate use of transitions is also crucial to a good expository essay. Transitions confirm the organization and the logic of your composition as they allow the reader to move smoothly from point to point of your essay. Keep sentence structures simple and clear in anticipation of potential misunderstandings. Stay away from slang and colloquialisms. Be sure to use technical terms in context and accurately. Explain acronyms and those terms that may be unfamiliar to your reader. Conclude your expository essay by restating your thesis and summarizing the points that lead to your conclusion. Concluding the Expository Essay After you have finished your first draft, along with checking for mechanical errors, check your essay to see if you have explained your topic thoroughly. Be sure that your thesis 103
relates to every paragraph and that supporting sentences directly relate to your dominant points. Reorganize your essay as needed to keep your logic clear and your information in an appropriate sequence. The real conclusion of your expository essay is when your composition is a well‐ordered, easy‐to‐understand analysis of your topic. Go to this link: http://www.tailoredessays.com/tag/expository+essays.htm for several examples of expository essays and further guidelines for writing them.
6.3.2 Process Analysis What Is a Process Analysis Essay? A process analysis essay is a paper that explains how to do something. There are two kinds of process analysis essays, explanatory and instructional. Three points to keep in mind when writing this type of essay are organization, use of detail, and use of transitions. It is important that the essay is easy for the reader to follow, whether it is instructional or explanatory. The use of second person narrative voice may be used in this type of essay as it usually directly addresses the readers. An explanatory process analysis essay explains to the readers how something is done or analyzes the process of something. An example of this would be a paper about how a medical procedure is done. After reading the essay, the readers would understand how the process is completed but would not be able to do the procedure themselves. The essay explains but does not instruct. An instructional process analysis essay, on the other hand, tells the readers how to do something using step‐by‐step directions. An example of this would be an essay about how to change a tire on a car. After reading the essay, readers should be able to complete the task themselves. One way to test the effectiveness of a process analysis essay is to either try to accomplish the task by going through the essay or having someone else go through the essay to see if the instructions are thorough enough for the task to be successfully completed. If they are not, then the writer will need to add more details or steps in order to make the essay complete. One way to choose an effective topic for a process analysis essay is to write about something that is familiar – the writer should know a lot about the process being analyzed. The organization of a process analysis essay is almost always chronological. Generally, the essay opens with an introductory paragraph, which sets the tone for the rest of the essay and includes the thesis statement. The thesis should contain an overview of what process is going to be analyzed, as well as the significance of the analysis. The introduction should also entice the readers to continue reading. The body of the essay should include each step of the process with at least one paragraph designated to each step. Depending on the complexity of the process, however, more than one paragraph may be needed. One of the most important things is to include a lot of detail while at the same time being as concise as possible. In other words, the essay should not include unnecessary information but needs enough information so that the readers can accomplish the task the essay is explaining. One way to be as concise as possible is to include a lot of transitional words; this should help the paper flow smoothly from step to step. 104
The last paragraph should wrap up the process by summarizing the most important points and possibly restating the thesis. Additional steps should not be included in the conclusion. If that happens, then another paragraph should be added to the body of the essay. Go to this link: http://grammar.about.com/od/essayassignments/a/rivercrabsessay.htm for an example of a process analysis essay followed by questions to help you analyze the content. Go to this link: http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples/process‐analysis‐essay.htm for a humorous example of a process analysis essay.
6.3.3 Cause & Effect Explaining Cause and Effect Often writers are asked to explain how certain conditions or events are related to the occurrence of other conditions or events. When a writer argues that "one thing leads to another," he or she is making a cause‐and‐effect argument. For example, in the field of Economics one might be seeking to explain the impact of increasing oil prices on the nation’s economy. Inherent in the question is the assumption that increasing oil prices is a cause, which produces specific effects in the rest of the economy. So, higher oil prices produce higher gasoline prices raising the cost of shipping goods. Higher oil prices produce higher jet fuel costs raising the cost of travel, and so on. "Higher oil prices" is the cause, and increased shipping costs and travel expenses are among the effects. Writing tasks involving cause and effect analysis usually take one of two forms: explaining how a known cause produces specific effects; explaining how specific effects are produced by a previously unknown cause (which the writer has discovered). The second type of analysis is commonly referred to as root‐cause analysis. The first type of analysis is what the technology and privacy topic requires. To argue that certain conditions will lead to other conditions (that the loss of privacy will lead to something else), first the writer needs to define clearly what those conditions are, and then the writer needs to make clear how those conditions lead to other conditions. Finally, the writer needs to explain what this cause‐and‐effect relationship means. This type of essay then has five parts (not paragraphs!), with each part corresponding to a specific task the writer needs to perform, and each part consisting of one or more paragraphs.
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Essay Part
Scope
Purpose (not all necessary for every essay)
Introduction General
Description of the "Cause"
Begins general; becomes increasingly specific
What the specific conditions are Specific illustrations of these conditions How these specific illustrations are representative of (can stand in for) other situations In this first part of the analysis, the writer needs to provide enough detail for the reader so the reader can understand the present situation. In addition, the writer needs to focus the description of the situation in such a way as to prepare for the "effect" that the writer is arguing for. For example, if the writer wants to argue that the loss of privacy has led to (or will lead to) a loss of individual freedom, then the description of how technology affects our privacy should focus on technologies that affect an individual’s freedom to act.
Description of the "Effect"
Begins general; becomes increasingly specific
What the specific effect is (or effects are) How we get from the specific conditions to the specific effects Specific illustrations of these effects How these specific illustrations are representative of (can stand in for) others In this second part of the analysis, the writer needs to walk the reader through the logical steps the writer has used to move from cause to effect. For example, if the writer argues that loss of privacy leads to loss of individual freedom, the writer needs to explain carefully how privacy and freedom are linked. So perhaps the writer might claim that privacy allows an individual to be free from the observation of others. With our privacy becoming increasingly limited by surveillance, we are no longer free from the observation of others. If we believe that we are always being watched, we will probably change our behavior and be less willing to take chances or act independently. If we feel we cannot act independently then we are no longer free.
Explanation of the meaning of the cause‐ and‐effect
More General
Background for the topic Setting out the issues Focusing the argument—the purpose of the essay
Why this analysis is important How we might act upon the ideas the writer has presented In this third part of the analysis, the writer argues for the importance of the argument’s findings, often by 106
relationship
Conclusion
putting in perspective the short‐term or long‐term consequences of the "effect." In addition, in this part the writer usually makes some sort of recommendation (what we should do). So if the writer is arguing that loss of privacy leads to loss of freedom, in this part the writer might speculate what might happen if this trend towards further loss of privacy continues. In addition, the writer might describe some of the specific actions we can take to safeguard our existing privacy, or how legislation might provide such safeguards. General
Summing up How our understanding of the larger issue might be changed by the writer's analysis Appeal to the reader—how this situation affects us
Go to this link: http://www.writefix.com/writing/cause/index.htm for excellent examples of cause & effect essays (2 Power Point presentations), guidelines and exercises to help you through the process, and many more example essays further down the page Go to this link: http://www.eslflow.com/AcCauseEffect.html for a complete range of sample cause & effect outlines, essays, as well as exercises to help you learn how to write them.
6.3.4 Classification What Is a Classification Essay? In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. Three Steps to Effective Classification: Sort things into useful categories. Make sure all the categories follow a single organizing principle. Give examples that fit into each category. Thesis Statement of a Classification Essay The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified. Sometimes the categories are named. (topic)... (how classified)... (category) (category) (category) Ex: Tourists in Hawaii can enjoy three water sports: snorkeling, surfing, and sailing. How to Write an Effective Classification Essay Determine the categories. Be thorough; do not leave out a critical category. For example, if you say water sports of Hawaii include snorkeling and sailing, but leave out surfing, your essay would be incomplete because surfing is Hawaii's most famous water sport. On the other hand, do not include too many categories, which will blur your classification. For example, if your topic is sports shoes, and your organizing principle is activity, you would not include high heels with running and bowling shoes. Classify by a single principle. Once you have categories, make sure that they fit into the same organizing principle. The organizing principle is how you sort the groups. Do not allow a different principle to pop up unexpectedly. For example, if your 107
unifying principle is "tourist‐oriented" water sports, do not use another unifying principle, such as "native water sports," which would have different categories: pearl diving, outrigger, or canoe racing. Support equally each category with examples. In general, you should write the same quantity, i.e., give the same number of examples, for each category. The most important category, usually reserved for last, might require more elaboration.
Remember: In a classification essay, the writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. There are three steps to remember when writing an effective classification essay: organize things into useful categories, use a single organizing principle, and give examples of things that fit into each category.
Go to this link:
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Classification%20Essay.htm
for organization guidelines and an example of a classification essay. Go to this link: http://www.wiredprof.com/100/SampleEssays/classification/Computer%20Users.htm#_msocom_8
for an example of a classification essay with the errors shown and corrected. Go to this link: http://grammar.about.com/od/developingessays/a/draftclass07.htm for a draft of a classification essay along with questions for analysis, and then compare it to the revised draft.
6.3.5 Argumentation To write an argument essay, you will need to gather evidence and present a well‐ reasoned argument on a debatable issue. How Can I Tell if My Topic Is Debatable? Check your thesis! You cannot argue a statement of fact; you must base your paper on a strong position. Ask yourself: How many people could argue against my position? What would they say? Can it be addressed with a yes or no? (Aim for a topic that requires more information.) Can I base my argument on scholarly evidence, or am I relying on religion, cultural standards, or morality? (You MUST be able to do quality research!) Have I made my argument specific enough? (If not, narrow it down.) Worried about Taking a Firm Stance on an Issue? Though there are plenty of times in your life when it is best to adopt a balanced perspective and try to understand both sides of a debate, this is not one of them. You MUST choose one side or the other when you write an argument paper! Do not be afraid to tell others exactly how you think things should go because that is what we expect from an argument paper. You are in charge now, what do YOU think?
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Do…
Do not…
…use passionate language
…use weak qualifiers like “I believe,” “I feel,” or “I think”—just tell us!
…cite experts who agree with you
…claim to be an expert if you are not one
…provide facts, evidence, and …use strictly moral or religious claims as statistics to support your position support for your argument …provide reasons to support your …assume the audience will agree with you claim about any aspect of your argument …address the opposing side’s …attempt to make others look bad (i.e. Mr argument and refute their claims Smith is ignorant—do not listen to him!) Why Do I Need to Address the Opposing Side’s Argument? There is an old kung‐fu saying which states, "The hand that strikes also blocks", meaning that when you argue it is to your advantage to anticipate your opposition and strike down their arguments within the body of your own paper. This sentiment is echoed in the popular saying, "The best defense is a good offense". By Addressing the Opposition You Achieve the Following Goals: illustrate a well‐rounded understanding of the topic demonstrate a lack of bias enhance the level of trust that the reader has for both you and your opinion give yourself the opportunity to refute any arguments the opposition may have strengthen your argument by diminishing your opposition's argument Think about yourself as a child, asking your parents for permission to do something that they would normally say no to. You were far more likely to get them to say yes if you anticipated and addressed all of their concerns before they expressed them. You did not want to belittle those concerns, or make them feel dumb, because this only put them on the defensive, and lead to a conclusion that went against your wishes. The same is true in your writing. How Do I Accomplish This? To address the other side of the argument you plan to make, you will need to "put yourself in their shoes." In other words, you need to try to understand where they are coming from. If you are having trouble accomplishing this task, try following these steps: Jot down several good reasons why you support that particular side of the argument. Look at the reasons you provided and try to argue with yourself. Ask: Why would someone disagree with each of these points? What would his/her response be? (Sometimes it is helpful to imagine that you are having a verbal argument with someone who disagrees with you.) Think carefully about your audience; try to understand their background, their strongest influences, and the way that their minds work. Ask: What parts of this issue will concern my opposing audience the most? Find the necessary facts, evidence, quotes from experts, etc. to refute the points that your opposition might make. Carefully organize your paper so that it moves smoothly from defending your own points to sections where you argue against the opposition. 109
Go to this link: http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/ARGUMENTATIVE%20ESSAY.htm
for guidelines on writing argumentative essays and an example. Go to these links: http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/CryWolf.html http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Freon.html for examples of argumentative research essays
written by first‐year university students from the US. Notice that in one of the essays, because it is somewhat longer, the introduction has two paragraphs. Go to this link: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/critique.htm for guidelines on writing argumentatively including outlining advice, argument vs. opinion and an example essay with the parts clearly identified. Go to this link: http://www.jamesabela.co.uk/exams/argumentative.htm for clear guidelines on argumentative essay writing and a simple straightforward example. Sources http://www.writemypapers.org/tips‐and‐prompts/what‐is‐a‐thesis‐statement‐in‐an‐essay.html The Hong Kong Polytechnic University: http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htm
Cleveland State University: http://www.csuohio.edu/academic/writingcenter/WAC/index.html
HARTWELL, Patrick and Robert H BENTLEY. Open to Language: a new college rhetoric. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982, 642 p. ISBN 01‐950‐3080‐X. The American University of Cairo: http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/introduction.htm
University of Kansas: http://writing.ku.edu/~writing/guides/thesis.shtml University of Toronto: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/planning‐and‐organizing/thesis‐ statements http://bloodredpencil.blogspot.com/2009/09/academic‐essay‐3‐importance‐of‐body.html http://homeworktips.about.com/od/essaywriting/a/expository.htm http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/expository.htm http://www.wisegeek.com/what‐is‐a‐process‐analysis‐essay.htm
California State University, L.A.: http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/organiz1.htm http://essayinfo.com/essays/classification_essay.php http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Argument.html
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7. Drafting, Revising, Editing & Proofreading Notice the following order of development for essay‐writing.
7.1 Stages of Writing
Prewriting Drafting Revising Editing/proofreading Final draft
Prewriting (Preparing to write) Read, think, free‐write in a journal format Identify purpose and audience Research, take notes, gather information Brainstorm with a peer group Organize thinking and plan Drafting (Putting thoughts on paper) Focus on content Compose freely, without concern for mechanics Go to this link: http://writingprogram.uchicago.edu/resources/collegewriting/preparing_to_write_and_drafting.htm
for useful guidelines that will help you through the pre‐writing and drafting processes. Revising (Taking another look) Maintain focus on content vs. mechanics Share draft with peer group Invite discussion; accept response and helpful input from peers Add to, delete from, rearrange and revise first draft Editing/Proofreading Share revised draft with peer group Invite correction of grammar, spelling, punctuation, usage Incorporate corrections in final draft Final draft Share the product with peer group (small group reports, individual oral presentations) Invite evaluation by peer group
7.2 Distinguish between Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
Revise before editing. Many writers work out their ideas on paper – they discover what they are going to say during the actual process of composition. This method of writing –‐ exploratory writing – is perfectly valid to use. However, in the first draft you may: omit the main point of a passage, perhaps because you do not know what it is until you finish composing the passage 111
omit transitions or bridges from one section to the next, in part because you do not know what direction the next argument should take omit essential information, or give too much detail omit context or background information that is essential to a reader's understanding of your work repeat information, particularly if you are interrupted when you write, or if you explain the same idea from different angles at different points in the manuscript
To revise is to move the text around so that the order is logical delete unnecessary information add essential information As you revise, ask yourself: Have I introduced main points before detail? Are the details complete and correct? Do I need to write informative headings and subheadings that guide the reader? Is the information in the headings and subheadings consistent with the information below them? Or do I have "fruit salad" – information mixed into one section that properly belongs in another? Did I add transitions between arguments, between paragraphs, and between sections? Did I add topic sentences, the opening sentences of paragraphs or sections that state the points I then develop? Edit before proofreading. At this point (after revision), all important ideas should be in your paper and in the correct order. Run the spell checker. Manually search for spelling errors that the spell checker does not catch. See if you can shorten sentences: avoid needless words. Verify that you have defined all terms, notation, mnemonics, and abbreviations before use. Check for paragraph length and unity. Do you have one idea to a paragraph? Check for opportunities to use displayed lists and indentations that emphasize key points. Check for grammatical lapses such as subject‐verb agreement, misplaced modifiers, pronoun‐antecedent agreement, parallel elements, and tense switch. Check for stylistic touches: remove redundant expressions, vary overused words, and strengthen verbs. Check for word choice. Check for special problems. For example, if your first language has different rules for definite and indefinite articles check each sentence for proper use of definite and indefinite articles. Proofread Last. Print an unmarked copy of the manuscript on your desk at home. At the time in the day when you reach your intellectual peak (e. g., mornings for me), reserve a block of several hours, and sit down and carefully read without interruption. 112
Ask a friend to proofread your manuscript. Run the spell checker again.
7.3 What Is Involved in Revising Drafts? How to Revise: Put your draft aside. Time away from your essay will allow for more objective self‐ evaluation. Get feedback. Since you already know what you are trying to say, you are not always the best judge of where the draft is clear or unclear. Let another reader tell you. Then discuss aloud what you were trying to achieve. In articulating for someone else what you meant to argue, you will clarify ideas for yourself. Construct a backward‐outline of your essay. Identify the main idea(s) in each paragraph. Rank their importance in advancing your thesis. Consider connections between and among ideas. Rethink your thesis. Based on what you did in the previous step, restructure your argument: reorder your points, cut irrelevancies or redundancies, add complications and implications. You may want to return to the text for additional evidence. Now that you know what you are really arguing, work on the introduction and conclusion. Make sure to begin your paragraphs with topic sentences, linking ideas in each paragraph to those proposed in the thesis. Proofread. Aim for precision and economy in language. Read aloud so you can hear stylistic incongruities. (Your ear will pick up what your eye has missed.) As you revise your work, keep the following principles in mind: Revision entails rethinking your thesis. Because clarity of vision is the result of experience, it is unreasonable to expect to come up with the best thesis possible—one that clearly accounts for the complexities of the issue at hand – before beginning a draft, or even during a first draft. The best theses evolve; they are the products of the kind of precise thinking that is only possible to achieve by writing. Successful revision involves bringing your thesis into focus – or, changing it altogether. Revision entails making structural changes. Drafting is usually a process of discovering an idea or argument. Your argument will not become clearer if you only tinker with individual sentences. Successful revision involves bringing the strongest ideas to the front of the essay, reordering the main points, cutting irrelevant sections, adding implications. It also involves making the argument's structure visible by strengthening topic sentences and transitions. Revision takes time. Avoid shortcuts: the reward for sustained effort is a clearer, more persuasive, more sophisticated essay than a first draft can be. Go to this link: http://writing‐program.uchicago.edu/resources/collegewriting/strategy_for_analyzing_and_rev.htm for an effective strategy that will help you analyze and revise your first draft. Go to this link: http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/organization.html for five effective strategies you can use to revise or reorganize your draft: reverse outlining, talking it out, sectioning, listing and narrowing your argument, and visualizing. Go to this link: http://pisethz.hubpages.com/hub/The‐Writing‐Process for a closer look at the above stages in more detail
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Go to this link: http://www.powa.org/revising‐818965820 for 5 more aspects of revising to consider
7.4 Editing & Proofreading Editing and proofreading are writing processes different from revising. Editing can involve extensive rewriting of sentences, but it usually focuses on sentences or even smaller elements of the text. Proofreading is the very last step writers go through to be sure that the text is presentable. Proofreading generally involves only minor changes in spelling and punctuation. This section presents strategies for editing and for proofreading. Go to this link: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/editing/pop2a.cfm for a step by step approach to developing editing strategies. Editing Checklist – When proofreading and editing your essay, ask yourself: Have I Answered My Question(s) or Completed My Task(s) as Fully as Possible? What is my thesis/ central proposition/ main assertion? Do I make a clear argument or take a position about the topic? Do I state that position in my introduction? Does my introduction or opening paragraph prepare the reader for what follows? Is My Essay Clearly Structured? Does my assignment have a clear introduction, a body and a definite conclusion? Does the assignment advance in logical stages? Are the major points connected? Are the relationships between them expressed clearly? Do the major points all relate to the topic and contribute to answering the task or question? Are My Paragraphs Clearly Connected and Coherent? Does each paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Do the sentences flow smoothly and logically from point to point? Does each sentence clearly follow on from the one before? Does each paragraph state its case clearly and completely, or should there be more evidence/ detail? Are there adequate transitions between sentences and paragraphs? Are transitions varied or are they all the same kind? Are all examples and quotes relevant to and supportive of my answer? Are facts and opinions supported with examples or explanations where necessary? Is My Written Expression Appropriate? Have I used direct and clear language? Have I explained my ideas clearly and explicitly? Have I kept my audience in mind? Have I said all I need to say so that my reader can understand, or am I assuming they will 'know what I mean'? Have I written complete, grammatically correct sentences? In long sentences, have I separated related ideas with commas or semicolons for easier understanding? Is my use of tenses correct? Have I used non‐discriminatory language? 114
Go to this link: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/style.shtml for guidelines
on attending to style. At the end you will find a link to Elements of Style: http://www.bartleby.com/141/ with far more detailed support for aspects of style. Go to this link: http://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/Attending%20to%20Style.pdf for 7 basic principles
of style Go to this link: Formality/informality ‐ http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/suggestingsolutions.htm for a presentation of other aspects of style Go to this link: http://depts.washington.edu/engl/askbetty/word_usage.php for tips on using the right words. Go to this link: http://www.uah.edu/colleges/liberal/english/shared/word_usage_guide.htm for a guide to common
misused words Go to this link: http://www.etsu.edu/scitech/langskil/com‐err.htm#slang for common errors to avoid including both grammar and vocabulary items. Go to this link: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/editcs.html for guidelines on clarity and style including nonsexist language usage. Have I Fully Referenced My Sources of Information? Have I referenced all the words, ideas and information sources I have used in my assignment? Have I used a consistent referencing style? Is there a clear distinction between my thoughts and words and those of the author(s) I have read and cited? Are quotations properly introduced? Are they accurate? Are they formatted correctly? Do the quotations add evidence or provide an authoritative voice, or am I letting the author(s) speak for me? Would writing it in my own words be more effective? Go to this link: http://www.powa.org/editing for a comprehensive look at editing with support in grammar and syntax. Go to this link: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/editing/pop2b.cfm for proofreading strategies followed by a chance to check what you have learned Sources Bilkent University, Anakara, Turkey: http://www.cs.bilkent.edu.tr/~guvenir/courses/ENG401/revising.html
University of South Wales, Sydney: http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/edit.html Colorado State University: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/editing/
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Supplementary Tools Writing a Research Paper: Stages involved: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html#intro Introduction: http://web.ceu.hu/writing/intros.htm Go to the following link: http://www.csuohio.edu/academic/writingcenter/WAC/index.html to find very comprehensive
support for writing a research paper. Resources for Dissertators: Useful books and links: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/dissbooks.html This is an excellent comprehensive source for all aspects of writing your dissertation: http://www.uq.edu.au/student‐services/phdwriting/fr_phsta.html
How to write a summary: http://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/How%20to%20Write%20a%20Summary.pdf
How to write an abstract: http://research.berkeley.edu/ucday/abstract.html
Here you will find concrete information about what to include in an abstract and examples from various fields. Here you will have an opportunity to compare these guidelines with the latter and click on the example where you will be guided step by step through the original article finding the elements to include in the abstract which you will be able to read at the end of the tutorial: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/abstract.htm
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VII. Grammatical Issues and Mechanics of Writing Ivana Pekařová In this chapter we will look together at mechanics of good writing. If we use an analogy of driving a car, we also need to know the various components and how they function together. Similarly, we have to understand what is necessary for keeping the text/car moving, stopping and starting in the right places. It is impossible to introduce and describe all English grammar features here. We have selected to revise only a few grammatical categories where we know from experience that even more advanced Czech users of English make mistakes most frequently. They are: 1. Grammatical Issues a. Sentence structures and word order b. Noun, adverbial and adjective clauses c. Reduced adjective and adverbial clauses d. Subject‐verb agreement e. Articles f. Passive voice g. Tenses h. Gerund, participle and infinitive
2. Mechanics of Writing a. Punctuation b. Capitalization c. Comparisons d. Correlative conjunctions e. Transition words and phrases
Let us have a look at each of the categories in detail. For each grammatical entry there will be a short overview of the most significant rules accompanied by some practical examples. If you find out that what is presented here does not meet all your needs, we do encourage you to go into all the reference materials both in the paper form or in their online format as suggested below.
1. Grammatical Issues 1.1 Sentence Structures and Word Order All sentences are about something or someone. The something or somebody that the sentence is about is called a subject of the sentence; and it is to be included explicitly in every English declarative sentence. There are several types of sentence structures: simple sentence = one subject + one verb: My feet hurt. The counting of votes from thousands of expatriates helped. complex sentence = 2 clauses – one clause main, one subordinate = two subjects + two verbs: When he drank, he always started to fight. I will help him if he needs it. compound sentence = 2 clauses – both main = two subjects + two verbs: Are we going directly to the hotel or will we get the chance to see the town?
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In all of the types of the sentence patterns, the basic word order rules apply in the same way. Lower‐level learners of English are taught one of the fundamental rules of English that the subject is always the first thing in the sentence: John is always late for class. Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in 2004. The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way for a new supermarket. My friend and I both have a dog named Spot. (Notice the usage of I placed correctly NOT at the beginning of the sentence!) Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby. A very frequent type of mistake with word order might appear in indirect speech. I do not know where the post office is. Could you tell me how much it costs? Compare the above mentioned sentences to the following direct speech alternatives: A: Where is the post office? B: I don’t know. A: Excuse me. Can I interrupt you for a minute? How much does it cost? B: I am afraid… Unfortunately, the claim about the subject being placed at the very beginning of a sentence is a simplification for lower‐level learners of English; it is more appropriate to say it works like that only almost always. Higher‐level speakers of English are aware of even more complicated cases like these: On Saturdays I never get up before 10 o’clock. Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the students are well‐ prepared. Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue tail feathers. All of a sudden there flashed a bolt of lightning across the sky. On the roof was found a bloody scarf. Seldom does he ever brush his teeth. Not only did he make a mistake, he was not even sorry about it. Under no circumstances do I travel to Antarctica without a good coat. Had he not wasted so much money on buying lottery tickets, he could have paid his bills. It was in Paris that I first saw this film. If you can explain the reasons why the subjects in the sentences above do not appear in the usual front position in the sentence, you are familiar with the usage of there, adverbial fronting, cleft sentences and inversion rules. If you could not produce sentences like that (and wanted to do so), you need to study these areas from grammar references. Do you know other word order rules which are connected with individual clause elements rather than the whole structure of sentences/clauses? He is so intelligent. He is such an intelligent man. He is not too a sensible driver. He is enough of a realist to marry her. He is clever enough not to make such a mistake. Now there is enough ripe fruit for my mother to start the jam making process. 118
We need to seek the approval of interested and concerned parents. The idea needs to come from the individuals concerned. She gave him the book. She gave the book to him. I would like to look the word up. I would like to look up the word. I would like to look it up. Which student did you get the book from? From which student did you get the book? Who does he work for? For whom does he work? Who helped you? Who did you help? Are you happy? You are happy, aren’t you? Am I correct? I am correct, aren’t I? He works hard. He hardly ever works.
If you are not certain why the word order in the sentences above is as it is, it would be a good idea to check the rules for the individual cases in a grammar reference (e. g. Murphy, 1994).
1.2 Noun, Adjective and Adverbial Clauses Noun clauses can have the same role as nouns; they can function in the sentence as subjects, objects and complements: What he did really shocked me. He didn’t know that I couldn’t swim. She is not responsible for what he did. He asked if we would help him. Everybody wondered where he went. Whether he comes or not is not important. Three areas where the most common types of mistakes appear are: Wrong usage of a comma in front of that. Notice that in contrast to Czech, there is NO comma: He told me that he did not understand. Wrong usage of tenses. When the main clause is in the past/past perfect tense, you need to remember, apart from the problems with the word order mentioned above, that all other verbs in the subordinate clauses must have changed tenses: He said that he would not be able to come. If uncertain, study any reference book or look at: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/601/01/ Wrong usage of clause markers. Except for that, clause markers cannot be omitted. Compare: The mistake was that he refused to take lessons. The mistake was he refused to take lessons. Whatever you think, I don’t care. *You think, I don’t care. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences as adjectives do: they modify nouns. Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns they modify. Elizabeth felt manipulated by her beagle Sammy, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another biscuit. In this type of clauses two most frequent types of errors are connected with the wrong usage of relative pronouns and with punctuation.
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The most common relative pronouns are who/whom, whoever/whomever, whose, that and which. Please note that in certain situations, what, where and when can function as relative pronouns. The woman who/that lives next door is a doctor. Where is the ham which/that was in the fridge? Everything that happened was my fault. The woman who (can be omitted) I wanted to see was on holiday. The woman who (cannot be omitted) helped me was my neighbour. The house where I was born was pulled down a week ago. We saw some people whose car had broken down. In extra information clauses that is not used, and you need commas. John, who speaks French and Italian, works as a tourist guide. Colin told me about his new job, which he’s enjoying very much. Amy, whose car had broken down, was in a very bad mood. My brother, who lives in London, is a doctor. (I have only 1 brother.) My brother who lives in London is a doctor, while the other one is a lawyer. A comma is also necessary in front of which when it means “což”: For once, he came on time, which surprised me a lot. Adverbial clauses act as modifiers of the main clause. They express more detailed information about time, place, condition, contrast, concession, reason, purpose, result, or any other additional comment. Tell me after I have eaten my dinner. I feel guilty because I have not submitted my report on time. We will not continue ordering from you unless you change the terms of payment. I bought a sandwich while I was out. He always carries an MP3 player with him wherever he goes.
1.3 Reduced Adjective and Adverbial Clauses In reduced adjective clauses, the relative pronoun (who, which, that) can be omitted along with the verb and replaced by the present participle (verb + ‐ing): People who buy lottery tickets are often found at bingo. People buying lottery tickets are often found at bingo. The students who were waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed. The students waiting for their funding from the government were disappointed. Those students who want to go to Heiligenblut for snowboarding need to pay soon. Those students wanting to go to Heiligenblut for snowboarding need to pay soon. Kids playing in the street may get run over. = Kids who play… ESL students attending the summer session must register by Friday. = Students who will attend… However, hobbies and repeated actions cannot take this construction: People who play golf are always prepared for inclement weather. (Compare: People playing golf today are getting wet from all the rain.) Students who don’t practise their English don’t improve very quickly. (Compare: Students not practising their English during class time today will be punished.) 120
The tram which leaves at 6:03 was late today, so I caught the 6:08 for downtown. (Compare to the incorrect alternative: *The tram leaving at 6:03 was late today.) When the verb is in the continuous or progressive tense, it can be replaced by the present participle: I am waiting for the student who is writing his final exam early. = ….the student writing… Give high marks to the students who are speaking English in class today. = …students speaking… The students desiring the grammar course please sign up at my office. = …students who desire… All the students wishing for a better grade are here studying hard. = …students who wish… Helpful hint: When you are not sure, put in the who, whom, which or that, and avoid using the participle construction. The same process of reduction can be undertaken by adverbial clauses: Because he was a doctor, George knew how to handle such a situation. = Being a doctor, he knew…. Or even: As a doctor, George knew… While I was eating dinner, I watched TV. = While eating dinner, I watched TV. When you are in Rome, (you) do as Romans do. = When in Rome, do as Romans do. When I opened the door, I saw a strange sight. = When opening the door, I saw a strange sight. = Opening the door, I saw a strange sight. If the subjects are different, you may not reduce the adverbial clause: While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California. X While taking a shower, my sister called from California. In the first example one sister was in the shower and the other one phoned. In the latter case, the woman had a phone with her in the shower and she used it to phone her sister. Be careful when reducing time clauses that come at the end of sentences: We saw many beautiful birds while we were fishing in the lake. We saw many beautiful birds while fishing in the lake. We saw many beautiful birds fishing in the lake. Who was actually fishing in each sentence? People or birds? When the two events took place at different times: After I finished my homework, I went to bed. After finishing my homework, I went to bed. After I had finished my homework, I went to bed. After having finished my homework, I went to bed. Having finished my homework, I went to bed. Before he left the dance, Malcolm said good‐bye to his girlfriend. Before leaving the dance, Malcolm said good‐bye to his girlfriend. More details about the issues mentioned above can be found in reference books under the entry sentence condensation, or online, for example at: http://kaj.upol.cz/materialy/syntax2/06condensation/06condensation.htm
1.4 Subject – Verb Agreement (S‐V Agreement) The basic principle is that singular subjects need singular verbs and plural subjects need plural verbs: My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians. 121
Yet, there are more troublesome situations when we may not be certain if the subject is singular or not. Let us simplify the matters by focusing on where singular verbs are necessary. a. Most learners of English know that singular verbs are used with singular countable nouns: The engine is working. b. When two or more nouns are connected, the S‐V agreement depends on the connector: and: Jonathan and Nigel are at the Kryštofovo údolí fair today. or nor: The book or the pen is in the drawer. c. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb (the so called principle of proximity): His friends or the boy runs every morning. But: The boy or his friends run every morning. d. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase: The man who we have just spoken to is going to lead the team of experts in the future. e. The easy rule says that with uncountable nouns, like furniture, luggage, advice, the singular form is to be used: When luggage is left unattended, it will be removed or destroyed. Do not fall into a trap due to the final –s at the end of some words like mathematics, measles, and news. They are singular: The recent news from Libya has been really contradictory. Only where there are two parts to these things, like tweezers, scissors, trousers and shears, do they require a plural verb: Those trousers are made of wool. f. In the sentences beginning with there, the verb must agree with the subject that follows: There is a question. There are many questions. g. With pronouns like anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody, each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, somebody, someone and no one, use singular: Everyone has finished his or her homework. Each of these hot dogs is juicy. h. Finally, there is an exciting category of collective nouns. These are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class and family: The committee decides how to proceed. If you refer to individual efforts of each member of the group or to the idea of number (notional concord), you may decide to use the plural: The crew are preparing to dock the ship. A final warning for this section. There are differences in usage between British and American English (BrE and AmE). 122
1.5 Articles What is an article? It is a word which modifies nouns. There are three of them, the, a/an and the zero article. The (the definite article) is used to refer to specific, unique or particular nouns; a/an (the indefinite article) is used to modify non‐specific and non‐ particular nouns; the zero article is applicable when we speak about things in general. For example, if we say, “Let’s have a look at the example,” we mean a specific one. If we say, “Let’s listen to a song,” we do not mean any specific song. Correct use of articles in English is one of the most difficult things to get right in English. However, there are a few basic rules which are to be followed. Let us look at each kind of the articles a little more closely. Indefinite articles: a and an A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of the group. For example: My friend is going to get a puppy soon. This refers to any dog. We do not know which dog since we have not seen the dog yet. Somebody call a doctor! This refers to any doctor. We do not need a specific doctor yet; we need any doctor who is available. When I was in the gallery, I saw an amazing picture. Here we are talking about a single, non‐specific thing, in this case a painting. There were others in the gallery, but there is only one we are talking about here. Remember, the usage of either a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a table, a car, a camera, a building, a cat an + singular noun beginning with a vowel (or an adjective before the noun): an umbrella, an octopus, an absent‐minded professor, an inch, an engineer (BUT: a university! Very often, inexperienced users of English make a mistake here and use the article an forgetting that the vowel must be pronounced at the beginning of the word.) an + the words starting with the silent “h”: an hour a + nouns starting with a pronounced “h”: a horrible storm Definite article: the When it is clear to both people in the interaction which people or things are being referred to, we use the. For example: The man who robbed me was tall and had a big scar on his forehead. Here we are referring to a specific man, the one responsible for the loss of my wallet and all documents. The children must be awake! Here we are talking about a particular bunch of children, probably ours or those we are currently looking after. I saw the runaway cow Yvonne. Here we are talking about a specific noun, the famous fugitive from a German farm, which made the headlines when she was at large from May till September 2011. Countable and uncountable nouns The can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely with them.
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I love to sail over the water (some specific body of water) or I love to sail over water (any water). He spilled the milkshake all over the floor (some specific milkshake, perhaps the one I made for him) or He spilled milkshake all over the floor (any milkshake is on the floor, which is now slippery). A/an can be used only with countable nouns: I need a loaf of bread. I need a new pair of glasses. Remember tricky nouns which are not countable in English: money, luggage, baggage, advice, news, information. To create more problems especially for non‐native speakers of English, the language also contains nouns which can be either countable or uncountable: hair, light, paper, experience, time, room, work, etc.: He has brown hair. BUT: There is a long blond hair in your soup. One more closing remark for this section: we are certain you will come across differences between the usage of articles in British and American English.
1.6 Passive Voice In a sentence we use active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb: The dog bit the boy. They have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known who or what is performing the action. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence, the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle), the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence or it is dropped. One of the frequent mistakes of Czech users of English is connected with the word order and the usage of the passive: Ten test jsem vám opravila. The correct equivalents of this sentence in English are: I have corrected the test for you. Or: The test has been corrected. (by me) Remember that passive voice can be used in any tense:
The meal is finished. Food for the party is being prepared by a catering company. Three victims have been rescued. He was killed with a gun. The report will be written by my deputy. The match would be cancelled if it continued to rain like this. He would have been informed if there had been a change in the appraisal committee’s decision.
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1.7 Tenses Only two tenses are marked in the English verb alone, present and past. Other tenses are marked by auxiliaries. We will not repeat the whole theory which you can revise in grammar reference books. We want to focus only on the most problematic features which are the most frequent sources of errors. The most typical mistake with the present simple tense is omitting the ending –s in the third person singular (he speaks) and using the present continuous tense (he is speaking) mistakenly when we do not want to say that something is happening just now. Certainly, we can use this form with adverbs typically connected with the simple tense, like often, always, every day, but only when we want to express that the person doing it or the speaker is annoyed: I am often losing my keys and spending hours trying to locate them. The past simple tense requires the speaker to focus well on the pronunciation of the ending –ed correctly: kissed – /t/, decided – /id/, earned, played – /d/. Then, of course, one must know the irregular verb forms. The past progressive tense is an equivalent of the present one in the past and usually no more mistakes appear than some problems with spelling of the –ing form. We have to remember doubling of consonants, sitting, beginning, dropping an –e, living, and changing of –ie to –y, lying. We must also remember that stative verbs are not used in progressive tenses. These are verbs like belong, like, want, understand, prefer, see, appear, seem, etc. Czech speakers of English usually manage present and past tenses, but problems occur with perfect tenses, which do not exist in Czech. The present perfect tense, both in its simple and continuous forms, deals with an action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which still continues: Rosemary has taught for twenty years. Very often we use this tenses with since and for: I have been working here since 1992. The past perfect tense is used to indicate that one action occurred before another action in the past: I had known my husband for five years before we got married. For expressing the future in English, we can use auxiliaries will, shall, and a wide range of other expressions like, be going to, be about to, etc. It is necessary to study individual shades of meaning of these expressions as some of them express an instant decision to do something, while others deal with predictions or planned courses of actions. The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future: By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. If a speaker of English masters the correct forms and functions of individual tenses, the following most frequent mistake is shifting from one tense to another in one speech act. We must establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and then use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in the time frame. We must also admit it is not always easy to distinguish the correct tense to be used in isolation. The differences between tenses make clear sense only in the context of other sentences since the time distinctions are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding sentences or clauses. The last point worth mentioning here is the phenomenon called the sequence of tenses. 125
When the main clause is either in the past tense or in the past perfect tense, then all other clauses are influenced. We need to change the tense, usually the pronoun and the time reference words: I will help you tomorrow. – > When the “you” addressed here reports it to somebody else: She said she would help me the following day.
1.8 Gerund, Participle and Infinitive A gerund is a verbal form that ends in –ing and functions as a noun. The gerund expresses an action or a state of being. Since it functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would and it may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement and object of a preposition: Travelling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. The police arrested him for speeding. A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often it ends in –ing or –ed. Since it functions as an adjective, it will modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of them : present participles – ending in –ing – and past participles – ending in –ed, ‐en, ‐d, ‐t, ‐n, ‐ne: asked, eaten, saved, dealt, seen and gone: Everything eaten, we could only dream about not being hungry. Shaken, she watched her car disappear in flames. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus the basic form of the verb; to be or not to be is a well‐known example. Another one: He had no energy to resist. You have to know several forms of the infinitive: present, present progressive, perfect or past and perfect/past progressive in both active and passive forms, like the following ones: to ask, to be asking, to have asked, to have been asking. These three forms in themselves are not expected to cause too many problems to more advanced speakers but in one area, the so called split infinitive and dangling participles. The split infinitive happens when additional words are included between to and the verb; the objections towards this practice are not so strong as they used to be and many people use them in spoken English. Yet there are still many people who claim they should be avoided in formal writing at any cost. Let us conclude then it is safest to avoid them unless the alternative wording seems very clumsy or would alter the meaning of your text. It is usually sufficient to move one word either before the infinitive or after it: She told me to *quickly finish the sandwich. The so called dangling participle is a term used to label the case when a modifying clause is used in a wrong way and, in fact, it does not modify what it is supposed to: *Rushing to catch the bus, my wallet fell out of my pocket. It was not my wallet which was rushing, but me! What is much more likely to cause problems is the rather complex set of rules on using either the –ing form or infinitive after other verbs and after some adjectives. If you look at the two online sources suggested below, you will see there is no other way but learn correct colligations of lists of words, i. e. when to use which one of the above mentioned forms. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/627/4/ http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english‐as‐a‐second‐language/gerunds
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2. Mechanics of Writing 2.1 Punctuation In spoken English we use intonation and pitch to indicate the boundaries of grammatical units. In written English, punctuation marks serve the same purpose. The following examples from Cory (1999) illustrate how important punctuation marks can be: What is this thing called love? What is this thing called, love? What? Is this thing called love? What is this thing called? “Love”? “What is this thing called?” “Love.” There are numerous, notoriously known and entertaining examples in which you can study what happens if the marks are not used correctly: “Let's eat Grandma!'' or, “Let's eat, Grandma!'” In this very concrete example, punctuation is so important that it can save life. King George walked and talked an hour after his head was cut off. Or, King George walked and talked; an hour after, his head was cut off. Have you ever seen anybody walking and talking without their head sitting on the shoulders? Hot and steamy, Grandma took the turkey out of the oven. Grandma took the hot and steamy turkey out of the oven. Now, who or what was hot? A teacher once gave students the following…and told them to punctuate it any way they wanted: A woman without her man is nothing Most guys wrote: A woman, without her man, is nothing. Most girls wrote: A woman: Without her, man is nothing. The above examples show that we can take whatever view we want, but we must make sure we express it correctly. The major punctuation marks are full stops (or periods in AmE), question marks, commas, exclamation marks, colons, semi‐colons, quotation marks, apostrophes and hyphens/dashes. Let us start with those for which the British English rules and conventions are rather similar to their usage in Czech. Full stops are used: to close sentences, clauses and phrases: A: The captain of a Scottish youth football team, Alyshia Walker has been banned from a UK‐wide competition – because she's a girl. B: Really. How awful. in initials for personal names, though increasingly they are omitted: J. D. Power after abbreviations, which is becoming less common too: R.S.V.P. to Prof. Jackson. When abbreviations include the last letter of the words, they usually do not take a full stop: St – for street, but Arr. for arrival. Question marks are used at the end of an interrogative sentence: How many times do I have to repeat that? 127
On the other hand, questions that are used in indirect speech do not normally take a question mark: He asked me if I could help him. Exclamation marks are used for commands, exclamations, and after interjections: What a great book! Do it now! Gosh! It was expensive! Now we will progress to the punctuation mark rules which are complemented by conventions, and thus it may not be so straightforward to use them. Commas mark clause boundaries. Let us start with cases where commas are obligatory: when joining three or more coordinate items in a list: Peter, Paul, and Mary were singing together. joining two or more adjectives preceding a noun when they do not modify one another: The old man spoke in a low, mysterious voice. setting off subordinate clauses, conjuncts, and introductory phrases from the rest of the sentence: To prepare for the exam, Liam attended private tutoring. separating non‐restrictive apposition, i. e. extra/additional/unnecessary words or phrases: Jean Paul, your old school friend, has just telephoned. Elisabeth, wife of driver one, was riding in the cab of driver number two. separating non‐restrictive relative clause, i.e. a clause modifying a noun which we know even without the additional clause: Captain Brown, who I showed the license to, was very polite. Richard Nixon, who tried to obstruct justice, was forced to resign from presidency. In clauses that are necessary to identify the noun and distinguish it from all other nouns, there is no comma: The man who led the American revolutionary army was George Washington. to avoid possible misunderstandings: He left us, to pay the bill. Compare it to: He left us to pay the bill. Does the comma help you understand who actually spent the money and who did not? if a comment clause interrupts the main clause: He was the first man, I think, to swim the whole distance at one go. separating vocative: Peter, can you do it for me? separating two independent clauses without any conjunction (linking word) or with the conjunction but, so, for: Sebastian read the newspaper, Mary did the dishes, as usual. Matthew couldn’t find the pen, so he wrote in pencil. in sequential descriptions of places: We are flying to Florence, Italy for a conference next month. in addresses, similarly to an envelope where each item would be one separate line: We sent the package to you at 332 Green Road, London E2 OAG. in dates: My accident occurred on Friday, June 27, 1987, at ten o’clock in the evening. in greetings and closings: Dear Mary, Sincerely, etc.
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Let us proceed now to cases where commas are understood as normal, in other words you may expect many people to use them, but not necessarily: separating conjuncts and disjuncts: However, there may be a few exceptions. Naturally, this is not the whole story. if an adverbial clause precedes a main clause: Having been invited, I intended to stay. If you ask her politely, she will come. If it is placed at the end of the sentence, there is no comma: He read the mail before he went to the office. with an adverb at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence: Sarah, unfortunately, has to work late. Usually, she works late on Fridays. before coordination conjunctions if there are different subjects: The bus stopped, but no one got off. Main clauses linked by and, or, or but are not normally separated by commas if the subjects of both clauses are identical: They accepted the article and invited us to present it at their conference. With different subjects it is usual to use a comma: Daniel was tired, and his feet were hurting. The last case is when there should be no comma: before an object expressed by a noun phrase, finite or non‐finite: He told me that he knew what to do. Usage of a comma here is almost an evergreen among the typically Czech mistakes. in restrictive relative clauses: You should have asked the man who left yesterday. Compare these two sentences: My husband, who works for an IT company, cannot often answer my questions about computer problems. My brother who lives in London is a technician too. How many husbands or brothers does the speaker have? before an adverbial clause when it follows the main one: She will come if he asks her. Colons are most frequently used before enumerations: You are kindly requested: to complete the enclosed form; to post it at once… or before explanations: We must sell this property: maintenance costs are too high. Semicolons are used to make sentences easier to read. They usually separate an additional clause: Soon, indeed, it will be only by their situations that cities can be distinguished; but therein Istanbul is unrivalled. Or, they mark off each of succession of dependent clauses: You are kindly requested: to complete the enclosed form; to post it at once in the envelope provided; and to notify this office immediately of any change in your address.
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Quotation marks (or inverted commas) are obligatory in direct speech: The guard shouted, “The road is closed”. “The road is closed, “the guard shouted. Notice also the difference between the Czech and English speech marks´ usage: Petr řekl: „Přijdu zítra.“ – Peter said, "I'll come tomorrow." The apostrophe has three uses: to form possessives of nouns: the boy’s hat, the children’s game, the countries´ laws, my brother‐in‐law’s money, Jake and Anne’s department. Do not use apostrophes for personal pronouns, or the relative pronoun who. Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because they already show possession and that is why they do not need an apostrophe. However, indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, other, no one, and anybody, can be made possessive: We were holding each other’s hands. to show the omission of letters in contractions: Don’t speak, he’ll do it. A very frequent problem for various speakers is the difference between its and it’s: Gladice has a new dog. Its name is Sappho. (However, if Gladice spoke about her beloved dog, she would rather use the expression her name.) Compare it to: It’s great news that you have got a new dog. I have heard it’s called Sappho. to indicate certain plurals of lowercase nouns; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical: Mind your p´s and q´s. Dash is used to replace commas when indicating interruption: London – according to my son – is absolutely smashing. Hyphen is used for three main purposes: to link single words to form compound words: a day‐to‐day event, a two‐hour wait, president‐elect; to indicate prefixes clearly to help with pronunciation: re‐entry (this is disappearing); to break up long words at the end of a line of print at the syllable boundaries – yet it is not always clear where the split should be. If you want to study more, go to: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/566/1/
2.2 Capitalization What are the rules for using upper‐case letters in English writing? Do not capitalize letters anytime you feel like it or want to. There are very specific rules that answer most capitalization questions. Capitalize: the first letter in a sentence coming after a full stop: My mum is from Vamberk. On the other hand, my dad comes from Spain. The pronoun I even when it is in the middle of a sentence: My husband and I are going on holiday to Croatia. a proper noun, names of months, companies, geographical locations: 130
January, Microsoft, Barrack Obama, the Empire State Building, the Appalachian Mountains. the person’s title when it follows the name on the address or signature line: Ms Robinson, Chairperson words derived from proper nouns: I must take English and math. English is capitalized because it comes from the proper noun England, but math does not come from the non‐existent word Mathland. the names of specific course titles: I am taking Microeconomics this semester. the first word of a quoted sentence: He said, “Treat her as you would your own daughter.” lexical words (words with meaning) within titles of publications; not prepositions, articles and other grammar words: Dynamic Equilibrium of the Global Economy – Effects of Cyclic Development; Application of Fractal Geometry in Monitoring and Control of the Glass Production Process
2.3 Comparisons Comparatives and superlatives are formed in two ways. For short adjectives we add –er and the…‐est: You are older than my sister. He is the oldest member of our team. For long adjectives we need to add more and the most: You are more patient than me. There are a few irregular forms: good/well – better, the best; bad/badly – worse, the worst; far – further/farther – the furthest/farthest. The rules are not very complicated; the most common sources of mistakes seem to be: When we work with an adjective and we are not certain if it is to be understood as a short one or a long one – usually those with two syllables: only more modern, more serious, more expensive, but more quiet/quieter, more clever/cleverer, more narrow/narrower, more shallow/shallower, more simple/simpler too. One piece of advice – when you are not certain with two‐syllable adjective, go for more or the most option. The form of the pronouns used differs according to the degree of formality: He is taller than me. /He is taller than I am. One more reminder. Then, so often used by inexperienced speakers in similar sentences as the one above, is a mistake; it must be than: He is more hardworking than I am. Then it does not come as a surprise that he was offered the job and not me. Another way of comparing uses as…. as, or so…..as: He is as noisy as I am. He is not so relaxed as he should be.
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2.4 Correlative Conjunctions They are those conjunctions which are in the forms of pairs of words. They are used in order to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression either…or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action: Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course. In the list below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use. Note that in the construction if… then, the word then can usually be omitted. BOTH…AND
FOR ADMISSION IN A US UNIVERSITY, YOU SHOULD SIT FOR BOTH GRE AND TOEFL.
either…or
I will either go for a walk or read a book.
neither…nor
Neither Peter nor Andrew has passed the test.
hardly…when
He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted.
if…then
If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
no sooner….than
No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came.
not only...but also
She is not only clever, but also hard‐working.
rather…than
I would rather go swimming than work in the library.
scarcely…when
Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.
what with…and
What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives.
whether…or
Have you decided whether you will come or not?
such…as
I see only such movies as have good songs.
such….that
Such was the weather all day today that I decided to stay indoors.
When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about verb agreement. If you connect two subjects with a correlative conjunction, the second one must agree with the verb that follows: Every single evening either the barking dog or the squabbling cats wake Susan up. Every single evening the squabbling cats or the barking dog wakes Susan up. When you use correlative conjunctions, be careful about pronoun agreement. If you connect two antecedents with a correlative conjunction, the second one must agree with the pronoun that follows: Neither Alex nor his cousins express their disappointment when their aunt Sophie sets down the plate with burnt food. Neither the cousins nor Alex expresses his disappointment when his aunt Sophie sets down the plate with burnt food. Either... or, neither... nor, and not only... but also require special attention when you are proofreading for parallelism. Be sure that you have equal grammatical units after both parts of the conjunction. You can have two main clauses like this:
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Not only did Michael grill a steak for Wendy, but he also prepared a hotdog for Wuffy, her dog. Or, you can shorten the sentence with two prepositional phrases: Michael grilled meat not only for Wendy, but also for Wuffy, her dog. Or, you can have two nouns as this version does: Michael grilled meat for not only Wendy but also Wuffy, her dog. More on parallelism at: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/1/
2.5 Transitional Phrases There are three main reasons for using these within your writing: 1. When it helps papers read more smoothly by providing coherence. 2. When a coherent paper allows the reader to flow from the first supporting point to the next. 3. When they indicate relations, whether from sentence to sentence, from paragraph to paragraph, or from one idea to the next. They enhance logical organization and improve the connections between thoughts. They indicate relations, whether within a sentence, paragraph, or paper. The following list illustrates categories of “relationships” between ideas, followed by words and phrases that can make the connections. Addition: also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly: When there is a trusting relationship coupled with positive reinforcement, the partners will be able to overcome difficult situations. Concession: although, at any rate, at least, still, though, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course: In spite of modern climbing gear and boots, present day mountaineering and fell walking in bad weather is still difficult and at times dangerous. Consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore: Highway traffic came to a stop as a result of an accident that morning. Contrast and comparison: by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast: The children were very happy. On the other hand, and perhaps more importantly, their parents were very proactive in providing good care. Direction: here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distance: She scanned the horizon for any sign though in the distance she could not see the surprise coming her way. Diversion: by the way, incidentally: He stumbled upon the nesting pair incidentally found only on this hill. Emphasis: above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, and singularly: The team gathered each month with attention to deciding the goals of their joint efforts. 133
Exception: aside from, barring, besides, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save: Consensus was arrived at by all of the members exclusive of those who could not vote. Exemplifying: chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely, particularly, including, specifically, such as: Some friends and I drove up the beautiful coast chiefly to avoid the heat of the city. Generalizing: as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually: There were a few very talented artists in the class, but for the most part the students only wanted to avoid the alternative course. Illustration: for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration, illustrated with, as an example, in this case: The creature is attracted because it has the pleasure of satisfied desire, in this case its own particular form of hunger. Similarity: comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with: The research was presented in a very dry style though it was coupled with examples that made the audience roar with laughter. Restatement: in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently: In their advertising business, saying things directly was not the rule. That is to say, they tried to convey the message subtly though with creativity. Sequence: at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind: The music had a very retro sound but at the same time incorporated a complex modern rhythm. Summarizing: after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally: She didn't seem willing to sell the car this week, but in any case I don't get paid until the end of the month. Time: after, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously: A week later Dance reported satisfactorily, and he subsequently received five guineas for his trouble. More about this topic at: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Transitions.html, http://www.smart‐words.org/transition‐words.html http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/01/
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List of References and Additional Support for Learning on Grammar Issues: MURPHY, Raymond. English Grammar in Use: a self‐study reference and practice book for intermediate students of English: with answers. 3rd ed., 13th printing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 379 p. ISBN 978‐052‐1532‐891. CORY, Hugh. Advanced Writing with English in Use: CAE. New ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 160 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4534‐260. FOLEY, Stephen Merriam and Joseph Wayne GORDON. Conventions: a brief book of style and usage. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1986, 179 p. ISBN 06‐690‐7544‐2. http://www.writingmechanics.com http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english‐as‐a‐second‐language/definite‐article http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english‐as‐a‐second‐language/expressions‐of‐quantity http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/style‐and‐editing/punctuation http://writingcenter.unc.edu/resources/handouts‐demos/Students http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.html http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/ http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_41.htm http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
And many others out there!
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Bibliography Printed Materials ALLEN, Roberta and Marcia V MASCOLINI. The Process of Writing: composing through critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1997, 184 p. ISBN 01‐318‐2114‐8. ASHLEY, A. Oxford Handbook of Commercial Correspondence. New ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, 304 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4572‐132. BARNARD, Roger and Dorothy ZEMACH. Writing for the real world 1: An introduction to general writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 138 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4538‐145. BARNARD, Roger and Dorothy ZEMACH. Writing for the Real World 2: An introduction to business writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 134 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4538‐213. BEHRENS, Laurence and Leonard J ROSEN. Writing and Reading across the Curriculum. 9th ed. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2005, 849 p. ISBN 0321291158X. BROWNING, Beverly A. Perfect Phrases for Writing Grant Proposal. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 2008, 237 p. ISBN 00‐714‐9584‐3. BROWNING, Beverly A. Grant Writing for Dummies. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub., 2005, 340 p. ISBN 07‐645‐8416‐2. BUZAN, Tony. Use Both Sides of Your Brain. 3rd ed. New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Plume, 1991, 160 p. ISBN 04‐522‐6603‐3. COMFORT, Jeremy. Effective Presentations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, 80 p. ISBN 01‐945‐7065‐7. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Reprinted. Cambridge, U.K: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 2001, 260 p. ISBN 05‐218‐0313‐6. CORY, Hugh. Advanced Writing with English in Use: CAE. New ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 160 p. ISBN 978‐019‐4534‐260. DIGNEN, Bob. Fifty Ways to Improve Your Presentation Skills in English. Oxford: Summertown, 2007, 145 p. ISBN 978‐190‐2741‐864. EMERSON, Frances B. Technical Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987, 559 p. ISBN 03‐953‐5503‐6. EMMERSON, Paul. Email English: includes phrase bank of useful expressions. Oxford: Macmillan, 2004, 96 p. ISBN 14‐050‐1294‐3. FOLEY, Stephen Merriam and Joseph Wayne GORDON. Conventions: a brief book of style and usage. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1986, 179 p. ISBN 06‐690‐7544‐2. GIBALDI, Joseph. MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 3rd ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008, 336 p. ISBN 08‐735‐2298‐2. GOLDBERG, Natalie. Writing down the Bones: freeing the writer within. 2nd ed. Boston: Shambhala, 2005, 200 p. ISBN 15‐903‐0261‐3. GOODALE, Malcolm. Professional Presentations: a video based course. 4th edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, 80 p. ISBN 05‐215‐8682‐8. GUSTAVII, Björn. How to Write and illustrate Scientific Paper. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, 168 p. ISBN 978‐052‐1878‐906. HARTWELL, Patrick and Robert H BENTLEY. Open to Language: a new college rhetoric. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982, 642 p. ISBN 01‐950‐3080‐X. HUGHES, Glyn, Josephine MOATE and Tiina Raatikainen. Practical Classroom English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978‐0‐19‐4422116.
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KARSH, Ellen and Arlen Sue FOX. The Only Grant‐Writing Book You'll Ever Need. 1st Carroll. Berkeley, Calif.: Distributed by Publishers Group West, 2003, 368 p. ISBN 07‐867‐1175‐2. LAUDON, Kenneth C. and Jane Price LAUDON. Management Information Systems: managing the digital firm. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002, 614 p. ISBN 01‐303‐3066‐3. MURPHY, Raymond. English Grammar in Use: a self‐study reference and practice book for intermediate students of English: with answers. 3rd ed., 13th printing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 379 p. ISBN 978‐052‐1532‐891. POWELL, Mark. Presenting in English: how to give successful presentations. Boston: Thomson, 2002, 128 p. ISBN 18‐993‐9630‐6. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 5. ed., 7th print. Washington, DC: American Psychological Assoc, 2004. ISBN 978‐155‐7987‐914. SILVERMAN, David and Amir B. MARVASTI. Doing Qualitative Research: a practical handbook. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2000, 316 p. ISBN 07‐619‐5823‐1. SPACK, Ruth. Guidelines: a cross‐cultural reading/writing text. 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 336 p. ISBN 9780521613026. TAYLOR, Shirley. Model Business Letters, E‐mails and Other Business Documents. 6th ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2004, 497 p. ISBN 02‐736‐7524‐9. TIMS, Nicholas, Chris REDSTON and Gillie CUNNINGHAM. Face2face. 5th print. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 96 p. ISBN 978‐052‐1676‐847. UR, Penny. A course in Language Teaching: practice and theory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996, 375 p. ISBN 05‐214‐4994‐4. WILLIAMS, Erica J. Presentations in English: find your voice as a presenter. 1st publ. Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2008, 74 p. ISBN 978‐023‐0028‐784.
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Digital Sources in Chapter I. CV http://jobsearch.about.com/library/samples/blresumechronolog.htm http://jobsearch.about.com/library/samples/blhrresume.htm https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/cvonline http://www.curriculumvitaesample.org/curriculum_vitae_models/curriclum_vitae_model.htm http://speakspeak.com/a/html/d2j_english_cv.htm http://www.aansoek.com/English_CV.asp#English_CV http://www.worknowcanada.info/cv‐templates.html http://www.jaknapsat.cz/cv‐v‐anglictine/
Cover Letter http://jobsearch.about.com http://www.curriculumvitaesample.org http://www.resumecoverletterexamples.com http://speakspeak.com http://www.aansoek.com http://www.worknowcanada.info http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu http://www.jaknapsat.cz/cv‐v‐anglictine/ www.CVwriting.net
Reference Letter http://www.dailywritingtips.com http://jobsearch.about.com http://jobsearch.about.com/od/referenceletters/a/academic.htm http://www.writinghelp‐central.com http://www.characterreferenceletters.com http://www.boxfreeconcepts.com
Digital Sources in Chapter II. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/653/02/ http://web.tul.cz/en/applicants/possibility‐of‐studies‐at‐tul/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu http://writing.colostate.edu/learn.cfm http://www.letterwritingguide.com/ http://www.englishclub.com/business‐english/correspondence‐samples.htm http://www.writinghelp‐central.com/sample‐letters‐business.html http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/BusinessLetter.html http://www.google.cz/imgres?imgurl=http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/branches/elearning/tsl/resources/subj ect_area/ELA/ELARR/index_use_files/application.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/branches/el earning/tsl/resources/subject_area/ELA/ELARR/Special_Forms_of_Writing.shtml&usg=__Isf_yvAReIKBTH‐ 31JQ9ELJikMg=&h=600&w=600&sz=60&hl=cs&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=RaXdniIg4Y5alM:&tbnh=140&tbnw =140&ei=Y8T4TeOLNI7KswaZxeCACQ&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dparts%2Bof%2Ba%2Bbusiness%2Bletter%26um% 3D1%26hl%3Dcs%26client%3Dfirefox‐ a%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:cs:official%26biw%3D1280%26bih%3D588%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&ia ct=hc&vpx=819&vpy=73&dur=1556&hovh=225&hovw=225&tx=109&ty=124&page=1&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r: 5,s:0&biw=1280&bih=588
Digital Sources in Chapter III. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/grant_proposals.html http://www.thinkbuzan.com/uk/promo/imindmap5 http://www.niaid.nih.gov/researchfunding/grant/pages/appsamples.aspx#rpindex http://www.niaid.nih.gov/researchfunding/grant/Pages/samples.aspx
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http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/extra/extdocs/apprep.htm http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/write_grant_doc.htm http://foundationcenter.org/getstarted/tutorials/shortcourse/index.html http://www.sedi.org./DataRegV‐unified/capnet‐SharedResources/Foundation%20proposal%20guide.pdf
Digital Sources in Chapter IV. Beginning a presentation – transcript. [online], [accessed on 2012‐01‐12], available from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/8070515/Business‐Meetings‐3‐Beginning‐a‐Presentation‐Transcript BEARE, Kenneth. Key Phrases for Making a Business Presentation. [online], [accessed on 2012‐02‐08], available from: http://esl.about.com/od/businessspeakingskills/ss/presenting_8.htm STORZ, Carl et al. Oral Presentation Skills: A practical guide. 2002 [online], [accessed on 2012‐02‐06], available from: http://people.engr.ncsu.edu/txie/publications/oral_presentation_skills.pdf
Digital Sources in Chapter V. http://www.finchpark.com/courses/links/classroom.htm http://funwithenglish2009.wordpress.com/2009/05/13/useful‐classroom‐language‐for‐teachers‐for‐ finishing‐classes/ http://www.proprofs.com/quiz‐school/story.php?title=classroom‐language‐english‐teachers http://www.speechlanguage‐resources.com/simplify‐classroom‐language.html
Digital Source in Chapter VI. Pre‐Writing Techniques http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/brainst.html http://www.studygs.net/mapping/index.htm http://www.west.asu.edu/johnso/synthesis/clapton.htm http://www.lonij.net/wordstorm/wordstorm.php http://survivaltips.blogspot.com/2005/05/cubing‐pre‐writing‐exercise.html http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/freewrite.html http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/brainstorming.html
Critical Reading http://www.queensu.ca/learningstrategies/grad/reading/module/criticalreading/SomeCommonLogicalFall acies.pdf http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/454.htm http://cms.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/470327/Reading‐TakingNotesFromTexts.pdf https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/1_studyskills/study_tuts/notetaking_ll/index.html http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/544/01/ http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/outline_sample.htm http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/outline.html http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~rparis/critical.html http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/reading‐and‐researching/critical‐reading http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/lardner_awl/chapter1/custom5/deluxe‐ content.html#3
Managing Source Material http://www.cord.edu/faculty/buslig/201Ppr2Exmpl.html http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/03 http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference‐between‐paraphrasing‐and‐summarizing/ http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/paraphrase.html http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/summary.htm
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http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/notes.htm https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/paraphrase_ll/activity.html http://www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/plagiarism/index.cfm http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/ http://www.utoronto.ca/ucwriting/quotations.htmlr https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/4_writingskills/writing_tuts/paraphrase_ll/index.html http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/2005/how‐to/research‐documentation/summarizing/ https://www.msu.edu/~jdowell/135/Synthesis.html http://www.depauw.edu/admin/arc/w‐center/plag.asp
Citing Sources http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm http://content.tcc.fl.edu/library/activities/mla3/ http://support.library.ewu.edu/reference/tutorial/flash/citation.html http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/apa_style.shtml http://www.mla.org/store/CID24/PID363 http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/675/01/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/664/01/
Paragraphs http://www.victoria.ac.nz/llc/academic‐writing/index.html http://www.waylink‐english.co.uk/?page=61170 http://www.victoria.ac.nz/llc/academic‐writing/index.html http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/para.html http://english‐zone.com/writing/para‐strctr.html http://www.waylink‐english.co.uk/?page=61160 http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/01/ http://www.waylink‐english.co.uk/?page=61180 http://www.whitesmoke.com/how‐to‐use‐paragraph‐transitions
Essays http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/essaybasic.html http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/essay/drafting‐essay/1.xml http://www.slideshare.net/mrsjeff2u/writing‐an‐essay‐yosemite http://www.gc.maricopa.edu/English/essay/index.html http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/2001/egacademicessay.htm http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/essay_paragraph_ordering.htm http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/essay_checklist.htm http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/practice/practice_thesis.htm http://www.tailoredessays.com/tag/expository+essays.htm http://grammar.about.com/od/essayassignments/a/rivercrabsessay.htm http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples/process‐analysis‐essay.htm http://www.writefix.com/writing/cause/index.htm http://www.eslflow.com/AcCauseEffect.html http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Classification%20Essay.htm http://www.wiredprof.com/100/SampleEssays/classification/Computer%20Users.htm#_msocom_8 http://grammar.about.com/od/developingessays/a/draftclass07.htm http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/ARGUMENTATIVE%20ESSAY.htm http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/CryWolf.html http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Freon.html http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/critique.htm http://www.jamesabela.co.uk/exams/argumentative.htm http://www.writemypapers.org/tips‐and‐prompts/what‐is‐a‐thesis‐statement‐in‐an‐essay.html http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htm http://www.csuohio.edu/academic/writingcenter/WAC/index.html http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/introduction.htm http://writing.ku.edu/~writing/guides/thesis.shtml http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/planning‐and‐organizing/thesis‐statements
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http://bloodredpencil.blogspot.com/2009/09/academic‐essay‐3‐importance‐of‐body.html http://homeworktips.about.com/od/essaywriting/a/expository.htm http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/expository.htm http://www.wisegeek.com/what‐is‐a‐process‐analysis‐essay.htm http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/organiz1.htm http://essayinfo.com/essays/classification_essay.php http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Argument.html
Drafting, Revising, Editing & Proofreading http://writingprogram.uchicago.edu/resources/collegewriting/preparing_to_write_and_drafting.htm http://writing‐program.uchicago.edu/resources/collegewriting/strategy_for_analyzing_and_rev.htm http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/organization.html http://pisethz.hubpages.com/hub/The‐Writing‐Process http://www.powa.org/revising‐818965820 http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/editing/pop2a.cfm http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/style.shtml http://www.bartleby.com/141/ http://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/Attending%20to%20Style.pdf http://www2.elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/suggestingsolutions.htm http://depts.washington.edu/engl/askbetty/word_usage.php http://www.uah.edu/colleges/liberal/english/shared/word_usage_guide.htm http://www.etsu.edu/scitech/langskil/com‐err.htm#slang http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/editcs.html http://www.powa.org/editing http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/editing/pop2b.cfm http://www.cs.bilkent.edu.tr/~guvenir/courses/ENG401/revising.html http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/edit.html http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/editing/
Writing a Research Paper: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html#intro http://web.ceu.hu/writing/intros.htm http://www.csuohio.edu/academic/writingcenter/WAC/index.html
Resources for Dissertators: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/dissbooks.html http://www.uq.edu.au/student‐services/phdwriting/fr_phsta.html
How to Write a Summary: http://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/How%20to%20Write%20a%20Summary.pdf
How to Write an Abstract: http://research.berkeley.edu/ucday/abstract.html http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/abstract.htm
Digital Sources in Chapter VII. Grammatical Issues http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/601/01/ http://kaj.upol.cz/materialy/syntax2/06condensation/06condensation.htm http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/627/4/ http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english‐as‐a‐second‐language/gerunds
Mechanics of Writing http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/566/1/ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/1/ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Transitions.html http://www.smart‐words.org/transition‐words.html
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http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/01/ http://www.writingmechanics.com http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english‐as‐a‐second‐language/definite‐article http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english‐as‐a‐second‐language/expressions‐of‐quantity http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/style‐and‐editing/punctuation http://writingcenter.unc.edu/resources/handouts‐demos/Students http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.html http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/ http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_41.htm http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
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