Chapter _
Sport Fans and their Behavior in Fan Communities Masayuki Yoshida 1, Brian Gordon 2, Jeffrey D. James 3 and Bob Heere 4 1
Biwako Seikei Sport College, 1204 Kitahira, Otsu, Shiga 520-0503, Japan
Tel: +81 77 596 8475, Fax: +81 77 596 8475, E-mail:
[email protected] 2
University of Wisconsin-La Crosse 3 4
Florida State University
University of South Carolina
Abstract
Understanding why sport fans socially interact with other fans, participate in team-related discussions, recruit new members, and retain other fans in sport fan communities is a key issue in sport marketing. This conceptual paper suggests that three antecedents (brand equity, consumers’ perceptions of team sponsored fan appreciation events, and perceived rituals and traditions) influence sport consumers’ identification with the fan community that in turn affects four community-related behaviors (fan community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth). Sport fans will form fan community identification either because of formally organized elements (brand equity and brandfest activities) or because of less formal elements (rituals and traditions). Furthermore, the potential effects of fan community identification on the four community-related behaviors are proposed. Describing a model of fan community identification, the authors develop research propositions regarding the antecedents and consequences of fan community identification. Keywords: Sport fan community, fan community identification, brand community practices
1.1
Introduction Sport fans are defined as “individuals who are interested in and follow a sport, team and/or athlete” (Wann et al.
2001, p.2). In recent years, a growing number of researchers have focused on the communal aspect of sport fans and have attempted to address the question of how to develop and manage sport fan communities (Grant et al. 2011; Katz and Heere 2013; Woolf et al. 2013; Woisetschläger et al. 2008). Both academicians and practitioners have recognized the powerful organizing forces associated with interpersonal relationships in sport fan communities. Empirical research has provided support for sport fans’ ability to engage, collaborate, and build a strong relationship not only with the focal sport team, but also with other fans (Katz and Heere 2013; Woisetschläger et al. 2008). In spectator sport, marketers have acknowledged the importance of community-based relationship marketing. Professional sport teams routinely organize fan communities where sport fans come together, co-create social experiences, enhance their skills with customized products, and build camaraderie and friendship with other fans (Grant et al. 2011; Holt 1995; Oliver 1999). Sport fans are active participants and co-producers of service experiences (Vargo and Lusch, 2004). Despite the advances that have been made regarding sport fan communities, at least two important concerns with previous research limit our understanding. First, although past research has provided three important markers of fan communities, including shared consciousness, rituals and traditions, and a sense of moral responsibility (Grant et al. 2011; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001), unique behavioral outcomes in fan communities still remain unclear. Specifically, the
impact of these markers on community-related behavioral outcomes (e.g., community engagement, enhanced product use, social bonding, and positive word-of-mouth; Schau et al. 2009) has not been well understood. Second, most research has been conducted with formally organized elements (e.g., brand relationship quality, brand identification, brand trust, and brand loyalty) (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Bagozzi and Dholakia 2006; Füller et al. 2008) in company-initiated settings (e.g., car clubs). Our understanding of the relationship between less formally organized elements (e.g., rituals and traditions) and community-related behavioral consequences (e.g., community engagement and social bonding) in consumer-initiated sport fan communities is still limited. The relevant literature suggests that sport fans’ feelings of camaraderie and friendship in consumer-initiated fan communities are less formal, but very powerful (McAlexander et al. 2006; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001). The purpose of this paper is to develop a theoretical model that advances our understanding of sport fans’ behaviors in fan communities. Specifically, as suggested by social identity theory (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Tajfel and Turner 1985) and the idea of brand community practices (Schau et al. 2009), the authors attempt to develop research propositions regarding the relationships between perceptual, attitudinal, and behavioral constructs in sport fan communities.
1.2
Literature Review The following section first provides a review of the literature on the definition and scope of sport fan
communities. Then, the authors draw from the literature on existing models of consumer-fan community connection. Following the literature review, several research propositions are derived. 1.2.1
Defining a sport fan community A sport fan community is a specific form of brand community in the sport context. A brand community is defined
as a specialized, non-geographically bound community based on the relationships among consumers of a brand (Muñiz and O’Guinn, 2001; Schouten and McAlexander, 1995). Brand communities can exist anywhere in both face-to-face (Algesheimer et al. 2005; McAlexander et al. 2002; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001; Schau et al. 2009) and computer-mediated virtual environments (Carlson et al. 2008; Jang et al. 2008; Woisetschläger et al. 2008). In the contemporary marketplace, one can witness brand communities in multiple product categories due to a rich variety of self-expressive products, including cars (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001), motorcycles (Bagozzi and Dholakia 2006; McAlexander et al. 2002), computers (Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001; Muñiz and Schau 2005), cellular phones (Jang et al. 2008), watches (Rindfleisch et al. 2009), theme parks (Carlson et al. 2008), university alumni (McAlexander et al. 2006), and spectator sport teams (Grant et al. 2011; Heere et al. 2011; Katz and Heere 2013). Focusing on the communal aspect of sport fans, Oliver (1999) considers the social bonding of a sport fan community as a blend of personal identity with the cultural milieu surrounding the focal sport team. Given this implication, a sport fan community can be defined as specialized, non-geographically bound community based on sport fans’ personal identity with the cultural milieu surrounding a specific sport team. In terms of the typology of sport fan communities, Jang et al. (2008) suggest there are two different types of fan communities: fan-initiated and team-initiated communities. Fan-initiated communities are voluntarily built by the fans of sport teams and provide beneficial information, including the strengths and weaknesses of sport products, events, and experiences (Jang et al. 2008). Sport fans participate in such communities primarily to achieve their individual and social purposes (i.e., information acquisition, entertainment, and social interaction) (Dholakia et al. 2004). On the other hand, team-initiated communities are intentionally created by the company that manages the sport team, providing details on the products and their usage in order to strengthen the relationship with the consumers (Jang et al. 2008). In sport fan
communities, consumers build relationships with one another through consumption (direct and indirect) of their favorite sport teams. This provides an ideal study setting for investigating less formally organized brand communities. However, such groups have not been well explored in the brand community literature. 1.2.2
Conceptualization Table 1.1 presents a summary review of the relevant literature. There is a commonly acknowledged
conceptualization of consumer-brand community connection. Based on social identity theory (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Tajfel and Turner 1985), Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001) consider the consumer-brand community connection as a shared consciousness that refers to the intrinsic connection that brand community members feel toward one another and the collective sense of difference from others that are not in the community. Social identity theory describes how individuals derive positive psychological benefits from membership in groups such as sport fan communities. Keller (2001) contends that “identification with a brand community may help customers feel a kinship with other people associated with the brand” (p.19). Other researchers have reached a similar conclusion that a consumer’s emotional and social bonds with a brand community can be conceptualized as brand community identification (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Füller et al. 2008; Rindfleisch et al. 2009; Woisetschläger et al. 2008). Given this perspective, the relationship between a sport fan and a fan community can be conceptualized as an individual’s identification (perceived connectedness) with the fan community of his or her favorite sport team. ----------------------------------------Please insert Table 1.1 about here -----------------------------------------1.2.3
Antecedents and consequences in brand community research In the study of marketing, researchers have been increasingly interested in the antecedents and consequences of
brand community identification (see Table 1.1). In terms of antecedents, researchers to date have reported that brand community identification is significantly impacted by consumer attitudes toward the focal brand (e.g., brand relationship quality, brand identification, and brand passion) (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Carlson et al. 2008; Füller et al. 2008), consumer characteristics (e.g., extraversion, openness, materialism, and social insecurity) (Füller et al. 2008; Rindfleisch et al. 2009), and consumers’ identification with the peer group (Carlson et al. 2008). In the sport management literature, empirical research shows that an individual’s identification with a fan community is significantly impacted by sport fans’ group experiences (Grant et al. 2011), rituals and traditions (Grant et al. 2011), physical facility (Grant et al. 2011), and the social interactions between highly committed leaders and other followers at brandfests (Katz and Heere 2013). Brandfests have been described as brand-centered, corporate-sponsored event where a significant number of brand users and potential users celebrate and engage in brand consumption and social interactions with other consumers (McAlexander et al. 2002). Various consequences have also been identified. Prior research demonstrates that brand community identification leads to a number of consumer attitudes and behaviors, including both brand- and community-related outcomes. Brand-related outcomes such as brand commitment (Carlson et al. 2008), brand loyalty (Jang et al. 2008), brand trust (Füller et al. 2008), and consumer-brand identification (Bagozzi and Dholakia 2006) have been viewed as significant consequences. Community-related outcomes include normative community pressure (Algesheimer et al. 2005), community engagement (Algesheimer et al. 2005), and consumer participation in the brand community (Bagozzi and Dholakia 2006; Füller et al. 2008). In the sport context, researchers also contend that there are several important outcome variables, including consumer participation in the fan community (Woisetschläger et al. 2008), social networking between fan community members (Katz and Heere, 2013), and co-creation based on the symbiotic relationship between a sport team and the fans (Oliver 1999). From a theoretical standpoint, Schau et al. (2009) provide a richer understanding
of community-related outcomes by identifying four important brand community practices: community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth. These practices are thought to play key roles in encouraging the social, co-creative, and engaging behaviors of sport fan community members.
1.3 1.3.1
Research Propositions A model of fan community identification Figure 1.1 is an illustration of the proposed fan community identification model that underlies this conceptual
paper. Fan community identification is defined as the intrinsic connection that fan community members feel toward one another and the collective sense of difference from others not in the fan community (Keller 2001; 2003; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001). Three antecedents, including formally organized (brand equity and brandfest perceptions) and less formally organized (perceived rituals and traditions) factors, are expected to influence fan community identification. The framework also includes four fan community-related behavioral outcomes: fan community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth (Schau et al. 2009). In the following section, the authors develop research propositions within this framework. First, research propositions regarding the antecedents of fan community identification are presented. Then, research propositions on the consequences of fan community identification (i.e., fan community-related behaviors) are derived. This conceptual paper highlights the importance of extending the literature by (1) including both formally and less formally organized antecedents in a single framework, (2) linking these antecedents to fan community identification and fan community-related behaviors (fan community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth). ------------------------------------------Please insert Figure 1.1 about here ------------------------------------------1.3.2
Antecedents of fan community identification Brand equity is the value added to a product (good or service) by the brand name (Farquhar 1989). In consumer
behavior research, brand value is primarily cognitive and is derived by assessing the impact of brand knowledge on a consumer’s response to the marketing of the brand (Aaker 1991; Keller 1993). As suggested by Keller’s (2003) brand equity pyramid model, consumers’ behavioral and social engagement is beyond cognitive brand equity. Brand equity enhances consumers’ attitudinal and behavioral responses to brand communities (Keller 2003). In relation to attitudinal constructs, high levels of brand equity are likely to engender high levels of brand community identification (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Carlson et al. 2008; Füller et al. 2008). In the sport marketing context, Oliver (1999) also suggests that superior product quality, an important element of brand equity, is a significant predictor of a sport fan’s communal connection to the fan community. Based on the preceding, the following proposition is proposed: P1: Sport fans’ evaluations of a sport team’s brand equity will lead to greater levels of fan community identification. In the context of spectator sport, brandfest perceptions refer to sport consumers’ awareness of team-centered, corporate-sponsored community events that promote consumer experiences through the consumption of team-related social activities (e.g., fan appreciation day). In relation to consumer attitudes, a consumer’s brandfest participation increases their overall feelings of integration in the fan community (McAlexander et al. 2002). When individuals recognize that a sport team cares about its consumers and chooses to avoid pushing sales through hard-sell techniques, brandfests can effectively influence the image of the team, management staff, and other fans, thereby creating a sense of
gratitude and goodwill (McAlexander et al. 2002). Such perceptions lead to consumers’ positive relationships not only with the sport team, event, and product, but also with other fans (McAlexander et al. 2002). Based on the above discussion, the authors propose: P2: Sport fans’ brandfest perceptions will lead to greater levels of fan community identification. Much of the previous research has been conducted in company-initiated settings (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Dholakia et al. 2004; Füller et al. 2008; McAlexander et al. 2002; Woisetschläger et al. 2008) and failed to relate consumer-initiated elements (e.g., rituals and traditions) to consumers’ attitudinal and behavioral consequences. The authors bridge this gap by developing the proposed theoretical framework in a consumer-initiated sport setting. In this paper, rituals and traditions are viewed from the sport consumer’s perspective and are defined as consumers’ perceptions of the extent to which fan community members have ritual customs, stories, tradition, and community experiences in order to set up visible public definitions and certain communal norms and values of the fan community (Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001). Specifically, rituals have been found to regulate social conflict (Levy and Zaltman, 1975), provide a social coding of experiences (Firth, 1973), and bind a group of people with a common set of symbolic statements and practices (Rook 1985). In the sport context, Grant et al. (2011) suggest that rituals and traditions perpetuate a sport fan community’s history, culture, and consciousness among the fans of the team. Based on these thoughts, it seems logical that consumers’ perceptions of the rituals and traditions of a sport fan community contribute to their social cohesion and identification with the brand community. These views lead to the following proposition: P3: Sport fans’ evaluations of rituals and traditions will lead to greater levels of fan community identification. 1.3.3
Consequences of fan community identification In this conceptual paper, the authors rely on the work of Schau et al. (2009) to link fan community identification
to four behavioral consequences: fan community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth. Fan community engagement refers to consumers’ escalating engagement with a fan community that includes socially-committed behaviors such as self-expression, story-telling, and fan community participation (Schau et al. 2009). In sport fan communities, the key levels of fan community engagement include (1) staking a social space, (2) participating in seminal events, (3) badging the milestones for symbolic representation, and (4) documenting personal stories in a narrative format (Schau et al. 2009). Enhanced product use is defined as consumers’ improved use of team-related products (i.e., both tangible goods and intangible services) in sport fan communities. Such behaviors include (1) grooming (e.g., specific routines when attending sporting events), (2) customizing (e.g., designing spectator products in order to fit one’s self-concept), and (3) commoditizing (e.g., the extensive use of spectator products to guide other fans). Member responsibility refers to a felt sense of duty and obligation to a fan community as a whole and to its individual members in order to create, enhance, and sustain the ties among the fan community members. The key components of member responsibility are welcoming, empathizing, and governing (Schau et al. 2009). Finally, the construct of positive word-of-mouth is defined as consumers’ external, outward focus on creating favorable impressions of a sport team, enthusiastic fans, and the fan community in the social universe beyond the fan community (Schau et al. 2009). Theoretically, previous research provides some support for the development of fan community-related behaviors. From one perspective, a consumer’s identification with other fans strengthens his or her engagement in the fan community (Algesheimer et al. 2005; Woisetschläger et al. 2008). Other researchers provide a theoretical basis for the
impact of fan community identification on a number of community-related behaviors such as integrating and retaining other fans, participating in team-related discussions, assisting other fans, and providing feedback to the team for improving event experiences (Füller et al. 2008; Katz and Heere 2013; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001; Schau et al. 2009). Based on this discussion, the authors expect that fan community identification plays a key role in achieving sport consumers’ fan community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth. Therefore, the authors propose: P4: Sport fans’ identification with the fan community will lead to greater levels of fan community engagement. P5: Sport fans’ identification with the fan community will lead to greater levels of enhanced product use. P6: Sport fans’ identification with the fan community will lead to greater levels of member responsibility. P7: Sport fans’ identification with the fan community will lead to greater levels of positive word-of-mouth.
1.4
Conclusion Sport fan communities arise in numerous settings when sport consumers participate in face-to-face, virtual,
consumer-initiated, or team-initiated fan communities. In this paper, the authors synthesized the recent conceptual development of brand community in marketing (Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001; Schau et al. 2009) and the defining attributes of sport fans’ community-related behaviors (fan community engagement, enhanced product use, member responsibility, and positive word-of-mouth). Incorporating the theoretically relevant element grounded in sport phenomena will advance our understanding of fan communities in spectator sport. Furthermore, the authors derive some research propositions regarding the impact of fan community identification on the four engaging outcomes that have rarely been investigated (see Table 1.1). The proposed framework is a useful model for understanding how sport fans’ community-related behaviors are activated through their identification with the fan community. The current paper extends previous research by proposing that fan community identification will lead to greater fan community-related behaviors. There is substantial evidence that fan community identification is an important construct influencing both brandand community-related consequences. However, much of this work has focused on formally organized elements (e.g., consumer attitudes toward the brand) and consumer characteristics (e.g., personality and value perceptions). Given the limitations of previous research, this conceptual paper is one of the first attempts to develop research propositions on the relationship between less formally organized elements (e.g., rituals and traditions) and fan community identification in a face-to-face sport fan community setting. As noted by Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001), consumers’ communal feelings in a strong fan community may be considerably more subtle, less formally organized, but nonetheless very powerful and socially embedded. A better understanding of how community-related antecedents in a less formally organized fan community contribute to the development of fan community identification fills the void that exists in the current literature. Future research should address the need for community-based relationship marketing in a consumer-initiated sport fan community and empirically examine how fan community-related behaviors are strengthened by predictor variables such as fan community identification, brand equity, brandfests, rituals and traditions.
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Figure Caption Figure Captions Figure 1.1
A Model of Fan Community Identification: Explaining Fan Community-Related Behaviors
Table 1.1 Author
Conceptualization
A chronological review of the literature on brand community
Inquiry
Oliver (1999)
Yes (A blend of personal identity with the cultural milieu surrounding the focal brand)
Conceptual
Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001)
Yes (Shared consciousness, rituals, traditions, and moral responsibility) Yes (BC integration model: owner-to-product, -brand, -company, and -owner relationships) Yes (Community identification)
Qualitative
McAlexander et al. (2002)
Algesheimer et al. (2005)
Antecedents Yes (Product superiority, self-isolation, and village envelopment)
No
Mixed methods
Yes (Pre- and post- event comparisons were conducted)
Quantitative
Yes (Brand relationship quality)
Yes (Attitude, positive and negative emotions, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control)
Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006)
Yes (Social identification with BC: cognitive, affective, and evaluative)
Quantitative
Woisetschläger et al. (2008)
Yes (Community identification)
Quantitative
No
Consequences
Sport setting
Yes (Co-creation based on the symbiotic relationship between a brand and the consumers)
Yes (Sport fans with high levels of group identification such as Green Bay Packers fans who wear “cheeseheads” in order to support the team)
No
No (Ford Bronco, Macintosh, and Saab brand communities in the U.S.) No (Jeep and Harley-Davidson brand communities in the U.S.)
No
Yes (Community engagement and normative community pressure) Yes (Desire to participate in the BC, social intention, group behavior, brand identification, brand behavior) Yes (Consumer participation)
No (Car clubs in Germany)
No (Harley-Davidson's Harley Owners Groups (HOGs) in the U.S.)
Yes (A virtual brand community, “virtual football stadium,” provided by a naming rights sponsor of the biggest football stadium in Germany)
Table 1.1 Author
Conceptualization
Inquiry
Continued
Antecedents
Consequences
Sport setting No (Online brand discussion groups supported by Yahoo.com (Study 1) and U.S.-based theme park (Study 2) in the U.S.) No (Volkswagen Golf GTI meeting in Austria)
Carlson et al. (2008)
Yes (Psychological sense of brand community)
Quantitative
Yes (Brand identification and group identification)
Yes (Brand commitment)
Füller et al. (2008)
Yes (Community identification)
Quantitative
Yes (Brand trust)
Jang et al. (2008)
Yes (Community commitment)
Quantitative
Yes (Brand passion, extraversion, and openness) Yes (Information quality, system quality, interaction, and reward)
Schau et al. (2009)
Yes (Badging: defined as a sense of membership and identity that arises from BC practices)
Qualitative
No
Grant et al. (2011)
Yes (The concept of “we”: Consciousness of kind)
Qualitative
Yes (Group experience, history and heritage, ritual/traditions and physical facility) Yes
Katz and Heere (2013)
Yes (Group identity with the overall brand community)
Qualitative
(Social interactions between highly committed leaders and other followers at brandfests)
Yes (Brand loyalty)
Yes (Community engagement, brand use, social networking, and impression management) No
Yes (Social network)
No (Online brand communities organized by firms such as mobile phones, automobiles, and electronics) No (Nine brand communities: Internet device, personal digital assistant, car, GPS device, beverage, camera, musical group, cosmeceutical, and television program) Yes (Newly established professional sport teams in New Zealand)
Yes (Tailgating groups of a new college sport team)
Figure 1.1
A Model of Fan Community Identification: Explaining Fan Community-Related Behaviors
Behaviors in fan
Formally organized elements
communities
Fan community engagement Brand equity
Enhanced product use Brandfest perceptions
Fan community identification
Member responsibility Perceived rituals and traditions
Positive word-of-mouth
Less formally organized elements
Antecedents
Mediator
Consequences
(Perceptual)
(Attitudinal)
(Behavioral)
