Sport MarHeCing Quarterly, 2004, t3,141-130, © 2004 West Virginia University
Sport Heroes as Sport Product Endorsers: The Role of Gender in the Transfer of Meaning Process for Selected Undergraduate Students Ted B. Peetz, Janet B. Parks, Nancy E. Spencer
Abstract This study explored the role of gender in the transfer of meaning from athlete endorser, to product, to purcbase intentions for 150 sport management and kinesiology undergraduates. Most were 18-22-year-old (96%), European-American/White (91.3%), males (68%). Participants viewed photographs of Lance Armstrong, Mia Hamm, Michael Jordan, and Jackie Joyner-Kersee and were asked to identity and describe each athlete. Participants then indicated whether they considered each athlete an expert on products related to her/his sport and whether the athlete's endorsement would influence their purchase intentions. Repeated measures logistic regression analyses (a = .05) revealed that male endorsers were more likely to be identified correctly and to influence participants' purchase intentions. Male participants were more likely to correctly identify all endorsers. Gender differences also existed in participants' perceptions of endorsers' expertise and influence on purchase intentions. These findings, buttressed by meaningful measures of effect, suggest that gender plays an important role in the transfer of meaning for these members of the Generation Y market segment.
Ted B. Peetz is an assistant professor and coordinator of the sport management program at Iowa Wesleyan College. His research interests include sport heroes and endorsements, brand management, and consumer behavior. Janet B. Parks is a Distinguished Teaching Professor Emerita at Bowling Green State University. Her research interests include diversity issues in sport, job satisfaction, and sexist language. Nancy E. Spencer is an associate professor at Bowling Green State University. Her research interests include sociocultural aspects of sport and making of celebrity in professional women^s tennis.
''Perhaps most important from a psychological perspective, companies understand that some consumers idealize certain athletes as heroes, and they capitalize on this hero status through endorsement messages!' Sport Heroes as Product Endorsers: The Role of Gender in the Transfer of Meaning Process for Selected Undergraduate Students Within a relatively short period of time, the amount of money invested in athletes' endorsements of commercial products has risen exponentially. For example, in 1986, companies paid approximately $100 million for endorsement and licensing rights (Lane, 1996). In 1996, Lane estimated that figure to be more than $1 billion. Three years later, Broughton, Lee, and Nethery (1999) estimated the total expenditures for athlete endorsements had fallen to $730 million but noted the beginning of a possible rebound as companies had begun to sign more females and less controversial athletes. Their observation proved to be prophetic; the approximate endorsement value of athletes, coaches, and sport personalities rose to $897 million in 2002 ("How $194.64 billion," 2002). Some industry insiders and analysts have expressed doubts about the future of athlete endorsements, suggesting they are too risky and not worth the costs involved (Bernstein, 1998; Broughton, et al. Lane; Mahony 8< Howard, 2001). Athlete endorsement expenditures, however, have hovered around $1 billion dollars annually for the past seven years, a reflection of some level of optimism that association with athletes will result in high recall and attention from the buying public (Friedman & Friedman, 1979; Ohanian, 1991), brand awareness (Kamins, Brand, Hoeke, & Moe, 1989), and increased sales (Miciak & Shanklin. 1994; Pitts & Stotlar, 2002). Companies use several criteria to select athletes to endorse their products. Martin (1996) noted that the
Volume 13 • Number 2 • 2004 • Sport MarHeting Quarterly 141
athlete endorser should be "well-known, well-liked, and recognizable" (p. 40). Moreover, the athlete's image should be compatible with the image of the product the company seeks to convey (Irwin, Sutton, & McCarthy, 2002; Martin), and he or she should be an opinion leader (Pitts & Stotlar, 2002) who shares the values and attitudes of the target consumers (Pride & Ferrell, 2000). Perhaps most important from a psychological perspective, companies understand that some consumers idealize certain athletes as "heroes," and they capitalize on this hero status through endorsement messages.
"The effectiveness of athletes* endorsements of sport products depends upon successful transfer of meaning from the athlete to the product and, ultimately, to the consumer."
Since antiquity (e.g.. Homer, 800 B.CE./1898), scholars have attempted to clarify the definition of "hero" by describing their characteristics or delineating their functions. For example, Boorstin (1964) characterized a hero as a "man or woman of great deeds" (p. 49). Following McGinniss' (1990) notion that a hero embodies certain composite ideals, Vande Berg (1998) defined a hero as "a person distinguished for exceptional courage, fortitude, enterprise, superior qualities or deeds" (p. 134). Various other scholars have suggested that the primary functions of genuine heroes are (a) to affirm cultural values and norms (e.g., the American work ethic as epitomized by Cal Ripken's consecutive games-played streak in major league baseball), (b) to stimulate change (e.g., Billie Jean King's crusade for equal prize money in women's professional tennis), and (c) to provide an escape from reality and serve as a model for personal transformation (e.g., "Be Like Mike" advertisements) (Bryant & McElroy, 1997; Izod, 1996; Klapp, 1969; Smith, 1976; Vande Berg). In contemporary society, heroes typically are constructed through mass-mediated communication about their accomplishments (Strate, 1994). Given that many sports provide valorized images of males as strong, aggressive, and muscular, it should come as no surprise to discover that, historically, most sport heroes have been males. While males have frequently been empowered by the acquisition of muscular, athletic bodies, Hargreaves (1994) noted that such attributes are less valued for women and, at times, even denigrated. More recently, however, women athletes have enjoyed greater media exposure as a result of the formation of U.S. professional leagues, such as the Women's National Basketball Association, the nowdefunct Women's United Soccer Association, and glob-
al media events such as the 1999 Women's World Cup. This increased exposure has resulted in a greater number of endorsement contracts for female athletes, thus raising the question of the relative efficacy of female and male athlete endorsers of sport products.
Transfer of Meaning The effectiveness of athletes' endorsements of sport products depends upon successful transfer of meaning from the athlete to the product and, ultimately, to the consumer (Douglas & Isherwood, 1979; McCracken, 1986,1989; Solomon, 1983). McCracken identified three stages through which this transfer occurs. In the first stage, an athlete is culturally constructed as a hero, someone who possesses qualities and characteristics that have been categorized and influenced by the prevailing culture. As Belch and Belch (2001) observed, "a celebrity's effectiveness as an endorser depends on the culturally acquired meanings he or she brings to the endorsement process" (p. 181). Before deciding to use an athlete as a product endorser, therefore, a company must clarify what it wants its product to "say." Then, the task is to find an endorser who has been culturally constructed in such a way that he or she conveys that message. In the second stage of the process, the meaning the company wants the product to project is taken from the culturally-constructed athlete and transferred to the consumer good, Consumers often will connect these meanings to their own self-concepts (Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988). Although it may be implausible for someone to believe they would have the same athletic abilities as Michael Jordan or Mia Hamm, wearing a shoe endorsed by these athletes might move a consumer closer to that image psychologically, thus strengthening his or her self-image (McCracken, 1986). The final stage in the transfer of meaning process is from the product to the consumer. As noted by Wallendorf and Arnould (1988), consumer goods often serve as "symbols of security, as expressions of selfconcept, and as signs of one's connection to our differentiation from other members of society" (p. 532). Brooks and Harris (1998) elucidated the symbolic importance of association with famous endorsers, such as Babe Ruth, who project a certain image or style. A more recent example of an athlete/endorser who traded on his image was Andre Agassi, whose public persona was "rendered visible through the'Image is Everything' promotional campaign by Canon cameras" (Kusz, 2001,p. 61). Kusz (2001) noted that specific athlete endorsers resonate with certain demographics at specific conjunctural moments. For example. Babe Rutb was the ideal hero for the 1920s, during the golden age of sport, and Andre Agassi resonated with Generation Xers (born
142 Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport MarHetIng Quarterly
between either 1960 or 1964 and 1978; researchers disagree as to the exact birtb date for Generation Xers, as explained by Kusz). Neither athlete, however, might be ideal for contemporary cohorts. Currently, the market segment defined as Generation Y has attracted the attention of scholars and marketers. Stevens, Latbrop, and Bradish (2003) describe these individuals as "today's preteens and teens (born after 1978)" (p. 103), wbo present "an intriguing demographic to examine witb respect to the contemporary relevance of the sport bero" (p. 105). Choosing the Right Endorser Mindful of tbe lucrative celebrity atblete endorsement market, scholars have begun to focus attention on the relationships between atblete endorsers and consumer perceptions (Brooks & Harris, 1998; Stone, losepb, & Jones, 2003; Veltri, Kuzma, Stotlar, Viswanathan, & Miller, 2003). Despite tbis recent spate of literature on sport hero endorsers, few studies have examined tbe salience of gender regarding consumers' perceptions of these beroes. Tbe studies tbat do exist bave revealed a consistent gender difference: Both girls and boys report having more male tban female sport heroes. In 1982, for example, Harris (1994) asked 128 elementary and high school students in Nortb Garolina to name famous sport heroes. All tbe students named more men than women, with boys naming 100% men, and girls naming 82% men. Balswick and Ingoldsby (1982) found similar results when they asked 1,092 bigh scbool students in Georgia to name their female and male beroes. They found that male heroes were named more than three times as often as female heroes, a pattern that was consistent across participant gender and race. Balswick and Ingoldsby predicted, however, tbat the relatively low ranking given female sports heroes would rise with the increased emphasis on amateur and professional sports for women. Snyder and Kane (1990) echoed this sentiment and suggested that as females engaged in a broader array of sports, more positive assessments of them would increase. Several scholars have suggested tbat gender plays a role in the transfer of meaning process relative to athlete endorsements. For example, Sutton and Watlington (1994) and Veltri et al. (2003) asserted that male consumers were more easily influenced by atblete endorsements than were female consumers. Although McCarthy (2000) posited that advertisers select female athlete endorsers because of their success in sport, Veltri and Long (1998), as well as Rubel (1995), proposed a more pragmatic motivation, suggesting that female consumers have a stronger association witb products endorsed by female athletes than to products endorsed by male atbletes. While the power of the
female market has been acknowledged (Sutton 8c Watlington, 1994) and marketers have adjusted tbeir strategies to capture the attention of women (Rubel; Veltri & Long), tbe potential effectiveness of utilizing endorser gender to appeal to specific market segments bas not been evaluated in scbolarly literature. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine the role of gender in the transfer of meaning from athlete endorsers to products and, ultimately, to purchase intentions of a select sample of undergraduate students. Because we assumed an athlete's level of fame to be associated witb ber/his effectiveness as an endorser, we included the "fame factor" as a blocking variable. The research question was: What are tbe relationships among consumer gender, athlete gender, and athlete fame, and participants' (a) ability to correctly identify athletes, (b) opinions of whether atbletes were experts on products related to their sports, and (c) assertion tbat athletes' endorsements would influence tbeir intentions to purchase products related to the athletes' sports? Our hypotheses: 1. Participants would be more likely to (a) correctly identify more famous atbletes, (b) consider more famous atbletes as experts, and (c) be influenced to purchase products endorsed by more famous athletes. 2. Participants would be more likely to correctly identify male athletes than female athletes (Balswick & Ingoldsby, 1982; Harris, 1994; Stevens et a!., 2003; Veltri et al., 2003). 3. Male participants would be more likely to (a) correctly identify all atbletes, and (b) be influenced by athletes' endorsements (Sutton & Watlington, 1994; Veltri et al., 2003). 4. Participants would be more likely to perceive male athletes, rather than female athletes, to be experts on products related to their sports (Balswick & Ingoldsby, 1982; Harris, 1994; Stevens et al., 2003; Veltri et al., 2003). 5. With respect to purchase intentions, (a) male participants would be more likely to be influenced by male atblete endorsers, and (b) female participants would be more likely to be influenced by female athlete endorsers (Rubel, 1995; Veltri & Long, 1998). Previous research has revealed special considerations related to athlete endorsements of non-sport products (Martin, 1996); therefore, in this study, "the product" refers exclusively to a product associated witb the athlete's sport.
Method An adapted version of tbe photo-elicitation method was used to collect data (Prosser & Schwartz, 1998).
Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport fAarheting Quarterly 143
This technique has been used successfully in sportrelated studies and uses visual images {e.g., photographs) to elicit participants' thoughts and feelings on a given topic or phenomenon (Curry, 1986; Snyder & Kane, 1990). Participants The participants were 150 sport management and kinesiology students (102 males, 48 females) at a midsize university located in the midwestern United States. Most participants (96%) were 18-20-year-old (M = 19.87, SD = 2.16), European- American/White (91.3%), males (68%). Although this was a convenience sample, these sports-oriented students also represent a coveted demographic that has been targeted by sport marketers (Stevens et al., 2003). Instrument A separate group of sport management students (N = 94), none of whom were included in the final sample, selected the athletes whose photographs were used as the visual stimuli. These students attended the same university as the study sample but were, on average, a year older. We asked the older students to generate names of athletes who met the following definition of a hero: "A person distinguished for exceptional courage, fortitude, enterprise, superior qualities or deeds, the 'embodiment of composite ideals' (McGinniss, 1990, p. 16)" (Vande Berg, 1998, p. 134). In order to avoid confounding the results by race/ethnicity, we asked students to name one Black male athlete, one White male athlete, one Black female athlete, and one White female athlete. The athletes who were listed most frequently within each of the four categories were Michael Jordan (Black male). Lance Armstrong (White male), lackie Joyner-Kersee (Black female), and Mia Hamm (White female). A laminated 5" x 7.5" action photograph of one of the athletes appeared on each page of the instrument. The order in which each participant viewed the photos was counterbalanced to control for order effect. The participants answered the following questions about each of the athletes: (a) What is the name of the person in this photograph? (scored either correct or incorrect), (b) What words would you use to describe this person? (open-ended), (c) Do you believe this athlete is an expert on products related to his/her sport? (yes/no), and (d) If you were interested in purchasing a product related to this athlete's sport, would you be more Hkely to purchase the product if this athlete endorsed it? (yes/no). We chose dichotomous (i.e., yes/no) response categories in an effort to enhance the interpretability of the data by avoiding the ambiguity that results from imprecise responses such as "undecid-
ed," "maybe," or "I don't know." Participants also provided pertinent demographic information. A panel of three experts examined the instrument and concluded that it possessed content and face validity. The experts, who were members of the research team, were instructors of sport sociology, sport marketing, and research methods. Test-retest reliability of the instrument was established with 27 upper division sport management and kinesiology students (17 males, 10 females) who had not participated in the selection of the athletes as stimuli and were not included in the study sample. After two administrations of the instrument approximately one week apart, the McNemar test for the significance of change and the binomial test verified that the patterns of responses were stable across time. Because these students expressed no confusion regarding the directions or the response categories, we deemed the instrument suitable for use.
"The high regard expressed for sport heroes of both genders might signify a departure from the preference for male heroes that has dominated previous research" Procedure Prior to data collection, the university Institutional Review Board approved the study. Upon obtaining informed consent from the participants, the first author administered the instrument in five classes during one week of spring semester 2002. Data Analysis Establishment of hero status for the four athlete endorsers was a pre-condition to statistical analysis of the data associated with the hypotheses. The first step, therefore, was to examine participants' open-ended descriptions of each of the athletes. Two of the investigators used the criteria established by Riffe, Lacy, and Fico (1998) to evaluate these descriptions. To establish interrater reliability, they independently coded 15 randomly selected responses. After reaching a 93% level of agreement on the 15 responses, each of them independently coded half of the remaining responses. The decision rule was that endorsers would be considered "heroes" if participants described them in terms that suggested the endorsers had the ability to affirm cultural values and norms, to stimulate change, or to serve as models of transformation (Bryant & McElroy, 1997; Izod, 1996; Klapp, 1969; Smith, 1976; Vande Berg, 1998). Based on the proportion of participants who correctly identified the athletes whose images were used in this study (Table 1), we categorized each athlete as either "more famous" or "less famous." In order to maintain a
144 Volume 13 * Number 3 • 2004 • Sport Marheting Quarterly
gender and racial balance across the fame factor, we placed one female athlete and one male athlete, as well as one Black athlete and one White athlete in each category. Michael Jordan and Mia Hamm were categorized as "more famous," while Lance Armstrong and Jackie Joyner-Kersee were categorized as "less famous." We used logistic regression for repeated measures to analyze the participants' responses to each question (i.e., identification, expertise, purchase intention). In each of the three regression analyses, the athlete's gender (female, male), the participant's gender (female, male), and the fame factor (more famous, less famous) were the independent variables. The probability (likelihood) of success versus failure on each question was the dependent variable. Success was defined as (a) correct identification of the athlete; (b) the perception that the athlete was an expert; and (c) acknowledgment that the athlete's endorsement would influence the participant's purchase intentions. Odds ratios' were the measures of effect. The distance of each odds ratio from 1.00 (i.e., even odds) served as a guide to the mcaningfulness of the result. Each question was considered a family, and the a priori alpha level for each of the three families was .05.
Figure f (A) Endorser Gender x Fame Factor interaction for femaie participants
A 0.95 •More famous
0.9
Less famous
0.85 t;
0.8
D_
0.75 0.7 0.65
Male
Female Endorsers
(B) Endorser Gender x Fame Factor interaction for maie participants
B
Results Twelve categories of descriptions emerged from the 1,743 comments generated by the participants: Athletic (e.g., strong, coordinated), Ethnicity/Race (e.g.. Black, White, African-American), Gender (e.g., woman, man). Age (e.g., old, young). Body size/Body shape (e.g., inshape, tall). Muscularity (e.g., muscular, built), Miscellaneous physical descriptors (e.g., really good cardio, has a lot of endurance). Character (e.g., intense, determined, comeback from cancer). Image (e.g., cool, awesome). Role descriptors (e.g., basketball player, family man), Level of Attainment (e.g., greatest ever, good but not the best), and Hero/Role model (e.g., hero, role model for young girls). Most comments were interpreted as being positive. Only 14 (.8%) comments were perceived as negative, all of which were associated with the athlete's image (e.g., dork, over-rated). Ten of the negative comments referred to male athletes. We concluded that all four athletes met the pre-condition of hero status, thus allowing us to proceed to the statistical analysis.
0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 Q.
0.75
More famous Less famous
0.7 0.65 Female
Male Endorsers
Identification of Endorsers The logistic regression analysis yielded three main effects regarding participants' ability to correctly identify the athletes. A main effect for fame indicated that participants correctly identified the more famous athletes at a higher rate than the less famous athletes, X Table 1 shows that a majority of participants correct- (1, N - 150)-^ 47.09, p < .0001. A main effect for participant gender revealed that male participants were ly identified all four athletes and considered them more likely than female participants to correctly identiexperts on products related to their sports. A majority fy the athletes, x^ ( 1 , N ^ 150) = 17.16,p< .0001. also indicated that endorsements by the male athletes Finally, a main effect for athlete gender showed that would influence their purchase decisions and that endorsements by the female endorsers would not influ- male athletes were more likely to be identified than were female athletes,/^ (1,N= 150) = 60.19,p < ence their decisions. .0001. Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport Marheting Quarteriy 145
Table 1 Participants (%) who correctly identified tne athletes, considered them experts, and indicated the athletes' endorsements wouid affect their purchase intentions
Athlete
Lance Armstrong Al! participants Women Men
Mia Hamm All participants Women Men
Michael Jordan All participants Women Men
Jackie Joyner-Kersee All participants Women Men
n
Correctly identified
Perceived as expert
Affected purchase intentions
150 48
102
79.3 68.8 84.3
83.3 68.8 90.2
54.7 43.8 59.8
150 48 102
79.3 64.6 86.3
78.7 75.0 80.4
48.7 58.3 44.1
150 48 102
96.7 91.7 99.0
86.0 85.4 86.3
64.0 54.2 68.6
150 48 102
52.0 35.4 59.8
74.7 72.9 75.5
40.7 43.8 39.2
Athlete Expertise A main effect for athlete gender (favoring male athletes) was qualified by a 3-way interaction among participant gender, athlete gender, and fame, % {\,N = 150) = 5.68, p - .017. As shown in Figure I, the interactions between athlete gender and fame were different for female participants (A) and male participants (B). Female participants were more likely to consider Jordan (more famous male) an expert than Armstrong (less famous male), while male participants were more likely to consider the less famous male (Armstrong) an expert than the more famous male (Jordan). With respect to the female athletes, participants of both genders were essentially equally likely to perceive Hamm (more famous) and Joyner-Kersee (less famous) as experts. Intention to Purchase The analysis yielded a main effect for fame, % (1, N = 150) = 6.55, p - .011, with participants being more likely to purchase products endorsed by the more famous athletes. A main effect for endorser gender (favoring male endorsers) was qualified by a participant gender x endorser gender interaction, x ih^ = 150) - 12.36, p ^ .0004. As shown in Figure 2, female participants had no preference for female or male endorsers, while male participants were more likely to purchase products endorsed by male endorsers.
Discussion As noted previously, words used to describe the athletes featured in this study indicated that, for these Gen Y consumers, the athletes met the three criteria for hero status as described in the literature (Bryant 8c McElroy, 1997; Izod, 1996; Klapp, 1969; Smith, 1976; Vande Berg, 1998). For example, numerous comments about Lance Armstrong's "willingness to overcome setbacks" suggested that he affirmed cultural values and norms for some participants. Jackie Joyner-Kersee's perceived ability to stimulate change was reflected in comments such as "lets the world know that women are strong and competitive." Michael Jordan and Mia Hamm were characterized as models of transformation through statements such as "I wanna be like Mike" and "role model for girls and women," respectively. The high regard expressed for sport heroes of both genders might signify a departure from the preference for male heroes that has dominated previous research (Balswick & Ingoldsby, 1982; Harris, 1994; Stevens et al., 2003). The design of our study differed from earlier studies in that it required participants to evaluate athletes of both genders. When given this opportunity, they characterized the female and male athletes in equally heroic terms. These universal expressions of admiration suggest that Balswick and Ingoldsby and Snyder and Kane (1990) were on target with their predictions that esteem for female sport heroes would rise
146 Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport Marketing Quarteriy
with the increase in opportunities for women to participate in sport. The changes that have occurred in the 20-year time gap between Balswick and Ingoldsby and our study are striking in Hght of Smith's (1973) observation that, "Approximately every twenty years over the past century the type of sports hero in vogue has changed and these changes have roughly paralleled changes in societal values" (p. 65). Gender and Transfer of Meaning In this sample of college students, gender played a role in every step of the transfer of meaning from hero athlete endorser, to product expertise, to purchase intentions. As anticipated, however, the gender effect was often accompanied by a fame effect. Step one in the transfer of meaning process requires that the athlete must be culturally constituted in terms of prevailing social values. Because the majority of the participants correctly identified all four athletes and consistently described them in positive terms, we concluded that the first requisite for hero status had been met. Table 2 reveals that our hypotheses regarding identification of athletes were supported. Not surprisingly, the odds of the participants identifying the more famous athletes were 3.83 times the odds of their identifying the less famous athletes. A gender effect was quite pronounced at this step as the odds that participants would correctly identify the male athletes were almost four times the odds they would correctly identify the female athletes. Moreover, the odds that male participants would identify all the endorsers were 2.5 times the odds that female participants would identify
Figure 2 Participant Gender x Endorser Gender Interaction on the effect of endorsements on purchase intentions
them. The higher profile of male athletes in North American culture and their greater exposure in the media could provide partial explanation for these findings (Balswick & Ingoldsby, 1982; Harris, 1994; Stevens et al., 2003; Vehri et al., 2003). These results could also be a consequence of men spending more time watching sports on television (Gantz & Wenner, 1991) and possibly having a greater knowledge of some sports than women (Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, End, & Jacquemotte, 2000). If men engage in sport information-gathering behaviors to a greater extent than women, they are likely to see the images of a larger number of athletes, particularly those of famous, male athletes. A majority of participants considered all four athletes to be experts on products related to their sports, suggesting that the transfer of meaning from the athlete to the product had occurred (McCracken, 1989). Our hypotheses that participants would be more likely to perceive the more famous athletes and the male athletes to be experts, however, were only partially supported (Figure 1). As predicted, women were more likely to consider the more famous male athlete (Jordan) to be an expert. In fact, as shown in Table 2, the odds that females would consider Jordan an expert were more than twice the odds they would consider Armstrong (less famous male) an expert. Moreover, men and women were equally likely to perceive the more famous female athlete (Hamm) to be an expert. Male participants, however, favored the less famous male athlete (Armstrong), with the odds that they would consider Armstrong an expert being 1.46 times the odds they would consider Jordan an expert. The response of the male participants could have been a consequence of the extensive media coverage of Armstrong's battle with testicular cancer, a disease with which men could more readily identify. Perhaps this exposure has been particularly effective in capturing the attention of Gen Y men.
100
80
60
40
•Male endorsers •Female endorsers
20
Female
Male Participants
Purchase Intentions Although a majority of participants expressed admiration for all four athletes and perceived them to be experts on products associated with their sports, that respect did not necessarily translate into purchase intentions. As shown in Table 1, on average, only 52% of the participants indicated that an endorsement by one of these athletes would affect their purchase intentions. A majority indicated that endorsements by Jordan or Armstrong would influence them, but less than half acknowledged that they would be influenced by Hamm and Joyner-Kersee. Although our hypothesis that participants would be more likely to be influenced by the famous endorsers was supported {OR = 1.42), the data in Table 1 suggest that the statistical finding Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport MarHeting Quarteriy 147
Table 2 Hypotheses, results, and odds ratios associated with 150 undergraduate students responses to questions about 4 athlete endorsers Hypothesis
Results
Odds Ratio
H|^: Participants would be more likely to correctly identify the more famous athletes.
Supported
3.83*
Hn^: Participants would he more likely to perceive the more famous athletes as experts.
3-way interaction: Female participants were more likely to perceive the more famous male endorser as an expert. Male participants were more likely to perceive the less famous male endorser as an expert.
2.66
Hj^-: Participants would be more likely to be influenced by more famous endorsers.
Supported
1.42*
H2: Participants would be more likely to correctly identify the male athletes.
Supported
3.83*
H^^: Male participants would be more likely to correctly identify the athletes.
Supported
2.50*
H3^: Male participants would be more likely to be influenced by endorsers.
Not supported
1.13
H4; Participants would be more likely to perceive male athletes as experts.
Qualified by Participant Gender x Endorser Gender x Fame interaction
1.68*
H5^: Male participants would be more likely to be influenced by male endorsers.
Supported
2.51*
H^i^: Female participants would be more likely to be influenced by female endorsers.
Not supported
1.46
.92
*p < .05. was driven by the influence of Jordan, not Hamm. Moreover, although Sutton and Watlington (1994) noted that women are more likely than men to gather information about a product than to succumb to hero worship, the men in this sample were no more influenced by endorsements than the women. Interestingly, some participants acknowledged they would be influenced by endorsements of athletes they could not correctly identify and did not consider to be an expert (Table 1). Apparently, healthy athletes who "look the part" have sufficient credibility to affect the purchase decisions of some potential consumers. This
finding raises questions about the relative efficacy of expensive athlete endorsements compared with grassroots endorsements for this demographic. The lackluster response to purchase intentions in general may reflect a general skepticism of this age group regarding celebrity endorsements (Brooks 8f Harris, 1998; Veltri et al., 2003). This generation has been bombarded by claims from muhitudes of celebrities regarding the quality of products from breakfast cereals to automobiles. Perhaps, as Brooks and Harris (1998), Jensen (1993) and Vehri et al. (2003) suggest, media-sawy Gen Y consumers are not persuaded by
148 Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport MarHeting Quarteriy
der, our data suggest the possibility that this phenomenon exists only for male consumers. In summary, our findings suggest that gender plays a meaningful role in the transfer of meaning process for these Gen Y participants. Men were able to identify more athletes than women, and male athletes were more likely to be identified by all participants. Women perceived famous male athletes as experts, while men's "Although female and male heroes were held in assessment of the expertise of male endorsers seemed equally high regard, their effectiveness as endorsers to be affected by factors unrelated to athletic competicontinues to be affected by their gender as well as tion. Finally, of the participants who were influenced the gender of the consumers'* by endorsements, men were much more inclined to be influenced by male endorsers than by female endorsers. So, although female and male heroes were held in It is also possible that even though athletes' endorseequally high regard, their effectiveness as endorsers ments might subconsciously affect the purchase hitencontinues to be affected by their gender as well as the tions of Gen Y consumers, they are reluctant to admit gender of the consumers. they are susceptible to this approach {Veltri et al., 2003). Moreover, self-report data are not always reliable, and it is impossible to know whether these partic- Future Research There were several limitations to this study that ipants' responses correspond to their actual purchase should be considered in future research. First, the athbehavior. Even so, these participants' expressed attiletes were pictured engaged in their sports rather than tudes toward high-profile athletes' endorsements proin a product endorsement setting, thus raising the posvide some support for abandoning costly athlete sibility that the stages of the transfer of meaning endorsements in favor of grassroots celebrity endorseprocess were disrupted. Second, the use of athletes who ments and event sponsorships (Belch & Belch, 2001; were either removed from the current endorsement Bernstein, 1998; Bhonslay & Bronson, 1998; Kaikati, mix (i.e., Jackie Joyner-Kersee) or not in competitive 1987; lrwin, Sutton, & McCarthy, 2002; Jensen, 1993; season (i.e., Mia Hamm, Lance Armstrong) at the time Pitts & Stotlar, 2002). Alternatively, other age groups, of data collection might have influenced the results. such as pre-teens, might be more vulnerable to sport The use of dichotomous responses to pencii-and-paper hero endorsements and more willing to admit that items threatened the ecological validity of the question such endorsements would influence their purchase about purchase decisions and failed to provide oppordecisions (Veltri et al., 2003). tunities for participants to expand on their responses. Despite the skepticism associated with athlete Semi-structured interviews would enable researchers to endorsements, a meaningful gender effect was revealed probe answers and thus enrich our understanding of by the endorser gender x participant gender interacthe meanings consumers associate with athletes and tion related to purchase intentions (Figure 2). As the role of gender in the transfer of meaning process. shown in Table 2, the odds that men would be influFinally, future studies that include participants from enced by male endorsers were 2.51 times the odds they other demographic groups (e.g., people of color, prewould be influenced by female endorsers. This finding teens, college students in other academic majors) supported our hypothesis and buttressed Rubel's would be useful in the quest for a fuller understanding (1995) and Vehri and Long's (1998) suggestion that of the role of gender in the purchase decisions of sport male consumers will respond more positively to male product consumers. endorsers than to female endorsers. Counter to our hypothesis, however, female participants did not References demonstrate a preference for female endorsers, thus Balswick, !,,& Ingoldsby, B, (1982). Heroes and heroines among American challenging Rubel's (1995) and Veltri and Long's adolescents. Sex Roks, 8, 243- 249. (1998) suggestion that female endorsers had more Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. A. (2001). Advertising and promotion: An integrated appeal for women than male endorsers. Sutton and marketing communications perspective (5'" ed.). New York: Irwin/McGraw-Hi!l. Watlington (1994) suggested that "pride in gender" Bernstein, A. (1998, November 23-29). Reebok's future not in the stars. might manifest itself in a preference for attending Street & Smith's Sports Business journal, 1(31), 7. sporting events in which contestants are members of Bhonslay, M., & Bronson, C, (1998, |une 10). Power of professional one's own gender. If this pride is also present with endorsers ,slipptng fast. Sporting Goods Business, 31(9), 30. Boorstin, D. ]. (1964). The image: A guide to pseudo-events in America (25 regard to a preference for endorsers of one's own gen-
athletes' endorsements, regardless of their "hero" status. They know the athletes are being paid to hawk the products. Moreover, they believe the endorsement increases the price of the product. Consequently, Gen Y consumers may receive the messages of athlete endorsers "with a grain of salt" (Brooks & Harris; Kaikati, 1987; Veltri et al., 2003).
anniversary ed.J. New York: Atheneum.
Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport Marheting Quarterly 149
Brooks. C. M- & Harris, K. K. (1998). Celebrity athlete endorsement: An Riffe, D., Lacy, S., & Eico, F. G. (\998). Analyzing media messages: Using overview of the key theoretical issues. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7(2), 34-44. ijuantitative content analysis in research. Mahwah, Nf: Erlbaum. Broughton, D.. Lee, |., & Nethery, R. (1999, December 20-26). The answer: Rubel, C. (1995). Women's sports in the spotlight as corporations become $213 billion. Street & Smith's Sports Business journal, 2(35), 23-29. sponsors. Marketing News, 29(11), p. 2-4. Bryant, I. E., & McEIroy, M. (1997). Sociological dynamics of sport and exer- Smith, G. (1973). The sport hero: An endangered species. Quest, 19, 59-70. cise. Englewood, CO: Morton. Smith, G. J. (1976). An examination of the phenomenon of sports hero Curry, T, |. (1986). A visual method of studying sports: The photo-elicitaworship. Camduin Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 1, 259-270. tion interview. Sociology of Sport Journal, 3, 204-216. Snyder, E. E., & Kane, M. I. (1990). Photo-elicitation: A methodological Dietz-Uhler, B., Harrick, E. A., End, C, & lacquemotte, L (2000). Sex differtechnique for studying sport./ournaf of Sport Management, 4, 21-30. ences in sport fan behavior and reasons for being a sport fan. Journal of Solomon, M. R. (1983). The role of products as social stimuli: A symbolic Sport Behavior, 23, 219- 231. interactionism perspeclive. Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 319-329. Douglas, M. T., & Isherwood, B. C. (1979). The world of goods. New York: Stone, G., Joseph, M., & iones, M. (2003). An exploratory study on the use Basic Books. of sports celebrities in advertising: A content analysis. Sport Marketing Eriedman, H. H., & Friedman, L (1979). Endorser effectiveness by product Quarterly, 12,94-102. type. Journal of Advertising Research, 19(5), 63-71. Strate, L. (1994). Heroes: A communication perspective. In S.J. Drucker & Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1991). Men, women, and sports: Audience experiR.S. Cathcart (Eds.), American heroes in a media age (pp. 15- 23). ences and effects. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 35,233-244. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Hargreaves, (. (1994). Sporting females: Critical issues in the history and soci- Stevens, J. A,, Lathrop, A. H., & Bradish, C. L. (2003). "Who is your hero?" ology of women's sports. London: Roulledge. Implications for athlete endorsement strategies. Sport Marketing Harris,). C. (1994). A(/i/etei and the American hero dilemma. HK Sport Quarterly, 12(2), 103-110. Science Monograph Series. (Vol. 4}, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Sutton, W. A., & Watlington, R. (1994). Communicating with women in the Homer. (1898). The Iliad (S. Butler, Trans.). Retrieved October 26, 2003 1990s: The role of sport marketing. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 3(2), 9-14. from http://www.uoregon.edu/~joelja/iliad.html Vande Berg, L. R. (1998). The sports hero meets mediated celebrityhood. In How $194.64 billion is spent in sports (2002, March 11-17). 5mif/i & Street's L. A. Wenner (Ed.), Media Sport (pp. 134-153). New York: Routiedge. SportsBusiness Journal, 4(^7), 28-29. Veltri, E. R., Kuzma, A. T, Stotlar, D. K., Viswanathan, R., & Miller, J.). Irwin, R. L, Sutton, W. A., & McCarthy, L. M. (2002). Sport promolion and (2003). Athlete-endorsers: Do they affect young consumer purchasing sales management. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. decisions? International journal of Sport Management, 4, 145-160. Izod, J. (1996). Television sport and the sacrificial hero, journal of Sport & Veltri, E. R., & Long, S. A. (1998). A new image: Female athlete-endorser. Social Issues. 20, 173-193. Cyber-journal of Sport Marketing, 2(4). Retrieved October 15, 2003 from Jensen, J. (1993). Sneaker ads on the wrong \.T:n:)f.. Advertising Age, 64(50), 3,38. http://www.ausport,gov.au/fuiltext/1998/cjsm/v2n4/veltrilong24.htm Wallendorf, M., & Arnould, E. J. (1988). "My favorite things": A cross-culKaikati, J. G. (1987). Celebrity advertising: A review and synthesis. tural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage. International journal of Advertising. 6(3), 93-105. Klapp, O. E. (1969). Collective search for identity. New York: Holt, Rinehart journal of Consumer Research. 14, 531-547. and Winston. Kamins, M.A., Brand, M. I., Hoeke, S. A., & Moe, |. C. (1989). Two-sided versus one-sided celebrity endorsements: The impact on advertising The odds ratio is the ratio of the probability (odds) of effectiveness and creAihiWty. Journal of Advertising, I8{2), 4-10. success (i.e., correctly identify, perceive as expert, or Kusz, K. W. (2001). Andre Aga.ssi and Generation X: Reading white masculinity in 1990s' America. In D. L. Andrews & S.). (ackson (Eds.), Sport acknowledge influence on purchase intentions) in one situastars: The cultural politics of sporting celebrity (pp. 51-69). London: tion (e.g., more famous) to the probability of success in Rout ledge. another situation (e.g., less famous). An odds ratio of 1.00 Lane, R. (1996, December 16). Nice guys finish first. Forbes, 158(14), 236-242. indicates that the odds of success in one situation are equal Mahony, D. R, & Hovrard, D. R. (2001). Sport business in the next decade: A to the odds of success in another situation. genera! overview of expected trends. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 275-296. Martin, J. H, (1996). Is the athlete's sport important when picking an athlete to endorse a nonsport product? Journal of Consumer Marketing. /.i(6), 28-43. This study was the first author's master's thesis conducted McCarthy, M. (2000, September 12). Girl power: Advertisers shift focus to under the direction of the second and third authors. It was female athletes. USA Today, p. 1B. partially supported by a grant from the graduate program of McCracken, G. (1986). Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the School of Human Movement, Sport, and Leisure Studies the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer at Bowling Green State University. ^oods. Journal of Comumer Research, 13, 71-84. We are sincerely grateful to the following individuals and McCracken, G. (1989). Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the endorsement process, journal of Consumer Research, 16, 310-321. groups for their valuable contributions to this research: McGinniss, J. (1990). Heroes. New York: Simon & Schuster Nancy Boudreau, Director, BGSU Statistical Consulting Miciak, A. R., & Shanklin, W. L. (1994). Choosing celebrity endorsers. Center; HMSLS faculty members Brady Gaskins, Stephen Marketing Management, 3{3), 51-59. Langendorfer, Thad Long, Paul Pedersen, and Ray Schneider; Ohanian, R. (1991, Eebruary/ March). The impact of celebrity spokesperconsultant, Eldon Snyder, BGSU Department of Sociology; sons" perceived image on consumers" intention to purchase. Journal of
Footnotes
Author Note
Advertising Research, 37(1), 46-54.
Pitts, B. G., & Stotlar, D. K. (2002). Fundamentals of sport marketing (2nd ed.). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Informaiion Technology. Pride, W. M., & Ferrell, O. C. (2000). Marketing: Concepts and strategies (2000e). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Prosser, J., & Scbwartz, D. (1998). Photographs within the sociological research process. In J. Prosser (Ed.), Image-based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers (pp. 120-136). Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.
and the students who participated in all phases of the data collection. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ted B. Peetz, Iowa Wesleyan College, 601 N. Main Street, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa 52641. E-mail:
[email protected]
150 Volume 13 • Number 3 • 2004 • Sport Marheting Quarterly
