Status of Computer Science Education in Secondary Schools: One ...

Computer Science Education 1999, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 89–113

0899-3408/99/0902–0089$15.00 © Swets & Zeitlinger

Status of Computer Science Education in Secondary Schools: One State’s Perspective Fadi P. Deek Computer and Information Science Department, New Jersey Institute of Technology

Howard Kimmel Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Center for Pre-College Programs

ABSTRACT New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) has convened the yearly Conference on Computer Science Education in the Secondary Schools since 1995 to discuss and carry out a systematic study of issues facing computer science education in the state of New Jersey. The goal is to address the implications of these curricular issues, identify the obstacles to classroom implementation, and to make suggestions for possible solutions. The outcome of these conferences is a clear indication that a seamless articulation between high-school programs and those at university level is of critical importance for secondary school educators and could serve as the foundation for implementing a computer science curriculum in the schools. This paper reviews the current status of secondary schools computer science education in the state of New Jersey and discusses curriculum guidelines formulated by conference participants, themselves classroom teachers. This work, along with previous curriculum recommendations reported in the literature, is intended to serve as the stepping-stone towards establishing and promoting computer science as a recognized discipline in New Jersey’s secondary schools.

INTRODUCTION Computer science is a widely acknowledged discipline in the post-secondary education community and as a profession in our society. However, computer science education remains a fragmented, misunderstood subject area in the K–12 educational sector (Deek & Kimmel, 1998; Tucker, 1996). The reasons are many and complex. The current movement of education reform, exemplified by the implementation of national and state content standards, has ignored computer science as a discipline (CDE, 1996; NCGE, 1994; NCTM, Correspondence: Fadi P. Deek, Computer and Information Science Department, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102, U.S.A. Tel: 973 596 2997. Fax: 973 596 5777. E-mail: [email protected].

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FADI P. DEEK AND HOWARD KIMMEL

1989; NJDE, 1996; NRC, 1996; NYDE, 1994). This is but one symptom of the problem. Whereas there is a movement towards a K–16 seamless transition in science, mathematics, and language arts, and engineering and technology education is being extended from the university level to the elementary and secondary grade levels, a state of confusion at the pre-college level still exists in the discipline of computer science. Post-secondary education should be complementary to high-school education, and must build upon what has been previously learned. This can be accomplished only by appropriate articulation. Professional organizations in both education and computing have recognized the existence of this problem and have developed recommendations for the secondary school computer science curriculum. However, dissemination remains slow and not systemic. It has been over a decade since the ACM task forces first developed recommendations for a high-school computer science curriculum (ACM, 1985a), and for standards for teacher certification (ACM, 1985b). Reports on implementation since then show scattered and fragmented implementation activities. For example, a 1988 survey reported that twelve states had adopted standards for computer science teachers’ certification, although about one-third of them offered only an endorsement to the standards for existing certification (Taylor & Norris, 1988). It was also indicated that another 14 states were planning to adopt such standards in the “near future.” More recently, however, Stephenson (1997) observed that there still is an absence of a standardized high-school computer science curriculum, and Tucker (1996) noted that “no coherent secondary-school curriculum is widely implemented for the general population,” and “no mechanisms exist to train teachers . . . or to keep them up to date with the field.”

COMPUTER SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS What would define and distinguish a pre-college subject, like computer science, in a formal manner? If a comparison between computer science and other traditional technical disciplines, such as the sciences and mathematics, is made, it can be seen that advancements in several areas must occur before computer science can be seen as a legitimate and important subject at the secondary-school level. We consider these as important progress indicators that are critical to providing professional recognition to the discipline and to the teachers.

ONE STATE’S PERSPECTIVE OF CSE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

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(1) Content standards for computer science education need to be developed and adopted, parallel to what has occurred in disciplines such as science, mathematics, the arts, etc. Curriculum frameworks aligned with these content standards can then be developed for the classroom, in conjunction with the teacher certification standards and the curriculum for teacher preparation programs. (2) Departments of education, or other appropriate agencies, must recognize the discipline of computer science, so that the requirements for teacher certification in the discipline are established along with specific standards that must be met to receive such certification. (3) Teacher preparation programs must be in place with a prescribed course of study in computer science and education that provide perspective teachers with the skills and knowledge to meet the standards required for a certification in the field, and to provide quality instruction in the classroom. As a relatively new discipline, especially at high-school level, provisions must be made to train or retrain teachers already in the school systems, so that they may also develop those skills and knowledge necessary to obtain such certification. Leadership in these areas has been shown nationally through recommendations for curriculum models and standards for teacher certification (ACM, 1985a,1985b, 1993; ISTE, 1992). The guidelines developed by ISTE distinguish between computer science as a discipline and educational technology as a tool. Implementation of these recommendations in the United States still appears to be lagging behind (Poirot et al., 1988; Tucker, 1996). This could change if the various states develop teaching certification requirements and curriculum standards for computer science for their schools. This will in turn prompt the schools to implement relevant computer science programs and will also motivate colleges and universities to introduce pre-service programs in computer science education. As Chen (1989) pointed out, “colleges and universities do not have the reasons to set up such programs because computer science is not a distinct academic discipline in high schools.” A curriculum that meets the needs of high-school students and, for those who need it, an entry into post-secondary education programs that require computer science skills is essential. As in the other disciplines, this curriculum necessitates multiple tracks to meet the diverse needs of the students. A cursory examination of what is purported to be computer science in secondary schools is indicative of the confusion that exists between computer science as a discipline and instructional technology as a tool for teaching and learning.

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Technology has fast become a buzzword in education and especially in current science and mathematics education reform (Kimmel & Deek, 1995), within the categories of: • • • •

Tutorials—Drill and practice, and self-study tools. Simulations—Multimedia and computer-based laboratory programs. Applications—Including word processing, spreadsheets, and databases. Communications—The Web, interactive computer networks, and distance learning.

There must be a distinction between the technology and the computer science curriculum. In one perspective, computer science must be considered as subject matter and technology should be viewed as a tool that cuts across all subjects. For example, technology is used as a tool in mathematics, in science, in social science, in English, and in other disciplines, including computer science. Where the technology is the auxiliary tool in most subjects, it is the primary tool for instruction in computer science. Therefore, within the context of this discussion computer science is a subject matter as opposed to a tool: the computer is the tool and computer science is a discipline that uses it, naturally, among other tools. There is certainly some overlap between technology and computer science. Take, for instance, word processing and presentation graphics software that all students should learn and be able to use. This is an example of the application aspect of technology that many people use, including computer scientists. Algorithms and data structures, on the other hand, are specific subjects that are studied strictly within computer science. This overlap is also true between computer science and other disciplines. Problem-solving methodology is a general skill used by computer scientists to solve problems in the same way mathematicians, scientists, and others do. But problem-solving/programming is a component within the discipline of computer science. In many schools, the technology program is preempting the computer science curriculum. School districts are developing and implementing technology initiatives within which computer science seems to be merged, making some room for it, but obviously losing ground to the tool. We offer some reasons as to why this is happening: • The technology departments are replacing industrial arts departments (at least in name) and many of the industrial arts subjects have been renamed as technology subjects.


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• Teachers come into the computer science area with different expertise and various backgrounds. • Many schools are focusing on the technology aspect because their teachers need to be trained to integrate the technology in their teaching areas. While this is necessary, with technology, the schools are trying to train the entire teaching/staff community to use modern educational tools. Thus, computer science as a subject in its own right is being pushed aside in favor of the broader needs of technology integration throughout the curriculum. While little organized dissemination has taken place, efforts to promote computer science education in K–12 schools and to advocate teacher training programs has taken place since the 1970s. There are many schools that offer a computer science program but not many students choose to take it; in most schools, computer science remains an elective subject. Currently, most computer science programs reside either in the mathematics, science, technology or business departments, with teachers certified in various areas (Deek & Kimmel, 1998; Kushan, 1994). There are many questions that need to be considered in order for computer science education in secondary schools to be enhanced. For example, what are the courses that make the computer science program? What should be taught in these courses? Where do the topics come from? To answer these questions, a definition of what is computer science education in secondary schools must first be developed, as it has been done in other disciplines. Also, the goals for a computer science curriculum must be identified. Well-defined computer science subject areas for college level have already been outlined. During the 70s, 80s and early 90s, joint curriculum committees of the ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) and IEEE-CS (Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers—Computer Society) introduced a series of curriculum recommendations. This work, along with the efforts of other professional organizations, should form the foundations on which further curriculum development at secondary level can be accomplished.

PREVIOUS CURRICULUM AND TEACHER CERTIFICATION RECOMMENDATIONS As previously stated, the curriculum, certification standards, and well-trained classroom teachers are essential steps towards a recognized subject area. As computing courses began to be offered in the high schools, and with the

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subsequent introduction of the advanced placement courses in computer science by the College Board, curriculum and professional development became important issues. The report A Nation at Risk, issued in 1983 by the National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE, 1983), approximately ten years prior to the ACM and ISTE recommendations, suggested that there should be a full year of computer science requirements in every high-school curriculum. By the mid 80s, professional societies were discussing these issues and producing curriculum recommendations. Two ACM/IEEE task forces concerned with the secondary school curriculum and teacher certification in computer science made recommendations regarding computer science in secondary schools and the preparation of high-school computer science teachers (ACM, 1985a,1985b). While these task forces recognized that many teachers are expected to continue to come from within the in-service ranks, with little training in computer science, they called on colleges and universities to begin the preparation to offer pre-service teacher certification. Shortly after, the Pacific Cultural Foundation funded a project to develop a model curriculum for secondary-school computer science teachers (Chen, 1989). The project consisted of two phases: (1) to establish a rank-order listing of computer competencies required of secondary-school computer science teachers; and (2) to establish consensus guidelines toward the key issues of a computer science teacher certification program. Later, ISTE proposed two programs to prepare current and future precollege computer science teachers: (1) the Basic Secondary Computer Science Education Endorsement Program for preparing in-service teachers to add computer science as a teaching field; and (2) the Basic Secondary Computer Science Education Bachelor’s Degree Program to prepare pre-service teachers to teach computer science as a primary teaching field (ISTE, 1992). These programs were adopted by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), a US agency authorized to accredit professional teacher preparation programs (Taylor et al., 1992). Reports have described teacher preparation initiatives in some states, such as Delaware (Taylor & Norris, 1988) and Texas, Missouri and Florida (Thomas et al., 1993). During this period, most computer science teachers came from the ranks of in-service teachers. In a study of the state of computing in Virginia’s public high schools in the late 1980s, Herrmann (1989) reported that 71% of computer science teachers indicated some training in the field and only 22% reported computer science as their primary field of expertise. Similar reports are still being made a decade later (Deek & Kimmel, 1998).


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Most recently, another ACM task force produced new recommendations for a Model for high-school Computer Science Curriculum (ACM, 1993). Since these recommendations are the most recent and comprehensive to date, a detailed description is provided. The ACM recommendations assume a computer science program that begins with applications, programming, problemsolving, and moves on to project development and other advanced topics. This constitutes a year long course that is taken in the tenth grade, or earlier, and meets the requirements for high-school graduation. This is not necessarily the only course—others can be offered—but it serves as a solid prerequisite for further learning in computer science. We might view this computing course as comparable to the typical science course, in terms of depth, scope, lecture hours and laboratory, offered at the same high-school level; it requires firstyear algebra as a co-requisite (taken at the same time). This course is expected to focus on the fundamental concepts of computing, and provide a survey to the field from multiple viewpoints: the programming viewpoint, the applications viewpoint, and other additional advanced topics. What should be taught in this course? Where do the required topics come from? A subset of subject areas outlined by the ACM/IEEE-CS curriculum recommendations for college programs (ACM/IEEE, 1991) and other related work (Denning et al., 1989a) were used for the high-school curriculum. These areas, along with a brief definition, are: • Algorithms Step-by-step instructions representing a solution to a problem is an algorithm. Various methodologies to design and represent algorithms must be discussed. The process of problem-solving and basic concepts and techniques, such as divide and conquer, should also be discussed. Students should learn to explore and devise their own understanding and representation of problem-solving heuristics and techniques. • Programming languages The translation of the solution into its final stages requires that a program be written. Thus, programming is a required topic. It is an important topic and must be part of any high-school computer science curriculum. In fact, the ACM/IEEE-CS college-level recommendations consider programming a prerequisite topic for college students majoring in computer science, implying that students are expected to take programming in high school. The course must include adequate coverage of basic control structures, data structures, and modularization.

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• Operating systems and user support A collection of programs written in software and firmware form the machine’s operating system. Its primary role is resource management. Students must understand the role of the operating system from the user’s view and the design view. The role of the graphical user interface and the command line in creating a buffer between the user and the hardware, as well as disk and file management functions must be discussed. The role of the operating system as a resource manager in processor scheduling, device management, and networking should be considered. • Computer architecture All computers, regardless of their size, cost, or intended mode of use, consist of a collection of hardware devices. The typical organization of a computer includes a processor, main memory, secondary memory, and input/output devices. Students must understand the role of each of these devices and become familiar with information storage and processing concepts. • Social, ethical and professional context The need to ensure that all of us, especially our students, learn to appreciate the impact of technology on our society is essential. What computers have done for and to us should be examined from multiple viewpoints. Students also must understand the potential for technology abuse and be able to assess what can be done and what cannot be done, both ethically and legally. • Applications The applications, basic as well as advanced, should be considered. Word processing, spreadsheets and database systems, presentation and multimedia systems, computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing systems and other similar applications are some possibilities. At least one topic from this area should be part of the computer science curriculum. • Additional topics Additional topics can be selected from theoretical and applied areas of computer science. Advanced students should be able to study such topics as software engineering, artificial intelligence, simulation and virtual reality, and theory of computing. These courses can be presented in a variety of approaches. The six possible models that can be used to implement a computer science curriculum are: • Applications-based • Breadth approach using applications and programming modules


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• Breadth approach interweaving applications, computer science topics, and programming • Project development approach using programming language • Apprenticeship • Advanced Placement (AP) computer science Three of these models focus on computer systems and three focus on applications. But all must have programming as one of the topics.

COMPUTER SCIENCE EDUCATION IN NEW JERSEY: A CASE STUDY A recent look at computer science education in the secondary schools in New Jersey, in terms of the three progress indicators we discussed above, shows that improvements remain slow. The state has not recognized computer science as a discipline in the schools. The problem is reflected in the lack of core content standards development, and the lack of teacher certification in the discipline. Also, teacher preparation programs in computer science remain nonexistent. Thus, schools are still unable to hire teachers who have been certified in computer science and they continue to assign teaching to self-taught teachers with limited education in the field (Deek & Kimmel, 1998). The current listing of “Teaching Endorsements and Authorizations” of the New Jersey Department of Education’s description of “Professional Licensure and Standards” includes a data processing option under Business Education. The description for this option reads as follows: “This endorsement authorizes the holder to teach data processing in all public schools. Data processing normally includes the area of keyboarding, unit record operation, computer operation, programming and technology.” This is clearly outdated, and appropriate modifications are needed. At a grass-root level, some progress has been made. While most teachers are not formally trained in computer science, they are dedicated and willing to investigate and develop programs in response to the needs and published recommendations. An examination of existing programs points to two different views: (1) applications, ranging from basic to complex and (2) programming, covering many languages. We found that all schools offer, what they refer to as, computer literacy courses and most offer courses where students learn keyboarding and word

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processing. Many schools offer courses on programming and basic software applications, such as spreadsheets and databases. Some schools offer advanced topics like computer-aided design, computer-assisted manufacturing, simulation and modeling, and robotics. All of these programs, from literacy and keyboarding to robotics, are called computer science, may be offered by different departments, and are often labeled inconsistently. The diversity of topics offered should not be surprising. Very recently, Nwana (1997) has suggested that computer scientists still appear to be confused over what the discipline of computer science is. The concept of computer literacy has also been a subject of discussion. As computers began to move into schools and classrooms in the mid- and late 1970s and early 1980s, the term “computer literacy” became very common in educational circles. The discussion over what it means to be “literate” has been ongoing, not only in computer science but also in other disciplines. Literacy is a term that has taken on many meanings and used in different contexts. More commonly, literacy has been used to denote a minimum level of knowledge and skills that is important to a person’s education. For example, there are accepted levels of knowledge and skills that define a “literate citizen.” Thus, computer literacy should be defined in its broadest sense and in how it relates to the needs of all students as they pursue their chosen career paths. The programming courses are as varied as the literacy and applications courses, and only in a few schools is programming required; in most others it is an elective. The languages used vary. Some schools offer one, while others offer three or more. In any case, the choice of the language itself should be the least concern; problem-solving, programming methodology and supporting tools are the important issues, and that is another subject that needs to considered (Deek, 1997,1999; Deek et al., 1998). Generally, the duration of programming courses ranges from six months to two years. Some schools offer three years of programming courses, in many different languages. We believe that any discussions on computer science curriculum should consider the choice of language, the methodology, the duration, etc. A snapshot of the current status of computer science in New Jersey high schools can be obtained from surveys of participants at the 1996 Conference on Computer Science Education in the Secondary Schools. We must recognize that the information that we are about to discuss may not be totally representative of the current state of affairs across the state. This was neither a random sampling nor a comprehensive survey. In fact, the participants and responders were really self-selected, since they realized the value of meeting on this vital topic and came together to share and learn. So, the information


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presented here could represent an overly optimistic picture of the status of computer science in the schools. Also, there is no attempt to suggest that the information reported here is representative of the situation across the country. Nevertheless, it does provide a starting point. Note that, of the 110 participants attending the conference, 100 responses were received. Percentages of responses are used in the following discussion. For some items, participants gave multiple responses. Hence, for some figures, the total of responses will exceed 100%. However, for survey items where no more than one answer could be selected, a simple numeric count is reported, as opposed to a percentage. A discussion of the computer science curriculum must begin with a “definition of computer science.” The difficulty of establishing computer science as a discipline in secondary schools may be due to the diversity of the definition in general (Denning et al., 1989b; Knuth, 1974), and the lack of agreement among computer science educators (Nwana, 1997). According to the survey, as shown in Figure 1, computer programming (97%) and algorithms (86%) were given by respondents to be included in a definition of computer science. Application was rated third (65%) for inclusion in the definition.

Fig. 1.

Participants’ definition of computer science.

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The latter also raises the question of placement of applications. Do they belong in the computer science curriculum, or in a different subject area? For example, word processing can be taught in language arts, spreadsheets may be taught and used in math, databases can be taught in the social science curriculum, etc. The two primary components of the “typical” computer science curriculum in secondary schools appear to be programming and applications, with the greater emphasis on programming, applications, both basic and advanced, and the AP computer science model. The primary programming languages appear to be Pascal and BASIC, as seen in Figure 2. According to the survey, 86% of the respondents reported teaching Pascal while 71% use BASIC. Only 16% of the participants reported that the C programming language is offered at their schools, a small number compared to Pascal and BASIC. This, of course, is changing since the AP exam has shifted from Pascal to C as the programming language. Further examination of the survey data shows that 58% of the respondents reported teaching both Pascal and BASIC (not shown in the figure). As can be seen in Figure 3, the applications being taught focus on word processing (86%), spreadsheets (77%), and databases (71%). Figure 4 indicates the secondary schools’ interpretation of “advanced applications.” Graphics is offered most often as an advanced application (26%). Multimedia ranked second (15%), followed by robotics (8%), and simulation and virtual reality (2%). Some participants did not respond to this item, an indication that their schools do not provide advanced applications. Other information regarding the computer science curriculum and enrollment patterns is shown in the next five figures. Figure 5 shows 34% of the respondents’ schools require at least one computer science course for graduation. Figure 6 gives the availability of advanced placement courses in the schools. Of the 53 respondents who offer an AP course, 62% reported that their schools offer AP A (part I) and 38% offer AP AB (parts I and II). Figure 7 shows the rate at which students take a computer science course in their high schools. Fifty-five percent reported that less than 100 students take a computer science course per year. Computer science courses are offered beginning in the 9th grade in 46% of the respondents’ schools, as shown in Figure 8, whereas only 3% offer a computer science course in grade 12. To provide a context for these data, Figure 9 shows that most conference participants came from schools with enrollments between 100 and 2,000. In the examination of computer science offerings, it is instructive to know who is in charge of the computer science curriculum in the schools. Figure 10


Fig. 2.

Languages currently used to teach programming.

Fig. 3.

Business applications.

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Fig. 4.

Advanced applications.

Fig. 5.

Computer science courses and graduation requirements.


Fig. 6.

Availability of CS Advanced Placement courses.

Fig. 7.

Rate of students taking computer science courses in high school.

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Fig. 8.

Grade in which a computer science course is taken.

Fig. 9.

Size of the participants’ schools.


Fig. 10.

Supervision of school districts’ computer science curriculum.

Fig. 11.

Primary responsibility of participants.

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indicates who is in charge of the school districts’ computer science curriculum. We see that the mathematics supervisor is rated the highest, while the computer science supervisor is rated the second from the lowest as the person in charge. The primary responsibility of most conference participants was in the classroom. Forty-four percent of the respondents reported that they teach computer science, while 37% were math teachers, as shown in Figure 11. Six percent were school administrators. The data shows that most of the participants were either math teachers, or teachers of computer science who are certified in other fields. Here again, we see how the lack of certification standards and systemic teacher training programs hinder implementation of a high-school computer science curriculum. The state of New Jersey suffers from the lack of systematic teacher training. Figure 12 shows computer science in-service training of respondents in the past three years. Fifty-seven percent of the respondents indicated that they did not receive any in-service training, while 28% received one to five days of in-service training in the past three years. It is fair to conclude that, in general, teachers are not receiving the recommended course work (Poirot et al., 1988) that would be the foundation of an adequate professional development program needed to teach computer science courses or to participate in curriculum development. In terms of the type of certification held by participants, Figure 13 shows 60% of the respondents have a math certification. As expected, none of the respondents hold computer science certification, since neither state certification standards in computer science nor teacher preparation programs currently exist. But as seen earlier nearly half are regarded as computer science teachers.

NEW JERSEY TEACHERS’ FORMULATED CURRICULUM RECOMMENDATIONS The conference held in 1995 at NJIT brought high-school teachers and administrators together to discuss computer science education in secondary schools and to review the current state of the curriculum. A goal of the 1996 conference was for the teachers to formulate curriculum guidelines. (The 1997 and 1998 conferences were designed as follow-up professional development events; the 1999 conference is being planned as a “report from the classroom” event.) The approach was based on our premise that, for these curriculum recommendations to reach the classrooms, the teacher must have a substantial, if not leading role


Fig. 12.

Computer science in-service training in the past three years.

Fig. 13.

Type of teaching certification participants hold.

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in the formulation of a curriculum. In this activity, the university faculty and the ACM and ISTE recommendations served as facilitators and as a guide to the process. As a result, it is the teachers-created curriculum recommendations that are discussed below. In order to accomplish this task, the teachers were split into five working groups which met for the entire day. The groups’ were charged with adressing the following: • Problem The lack of a clear definition of the nature and content of computer science education in secondary schools is problematic. Consequently, when comparing computer science programs at different schools, no two may be alike, except for the advanced placement courses that are standardized by the college board. The result is a wide range of programs and an inconsistency in the background and knowledge students have in computer science upon graduation from high school. This puts students at an educational disadvantage, and makes it more difficult for colleges and universities to formulate their own first-year curricula in computer science. • Goal To establish common curriculum guidelines for high-school computer science programs and outline the needed professional development for the educators who teach computer science courses. • Expected Outcome Teachers will focus on defining computer science education, come up with their own guidelines and recommendations that could be used to implement computer science programs, and identify the strengths and weaknesses to determine the types of training and professional development programs needed to deliver the instructional programs. Creating guidelines that high schools can use gives students the ability to make a seamless transition from high school senior to college freshman; this will provide colleges with more realistic ideas of the level of computer science knowledge we can expect from these students. • Outline for Discussion Teachers should address the following issues and make recommendations. Your group will report the result back to all conference attendees.


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1.

Definition for a Computer Science Education program in secondary schools 1.1 Subject areas 1.2 Choice of programming language 1.3 Choice of application areas 1.5 Length of program (in years/courses/credits) 1.6 Grade level (middle school/high school)

2.

Professional Development 2.1 Needs 2.2 Format (e.g., conferences, workshops, continuing education courses, college credits, full degree in Computer Science Education, on-campus, distance learning, etc.)

• Other Tasks Elect a presenter (to report back) and one representative (or more) to serve on the steering committee for the New Jersey Computer Science Teachers Association. The following two tables describe, in a concise manner, the recommendations for the curriculum component, based on the discussions and reports of the five conference working groups. Table 1.

Recommended High School Curriculum.

Grade levels

Group 1

7/8

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

Introduction to CS

Applications

Introduction to CS

Programming applications

Programming

Programming

AP

AP

AP

Pre-algebra programming

9

Introduction to CS

10

Programming applications

11

AP Advanced applications

12

Robotics, simulations and animation, etc.

Applications Word processing Spreadsheets Databases Presentation systems Desktop publishing

Introduction to CS

AP

Advanced applications CAD CAM Multimedia HTML/WEB Programming

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Content of the Introduction to Computer Science Course.

Topics Applications Software Careers Ethics & Social Impact Graphics Hardware & Physical Aspects History Information/Communication Internet Networking Operating Systems Programming/Problem Solving Robotics

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

An examination of Table 1 shows a strong agreement that an introductory course in computer science should be the starting point for high-school students. Group 4 also agreed on the 9th grade as the starting point, but suggested an applications course rather than the introductory course. There was unanimous agreement on assigning the Advanced Placement course to the 11th grade. We also see a strong consensus that a full year of programming be given in the 10th grade. However, two of the groups (Group 1 and Group 3) recommended a dual track in the 10th grade to allow for different student interests. Both groups suggested a programming course or an applications course for 10th grade students. One of the two groups (Group 1) extended this dual track to the 11th grade, where the students would have the option of either the AP course or an advanced applications course. A listing of “applications” and “advanced applications” is given below Table 1. Only one group (Group 1) considered the computer science curriculum beyond the 11th grade recommending a course on advanced topics (e.g., robotics, simulations, animation, etc.) for 12th grade. It should also be noted that the recommendation for pre9th grades (7th and 8th grades) focused on mathematics preparation—prealgebra programming was suggested for these grades. The working groups also discussed and made recommendations for the content of the 9th grade introductory computer science course. These recommendations are shown in Table 2. Not surprisingly, Group 4, which had recommended an applications course for the 9th grade, only listed two topics: applications software and the Internet. Among the four other groups there was unanimous agreement on the inclusion of such topics as ethics and social


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impact, the Internet, and an introduction to programming. In addition, there was a consensus among the groups on the inclusion of applications software, hardware and physical aspects, and information/communications. Only one group (Group 5) recommended the inclusion of an advanced topic (robotics) in this introductory course.

CONCLUSIONS Introduction of a new subject area/curriculum is an arduous task at the postsecondary level. This is exacerbated at the pre-college level. The process can use other subject areas as models, but each discipline has its own identity. The existing confusion between educational technology and computer science is one example that hampers the process. The implementation of a computer science curriculum at high-school level is a complex issue and must include political and economic realities in addition to an academic basis. Three issues must be addressed: the curriculum, teacher certification standards, and teacher preparation programs. These essential ingredients of the process cannot be addressed in isolation. The efforts at the state’s level to recognize and establish the content standards, teacher certification standards, and in-service and pre-service training, along with economic commitment, are the interlocking components that will result in a viable program. The discipline of computer science will then be able to position itself alongside other high-school disciplines as an appropriate and strong subject of study. The current status in New Jersey shows a lack of cohesion with existing curriculum guidelines (ACM, 1985a,1993) and teacher certification standards (ACM, 1985b; ISTE, 1992; Poirot et al., 1988). While we recognize that New Jersey is not necessarily representative of the existing situation across the country, we believe that there are other states at a similar stage of curriculum implementation of computer science in high schools. As indicated earlier, the literature points to a scattered and fragmented dissemination of existing curriculum and certification standards. Those recommendations form an appropriate starting point. In New Jersey, we have taken the next step by including practicing teachers who are ready and needed to move the process along. The work presented here can serve as a model for others in similar situations to examine the status of computer science education in their schools, and to initiate a process for implementation of the ACM and ISTE recommendations, or to create their own.

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We believe that dissemination is the critical first step to implementation. Professional computing and education organizations need to continue to publicize their recommendations. The published curricula recommendations and certification standards (ACM, 1985a,1985b, 1993; ISTE, 1992; Poirot et al., 1988), in their current form, provide basic guidelines for the establishment of content standards in computer science. Follow-up through local organizations and regional and national forums on the issues of implementation can further the process of dissemination of these recommendations, and provide opportunities for sharing and discussion of successful implementations, as well as problems encountered and solutions offered. In addition, these platforms can be used to further the recognition of computer science as an appropriate and necessary discipline for a comprehensive high-school curriculum. The meetings can bring together government officials, computer science and education faculty, and school district administrators and teachers, from which the framework and motivation can be advanced to implement computer science curricula in secondary schools.

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