STOP? and DARE

-

EaUA L I Z I NG LEAR NING

OPP O RT UN IT I ES

Marjorie Bock, Dept. Editor

STOP? and DARE: A Persuasive WU-iting Strateg,y

SUSAN DE LA PAZ

National assessments consistently show that persuasive writing tasks pose more difficulty for students than informative or narrative tasks (Applebee, Langer, Mullis, Latham, & Gentile, 1994). Persuasive essays require students to provide evidence in an attempt to influence readers to change their thinking-a skill that even the best student writers find difficult. Results from the most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (Applebee et al., 1994) indicated that most students' response to the taskwas brief, vague, or somewhat confusing. Papers were minimally developed-reasons were not explained or defended in a way that might convince a reader. In comparison to peers without learning problems, students with learning disabilities (LD) typically write persuasive compositions that are even less proficient. To illustrate, consider an essay composed by Aaron, an African American seventh-grader with learning and writing disabilities. When responding to the prompt, "Do you think children should be required to clean their rooms?" and told, "Remember to plan your essay before you begin writing," Aaron inmnediately wrote -the following text: "I think children should be required to clean their room because if they derdy their room then they should clean it up. In my house you clean up if you derdy up." In this essay, Aaron stated his position (i.e., a premise), then continued with a single supporting reason, one personal example (elaborating the reason), and ended abruptly without a conclusion.

Baekground and RBtionale foor STOP and DARE To confront this automated retrieve-and-write approach directly, Steve Graham and I developed a writing strategy called STOP and DARE (De La Paz & Graham, 1997a, 1997b). We wanted to teach students like Aaron an approach to writing that emphasized both reflection and 234

IfJTERVEtJTIUN lfi SCHOOL ArJDCLINIC

planning. For this reason, before writing, students learn to be reflective by generating ideas to support each side of an issue before deciding what their position is. As they develop their initial plans, students decide how to refute opposing viewpoints in the text of their paper. In addition, STOP and DARE helps students develop sophisticated essays that go beyond the most basic format of premise, supporting reasons, and conclusion. Students are often expected to demonstrate these qualities by the middle- and upper-grade levels in school, and their papers are rated more positively when they do so (Applebee et al., 1994). The Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model (Graham, Harris, MacArthur, & Schwartz, 1991; Harris & Graham, 1996) is used to teach STOP and DARE. SRSD is similar to other models for teaching writing strategies in that students learn specific steps to accomplish writing tasks, and teachers scaffold their learning. However, with SRSD, teachers focus more on VOL. 36. NO.4. MARCH 2001

(PP. 234-243)

helping students self-regulate use of the writing strategy.

Self-regulated procedures include goal setting, selfinstruction, and self-monitoring. Teachers help students identify verbal statements and physical actions that promote student mastery of the targeted writing process.

SD SIbges of Instrution Six instructional stages provide the SRSD instructional

framework, and teachers can reorder, combine, modify, or reteach them as needed. SRSD also includes procedures for integrating content knowledge and promoting maintenance and generalization (Harris & Graham, 1996). The six stages of instruction in the SRSD model as they relate to STOP and DARE are as follows: 1.Discuss it. Teachers provide an overview of STOP

and DARE, explain new terminology, and give a rationale for each step; 2 .Develop background knowledge. Teachers explain req-

uisite ideas such as the qualities of good essays, the basic essay parts, and appropriate transitional words; 3. Model it. Teachers follow STOP and DARE to

demonstrate how to plan and compose an essay by thinking aloud and using self-regulatory statements; 4. Memorize it. Students learn strategy mnemonics

STOP and DARE in a series of short game-like exercises; 5. Suipport it. Teachers help students work in large and

smali groups to plan and compose one or more persuasive essays; and 6. Independent performance. Teachers systematicaliy fade

instructional supports such as cue cards, planning sheets, and lists of transitional words as students work to master the writing strategy.

TeaChing' STOP and DARIE Teachers introduce the writing strategy by first establishing the purpose of instruction. Students need to understand that good writers plan before composing and that planning leads to better essays. They may be surprised to learn that skilled writers usually develop more than one set of goals or plans to guide the writing process. As they write, skilied writers refine their initial goals and determine the means necessary (often revising their ideas along the way) for reaching their goals. Teachers let students know that during the next few weeks, they will be learning a writing strategy for planning and composing persuasive (opinion) essays. Using the strategy will help students gain confidence with this form of writing, and it may be useful in other classes. Teachers then ask students to commit to learning STOP and DARE with the goal of writing better opinion essays.

Planning the Essay Next, teachers discsss the writing strategy and the rationale behind each step. The mnemonic STOP helps students remember strategy steps, and serves as a reminder to stop, reflect, and plan before starting to write. Step 1: SDvlspend bzudgmeent. Suspending judgment prevents students from simply recalling and writing down bits of informaion without fully considering the topic. WPe explain that suspend in this case means to wait, or to stop for a moment, just as a spider suspends itself from a web. budgment in this context means to make up your mnind about something, as a judge might do. Therefore, suspendjudgment means keep your mind open to consider the issue fully. Ideas for and against the topic are brainstormed and recorded on a planning sheet (see Figoure 1). Step 2: Take a Side. The writer decides which side he or she believes in or which side can create the strongest argument. Students read over their brainstorming up to this point and evaluate the strength of their ideas. Teachers remind students that their goal is to write an

essay that will convince the reader to agree with them. Step 3: Organize Ideas. Students select ideas in support of the argument, as well as at least one argument they will refute. To complete this step, students put a star by the ideas (and an opposing argument) they want to include. At theis point, students also arrange their ideas in the order they plan to use them, by numbering ideas in a logical sequence.

Students initially need guidance when reading and sequencing their ideas. Using the analogy of how a map guides a driver to his or her destination may help students realize that ideas must be sequenced in a logical manner to be persuasive. It may belp to first mention ideas in support of the prenise before presenting an argument for the other side. Then the writer provides ideas that counter, or reject, the argument. Step 4: Plan More as You Write. Remind students to continue the planning process by making additions and adjustments while writing. A cue card with the mnemonic DARE (see Figure 2) reminds students to include the four essential parts of an opinion essay in their papers. Because students need to learn the basic parts of an essay before they understand DARE fully, background knowledge is essential.

Drafting the Essay

Students need time (preferably several days) to read well-written persuasive essays and rewrite poorly written compositions to help them understand this form of writing. When first

DEVELOP BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. 36, No. 4, MARCH 2001 235

I

Suspend judgment.

STOP

Brainstorm ideas for and against the topic. See

first 3 cue cards. (For) \^ Jr\I

(Against)

--

S

0

0 0 0 S 0 S

S

Take a side. "+"

Read your ideas and decide the side you will take. Place a at the top of the side that shows your position.

Organize ideas.

Choose ideas that are strong (and an argument to refute) and decide how to organize them for writing. See next 3 cue cards to help you do this.

Plan more as you write.

Continue to plan as you write. Use all four essay parts (remember DARE: Develop your topic sentence, Add supporting ideas, Reject arguments for the other side, and End with a conclusion).

Figure 1. STOP and DARE planning sheet. This figure may be photocopied for noncommercial use only. Copyright ©2000 by PRO-ED, Inc. 236

First cue card for step 1: Suspend judgment.

Did I list ideas for both sides? If not, do this now.

Second cue card for step 1: auspend judgment.

Can I think of anything else? Try to write.more.

Third cue card for step 1: Suspend judgment.

Another point I haven't yet considered is.... Think of possible arguments.

Cue card for step 2:

Place a

Take a side.

box to show the side you will take in your essay.

First cue card for step 3: Organize ideas.

Put a star next to ideas you want to use.

"+"

at the top of one

Choose at least

ideas to use.

_

Second cue card for step 3:

Did I star ideas on both sides?

Organize ideas.

Choose at least

arguments

that you can dispute. Third cue card for step 3: Organize ideas.

Number your ideas in the order you will use.

Cue card for step 4: Plan more as you write.

Remember to use all four essay parts: Develop your topic sentence, Add supporting ideas, Reject possible arguments, and End with a conclusion.

Figure 2. Cue Cards for executing STOP and DARE.

teaching STOP and DARE, teachers may wish to compose their own well-written and poorly written sample essays; however, student essays can replace these over time. While reading the sample essays, teachers help students identify the four basic essay parts (topic sentence, supporting ideas, argument, and conclusion) and transitional words and phrases. Essays are projected via an overhead or written on butcher paper (to save class work from one day to the next) and are read as a large group activity.

Students learn that the topic sentence states the writer's opinion about the essay topic and is the premise of the essay. Students may simply reword the prompt to write their topic sentence (based on the side they wish to take). Supporting ideas are reasons explaining why the writer has chosen his or her stated position, and they give clear defense for the premise. Examples sometimes function as supporting ideas; moreover, the premise, reasons, and examples can be extended with additional phrases or sentences. (We use the term elaboration to differentiate these

2001 237 36. No. 4, MARCH VOL.

Transition Words/Phrases IntLoduce Ideas:

Add an idea:

Contrast:

I believe that I think for example as an illustration for instance

in addition furthermore also moreover another reason to support this is besides and secondly thirdly too finally next similarly

Granting a Point:

granted that even though in spite of although while this may be true despite

Conclusion or Consequence:

accordingly as a result because consequently due to finally hence in conclusion in summary it follows that as a result for these reasons since so

therefore thus to sum up

however on the contrary yet but conversely regardless and yet nevertheless on the other hand otherwise still at the same time despite this although

Figure 3. List of transitional words and phrases for students. This figure may be photocopied for noncommercial use only. Copyright ©2000 by PRO-ED, Inc. 238

extensions from reasons when assessing student progress; however, teachers may retain the simpler term, szupporting ideas, in discussions with students.) Students learn that one way to compose a sophisticated essay is to show readers that they have considered but rejected an opposing point of view when forming their opinion. They begin to do this by identifying arguments in the sample essays and labeling subsequent sentences that make sense with the premise (these counterarguments are, in fact, supporting ideas). Finally, students identify and evaluate the quality of the writer's conclusion. Good

endings provide resolution to the essay by restating the premise or summing up the writer's beliefs. In addition to identifying the essay parts, students read sample essays to identify transitional words and phrases. Students can work as a class to correct poorly written essays (they enjoy finding mistakes in papers composed by older students and teachers) and rewrite them to get a better feel for creating a logical sequence of ideas in a well-written essay. Other relevant activities include * developing a series of topic sentences (one for each point of view) for persuasive topics, * engaging in verbal debates about relevant controversial issues, and * reading newspaper editorials. Teachers then engage in brief individual conferences with students to explain their performance on a recently composed essay (i.e., written before the strategy instruction starts). V/e review students' initial writing abilities by counting and charting the number of essay parts that are relevant to the writing topic. These include premise, supporting ideas (elaborations), arguments, and conclusion. We encourage students to set a goal to increase the number of supporting ideas in their essays to 1.5 times their baseline number and to include at least one argument. Thus, in Step 3, organize ideas, each writer sets a personal goal to include more supporting ideas and arguments, based on his or her initial writing ability. On the next few days of instruction, teachers model how to use STOP and DARE by thinking aloud when planning and writing an essay. Teachers refer to the mnemonics to guide the planning process and use the planning sheet to record ideas. In addition, teachers use a series of cue cards and list of transitional words and phrases (see Figures 2 and 3) for additional procedural support. The teacher begins the modeling strategy by setting the goal of including several supporting ideas and at least one argument and explaining and defending the position clearly. Remind students that their primary goal is to be convincing, so they may include more (or even less) items as they write. The teacher uses a variety of self-instructions to show how to manage the strategy and the writing process. These include MODEL.

* self-statements involving problem definition (e.g., "What is it that I have to do?"), * planning (e.g., "OK, first I need to brainstorm ideas."), * self-evaluation (e.g., "I'm making a good plan."), and * coping (e.g., "I know I can come up with some good ideas."). Some teachers find this difficult because strategic individuals naturally self-regulate their behavior. In contrast, students with LD benefit from observing these covert responses made obvious. Moreover, as the teacher models the strategy, he or she highlights the recursive use of various procedures. For example, during Steps 2 and 3, take a side and organize ideas respectively, the teacher adds ideas to the planning sheet as the need arises. Similarly, during Step 4-plan more as you write-she or he revises the initial writing plan further while in the process of writing the paper. Teachers discard previously selected ideas on occasion and incorporate additional ideas that make sense. In addition, when writing the premise and conclusion, the teacher rereads the writing prompt and thinks about the position he or she decided to take. Finally, students are encouraged to play an active role by assisting the teacher throughout the planning and composing process. During planning, this includes helping with the brainstorming process, taking a side, starring items, and so forth. WVhen writing, students help by selecting transitional words and phrases and formulating sentences for ideas generated during the planning process. Thus, the process is collaborative, with the teacher guiding students to ensure the planning and composing process makes sense. Depending on interest and time, teachers and students revise the essay to improve it further (see De La Paz, 1999a, for suggestions on how to revise student papers). To help students learn the strategy lmemonics STOP and DARE, we encourage the use of short rapid fire drills in game-like exercises. Teachers call on students and ask them to explain the meaning of strategy steps during the first or last few minutes of class. Other game formats can be used, such as _eopardy; in addition, students can use checklists and work in pairs to memorize mnemonics and corresponding strategy steps, giving hints and answers to each other as needed. MEMORIZE.

SUPPORT. During this stage, students work in large or small groups and receive needed assistance from the teacher in applying the strategy. Although this is not a "sit back and let them do it while I grade papers" type of process (De La Paz, Owen, Harris, & Graham, 2000), many options are available during this stage of instruction. For example, the entire class can collaboratively practice planning and composing one or more essays. Alternatively, students can work in pairs or groups of three 36. NO. 4. MARCH 2001 239 VOL.

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Figure 4. Aaron's postinstruction plan on notebook paper.

to develop a plan, then work independently to compose the essay. Third, teachers may organize the class into cooperative learning groups of six and assign each student a different role for planning and composing a group essay. It is important that throughout the collaborative practice period teachers continue to prompt students to remember and apply steps they forget and give feedback about the quality of students' plans and subsequent essays.

240

ANiD CLINIC INSCHOOL INTERVENTION

During the final stage of instruction, independent performance, students learn to use the strategy without assistance. During this stage, teachers purposefully provide less assistance by giving assistance only when a student skips a step or does something incorrectly. Thus, teachers shift responsibility for using the strategy direcdy to the student. Additional suggestions for achieving this transition are as follows:

1. Allow students less time for working as they complete each successive independent essay, 2. remove procedural supports (planning sheet, cue cards, and transitional words) as students become proficient in executing the writing strategy, and 3. allow students fewer questions each day (noted by tally marks on their papers). To illustrate, when students attempt their first independent composition, they plan and compose one essay with ample teacher help and comments in two class periods. As they attempt their second essay, students continue to receive the same degree of procedural assistance (i.e., teacher prompting, feedback, and strategy materials); however, they are encouraged to complete the essay within one class period. As they compose their third essay, students continue to use cue cards but assume the additional responsibility of developing essay plans on a regular sheet of notebook paper (see Figure 4 for Aaron's postinstruction plan) instead of the planning sheet provided by the teacher. bWhen writing the fourth paper, students set a goal, plan, and compose an essay within a single class period without cue cards or other materials.

DARE in our projects, we have used both analytic and holistic assessment to evaluate whether students have mastered the planning and writing strategy. First, students take a short written or oral test to assess whether they know from memory the strategy steps. Second, teachers compare student work before and after teaching the strategy to determine whether students have included (a) all four essay parts, (b) more supporting ideas and arguiments, and (c) a logical and persuasive argument throughout the essay. Third, teachers assess whether students use the strategy independently (without relying on the planning sheet or cue cards; see Aaron's postinstruction essay in Figure 5). Other assessments, such as quality ratings (Graham, 1982) and curriculum-based measurement scoring procedures (Espin, De La Paz, & Scierka, in press) can be used to monitor student progress.

ASSESS PROGRESS. When teaching STOP and

Evaluations of SRSD by both special and general education teachers and students have been strongly positive (De La Paz et al., 2000). In formal evaluations of the STOP and DARE writing strategy, students' improved writing skills persisted 4 to 8 weeks after instruction ended (De La Paz & Graham, 1997a, 1997b). One fifth-grade student in our research study indicated that she had been "caught" using the strategy in her general education social studies class and asked to explain her planning approach to her classmates. This student was pleased that she had been able to explain how she first generated ideas for and against the topic and then how she WHAT TO EXPECT.

organized her ideas in advance of writing. What a positive experience for a student who was frequently reminded of her poor handwriting and deficient spelling skills! Teachers may wonder how much time they need to set aside to teach STOP and DARE to their students. The length of instructional time may vary due to setting differences (tutoring, resources, or general education classrooms), number of students, nature and diversity of students' learning profiles, and level of background knowledge. We found that students required 4 to 7 individual sessions to learn STOP and DARE (De La Paz & Graham, 1997a); however, when working in small groups, students needed 10 sessions to learn the strategy (De La Paz & Graham, 1997b). In contrast, students required 4 weeks to learn an expository writing strategy when in large general education classrooms (see De La Paz, 1999b; De La Paz et al., 2000). As most teachers would expect, additional time may be needed for booster sessions (to ensure strategy maintenance) or to teach for generalization.

tonelusioms Writing is a highly complex, demanding process. Teaching students to self-regulate the planning process can make a significant and meaningful difference in the quality, length, and structure ofstudents' compositions (De La Paz, 1999b; De La Paz & Graham, 1997a, 1997b). These improvements occur among regularly achieving students as well as students with learning problems. For teachers planning to teach STOP and DARE, it may help to plan ahead about what to say and do when modeling, as many teachers report that this the most demanding stage of instruction. If possible, teachers should collaborate with other teachers, as well as their students, when they first implement SRSD. This professional collaboration allows teachers to share what works and how to work around challenges that are inevitable in public schools. Teachers have worked with SRSD researchers and contributed to the development of many writing strategies, sharing concrete suggestions for making the lessons do-able and appealing to students (De La Paz et al., 2000). These ideas include involving students as collaborators during the modeling process (as mentioned in this article); creating manipulatives to help students learn strategy mnemonics; and using cooperative learning principles or rewards such as a homework pass to reinforce appropriate small group behavior. Strategy instruction, and the SRSD approach in particular, make several demands on teachers and students as they learn more sophisticated approaches to composing. Fortunately, these efforts appear worthwhile as there is now a consensus that the use of long-term, contextually relevant cognitive strategy instruction (Pressley et al., 1995) is a powerful means to boost academic performance. Additional rewards include the satisfaction that it VOL. 36, NO. 4, MARCH 2001 241

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Figure 5. Aaron's postinstruction essay.

is appropriate for writers with varying initial writing skills, beyond those identified as LD (De La Paz & Graham, 1997a; De La Paz, 1999b). Finally, both students and teachers are enthusiastic about the SRSD approach to writing instruction as it suggests ways to manage specific components of the writing process and empowers stuI SCHOOL AND CLINIC 242 INTERVENITION

dents who would otherwise be overwhelmed and reluctant to tackde writing assignments.

Persons interested in submitting material for Equalizing Leaming Opportunities should contact Marjorie A. Bock, University of North Dakota, Department of

Teaching and Leaming, PO. Box 7189, Grand Forks, ND 58202-7189.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Susan De La Paz, PhD, is an assistant professor of Teacher and Special Education at Santa Clara University. Her research interests include writing instruction, self-regulation, and cognitive processes underlying writing. Address: Susan De La Paz, Department of Education, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, Santa Clara, CA 95053.

REFERENCES Applebee, A., Langer, J., Mullis, I., Latham, A., & Gentile, C. (1994). NationalAssessment ofEducational Progress1992: Writing Report Card. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. De La Paz, S. (1999a). Teaching writing strategies and self-regulation procedures to middle school students with learning disabilities. Focuts on Exceptional Children, 31, 1-16. De La Paz, S. (1999b). Self-regulated strategy instruction in regular education settings: Improving outcomes for students with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 14, 92-106.

De La Paz, S., & Graham, S. (1997a). Strategy instruction in planning: Effects on the writing performance and behavior of students with learning difficulties. Exceptional Children, 63, 167-181. De La Paz, S., & Graham, S. (1997b). Effects of dictation and advanced planning instruction on the composing of students with writing and learning problems. journal ofEducationalPsychology, 89, 203-222. De La Paz, S., Owen, B., Harris, K., &Graham, S. (2000). Riding Elvis' motorcycle: Using self-regulated strategy development to plan and write for a state writing exam. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 101-109. Espin, C., De La Paz, S., & Scierka, B. (in press). Relation between CBM measures in written expression and quality and completeness of expository writing for middle-school students. Journal of Special Education. Graham, S. (1982). Written composition research and practice: A unified approach. Focuson Exceptional Children, 14, 1-16. Graham, S., Harris, K, MacArthur, C., & Schwartz, S. (1991). Writing and writing instruction for students with learning disabilities: Review of a research program. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 89-114. Harris, K R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the Writing process work: Strategies for com,position and self-regulation. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Pressley, M., Woloshvn, V, Burkell,J., Cariglia-Bull, T., Lysynchuk, L., McGoldrick, J. A., Schneider, B., Snyder, B., & Symons, S. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children' academic performance (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

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TITLE: Stop and dare: a persuasive writing strategy SOURCE: Intervention in School and Clinic 36 no4 Mr 2001 WN: 0106002658009 The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://www.proedinc.com/.

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