Stratigraphic and sedimentary characteristics of the

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 129 (2016) 294–308

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Stratigraphic and sedimentary characteristics of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous strata in the Junggar Basin, Central Asia: Tectonic and climate implications Yanan Fang a,b, Chaodong Wu b,c,⇑, Yizhe Wang b, Luxin Wang d, Zhaojie Guo b,c, Hanwen Hu b a

Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution, Ministry of Education, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China Institute of Oil & Gas, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China d Strategic Research Center of Oil and Gas Resources, MLR, Beijing 100034, China b c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 10 November 2015 Received in revised form 5 September 2016 Accepted 6 September 2016 Available online 8 September 2016 Keywords: Kalazha Formation Alluvial fan Conglomerate Sedimentary hiatus Depositional environment Stratigraphic correlation

a b s t r a c t The Junggar Basin, located in northwestern China, provides important records for investigating Mesozoic tectonic and climate evolution in Central Asia. The Upper Jurassic-lowermost Cretaceous strata in the basin include the Qigu, Kalazha, and Qingshuihe Formations in ascending order. By synthesizing outcrop and well data and previous research, we conducted a detailed sedimentologic and stratigraphic correlation analysis for the three formations. Our study shows that a sharp lithofacies change from intermittent braided-river red fine-grained sediments of the Qigu Formation to alluvial fan conglomerates of the Kalazha Formation, is widespread along the basin margins. From bottom to top, the Kalazha alluvial fan conglomerates can be divided into six sequences showing a progradation to retrogradation cycle, and they finally retrograde into the lake sediments of the lowermost Cretaceous Qingshuihe Formation. However, within the Junggar Basin, the Kalazha Formation is commonly considered to be absent and the Qingshuihe Formation possesses a basal fluvial coarse-grained sandstone bed (50– 100 m), beneath which a widespread unconformity is observed. Stratigraphic correlation suggests that the alluvial fan conglomerates of the Kalazha Formation along the basin margins are equivalent to the basal sandstone bed of the Qingshuihe Formation within the basin. Finally, we conclude that progressive tectonic uplift and climate aridification occurred in the Junggar Basin during deposition of the Qigu Formation in the Late Jurassic, while the basin began to experience a relatively humid climate and underwent rapid subsidence during deposition of the Kalazha Formation in the latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous, probably driven by the far-field effects of the short-lived but significant Mongol-Okhotsk collisional orogeny. Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Sedimentation patterns are direct responses to tectonic and climate evolution and may encourage us to examine some puzzling periods. Such a case is well demonstrated in the Junggar Basin, where complete Mesozoic strata are exposed, providing a unique record of the still poorly understood Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous tectonic and climate changes in Central Asia. During the Early to Middle Jurassic, the Junggar Basin and its surrounding areas experienced gradual peneplanation under a quiet tectonic setting (e.g., Wu et al., 2004; Jolivet et al., 2013; ⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Wu). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.09.001 1367-9120/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Yang et al., 2013; Fang et al., 2015, 2016). Coal-bearing strata are widespread in this region, indicating a humid climate. However, the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous strata show a very special stratigraphic cycle, characterized by a sudden progradation at the base of thick (6600 m) conglomerate successions of the uppermost Jurassic Kalazha Formation followed by a rapid retrogradation (Jolivet et al., 2015). Some researchers proposed that it is caused by a reactivated tectonic activity related to the far-field effects of the collision between the Lhasa block and the South Asian margin in the latest Jurassic (Hendrix et al., 1992; Fang et al., 2005; De Grave et al., 2007), while Jolivet et al. (2015) opposed this view and interpreted that it is largely connected to the development of an arid climate throughout the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition. Previous studies focused primarily on the outcrops of conglomerate along the basin margins (Hendrix et al., 1992; Fang et al.,

Y. Fang et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 129 (2016) 294–308

2005; De Grave et al., 2007; Jolivet et al., 2015), leading to limited interpretations of the tectonic and climate setting. We performed an analysis of detailed sedimentology, strata contact relationships and stratigraphic correlation from the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous in the Junggar Basin based on a large number of both outcrop and well data. Our objective was to clarify the tectonic and climate evolution during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in Central Asia.

2. Geological setting The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), situated between the European craton to the west, Siberian craton to the east, and the Tarim and North China cratons to the south, is the largest Paleozoic accretionary orogeny in the world (e.g., Sengör et al., 1993; Jahn et al., 2000; Kovalenko et al., 2004; Windley et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2010; Han et al., 2011; Kröner et al., 2014; Xiao and Santosh, 2014) (Fig. 1a). The Junggar Basin, located in the southwestern part of the CAOB, is a giant intraplate basin bounded by several Paleozoic belts: Tian Shan Mountain to the south, Altai Mountains to the north, Kelameili Mountains to the east, and the Zhayier Mountains to the west (Feng et al., 2015; Jia et al., 2016) (Fig. 1b). It has been a continental basin since the Late Paleozoic, with approximately 14 km thick Permian to Cenozoic fluvio-lacustrine clastic rocks (e.g., Carroll et al., 1990; Allen et al., 1991, 1992; Hendrix et al., 1992; Bian et al., 2010; Han et al., 2010, 2011; Jolivet et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2013) covering on a Precambrian crystalline basement (e.g., Charvet et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2015) or Paleozoic oceanic crust-island arc complex (e.g., Sengör et al., 1993; Zheng et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2008, 2010; Li et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2016). Evolution of the Junggar Basin can be divided into three stages: (1) a rift basin during the Permian (Fang et al., 2006a; Yang et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2014); (2) a continental sag basin throughout the Mesozoic to Paleogene (Wu et al., 2004; Fang et al., 2004, 2005, 2015; Jolivet et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2013); (3) a foreland basin affected by the India-Asia collision since the Neogene (e.g., Avouac et al., 1993; Abdrakhmatov et al., 1996; Yin et al., 1998; Dumitru et al., 2001; Bullen et al., 2001, 2003; Charreau et al., 2005, 2006; De Grave et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2009). The Jurassic to Cretaceous strata in the Junggar Basin are divided from bottom to top into the Lower to Middle Jurassic Badaowan, Sangonghe and Xishanyao Formations; the upper Middle Jurassic to lower Upper Jurassic Toutunhe Formation; the Upper Jurassic Qigu and Kalazha Formations; the Lower Cretaceous Qingshuihe, Hutubi, Shengjinkou and Lianmuqin Formations and the Upper Cretaceous Donggou Formation (unpublished mapping by the Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Xinjiang) (Fig. 2). The Lower to Middle Jurassic are composed of shallow-water delta deposits with welldeveloped coal-bearing strata, indicating a humid climate (e.g., Graham et al., 1990; Hendrix et al., 1992, 1995; Eberth et al., 2001; Ding et al., 2003; Wu et al., 2004; Fang et al., 2005, 2015, 2016; Ashraf et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2010; Li et al., 2012; Jolivet et al., 2013). However, coal deposits gradually disappear in the Toutunhe and Qigu Formations, marked by common fluvial-lacustrine red beds, gypsum, limestone nodules, mud cracks and rain prints, indicative of dry conditions (Hendrix et al., 1992; Eberth et al., 2001; Wu et al., 2004; Ashraf et al., 2010; Jolivet et al., 2013; Fang et al., 2015; this study). The Kalazha Formation consists mainly of thick alluvial fan conglomerates along basin margins, which are generally considered to be missing in the interior of the basin. There exists a regional angle unconformity between the Jurassic and Cretaceous

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strata within the Junggar basin, above which Cretaceous strata are distributed widely characterized by lacustrine interbedded mudstones and fine-grained sandstones (Eberth et al., 2001; Gu et al., 2003; Fang et al., 2006b, 2015; Ashraf et al., 2010; Jolivet et al., 2013). 3. Methods This study was carried out with conventional geological methods, including bed-by-bed sedimentological logging of selected outcrop sections and analysis of well logging curves. Along the basin margins, well-exposed river and stream sections allow vertical sections to be measured in detail. Sedimentological analyses, including lithofacies, rock colors, grain-size variations, and sedimentary structures (e.g., raindrop imprints, mudstone cracks, nodules, ripple marks, and cross-bedding), are essential to reconstructing the depositional environments. Within basins, well logging curves—for example, neutron, density, gamma ray, and spontaneous potential logging curves—can be used to distinguish changing lithologies and thereby infer evolving depositional environments (Reading, 1996). Cylinder-shaped logging curves indicate thick, relatively homogeneous coarse-grained sediments bounded by argillaceous sediments such as channel-fills with sharp boundaries. Bell-shaped logging curves indicate fining-upward sequences, which typically form in river environments. Sawtoothed logging curves represent interbedded mudstones and sandstones such as shallow lake deposits. In addition, strata contact relationships can reflect the tectonic setting directly. There are three main vertical contact types of sedimentary facies: gradational, sharp and erosional (Reading, 1996). Gradational contacts obey Walther’s warning, which emphasizes that those facies vertically superimposed upon each other without a break must be product of spatially neighbouring environments (Blatt et al., 1972). Erosional and sharp contacts indicate a break in the succession. Erosional contacts suggest periods of erosion of the products of certain depositional environments, while sharp contacts without erosion indicate periods of sedimentary hiatus or sediment bypass. Therefore, gradational contacts must be formed under stable tectonic settings, while erosional and sharp contacts are probably caused by different degrees of tectonic uplift. Rocks from the Upper Jurassic Qigu Formation to the Lower Cretaceous Qingshuihe Formation were measured along four river and stream sections along the southern margin of the Junggar Basin. In addition, five wells were used for stratigraphic correlation (Fig. 1c). Finally, a new tectonic and climate evolution from the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in Central Asia was built by reconstructing the depositional environments and strata contact relationships. 4. Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous sedimentary facies associations The sedimentary successions mainly comprise 10 facies, whose characteristics and interpretation are summarized in Fig. 3–5. It should be highlighted that no detailed sedimentological descriptions were obtained in the Qingshuihezi and Anjihai sections due to difficult access, and only distant facies association features were observed. Finally, five major facies associations were identified based on the 10 facies and well logging characteristics. For convenience, the facies associations are described with their interpretation names. 4.1. Alluvial fan facies association The alluvial fan facies association is distributed primarily in the Kalazha Formation of the southern Junggar Basin and is commonly

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Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic location of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (modified from Han et al., 2011). (b) Topographic and tectonic map of Central and East Asia (modified from Yang et al., 2015a). (c) Geological map of the southern Junggar Basin (modified from BGMRXUAR, 1992).

composed of a series of coarsening-upward sequences (Figs. 6a and b and 8). Most of the alluvial fan facies association is deposits of facies A–C (Fig. 3) attributed respectively to debris flows, sheetfloods and stream channels. Debris flow deposits

usually occur in the proximal alluvial fan environment. Sheetflood beds are generally developed in the middle to distal fan. Stream channel deposits tend to be important in the proximal and middle fan.


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Fig. 2. Comprehensive stratigraphic column of the Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous strata of the southern Junggar Basin (modified from Hendrix et al., 1992).

4.2. Intermittent braided-river facies association The intermittent braided-river facies association exists in the Qigu Formation in the Junggar Basin, which is composed of thick red fine-grained sediments intercalated with 5- to 20-m-thick lenses of coarse sandstone beds (Figs. 6 and 11). The lenticular coarse sandstone beds, characterized by tabular cross-bedding or parallel bedding and a lack of well-developed grain-size variations (facies H), are consistent with a braided-river interpretation lacking stabilized channels (Fig. 4j and k). In addition, braidedriver longitudinal bar foresets are also observed in the eastern Junggar Basin. Gypsum along the foreset beds is well-developed, providing strong evidence of periodic exposure of the river channel under arid climate condition (facies F) (Fig. 4f). The red finegrained sediments devoid of organic matter and containing abundant raindrop imprints, caliche nodules and gypsum (facies D and E) also indicate a rather dry climate and can be interpreted as overbank deposits (Fig. 4a–e and g). Moreover, distinct aeolian sandstones (facies G) are well developed between thick finegrained floodplain sediments, suggesting a prolonged exposure of the floodplain in an extremely arid climate (Fig. 4h and i). In conclusion, there is strong evidence that an intermittent braided-river environment was well developed under an arid climate during deposition of the Qigu Formation.

approximately 10-m-thick grey coarse sandstones or conglomerates with trough, tabular cross-bedding and an obvious scour basal surface, grading upward into grey fine-grained sandstones and mudstones (Fig. 6c and d). The Kalazha Formation in the Dafeng1 well is also dominated by a series of fining-upward sequences, and these sequences are also consistent with a perennial meandering-river interpretation (Figs. 1c and 11). Moreover, the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation inside the Junggar Basin, for example, in the Dong3, Cheng1, Yong1 and Fang2 wells, are characterized by cylinder-shaped or bell-shaped gamma logging curves, also indicating meandering-river channel-fill deposits (Fig. 11). 4.4. Lakeshore facies association The lakeshore facies association occurs in the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation in the southern Junggar Basin. This facies association consists of mudstones and several decimetres to metres of fine- to medium-sheet sandstone beds characterized by tabular cross-bedding, trough cross-bedding, wavy bedding and parallel bedding (facies I), consistent with the high energy environment of a lakeshore (Figs. 5a–c and 7a and b). 4.5. Shallow lake facies association

4.3. Perennial meandering-river facies association The perennial meandering-river facies association crops out in the Kalazha Formation in the Anjihai and Qingshuihezi sections and is composed of a series of fining-upward sequences, from

The majority of the Qingshuihe Formation in the Junggar Basin is composed of the shallow lake facies association, characterized by interbedded massive mudstones (facies J) and siltstones with sawtoothed logging curves (Figs. 7c and 11).

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Fig. 3. An illustrated review of sedimentary facies distinguished in the Kalazha Formation in the Manasi section of the southern Junggar Basin with brief descriptions and interpretations. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)

5. Sedimentation evolution during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous 5.1. The Anjihai section In the Anjihai section, the upper Qigu Formation consists of intermittent braided-river red deposits. There are up to approximately 100-m-thick perennial meandering-river grey deposits in the Kalazha Formation (Figs. 6c and 10). These deposits indicate that a climate transition occurred from the arid climate of the Qigu Formation to the relatively humid conditions of the Kalazha Formation. The lower Qingshuihe Formation was deposited in a shallow lake environment, suggesting lake transgression (Fig. 10).

5.2. The Manasi section In the Manasi section, located between the Anjihai and Qingshuihezi sections, the upper Qigu Formation is composed of intermittent braided-river red deposits, which change abruptly to the approximately 300-m-thick alluvial fan conglomerates of the Kalazha Formation (Figs. 6a and 10). The conglomerates of the lower part of the Kalazha Formation dyed mainly by the red matrix between the gravels, exhibit the same reddish color with the finegrained sediments from the Qigu Formation, indicating an inherited color from the Qigu Formation, while the gradual change of reddish conglomerates into grey conglomerates in the upper part of the Kalazha Formation probably caused by the complete denuation of the Qigu Formation (Figs. 3, 6a and b and 7a). Ten near-

equally spaced sections near the Manasi section were selected to establish a detailed stratigraphic correlation of the thick alluvial fan conglomerates. Six coarsening-upward sequences were distinguished based on the stratigraphic cycles and corrected strata attitude (Fig. 8). Sq1 to 3 are mainly composed of proximal alluvial fan deposits, which evolve vertically into Sq4 to 6 middle to distal alluvial fan deposits, indicating a progradation to retrogradation cycle in the Kalazha Formation. Finally, the alluvial fan conglomerates gradually evolve into the Qingshuihe Formation lakeshore and shallow lake deposits, displaying a continuous retrogradation trend (Figs. 7 and 10). Twelve locations in the Kalazha conglomerates were surveyed for quantitative gravel petrographic analysis. At each location, more than 300 gravels larger than 2 cm were counted for petrographic analysis. Gravels within the Kalazha Formation conglomerates mainly consist of sandstone and shale, with a minor proportion of volcanic and metamorphic rocks, conglomerate, granite and carbonate rocks (Fig. 8). Gravel composition directly reflects the characteristics of the source rocks. According to the detrital zircon U-Pb ages and palaeocurrents, the North Tian Shan was the main provenance of the southern Junggar Basin during deposition of the Kalazha Formation (Hendrix et al., 1992; Fang et al., 2015). Before deposition of the Kalazha Formation, the North Tian Shan was mainly composed of Devonian to Lower Permian volcanic rocks, shales, siltstones and carbonate rocks and Upper Permian to Jurassic terrestrial mudstones, sandstones and conglomerates (Fig. 9). Therefore, the majority of gravels in the Kalazha conglomerate originate primarily from the recycling of older sedimentary rocks.


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Fig. 4. An illustrated review of sedimentary facies distinguished in the Qigu Formation with brief descriptions and interpretations. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (j) and (k) are from the Manasi section; (f) and (g) are from the Jiangjunmiao section in the eastern Junggar Basin; (h) and (i) are from the Toutunhe section. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)

Fig. 5. An illustrated review of sedimentary facies distinguished in the Qingshuihe Formation with brief descriptions and interpretations. (a), (b) and (c) are from the Manasi section and (d) is from the Toutunhe section.

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Fig. 6. Outcrop photographs of the upper Qigu Formation to the lower Kalazha Formation in the southern Junggar Basin: (a) Manasi Section; (b) Hutubi section. (c) Anjihai section; and (d) Qingshuihezi section.

Fig. 7. (a) Outcrop photos of the upper Kalazha Formation to the lowermost Cretaceous Qingshuihe Formation, Manasi section. (b) Outcrop photos of the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation, Manasi section. (c) Outcrop photos of the Qingshuihe Formation, Mansi section.

5.3. The Qingshuihezi section In the Qingshuihezi section, located between the Manasi and Hutubi sections, the upper Qigu Formation is composed of thick intermittent braided-river floodplain red mudstones, which evolve

vertically to the approximately 100-m-thick Kalazha Formation perennial meandering-river grey deposits, indicating a climate change from arid to relatively humid conditions (Figs. 6d and 10). The boundary between the Kalazha and Qingshuihe Formations is gradational, and the lower Qingshuihe


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Fig. 8. Stratigraphic correlation of the Kalazha Formation conglomerates in the Manasi area in the southern margin of the Junggar Basin; see Fig. 1c for location. Detailed sedimentological characteristics, sequence stratigraphic analysis, thicknesses, and strata attitudes were recorded in each section. Twelve locations were surveyed for quantitative gravel petrographic analysis.

Fig. 9. (A) Gravel composition of the Kalazha Formation conglomerates. (B) Pre-Kalazha Formation Stratigraphic column of the North Tian Shan (modified from unpublished mapping by the Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Xinjiang).

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Fig. 10. Stratigraphic correlation of the upper Qigu Formation to lower Qingshuihe Formation in the W-E direction along the southern margin of the Junggar Basin; see Fig. 1c for locations.

Formation is characterized by shallow lake deposits, suggesting a gradual retrogradation from the Kalazha Formation to the Qingshuihe Formation (Fig. 10).

(delta plain) deposits of the Kalazha Formation (Fig. 11a). Finally, the Kalazha Formation evolves gradually into the Qingshuihe Formation lakeshore and shallow lake deposits, indicating a retrogradation trend (Fig. 11a).

5.4. The Hutubi section The stratigraphic cycle from the upper Qigu Formation to the lower Qingshuihe Formation in the Hutubi section is similar to that in the Manasi section. The upper Qigu Formation in the Hutubi section displays intermittent braided-river red fine-grained deposits and ends with a sharp but non-erosive boundary (Figs. 6b and 10). Above the boundary, the approximately 250-m-thick Kalazha Formation is characterized by five coarsening-upward alluvial fan sequences and shows a progradation-retrogradation cycle (Fig. 10). Then, the Kalazha Formation alluvial fan conglomerates continue to retrograde into the Qingshuihe Formation lakeshore and shallow lake deposits (Fig. 10).

5.6. Dong3 and Cheng1 wells Dong3 and Cheng1 wells, located in the eastern part of the Junggar Basin, show similar stratigraphic cycles (Fig. 1c). The Kalazha Formation is missing in these two wells, with the intermittent braided-river (delta plain) red fine-grained deposits of the Qigu Formation evolving directly into the 50- to 100-m-thick lowermost Qingshuihe Formation meanderingriver (delta plain) deposits. The majority of the Qingshuihe Formation is composed of shallow lake deposits, indicating lake transgression (Fig. 11a). 5.7. Yong1 and Fang2 wells

5.5. Dafeng1 well Dafeng1 well is located in the southern Junggar Basin, approximately 50 km north of the Hutubi section; it is one of a few wells drilled into the Kalazha Formation in the Junggar Basin (Fig. 1c). Similar to the outcrop sections, the upper Qigu Formation in Dafeng1 well is also composed of intermittent braided-river red deposits. The Qigu Formation ends with a sharp boundary and is followed by a series of fining-upward perennial meandering-river

Yong1 and Fang2 wells are located in the central Junggar Basin and display similar stratigraphic cycles (Fig. 1c). The Qigu and Kalazha Formations are both lacking in the two wells, with the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation directly overlying on the Middle Jurassic Xishanyao Formation. The lowermost Qingshuihe Formation is characterized by approximately 50-m-thick meanderingriver (delta plain) deposits evolving vertically into shallow lake deposits, indicating gradual retrogradation (Fig. 11b).


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Fig. 11. Stratigraphic correlation of the upper Qigu Formation to lower Qingshuihe Formation in the Junggar Basin; see Fig. 1c for locations. (a) A stratigraphic correlation profile from the basin margin to the interior and (b) a stratigraphic correlation profile in the central part of the Junggar Basin.

5.8. Stratigraphic correlation A basin margin to basin interior stratigraphic correlation profile was established in this study (Figs. 1c and 11a). The Mesozoic palaeocurrent indicators measured in the southern Junggar Basin document northward sediment dispersal (Fig. 2). Along the flow direction, the intermittent braided-river of the Qigu Formation evolves gradually into a delta plain, and then into oxygenated shallow lake environment. Moving stratigraphically upwards, it is

difficult to identify where the widespread thick coarse-grained sediments of the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation in the interior of the Junggar Basin originate, as found in Dong3, Cheng1, Yong1 and Fang2 wells (Fig. 11). Relatively thin and fine-grained lowermost Qingshuihe Formation sediments are deposited along the basin margin, and erosion of the lower Qingshuihe Formation in the basin margin can be excluded based on evidence of the gradual evolution from the Kalazha to Qingshuihe Formations. Therefore, the thick coarse-grained sediments of the lowermost Qingshuihe

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Formation in Dong3 and Cheng1 wells are very likely equivalent to the Kalazha Formation conglomerates in the Hutubi Section and Well Dafeng1. The Kalazha Formation alluvial fan in the southern Junggar Basin evolved into a meandering-river (delta plain) in the Dafeng1 well and subsequently into the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation delta plain environment in Dong3 and Cheng1 wells, moving towards the basin. Finally, lakeshore and shallow lake fine-grained sediments are well developed in the Qingshuihe Formation in the Junggar Basin due to rapid transgression. 6. Discussion As discussed above, along the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, the intermittent braided-river fine-grained sediments of the Upper Jurassic Qigu Formation change suddenly into the alluvial fan conglomerates or meandering-river coarse-grained deposits of the Kalazha Formation (Fig. 6 and 10). Angular unconformity between these two formations was observed locally (Hendrix et al., 1992; Bai et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2011; Jolivet et al., 2015). However, the boundary is commonly sharp and non-erosive, suggesting periods of sediment hiatus and tectonic uplift. Such a lithofacies transformation also occurs in the Upper Jurassic strata of the Northern Tarim Basin and Kyrgyzstan in Central Asia (Jolivet et al., 2015). In addition, deeply incised valleys that cut into the Upper Jurassic Shishugou Group (the stratigraphic equivalent of the Toutunhe, Qigu and Kalazha Formations in the southern Jung-

gar Basin) are well developed in the eastern Junggar Basin (Eberth et al., 2001). The filling of coarse-grained sediments of the Kalazha Formation in the incised valleys indicates tectonic uplift before deposition of the Kalazha Formation. Above all, significant positive topography was built in Central Asia at the end of deposition of the Qigu Formation or before deposition of the Kalazha Formation (Fig. 13b). This tectonic uplift probably initiated from the late Middle Jurassic, as evidenced by the termination of the general peneplanation during the Early to Middle Jurassic in Central Asia (Li and Peng, 2010; Yang et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2014; Fang et al., 2015). Following the peneplanation, relatively large-scale volcanic activities occurred along the North Tian Shan Fault during the late Middle to Late Jurassic, and these volcanic rocks, together with the Carboniferous volcanic rocks of the North Tian Shan, became the main provenance of the southern Junggar Basin (Fang et al., 2015). In addition, a NW-SE trending paleo-uplift named Che Mo paleouplift was intensively uplifted along the western margin and Central Depression of the Junggar Basin in the Middle to Late Jurassic, resulting in strong erosion of the Jurassic strata, which are truncated by the base of the Lower Cretaceous strata and eastward migration of the main subsidence area (e.g., Zhou et al., 2007; He et al., 2008; Ji et al., 2010) (Fig. 13a). Thus, only a small amount of the Qigu Formation strata remain in the eastern part (Figs. 11 and 12). Yang et al. (2015b) proposed that the far-field effects of the collision between the Central Pamir block and South Pamir

Fig. 12. Seismic profile in the Junggar Basin; see Fig. 1c for location. (a) Uninterpreted and (b) interpreted seismic profiles in the W-E direction.


block or the collision between the South Pamir block and the Karakoram block may have been responsible for these tectonic activites. In combination of the strata contact relationship between the Upper Jurassic Qigu and Kalazha Formations, we conclude that

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tectonic uplift initiating from the late Middle Jurassic may have reached its peak at the end of deposition of the Qigu Formation, leading to widespread sediments bypass and exhumation (Fig. 13b).

Fig. 13. Tectonic and climate evolution of the Junggar Basin during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.

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In contrast to the sharp boundary between the Qigu and Kalazha Formations, the Kalazha Formation and Lower Cretaceous Qingshuihe Formation show gradual contact along the margins of the Junggar Basin; the boundary is characterized by alluvial fans or meandering-river (delta plain) deposits retrograding gradually into lakeshore and shallow lake deposits, and this retrogradation had initiated within the Kalazha Formation (Figs. 8, 10 and 11). However, the Kalazha Formation strata were commonly considered to be missing due to the tectonic uplift within the Junggar Basin, where the Lower Cretaceous strata overly directly on the Lower Jurassic to Upper Jurassic Qigu Formation (e.g., Fang et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2015b; restricted data of oilfield) (Figs. 11 and 12). According to the stratigraphic correlation from the margin to the interior of the Junggar Basin, the Kalazha Formation alluvial fan conglomerates along the margins of the Junggar Basin are probably contemporaneous with the widespread meandering-river (delta plain) coarse-grained deposits of the lowermost Qingshuihe Formation within the Junggar Basin (Fig. 11). Therefore, compared with the residual Qigu Formation strata, the Kalazha Formation strata are distributed more widely in the Junggar Basin, indicating rapid basin resubsidence (Fig. 13c). Although many researchers have suggested that the Kalazha Formation conglomerates in Central Asia were induced by the docking of the Lhasa Block along the southern margin of Asia (e.g., Hendrix et al., 1992; Jolivet et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2013, 2014), it has been demonstrated that the Lhasa-southern Asia collision occurred during the Early Cretaceous after deposition of the Kalazha Formation (e.g., Kapp et al., 2005, 2007; Chen et al., 2006; Baxter et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2013) and generated only limited effects in Tibet (Jolivet et al., 2010). It is worth noting that the thick uppermost Jurassic to lowermost Cretaceous conglomerate successions are also reported in many other basins of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, such as, Dariv, Yingen, Qaidam, East Gobi, Erlian, Chaoshui-Yabulai, Ordos, Hailar Tamsag, Songliao and Mohe Basins (e.g., Graham et al., 2001; Sjostrom et al., 2001; Xu et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 2003; Johnson, 2004; Wei et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2007; Feng et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2011; Jolivet et al., 2013; Kuang et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2015a) (Fig. 1b). Yang et al. (2015a) demonstrated that a short-lived but significant MongolOkhotsk collisional orogeny which was caused by the clockwise rotation of Siberia craton occurred in the latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous. The widespread uppermost Jurassic to lowermost Cretaceous conglomerates in Central Asian Orogenic Belt are remarkably consistent with the rapid closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean. Therefore, we propose that the thick alluvial fan conglomerates of the Kalazha Formation and its contemporaneous coarsegrained channel-filled sediments of the Qingshuihe Formation are products of the rapid basin subsidence related to the clockwise rotation of Siberia craton and the subsequent closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean. During the Early to Middle Jurassic, humid climate prevailed in Central Asia, marked by large amounts of coal-bearing strata. However, the humid climate began to turn into an arid condition from the late Middle Jurassic (e.g., Hendrix et al., 1992; Eberth et al., 2001; Ashraf et al., 2010; Fang et al., 2015). Jolivet et al. (2015) suggested that the peak of the aridity was contemporaneous with deposition of the Kalazha Formation judged by the appearance of large-scale aeolian dune sandstones in the Toutunhe section of the southern Junggar Basin. However, Schneider et al. (1992) interpreted that these sandstones as mouth bar deposits were caused by rapid basin subsidence during the latest Jurassic, which is consistent with our conclusion. In Central Asia, the Upper Jurassic Qigu Formation was dominant by intermittent braided-river red deposits with widespread gypsums, nodules and aeolian sand dunes, indicating an extremely arid climate (e.g., Wu et al., 2004; Fang et al., 2015, 2016; Jolivet et al., 2015; this study) (Fig. 13a). The red-

dish color of the lower part of the conglomerate successions in the Kalazha Formation was actually originated from the red deposits of the Qigu Formation (Fig. 6a and b). Upwards, the conglomerates gradually turn into grey color, representing a climate transition from the arid climate in the Qigu Formation to the relatively humid climate in the Kalazha Formation (Jolivet et al., 2015; this study) (Fig. 7a). In addition, perennial meandering-river (delta plain) deposits were observed in the Kalazha Formation in the southern Junggar Basin, indicating a relatively humid climate (Fig. 10). Therefore, a relatively humid condition may have prevailed in Central Asia during deposition of the Kalazha Formation, and the peak aridity occurred most probably at the end of deposition of the Qigu Formation (Fig. 13b and c). Afterwards, the climate became more humid and rapid lake transgression occurred during deposition of the Lower Cretaceous Qingshuihe Formation (Hendrix et al., 1992; Ashraf et al., 2010) (Fig. 13d). 7. Conclusions The tectonic and climate evolution from the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in Central Asia can be divided into four stages: (1) In contrast to the humid climate and general peneplanation conditions during the Early to Middle Jurassic, the Central Asia began to experience continuous aridification and basement uplift from the late Middle Jurassic. Intermittent braided-rivers were well developed all over this region. (2) The tectonic uplift and climate aridity peaked in Central Asia during deposition of the Qigu Formation in the Late Jurassic, resulting in periods of widespread sediments bypass and exhumation. (3) Relatively humid climate and rapid basin subsidence probably caused by the short-lived but significant MongolOkhotsk collisional orogeny occurred in Central Asia during deposition of the Kalazha Formation in the latest Jurassic. Large-scale alluvial fan conglomerates were well developed along basin margins and gradually evolved into perennial meandering-river and delta coarse-grained sediments towards the basin. (4) The climate became more humid and the basin continued subsiding during the early Cretaceous in Central Asia, resulting in large-scale lake transgression.

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