Students' Motivation, Physical Activity Levels ...

Motivation, Activity Levels & Fitness

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Students’ Motivation, Physical Activity Levels, & Health-Related Physical Fitness in Middle School Physical Education

Zan Gao University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Maria Newton University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Russell L. Carson Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana

ABSTRACT This study examines the predictive utility of students‟ motivation (self-efficacy and task values) to their physical activity levels and health-related physical fitness (cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance) in a middle school fitness activity class. Participants (N =305) responded to questionnaires assessing their selfefficacy and task values (perceptions of importance, interest, and usefulness) toward fitness activities near the end of the school year. They completed the PACER and curl-up tests to measure their cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance, respectively. Then their physical activity levels in one fitness class were measured via pedometers during a 1-week follow-up. Regression analyses suggested that students‟ self-efficacy, perceptions of importance, interest, and usefulness toward fitness made significant contributions to the prediction of their physical activity levels in class. Self-efficacy was the only significant predictor of cardiovascular fitness, whereas none of the motivational variables emerged as predictor of muscular strength/endurance. The educational implications are provided for teachers and health professionals. 21


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INTRODUCTION The prevalence of overweight in children and adolescents in the United States has increased dramatically over the past decade (Ogden et al., 2006). Also, children and adolescents are less fit today than children 40 years ago in the U.S. (Payne & Isaacs, 2007). As school physical education programs can widely reach children and adolescents at all ages and aim to increase levels of physical activity and healthrelated physical fitness among this population, they are considered an important avenue to promote the national health objectives for 2010 (objectives no. 22-6, 22-7, and 22-11) and combat overweight or obesity in the decades to come (Levin, McKenzie, Hussey, Kelder, & Lytle, 2001). However, given that students‟ motivation to participate in physical education programs actually declines over the school years, and that this decline is greater for the adolescents than young children (Rowland, 1999), the present study was designed to investigate the relations between middle school students‟ motivation toward physical activity levels and health-related physical fitness. Researchers (Bandura, 1986; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996) have postulated that ability beliefs (i.e., self-efficacy) and adequate incentives (i.e., task values) for behaviors are important motivational constructs that directly influence decisions individuals make about whether or not they will choose to participate in a task or continue to engage in a task following failure. Self-efficacy and task values are two constructs that have emerged as being strongly predictive of motivated behaviors (Bong, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c). The present investigation examined the role of these two constructs in predicting students‟ pedometer-based physical activity levels in fitness unit classes as well as their cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance. Self-Efficacy & Task Values Self-efficacy, defined as situational-specific ability beliefs, refers to an individual‟s beliefs about his or her ability to learn or perform a specific task/activity (Bandura, 1986, 1997). As a product of a complex process of self-persuasion, self-efficacy relies on cognitive processing of diverse sources of efficacy information including performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, persuasion, and physiological states (Bandura, 1989). In general, individuals who feel efficacious are more likely to perform at a higher level, try new behaviors, expend more effort on those behaviors, and persevere longer when they encounter challenges. To date, many studies have suggested that selfefficacy is a major determinant of activity choice, willingness to expend effort, performance and persistence in sport and physical education (Feltz & Magyar, 2006; McAuley, 1992; Moritz, Feltz, Mack, & Fahrbach, 2000). In addition, recently researchers have 22


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supported the notion that students with higher levels of perceived ability tend to be more physically active in physical education classes (Parish & Treasure, 2003; Wang, Chatzisarantis, Spray, & Biddle, 2002). Task values are defined as incentives for engaging in different tasks, and include attainment value (importance), intrinsic value (interest), and utility value (usefulness) (Eccles et al., 1983). Importance concerns children‟s beliefs about the importance of doing well on a given task (e.g., achievement needs and competence needs). Interest refers to the enjoyment children get from performing or engaging in the task or personal liking of the task. Usefulness refers to children‟s perceptions of how useful a task is to them. Each component is proposed to have its own unique relationship with achievement behaviors. In sport and physical education, these components of task values are a critical dimension relating to achievement-related cognitions, affect, and behaviors. Specifically, students‟ perceptions of importance, interest, and usefulness predict their intention for future participation, effort, and persistence in sport and physical education. (Cox & Whaley, 2004; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004; Xiang, McBride, Guan, 2004; Xiang, McBride, Guan, & Solmon, 2003). As yet the correspondence between task values and physical activity and fitness has not been examined. In the academic domain, a host of educational researchers have included self-efficacy and task values in examining students‟ motivation and achievement outcomes (Bong, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c; Pajares & Miller, 1994; Pajares, Miller, & Johnson, 1999; Pajares & Valiante, 1999). Self-efficacy and task values might operate together to predict achievement outcomes. For example, Pajares and his colleagues have reported that self-efficacy directly impacts performance, whereas task values only added small variance to academic performance when tested together with self-efficacy (Pajares & Miller, 1994; Pajares et al., 1999; Pajares & Valiante, 1999). This is in accordance with the previous research indicating that ability beliefs emerge as a better predictor of performance than task values (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). To our knowledge, these studies only examined the overall task values rather than the three components of task values. Furthermore, the study of students‟ self-efficacy, task values, physical activity levels, and physical fitness in sport and physical education has been scarce (Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004, 2006). For example, Xiang and her associates (2004, 2006) have found that ability beliefs but not task values significantly predicted children‟s performance in the timed 1mile running test. However, it is possible that task values play an important role in predicting physical activity and physical fitness levels because of the link between task values and effort and persistence (e.g., Cox & Whaley, 2004). Moreover, no known studies have combined self-efficacy and task values to predict achievement outcomes in sport 23


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and physical activity. Research focusing on this topic is warranted given the important role of physical activity and physical fitness plays in the public health. Physical Activity Levels & Health-Related Physical Fitness Students‟ in-class physical activity levels have been a cornerstone for the evaluation of the effectiveness of physical education programs, and therefore is a good index for achievement behaviors. A large variety of instruments designed to assess physical activity levels exist. These methods include subjective measures (e.g., child and parent selfreports), direct observation, and objective instruments (heart rate monitors, accelerometers, and pedometers). The advantages and disadvantages of different measures have been extensively reviewed (Kohl, Fulton, & Caspersen, 2000; Sirard & Pate, 2001). Although selfreported surveys are frequently used in large studies due to considerations of cost and convenience (Sallis, 1991), pedometers represent an ideal instrument in physical education settings because they are inexpensive, easy to use, and relatively accurate (Sirard & Pate, 2001). Accordingly, the pedometer-based physical activity levels were used as the measure of achievement outcomes in this study. Physical fitness has long been an ultimate goal of physical education and therefore is the goal that physical educators most frequently assess in school settings (McKenzie, 2003). During the past two decades, the emphasis on physical fitness has shifted from motor skill development or athletic ability to what is commonly referred to as health-related physical fitness, which includes cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2005; Payne & Isaacs, 2007). Positive relationships between the psychosocial factors (e.g., attitudes, perceived behavioral control) and individuals‟ health-related physical fitness and self-reported physical activity levels have been reported (Martin et al., 2005; Shen, McCaughtry, Martin, 2007). However, the predictive utility of individuals‟ self-efficacy and task values in relation to their objective physical activity levels and physical fitness has been less studied. As the U.S. children and youth are becoming less physically active and less fit (Payne & Isaacs, 2007), there is a need to study their self-efficacy and task values toward fitness activities, their fitness levels, and physical activity levels in middle school physical education. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine the predictive strengths of students‟ self-efficacy, perceptions of importance, interest, and usefulness toward fitness on their pedometer-based physical activity levels and components of health-related physical fitness. Based on the literature review and empirical studies (e.g., Cox & Whaley, 2004; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004, 24


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2006), it was hypothesized that: (a) students‟ self-efficacy, perceived importance, interest, and usefulness would significantly predict their physical activity levels in fitness class; and (b) students‟ self-efficacy beliefs, perceived importance, interest, and usefulness would significantly predict their performance on the cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance tests. METHODS The Participants & Research Setting The participants in this study were 305 middle school students enrolled in one suburban public school in the U.S. The participants (149 boys, 156 girls) consisted of sixth (33.1%), seventh (31.5%), and eighth (35.4%) graders ranging in age from 12 to 15 years (M age = 13.42, SD = .97). The participants were from middle and upper middle class families. The majority of the participants, 83%, were Caucasian, followed by 12% African-American, 3 % Asian American, and 2% Hispanic American. Permission to conduct this study was obtained from the University Institutional Review Board, the school district, the school principal, and the physical education teachers. Additionally, consent forms were completed by all participants and their parents/guardians prior to the start of the study. Participants were enrolled in one of nine physical education classes. They were taught a 60-minute physical education class shared by three physical education teachers on alternate days. All the teachers had earned masters degrees in physical education teacher education and had at least 10 years teaching experience. General instructional protocol included attendance taken by the teacher as students arrived in the gym followed by student participation in warm-up and activities. A typical class included introducing skills to be learned, organizing students for practice during the middle of the class, and providing closure to the lesson at the end of the class. During the data collection period, all the students took the fitness unit in the gym at the end of the school year. In particular, the 4-week fitness unit targeted FITNESSGRAM testing (Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research, 1999) and it was focused on cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength/endurance, and flexibility. Specifically, the physical education teachers set up eight stations prior to the arrival of the students. The stations included fitness activities such as push-ups, jump rope (individual ropes), crunches (with stability ball), squat (with balance cushion), bench steps, curl-ups, and aerobics (square run). After the warm-up, the physical education teachers dedicated five minutes to explain all stations and demonstrated the different activities in each station. Three to four students participated within each station for one minute, and they had 15 seconds to put their equipments away and move to the next station. The 25


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students were required to work at each station at least three times in the class. Instruments Demographic Variables Self-report information on sex, race, grade, age, height, and weight were obtained from the questionnaire to characterize the sample. Self-Efficacy A six-item scale was from a questionnaire used in a recent study (Author, in press). The participants responded to the items using a 5point Likert-type scale anchored from one (strongly disagree) to five (strongly agree), with the stem “With regard to this week‟s fitness activity unit, I have confidence in…” The six answers were: (a) my ability to do well in fitness activities; (b) my ability to learn skills well in fitness activities; (c) my performance in fitness activities; (d) my knowledge needed to do well in fitness activities; (e) my success in fitness activities if I exert enough effort; and (f) my ability to handle the anxiety related to fitness activities. The mean of these six items was used as students‟ self-efficacy scores toward the fitness unit. This measure has demonstrated acceptable Cronbach‟s alpha reliability coefficients in the previous study (α = .78). The measures for importance, interest, and usefulness were adapted from recent studies (Xiang et al., 2003). Previous use of these measures among elementary and secondary school students (Xiang et al., 2003) has demonstrated acceptable validity and internal consistency (α = .74 - .83) in physical education. In this study, we only changed the wording from physical education to fitness unit to make these measures fit the context specific to the present study. The average scores of each of these two-item scales (importance, interest, and usefulness) were used to reflect students‟ perceptions of importance, interest, and usefulness toward fitness activities. Attainment Value or Importance Responses to two questions were averaged to assess students‟ perceptions of importance using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = not very important, 5 = very important). The students were asked: (a) For me, being good at the activities in the fitness unit is…, and (b) Compared to your school subjects, how important is it to you to be good at the activities in the fitness unit?

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Intrinsic Value or Interest The average of two questions were also used to assess students‟ perceptions of interest, again using a 5-point scale: (a) In general, I find learning new activities in the fitness unit is… (1 = “way” boring, 5 = “way” fun); and (b) How much do you like activities in the fitness unit? (1 = don‟t like it at all, 5 = like it very much). Utility Value or Usefulness Two questions were posed to assess students‟ perceptions of usefulness. The questions, rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1= not useful at all, 5 = very useful), were: (a) Some things that you learn in school help you do things better outside of class. We call this being useful. For example, learning about plants might help you grow a garden. In general, how useful is what you learn in the fitness unit? (b) Compared to your other school subjects, how useful is what you learn in the fitness unit? A mean was created from the student‟s responses. Physical Activity Levels The Yamax Digi-Walker SW-701 has been shown to be one of the most accurate pedometers for measuring physical activity levels in a field setting (Schneider, Crouter, Lukajic, & Bassett, 2003). Before using the pedometers, a shake test was conducted to test calibration and validate that reliability of the pedometers. Then all the pedometers were set to the appropriate stride lengths to fit the participants‟ age. Pedometer step output was expressed as steps per minute (SPM) which were calculated by dividing the total steps in class by the class time (Scruggs, Beveridge, Watson, & Clocksin, 2005). Cardiovascular Fitness In this study cardiovascular fitness was assessed via the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) developed by the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research (1999) to measure children‟s cardiovascular fitness such as estimation of maximum VO2. The PACER 20-meter multi-stage shuttle run has been proven to be reliable and valid in measuring cardiovascular fitness with children (Morrow, Jackson, Disch, & Mood, 2000). To conduct a PACER test, a 20-meter distance was measured and marked with tape at each end. Approximately 20 students were measured at one time. The pace was set by an audio recording CD which started out slowly and increased each minute. The PACER initially allowed the students nine seconds to cover the 20-meter distance at the start. The time allowed to complete each lap was then decreased by one-half second 27


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every minute. When the test began, students ran from one side to the other side and touched the boundary line with their foot by the time the beep sounded. When students heard the beep, they ran back to the original start position. The test continued in this manner until the student could no longer maintain the pace for two laps. Students‟ scores were recorded as the number of repetitions they completed during the shuttle run. The PACER test has shown acceptable concurrent validity and criterion referenced validity with measured VO2 max and estimated VO2 max from the PACER test (Morrow et al., 2000). Moreover, equivalent reliability scores have indicated that most individuals were correctly classified for cardiovascular fitness using the PACER test (Plowman & Yan-Shu, 1999). Muscular Strength/Endurance Muscular strength/endurance was assessed with the curl-up, a test of abdominal strength and endurance from the FITNESSGRAM tests. The test is completed at a specified cadence of 20 curl-ups per minute. The students lie in a supine position on a mat with their knees bent at about 140 degree and feet flat on the floor. The students‟ arms were straight and parallel to their trunk with their palms resting on the mat. Four and half inch wide cardboard strips were placed under their knees with their fingers touching the nearest edge. The students slowly curled up while keeping their heels in contact with the mat. A completed repetition involved curling up so that their fingers slide to the other side of the strip. The students‟ scores consisted of the number of curl-ups completed. The students were stopped when 75 curl-ups were completed. The logical validity of the curl-up has been substantiated by researchers (e.g., Noble, 1981). Procedures The data were collected during regularly scheduled fitness unit classes in the gym. At the beginning of the school year (August) students took the PACER and curl-up tests. At the end of the school year (May) students completed the self report questionnaires and took the PACER and curl-up tests for a second time. At a one week followup at the end of the school year (May) students‟ physical activity was assessed. The average time required to complete the self-reported selfefficacy, importance, interest, and usefulness questionnaires was about 10 minutes. The primary investigator (PI) administered the surveys, and the physical education teachers were not present in the survey area when the students were taking the surveys. The surveys were written in easy read English so that the middle school students could understand them easily. The PI monitored and assisted students by answering any questions they had. After the surveys were collected and checked by 28


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the researcher, one physical education teacher gave students instructions for the PACER test. Although the students experienced the PACER test in the previous semester, a portion of the PACER compact disc was played to familiarize them with the protocol. The physical education teacher then demonstrated the test. As they completed the PACER test, the physical education teachers identified students and recorded students‟ score (number of repetitions completed) on the PACER score sheets. The curl-up test was scheduled for the following fitness unit class. Similarly, one physical education teacher provided instructions to this test and then demonstrated the test. Eight students took the test simultaneously under the administration of the physical education teachers and the PI. Their scores on the test were recorded by the PI. Students‟ physical activity levels in the fitness unit class were measured during a 1-week follow-up. Specifically, a schedule was coordinated with the physical education teachers for the data collection for one fitness unit class period. The physical education teachers were told to follow a typical fitness unit lesson plan on data collection days. One pedometer was assigned to each student. Before each class the pedometers were attached to the waistband of the students‟ shorts, care was taken to lock the pedometer as well as attach it to the same side of each student‟s waistband. Each student was assigned an identification number which matched the number on her or his waistband (with pedometer). The students had prior experiences with wearing the pedometers and the students were familiar with the instruments. At the end of each class, the students were told to write down their total pedometer steps on one sheet. Data Analyses According to Bandura (1986), mastery experiences are considered the most influential source of individuals‟ performance. That is, successful prior experiences in specific tasks or activities can enhance an individual‟s task performance on these tasks or activities (Dzewaltowski, Noble, & Shaw, 1990). Therefore, prior tests‟ scores (PACER and curl-up scores in August) were added as an independent variable to control their influence on individual‟s performance in the PACER and curl-up tests in May. Students‟ PACER and curl-up scores in May were used as an index of outcome variables. The data analysis proceeded in two steps. First, the Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients were calculated to examine internal consistency of the self-reported measures. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations were calculated to describe the sample and evaluate simple correlations. Second, three hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to examine the relative contribution of self-efficacy and task values (importance, interest, and usefulness) to students‟ 29


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physical activity levels, cardiovascular fitness, and muscular strength/endurance, respectively. In particular, the multiple regression analyses for the cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance were conducted while controlling for the prior tests‟ scores. Based on previous empirical research and literature (e.g., Cox & Whaley, 2004; Dzewaltowski et al., 1990; Pajares & Miller, 1994; Pajares et al., 1999; Pajares & Valiante, 1999; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2004, 2006), the orders for the entries of the dependent variables were as follows. For the physical activity levels, entries were specified a priori with self-efficacy being entered first followed by the three task values. For the cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance, however, the prior tests‟ scores were entered in the first step, followed by self-efficacy in the second step, and then the three task values in the third step. RESULTS Reliability, Descriptive, & Correlation Analyses The criterion of .70 established by Nunnally (1978) was used to determine if the measures were internally consistent in this study. Reliabilities of the self-reported measures are listed in Table 1. As shown, Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients for the measures exceeded the minimum recommended value of .70, indicating that the measures had acceptable internal consistency in this population of middle school students. Table1 Internal Consistency, Descriptive Statistics, & Correlations among Variables (N =305) Variable

1

1. Self-efficacy

-

2

3

4

5

6

2. Importance

.44*

-

3. Interest

.49*

.41*

-

4. Usefulness

.34*

.45*

.52*

-

5. Physical activity levels

.44*

.37*

.40*

.36*

-

6. Cardiovascular fitness

.36*

.19*

.17*

0.07

0.18*

-

7

7. Muscular strength/endurance

.28*

.18*

0.04

0.03

0.04

0.40*

α

0.76

0.76

0.73

0.76

-

-

-

Mean

4.02

3.44

3.89

3.27

60.18

37.78

54.53

SD

0.64

0.98

0.83

0.98

14.22

15.87

20.66

Note. α = Cronbach‟s alpha coefficient; SD = standard deviation; * p < .01.

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the whole sample and the bivariate correlations among the variables. Please note that the cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength in Table 1 are the post-test 30


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scores. In general, students reported relatively high self-efficacy and task values toward fitness activities, as all mean scores of these variables were above the midpoint of three on the scale. Also, students displayed moderate physical activity levels in the fitness unit and health-related physical fitness scores in cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance. Correlation analyses revealed that all the self-reported motivation measures and physical activity levels were positively related to one another (r = .34 - .52, p < .01 for all). Selfefficacy, importance, interest, physical activity levels and muscular strength/endurance were positively associated with cardiovascular fitness (r = .17 - .36, p < .01 for all). Additionally, self-efficacy and importance were significantly and positively related to muscular strength/endurance. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses As shown in Table 2, our data reveals that, for the physical activity levels, self-efficacy positively predicted students‟ physical activity levels in the first step, F (1, 300) = 20.04, p < .01, and the three task values (importance, interest, and usefulness) were significant predictors when entered into the second step of this model, F (1, 300) = 5.27, p < .05, F (1, 300) = 5.49, p < .05, F (1, 300) = 4.90, p < .05, , respectively. These results indicate that when the variance explained by self-efficacy was controlled for in the model, importance, interest, and usefulness accounted for an additional significant portion of the variability related to physical activity levels. A total of 28% of variance of physical activity levels was accounted for self-efficacy and task values. Cardiovascular fitness, as assessed by PACER scores, was significantly predicted by prior PACER scores in the first step, F (1, 299) = 170.38, p < .01. Self-efficacy was also significant predictor when being entered into the second step of this model, F (1, 299) = 7.56, p < .01. Prior PACER scores and self-efficacy accounted for 45% of variance in cardiovascular fitness. The three task values, however, did not account for a significant portion of the remaining variance in the third step of the model. Prior curl-up scores were also significant in predicting students‟ muscular strength/endurance in the first step, F (1, 299) = 292.41, p < .01, explaining for 53% of the variance. But selfefficacy did not make significant contribution in the second step. In the third step, the three task values again failed to explain a significant portion of the variance in predicting muscular strength/endurance.

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Table2 Results of Regression Analyses on Students’ Physical Activity Levels & Fitness Predictors

Outcome Variables

R2 changes

β

p Value

0.44

0.000

Self-Efficacy

0.27

0.000

Importance

0.14

0.022

Interest

0.15

0.020

Usefulness

0.13

0.028

0.64

0.000

Prior Scores

0.59

0.000

Self-Efficacy

0.19

0.000

Prior Scores

0.60

0.000

Self-Efficacy

0.15

0.006

Importance

0.002

0.960

Interest

0.04

0.460

Usefulness

0.05

0.350

0.73

0.000

Prior Scores

0.72

0.000

Self-Efficacy

0.04

0.360

Prior Scores

0.71

0.000

Self-efficacy

0.04

0.410

Importance

0.08

0.080

Interest

0.09

0.060

R2

Physical Activity Levels Step 1

0.196 Self-Efficacy

Step 2

0.275

0.079

Cardiovascular Fitness Step 1

0.411 Prior Scores

Step 2

0.445

Step 3

0.450

0.034

0.005

Muscular Strength/Endurance Step 1

0.530 Prior Scores

Step 2

0.532

Step 3

0.542

0.002

0.010

Usefulness 0.04 0.460 Note. β values are standardized regression coefficients from the final stage of the regression analysis. * p < .05; ** p < .001.

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DISCUSSION This study was designed to investigate the predictive utility of students‟ self-efficacy and perceptions of importance, interest, and usefulness toward fitness on their physical activity levels, cardiovascular fitness, and muscular strength/endurance and in middle school physical education. As expected, self-efficacy significantly predicted students‟ physical activity levels in fitness unit. The finding is in line with the extant studies indicating that, in contexts where one has little chance for withdrawal such as compulsory physical education programs, ability beliefs are posited to predict physical activity levels and engagement (Dishman et al., 2004; Parish & Treasure, 2003; Wang et al., 2002). Similarly, although accounting for smaller percentage of variances, usefulness, interest, and importance also emerged as significant predictors for students‟ physical activity levels in fitness unit, thus supporting the first hypothesis and further strengthening the postulation that task values predict engagement in sports and physical activity (Cox & Whaley, 2004; Gao, 2008; Xiang et al., 2004, 2006). This result suggests that students who viewed fitness activities as useful, important, and interesting might be expected to have higher physical activity levels in class. Successful past experiences are posited to be the most influential predictor of an individual‟s performance on the task or activity (Bandura, 1986). Not surprisingly, students‟ past scores with PACER and curl-up tests occurred as the most important contributor to their cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance testing scores. In other words, students who did better on the PACER and curl-up tests at the beginning of the school year tended to score higher at the end of the school year. The results reinforce the important role of previous performance level in predicting individuals‟ task performance. Students‟ self-efficacy was a significant predictor of their cardiovascular fitness but failed to predict their muscular strength/endurance. A plausible reason might be that students perceived cardiovascular fitness activities as more relevant and demanding, in terms of skill, than muscular strength/endurance. Therefore students with higher self-efficacy toward fitness did not necessary perform better on the curl-up test. The three task values (importance, interest, and usefulness) did not add significant variance to either cardiovascular fitness or muscular strength/endurance when tested together with prior tests‟ scores and self-efficacy. The lack of significant contribution to cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance by task values replicates previous research in the academic domain (Bong, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c, Pajares & Miller, 1994; Pajares et al., 1999; Pajares & Valiante, 1999). This seems reasonable because the perceived value an individual has regarding cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance is 33


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quite distal to their objective behaviors in these two areas. These findings reinforce the notion that past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. This might be particularly relevant in the physical realm for tasks where successful completion is highly dependent on a foundation of experience (e.g., cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength/endurance. The results also provide empirical support for the indications that self-efficacy is superior in predicting performance than task values (Pajares& Miller, 1994; Pajares et al., 1999; Pajares & Valiante, 1999). Taken together, the findings of this study support a growing body of evidence that self-efficacy and task values significantly predict students‟ physical activity levels and engagement (Cox & Whaley, 2004; Rovniak, Anderson, Winett, & Stephen, 2002; Xiang et al., 2004, 2006). However, it is important to note that self-efficacy and task values accounted for very small amount of variances for health-related physical fitness testing scores in this study. This suggests that these personal motivational beliefs alone are not enough to explain individuals‟ physical fitness levels. Other factors affecting physical fitness levels might include individual physical attributes (i.e., weight, height, and percent of body fat), health status, contextual factors (i.e., social support, and leadership style), and lifestyle. For example, family support and community support can play a vital role for the school PE programs. Therefore, PE teachers should work with the parents and local community centers when attempting to promote students‟ physical fitness levels in their programs. Implications & Limitations of This Study The findings in this study might have significant implications for educational practice in sport and physical education. First, as the results have shown, students are more likely to display high in-class physical activity levels and possess high cardiovascular fitness levels when they believe they can accomplish the specific task or activity. Physical educators can and should help students maintain accurate but high selfefficacy, and assist them in the avoidance of perception of incompetence as well. To achieve this, educational professionals need to adapt learning to individual levels of ability and strive to foster a sense of success and positive ability perceptions by providing specific and timely feedback as well as using student role models to offer vicarious experiences (Gao, Lee, & Harrison, 2008; Gao, Xiang, Lee, & Harrison, 2008). In addition, physical educators should positively reinforce task completion and help students successfully complete the tasks as mastery experiences play a critical role in task performance. Second, students‟ perceived importance and usefulness of fitness activities showed significant prediction on their in-class physical activity levels. This finding implies that physical educators might 34


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emphasize how fitness activities are crucial to the development of a healthy lifestyle. Teachers should also help students understand why it is importance to do well on health-related fitness activities (i.e., health promotion). Both conditions can be partly achieved through in-class lectures/discussions or advocating a variety of school-wide fitness programs throughout the school year (e.g., health fair, health advisory club, “healthy day,” etc.). Our data also indicates that students‟ perceived interest toward fitness activities predicted their physical activity levels in class. Physical educators should offer learning activities that are interesting, novel, and meaningful to students. One strategy might be to ask students to participate in those fitness activities that many will enjoy (i.e., Dance Dance Revolution). This will encourage students from a large variety of skill levels and backgrounds to be actively engaged in the physical education classes. Strengths of this study include its exploratory nature of including both self-efficacy and task values in fitness activities and the use of objective physical activity measures and fitness testing scores. However, this study has several limitations. First, the participants came from one public school and most of the participants were Caucasian and were from middle- and upper- class. Accordingly, the study variables in this study should be tested with a larger and more diverse sample in future research. Second, this study only focuses on the middle school grades and provides empirical evidence for all three middle school grade levels in this area of inquiry. Future research should include fifth grade and ninth grade to examine the relations of the study variables during the transition years from elementary to middle school or from middle to high school. Continued research is also needed to consider additional variables that might influence achievement outcomes and apply appropriate interventions to increase the number and engagement levels of school children in quality physical activity programs on a daily basis. REFERENCES Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175 - 1184. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Bong, M. (2001a). Between and within- domain relations of academic motivation among middle and high school students: Self-efficacy, task-value, and achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 23-34.

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