The IIOAB Journal ISSN: 0976-3104
REVIEW: PHYTOTHERAPY
ANTIMICROBIALS FROM PLANTS AND THEIR USE IN THERAPEUTICS AND DRUG DISCOVERY Neeraj Khullar* Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, INDIA th
th
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Received on: 20 -July-2010; Revised on: 17 -Sept-2010; Accepted on: 31 -Sept-2010; Published on: 22 * Corresponding author: Email:
[email protected]
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-Oct-2010.
_____________________________________________________ ABSTRACT As people are becoming more health conscious, there is a huge worldwide surge in the sale of phytomedicines. Ethnopharmacologists, botanists, microbiologists, and natural products chemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals which could be developed for the treatment of diseases. This review summarizes the current status of plants used as phytomedicines, alongwth their effectiveness and toxicity. The structure, antimicrobial properties and our own work in the laboratory have also been discussed.
_____________________________________________________ Keywords: antimicrobial; medicinal plants; phytochemicals; therapeutic; phytomedicines
[I] INTRODUCTION The use of traditional medicinal plants for primary health care has steadily increased worldwide in recent years. Scientists are in search of new phytochemicals that could be developed as useful anti-microbials for treatment of infectious diseases. Primitive people have used plants to cure a variety of human ailments. Even today, 85% of Indians use higher plants as effective anti-microbials for the treatment of various diseases [1]. A large number of anti-microbial agents derived from traditional medicinal plants are available for treating various diseases caused by micro-organisms [2]. Finding healing powers in plants is an ancient idea. People on all continents have long applied poultices and imbibed infusions of hundreds, if not thousands, of indigenous plants, dating back to prehistory. There is evidence that Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago in present-day Iraq used plants such as hollyhock [3]; these plants are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world. Traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious conditions; Western medicine is trying to duplicate their successes. Plants are rich in a wide variety of secondary metabolites, such as tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids, which have been found in vitro to have antimicrobial properties. ©IIOAB-India
It is reported that, on an average, two or three antibiotics derived from microorganisms are launched each year [4]. After a downturn in that pace in recent decades, the pace is again quickening as scientists have realized that the effective life span of any antibiotic is limited. Worldwide spending on finding new anti-infective agents (including vaccines) is expected to increase 60% from the spending levels in 1993 [5]. Secondly, the public is becoming increasingly aware of problems with the overprescription and misuse of traditional antibiotics. Thus, new sources, especially plant sources, are being investigated.
1.1. Evaluation of anti-microbials In the area of antibiotics, random screening as a tool of discovering new biologically active molecules has been most productive. Chemotaxonomic considerations and targetdirected screening also play a crucial role. For a successful outcome, the main requirement is access to a large number of compounds/extracts that must be well screened [6]. The ethanolic extracts of 285 plant materials were screened for biological activities and revealed effective anti-bacterial, and a wide range of pharmacological, activities [5]. We have published a detailed review of a list of antimicrobials from Vol. 1; Issue 3; 2010 (pp: 31-37)
The IIOAB Journal ISSN: 0976-3104
plants as well as described their effectiveness, activity and usage [7]. This report in the form of a chapter gives a detailed account of the various plants of medicinal value, their usage and their active principles in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Also, research has been done in our laboratory for screening, isolation, characterization and therapeutic potential of some medicinal plants [8].Of the fifty-four plant extracts tested, thirty-six showed activity against multi-drug resistant enteric bacteria.Both methanolic and aqueous extracts of Aegle marmelos (fresh fruit pulp), Salmalia malabarica (bark), Punica granatum (dried fruit peel), Myristica fragrans (fruit), Holarrhena antidysenterica (seed), Terminalia arjuna (Leaves) and Triphal {mixture of Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula Terminalia belerica(fruit) in a ratio of 1:1:1 showed strong antimicrobial activity (size of zone of inhibition > 9-15mm). Moderate antimicrobial activity (size of zone of inhibition > 5-9 mm) was shown by Picorhiza kurroa (leaves), Acacia catechu (bark), Acacia nilotica (bark), Cichorium intybus (leaves), Embelia ribes (fruit), Solanum nigrum (seed), Carum copticum (seed), Apium graveolens(leaves), Ocimum sanctum (Seed), Peucedanum graveolens (seed) and Butea monosperma(Leaves).The rest of the plant extracts did not show1) any activity. In general, methanolic extracts showed better activity than aqueous extracts. As a result of these screening studies, we chose Aegle marmelos to isolate and characterize an active component against Salmonella typhi. In vitro and In vivo studies (manuscript in progress) demonstrated the effectiveness of the crude extract and the pure compound. The recent approaches of bioautography assay and highthroughput screening methods are the most suitable method to detect the anti-microbial component present in the extract. We have also taken a similar approach in our studies [9].
[II]ANTIMICROBIAL PLANTS
COMPOUNDS
FROM
2.1. Phenolics and polyphenols Simple phenols and phenolic acids: Some of the simplest bioactive phytochemicals consist of a single substituted phenolic ring. Cinnamic and caffeic acids are common representatives of a wide group of phenylpropane-derived compounds which are in the highest oxidation state. The common herbs tarragon and thyme both contain caffeic acid, which is effective against viruses [12], bacteria [13], and fungi [14]. The mechanisms thought to be responsible for phenolic toxicity to microorganisms include enzyme inhibition by the oxidized compounds, possibly through ©IIOAB-India
reaction with sulfhydryl groups or through more nonspecific interactions with the proteins [15]. Eugenol, a wellcharacterized representative found in clove oil is considered bacteriostatic against both fungi [16] and bacteria [13]. Quinones:- Quinones are highly reactive aromatic rings with two ketone substitutions .These compounds are responsible for the browning reaction in cut or injured fruits and vegetables as they are colored, and are an intermediate in the melanin synthesis pathway in human skin [16]. They are present in henna, and are responsible for its dyeing properties [17]. They provide a source of stable free radicals and are also known to complex irreversibly with nucleophilic amino acids in proteins [18], often leading to inactivation of the protein and loss of function. They may also render substrates unavailable to the microorganism. An anthraquinone from Cassia italica, has been shown to be bacteriostatic for Bacillus anthracis, Corynebacterium pseudodiphthericum, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and bactericidal for Pseudomonas pseudomalliae [19]. Research studies have also shown that Quinones demonstrated good to moderate antifungal activity against Colletotrichum spp which makes them of potential use in agricultural fungal pathogen control [20]. Flavones, flavonoids, and flavonols: Flavones are phenolic structures containing one carbonyl group as opposed to the two carbonyls in quinones [17]. Flavonoids are also hydroxylated phenolic substances but occur as a C6-C3 unit linked to an aromatic ring. They are known to be synthesized by plants in response to microbial infection [21] and found in vitro to be effective antimicrobial substances against a wide array of microorganisms. Their activity is probably due to their ability to complex with extracellular and soluble proteins and to complex with bacterial cell walls. More lipophilic flavonoids may also disrupt microbial membranes [22]. Extensive research has been done on Catechins, the most reduced form of the C3 unit in flavonoid compounds due to their occurrence in oolong green teas. These compounds inhibited Vibrio cholerae O1 [23], Streptococcus mutans [24], Shigella [25], and other bacteria and microorganisms [13] in vitro. Flavonoid compounds which have shown to exhibit inhibitory effects against multiple viruses are swertifrancheside [26], glycyrrhizin from licorice [27], and chrysin against HIV [28]. It is interesting to note that the average Western daily diet contains approximately 1 g of mixed flavonoids [29]. The chemical structures of some of the active ingredients are depicted in Figure-1. Tannins: "Tannins" are well known for their astringent property and are a group of polymeric phenolic substances capable of tanning leather or precipitating gelatin from solution.Their molecular weights range from 500 to 3,000 [30], and they are found in almost every plant part: bark, wood, leaves, fruits, and roots [31]. It has been Vol. 1; Issue 3; 2010 (pp: 31-37)
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suggested that the consumption of tannin-containing beverages, especially green teas and red wines, can cure or prevent a variety of ailments [32]. Many human physiological activities, such as stimulation of phagocytic cells, host-mediated tumor activity, and a wide range of anti-infective actions, have been assigned to tannins [30]. One of their molecular actions is to complex with proteins through so-called nonspecific forces such as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects, as well as by covalent bond formation [33]. Tannins in plants have shown
to inhibit insect growth [34] and also disrupt digestive events by binding to cell walls of ruminal bacteria [35]. A review of the antimicrobial properties of tannins (31) listed 33 studies which had documented the inhibitory activities of tannins and reported them to be toxic to filamentous fungi, yeasts and bacteria. However, more recent studies have shown that Tannic acid can be used in the leather industry as an alternative antimicrobial agent in the pickling process against various microorganism groups i.e bacteria, moulds and yeasts [36].
Flavones and flavonoids
Q u in o n e s O
O
O
O flavone
q u in o n e
Coumarins O
Tannins
HO
HO OCH2 O
OCO
O coumarin
HO
O O O
HO
C
CO
HO
HO
HO
C O
HO
HO
HO O
HO
HO
HO
O
CO
HO
HO
pentagalloylglucose (hydrolyzable tannin) O Alkaloids
Terpenoids
O
CH3
OH
N+
H3CO
H3C CH3 menthol
OCH3
berberine
Fig: 1. Structure of some common antimicrobial plant constituents
Coumarins: These are phenolic substances made of fused benzene and -pyrone rings [37]. The characteristic odor of hay is attributed to coumarins. Their importance is due to ©IIOAB-India
their antithrombotic [38], anti-inflammatory [39], and vasodilatory [40] activities. A particularly well-known coumarin, Warfarin, is used both as an oral anticoagulant and Vol. 1; Issue 3; 2010 (pp: 31-37)
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as a rodenticide [41]. In addition,It may also have antiviral effects [42]. Coumarins are known to be highly toxic in rodents [43] and therefore are treated with caution by the medical community. Several other coumarins have antimicrobial properties. They could have an indirect negative effect on infections as they have been found to stimulate macrophages [44]. In a study, coumarins have been used to prevent recurrences of cold sores caused by HSV-1 in humans [45]. Another study has shown that hydroxycinnamic acids, related to coumarins, seem to be inhibitory to gram-positive bacteria [46]. Also, prenylated coumarins 5‟-hydroxyaurapten , aurapten and 5‟oxoaurapten have been recently reported to have antifungal activity against M. gypseum, T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes [47]. In our research study, tests done to analyse phytochemicals from the purified extract of Aegle marmelos which were highly active against Salmonella typhi, resulted in them being classified as furocoumarins (manuscript in progress).
2.2. Terpenoids and essential oils Quinta essentia, or essential oil fraction carries the fragrance of plants. These oils are secondary metabolites that are highly enriched in compounds based on an isoprene structure .They are called terpenes, their general chemical structure is C10H16, and they occur as diterpenes, triterpenes, and tetraterpenes (C20, C30, and C40), as well as hemiterpenes (C5) and sesquiterpenes (C15). They are termed terpenoids when the compounds contain additional elements, usually oxygen, Artemisin and its derivative -arteether, also known by the name qinghaosu, are currently used as antimalarials [48]. The steering committee of the scientific working group of the World Health Organization in 1985, decided to develop the latter drug as a treatment for cerebral malaria. The activities of terpenenes or terpenoids have been demonstrated against bacteria [49], fungi [50], viruses [51], and protozoa [44]. The terpenoids present in essential oils of plants have been shown by food scientists to be useful in the control of Listeria monocytogenes [52]. A commercially available herbal, the oil of basil, was found to be as effective as 125 ppm chlorine in the disinfection of lettuce leaves [53]. Capsaicin, which is a terpenoid constituent, has a wide range of biological activities in humans, affecting the nervous, cardiovascular, and digestive systems [54]. It has also found use as an analgesic [55]. Capsaicin is also bactericidal to Helicobacter pylori [56], even though it is possibly detrimental to the human gastric mucosa.
Alkaloids are heterocyclic nitrogen compounds [57]. Morphine, isolated in 1805 from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum is the first medically useful example of an alkaloid. The name morphine comes from the Greek Morpheus, God of dreams. Codeine and heroin are both derivatives of morphine. The diterpenoid alkaloids, commonly isolated from the plants of the Ranunculaceae, or buttercup family, are commonly found to have antimicrobial properties [58]. A glycoalkaloid, Solamargine, isolated from the berries of Solanum khasianum, and other alkaloids have the potential to be useful against HIV infection [60] as well as intestinal infections associated with AIDS [61]. Another important representative of the alkaloid group is Berberine. It is potentially effective against trypanosomes [62] and plasmodia [59]. The mechanism of action of highly aromatic planar quaternary alkaloids such as berberine and harmane is attributed to their ability to intercalate with DNA [63].
2.4. Lectins and polypeptides Peptides which are inhibitory to microorganisms are often positively charged and contain disulfide bonds. The formation of ion channels in the microbial membrane [64] or competitive inhibition of adhesion of microbial proteins to host polysaccharide receptors [65] could be their mechanism of action. Although recent interest has been focused mostly on studying anti-HIV peptides and lectins, but the inhibition of bacteria and fungi by these macromolecules, such as that from the herbaceous Amaranthus, has long been known [66]. Peptides commonly found in barley and wheat are thionins and consist of 47 amino acid residues [67]. They have shown to be toxic to yeasts and gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria [68]. Some larger lectin molecules, which include mannose-specific lectins from several plants [69], MAP30 from bitter melon [70], GAP31 from Gelonium multiflorum [71], and jacalin [72], have been shown to be inhibitory to viral proliferation (HIV, cytomegalovirus). Probably, they act by inhibiting viral interaction with critical host cell components.
2.5. Mixtures In African countries,the chewing stick is widely used as an oral hygiene aid instead of a toothbrush [73]. Different species of plants yield different chewing sticks, and the chemically active component may be heterogeneous within one stick [74]. The crude extracts of one such species used, Serindeia werneckei, inhibited the periodontal pathogens Porphyromonas gingivalis and Bacteroides melaninogenicus in vitro [75]. On analysis, it was seen that the active component of the Nigerian chewing stick (Fagara zanthoxyloides) was found to consist of various alkaloids [76].
2.3. Alkaloids ©IIOAB-India
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A milky sap, often called latex obtained from Papaya (Carica papaya) is a complex mixture of chemicals.The latex was found to be bacteriostatic to B. subtilis, Enterobacter cloacae, E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, and Proteus vulgaris. [77].
[5] [6]
[7]
The ayurvedic practitioners in India rely on plant extracts, both "pure" single-plant preparations and mixed formulations. The preparations, in addition to their antimicrobial activities, have been found to have antidiarrheal [78], immunomodulatory [79], anticancer [80], and psychotropic [81] properties. In vivo studies of an Ayurvedic formulation “Abana” when studied in vivo was found to induce a slight reduction in experimentally induced cardiac arrhythmias in dogs [82]. In addition, two microorganisms against which Ayurvedic preparations exhibited activity were Aspergillus spp. [83] and Propionibacterium acnes [84].
[8]
[9]
[10]
[III] CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS With the current trend on increasing awareness in traditional medicine, the plant-derived agents have been attracting much interest as natural alternatives to synthetic compounds. Scientists are trying to tap the pharmaceutical and food values of these many unidentified plants. Laboratories all over the world have found thousands of phytochemicals which have inhibitory effects on all types of microorganisms in vitro. It is postulated that the plants (traditional medicine) will be a major source of new chemicals and raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry. As many plants found are in the wild regions, there is a need to have them grow at the local level. Also, more of these compounds should be subjected to animal and human studies to determine their effectiveness in wholeorganism systems. In addition, detailed investigations at molecular and cellular levels are necessary to elucidate antimicrobial and other biological activities. This may result in a new era of chemotherapeutic treatment of infection by using plant-derived principles.
[11]
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[16]
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[19]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[20]
I thank the Department of Science and Technology for supporting our research work and Ms Ashna for her help in the preparation of this manuscript.
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ABOUT AUTHOR Dr. Neeraj Khullar is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh and has been doing research on natural products since many years. She has several publications to her credit and has supervised many Masters and PhD research thesis.
©IIOAB-India
Vol. 1; Issue 3; 2010 (pp: 31-37)
