LTD long-term depression. LTP long-term potentiation m meter(s). M mole. ML lateral distance from the midline. MΩ ...... The skin flaps surrounding the incision ...
SUPRASPINAL ACTIONS OF PENTOBARBITAL ON TRANSMISSION THROUGH THE SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT by Dhananjay Namjoshi M. Pharm, University of Mumbai, 2003 B. Pharm, University of Mumbai, 1999 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE in The Faculty of Graduate Studies (Pharmaceutical Sciences) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA December 2007 © Dhananjay Namjoshi, 2007
ABSTRACT
Despite the advances made in our understanding of the molecular mechanistic actions of general anesthetics very little is known about the in vivo neural circuits involved in creating the state of general anesthesia. To date the common consensus is that general anesthetics act ubiquitously within the CNS. Recently, (Devor and Zalkind, 2001) have reported that microinjections of pentobarbital (PB) into a discrete brainstem focal area of conscious rats induced a classical, reversible general anesthesia‐like behavioral state. The authors concluded that this area, termed the mesopontine tegmental anesthesia area (MPTA), may be important for the induction of general anesthesia. The purpose of the present project was to study the neurophysiological basis of the analgesia, which accompanied the state of general anesthesia induced by PB microinjections into the MPTA that was reported by (Devor and Zalkind, 2001). Here, sensory inflow via the spinothalamic tract (STT), a classical spinal nociceptive pathway in the rat, was assessed using single neuron extracellular recording techniques before, during and after microinjections of PB into the MPTA.
Spontaneous firing rate (SFR), antidromic firing index (FI) and sciatic as well as sural nerve‐evoked responses (Sc‐, Su‐ER) of STT neurons in isoflurane‐anesthetized rats were quantified before as well as 2, 15, 30 and 60 min following bilateral microinjections of either PB (200 μg/side) or vehicle control solution (Vh, 1 μL/side) into the MPTA.
The group mean SFR, FI as well as magnitudes of Sc‐, Su‐ER of STT neurons were significantly and reversibly reduced following PB microinjections compared to
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corresponding baseline measurements. There were no significant changes in any of the three parameters following microinjections of Vh compared to the pre‐microinjection baseline responses.
The results from this study indicate that analgesia, which occurs during the anesthesia‐like state following microinjections of PB into the MPTA, may be due to attenuation of sensory inflow through the STT. The suppression of STT neurons likely occurs via direct and/or indirect descending pathways from the MPTA to the spinal cord. This study provides the first direct electrophysiological evidence for the analgesia caused by PB microinjections into the rat MPTA.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. x LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...........................................................................xv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................xix DEDICATIONS ...............................................................................................................................xxi CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION................................................................................. 1 1.1. Mechanism(s) of Actions of General Anesthetics: From Lipid to Protein Theory...... 2 1.2. Central Sites of General Anesthetic Actions...................................................................... 3 1.3. Mesopontine Tegmental Anesthesia Area: Potential Central Site for the Induction of General Anesthesia .......................................................................................................... 4 1.4. The Spinothalamic Tract ........................................................................................................ 9 1.5. Study Rationale...................................................................................................................... 10 1.6. Research Hypothesis............................................................................................................. 12 1.7. Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 12 CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS............................................................................ 16 2.1. SURGICAL PROCEDURES ................................................................................................ 16 2.1.1. Anesthetic Induction......................................................................................................... 16 2.1.2. Tracheotomy ....................................................................................................................... 18 2.1.3. Sciatic and Sural Nerve Surgery ..................................................................................... 19 2.1.4. Thoracolumbar Laminectomy ......................................................................................... 19 2.1.5. Craniotomy.......................................................................................................................... 20
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2.1.6. T13‐L1 Vertebral Immobilization Procedures ................................................................ 21 2.2. EXTRACELLULAR RECORDING PROCEDURES ........................................................ 22 2.2.1. Antidromic Identification of Spinothalamic Tract (STT) Neurons ......................... 22 2.2.2. Electroencephalogram....................................................................................................... 24 2.2.3. Spike Amplification, Recording and Data Acquisition Procedures ........................ 25 2.2.4. Baseline Electrophysiological Recording Procedures................................................. 26 2.2.4.1. Spontaneous Spike Activity .................................................................................. 26 2.2.4.2. Antidromic Firing Index......................................................................................... 27 2.2.4.3. Peripheral Nerve Stimulation‐Evoked STT Responses ................................... 28 2.3. DRUG AND CONTROL SOLUTIONS ............................................................................ 29 2.4. INTRACEREBRAL MICROINJECTIONS PROCEDURE............................................. 30 2.5. DRUG/VEHICLE CONTROL‐RESPONSE STUDIES ................................................... 32 2.6. BRAIN PERFUSION AND HISTOLOGY ........................................................................ 34 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 39 3.1. SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT NEURONS: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS............ 40 3.2. STUDIES OF THE ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS ............................. 44 3.2.1. Three Groups of Spinothalamic Tract Neurons According to the Treatment Protocol............................................................................................................................... 45 3.2.2. ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AT THE BASELINE ....................... 48 3.2.2.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate ........................................................................................ 48 3.2.2.2. Antidromic Firing Index......................................................................................... 49 3.2.2.3. Peripheral Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses.......................................................... 49 3.2.2.3.1. Sural Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses ............................................................ 51 3.2.2.3.2. Sciatic Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses .......................................................... 55
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3.2.3. EFFECTS OF BILATERAL MICROINJECTIONS OF VEHICLE CONTROL SOLUTION/PENTOBARBITAL INTO THE RAT MPTA ON THE ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF STT NEURONS...................... 59 3.2.3.1. MICROINJECTIONS OF VEHICLE CONTROL SOLUTION ....................... 59 3.2.3.1.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate: Vehicle Control Microinjections .................... 59 3.2.3.1.2. Interspike Interval Data: Vehicle Control Microinjections...................... 64 3.2.3.1.3. Antidromic Firing Index: Vehicle Control Microinjections..................... 67 3.2.3.1.4. Sural Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses: Vehicle Control Microinjections ................................................................... 70 3.2.3.1.5. Sciatic Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses: Vehicle Control Microinjections ................................................................... 74 3.2.3.2. MICROINJECTIONS OF PENTOBARBITAL................................................... 82 3.2.3.2.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate: Pentobarbital Microinjections......................... 82 3.2.3.2.2. Interspike Interval Data: Pentobarbital Microinjections.......................... 87 3.2.3.2.3. Antidromic Firing Index: Pentobarbital Microinjections ......................... 90 3.2.3.2.4. Sural Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses: Pentobarbital Microinjections ....................................................................... 94 3.2.3.2.5. Sciatic Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses: Pentobarbital Microinjections ....................................................................... 98 3.3. RESULTS OF HISTOLOGY OF MICROINJECTION SITES ..................................... 106 CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 110 4.1. Introductory Remarks......................................................................................................... 110 4.2. Technical Considerations: Animal Model, Study Design, Histology, and Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................................... 112 4.3. STT Neurons: General Properties .................................................................................... 119
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4.4. Inhibition of Spontaneous and Evoked Responses of STT Neurons by Pentobarbital Microinjections into the MPTA ............................................................ 122 4.4.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate ................................................................................................ 123 4.4.2. Interspike Interval Parameters...................................................................................... 128 4.4.3. Antidromic Firing Index................................................................................................. 129 4.4.4. Peripheral Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses .................................................................. 132 4.5. Time Course of Effects of Pentobarbital on the Spike Activity of STT Neurons ... 136 4.6. Possible Neural Mechanism(s) of Pentobarbital‐Mediated Suppression of STT Neurons through the MPTA............................................................................................ 137 4.7. MPTA: A Possible Pronociceptive Center in the Brain? .............................................. 147 4.8. Future Directions ................................................................................................................. 150 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................................................................. 155 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................. 157 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................................. 179 Appendix A.................................................................................................................................. 179 Appendix B .................................................................................................................................. 180
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on interspike interval parameters of STT neurons ……………………….…....66
Table 3.2
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group I STT neurons.……….…....79
Table 3.3
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group III STT neurons…...…...…80
Table 3.4
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on electrophysiological parameters obtained by combining the results obtained from Groups I and III STT neurons…………………………………...81
Table 3.5
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on interspike interval parameters of STT neurons…...…………………………...……………89
Table 3.6
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group II STT neurons………………103
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Table 3.7
Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group III STT neurons …........................104
Table 3.8
Summary of combined results of effects of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on electrophysiological parameters of Group II and Group III STT neurons…………………..…………………………….…………105
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1
Schematic of the experimental setup for extracellular recording of STT neurons and intracerebral microinjections of pentobarbital and/or vehicle control solutions into the MPTA…...…………………………...36
Figure 2.2
Photograph of microinjection cannula system used for intracerebral microinjections of pentobarbital/vehicle control solutions……………………37
Figure 2.3
Flowchart of the steps involved in electrophysiological parameter recording and microinjections procedures……………………………………..38
Figure 3.1
Criteria used for antidromic identification of STT neuron……………………42
Figure 3.2
Schematic diagram of estimated thalamic stimulation and spinal recording sites of STT neurons recorded in isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation……………………………………………………………………..43
Figure 3.3
Correlation between axonal conduction velocity and spinal recording depth of STT neurons….………………………………………………….……….46
Figure 3.4
Schematic explanation of STT neurons classified into three groups based on the treatment(s) they received………………………………………...47
Figure 3.5
Correlation of baseline spontaneous firing rate with spinal and axonal conduction velocity of STT neurons……………………………………………..50
Figure 3.6
Example of sural nerve‐evoked STT responses……………...…………………53
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Figure 3.7
Absence of habituation of sural nerve‐evoked STT responses......……………54
Figure 3.8
Example of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT responses……………….………………57
Figure 3.9
Absence of habituation of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT responses.……………...58
Figure 3.10
Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the spontaneous rate of firing STT neurons.....…………..………………………...….……………61
Figure 3.11
Spontaneous firing rate of each STT neuron before and after bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐ anesthetized rat preparation..…………………………………….………….…...62
Figure 3.12
Example of a continuous ratemeter histogram trace depicting the spontaneous firing rate of a STT neuron before and following bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA………………........63
Figure 3.13
Example of interspike interval histogram (ISIH) distributions of spike activity of a lumbar STT neuron recorded before and after bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation...….…..…...….…………………….65
Figure 3.14
Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA on the antidromic firing index of STT neurons in the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation...…………….………...……………….68
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Figure 3.15
Antidromic firing index of each STT neuron before and after bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation……………………………...69
Figure 3.16
Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sural nerve‐evoked responses of STT neurons………………………...……...………71
Figure 3.17
Example of presynaptic afferent volley recorded in the spinal cord evoked by stimulation of sural nerve......……………...………………………...72
Figure 3.18
Effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sural nerve‐evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation………..………………………………..73
Figure 3.19
Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐ evoked responses of STT neurons.……………………………………………….76
Figure 3.20
Example of presynaptic afferent volley recorded in the spinal cord evoked by stimulation of sciatic nerve..………………...……………………….77
Figure 3.21
Effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐ evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation………..………………………………..78
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Figure 3.22
Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the spontaneous firing rate of STT neurons………………………...………………...…………….84
Figure 3.23
Spontaneous firing rate of each STT neuron before and after bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐ anesthetized rat preparation…………………..…………………….…………...85
Figure 3.24
Example of a continuous ratemeter histogram trace depicting the spontaneous firing rate of a STT neuron before and following the bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat……….…..…………….……………………………..86
Figure 3.25
Example of interspike interval histogram (ISIH) distributions of spike activity of a lumbar STT neuron recorded before and after bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐ anesthetized rat preparation……………...…………….……………...................88
Figure 3.26
Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the antidromic firing index of STT neurons……………………...……………………………….92
Figure 3.27
Antidromic firing index of each STT neuron before and after bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation…………………………………………93
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Figure 3.28
Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sural nerve‐evoked responses of STT neurons……………………………….……………….………..96
Figure 3.29
Effects of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA on sural nerve‐evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation………..…………..…………..97
Figure 3.30
Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐evoked responses of STT neurons………………..………….………………………...…101
Figure 3.31
Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of the isoflurane‐ anesthetized rat preparation…...………………..………………………………102
Figure 3.32
Representative examples of anatomical location of MPTA in the rat
brainstem………………………………………………………………………….107
Figure 3.33
Summary of anatomical locations of dye microinjections within the MPTA of rat brain stem…………………...…………….……………………….109
Figure 4.1
Schematic of the hypothetical neural circuitry involved in suppression of STT neuron by pentobarbital microinjections into the rat MPTA…...…...145
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ANOVA
analysis of variance
AMPA
alpha‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionic acid
AP
anterior‐posterior distance from the bregma
°C
degree Celsius
CD
coefficient of dispersion
cm
centimeter(s)
CNS
central nervous system
CO2
carbon dioxide
CSF
cerebrospinal fluid
CV
coefficient of variation
DRt
dorsal reticular nucleus
DV
ventral distance from the dorsal surface of brain
EEG
electroencephalogram
FI
antidromic firing index
g
gram(s)
GABA
gamma aminobutyric acid
h
hour(s)
Hz
hertz
xv
ID
inner diameter
i.m.
intramuscular
i.v.
intravenous
ISIH
interspike interval histogram
kg
kilogram(s)
kHz
kilohertz
L
liter(s)
L1
first lumbar vertebra/spinal segment
L2
second lumbar vertebra/spinal segment
LC
locus ceruleus
LTD
long‐term depression
LTP
long‐term potentiation
m
meter(s)
M
mole
ML
lateral distance from the midline
MΩ
megaohm(s)
μA
microampere(s)
μg
microgram(s)
μL
microliter(s)
μm
micrometer(s)
xvi
mA
milliampere(s)
mL
milliliter(s)
mm
millimeter(s)
ms
millisecond(s)
min
minute(s)
MPA
medial preoptic area
MPTA
mesopontine tegmental anesthesia area
NaCl
sodium chloride
NE
norepinephrine
nM
nanomol
NMDA
N‐methyl‐D‐aspartic acid
NRGC
nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis
NRM
nucleus raphe magnus
NREM
non‐rapid eye movement
OD
outer diameter
PAD
primary afferent depolarization
PAG
periaqueductal grey
PAH
primary afferent hyperpolarization
PB
pentobarbital
PBS
phosphate buffered saline
xvii
PE
polyethylene
PTg
pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus
PSTH
poststimulus time histogram
REM
rapid eye movement
RVM
rostral ventromedial medulla
s
second(s)
5‐HT
serotonin (5‐hydroxytryptamine)
Sc‐ER
sciatic nerve stimulation‐evoked response(s)
SEM
standard error of mean
SFR
spontaneous firing rate
STT
spinothalamic tract
SS
stainless steel
Su‐ER
sural nerve stimulation‐evoked response(s)
T
threshold intensity
T12
twelfth thoracic vertebra/spinal segment
T13
thirteenth thoracic vertebra/spinal segment
TC
thalamocortical
TMN
tuberomammillary nucleus
Vh
vehicle control solution
VPL
ventral posterior lateral nucleus of thalamus
xviii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I come to this milestone in the pursuit of knowledge, I cannot help but reflect back and acknowledge all those who have contributed towards completion of this work in one or the other way. First of all, I offer my deepest gratitude to Almighty GOD for showering HIS infinite bounties, graces and mercies on me. Without HIS wishes and blessings, this work could have remained a dream only.
I would like to dedicate this work to my parents for their unconditional love,
encouragement and to my wife Archana for her immense love and support, who stood with me in every good and bad moment. I would also like to thank my parents‐in‐law for their constant motivation and support.
I express my deepest gratitude for my mentor Dr. Peter Soja for his guidance,
unstinting support, constant encouragement, constructive criticism and valuable suggestions throughout my work. Thank you Peter for introducing me to the exciting world of neuroscience. It has been an enriching experience and privilege working in your laboratory.
This work was supported by the grants from U.S. National Institutes of Health
(NS041921) and Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) to Dr. Peter Soja.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Shelly A. McErlane, who helped me throughout my study.
Thank you Shelly for teaching me aseptic neurosurgical techniques and sharing your vast knowledge of animal care. It has been a delight working with you.
I would like to thank my supervisory committee members Drs. Marc Levine (Chair),
Sastry Bhagavatula, Anthony Pearson and Nicholas Swindale for providing their critical review of this thesis and the benefit of their experience and expertise.
xix
Special thanks are extended to Dr. Niwat Taepavarapruk for helping me with the
schematic of the experimental setup.
I am grateful to Dr. Ernest Puil for kindly providing me with pentobarbital used in
this thesis.
I would also like to convey my deepest gratitude to Dr. Ujendra Kumar for allowing
me to use his laboratory facility for the rat brain histology. Special thanks are also extended to Padmesh Rajput for helping me with the histological examinations and imaging of rat brain samples.
Special thanks are passed on to Dr. Elissa Strome for sharing some useful tips for
microinjection techniques as well as for providing stainless steel cannulae for the drug microinjections.
Thanks are also extended to my colleague, Xu (Ervin) Zhu for his help during the
initial part of my experiments.
I would like to thank the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of
British Columbia for allowing me to use its facilities as well as providing me with Teaching and Research Assistantships.
Last but not the least I would like to thank all my well‐wishers, who directly or
indirectly contributed to this thesis work. DHANANJAY NAMJOSHI
xx
DEDICATIONS
Dedicated to
My Parents
&
My Wife and Best Friend
Archana
xxi
General Introduction
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
General anesthesia is a chemically induced, reversible, loss of consciousness that is accompanied by analgesia, atonia, and abolition of autonomic responses. Since the first successful demonstration of ether anesthesia by Morton in 1846 (see, Whalen et al., 2005), general anesthetics have been widely used clinically. Despite over 150 years of clinical practice with general anesthetics, exactly how structurally and pharmacologically distinct substances act to cause general anesthesia is not yet completely understood. Our current knowledge about the mechanism(s) by which general anesthetics act has gradually evolved through in vitro studies that were principally focused on cellular and subcellular targets. The prevailing view is that general anesthetics bind to specific neurotransmitter receptors and inhibit neuronal firing by dampening excitatory synaptic transmission and/or potentiating synaptic inhibition. The state of general anesthesia represents a consortium of different behavioral components including unconsciousness, analgesia, atonia, and attenuation of autonomic responses (Evers et al., 2006). However, exactly which neural circuits are involved in the different components of general anesthesia is still unclear. To correlate the observed clinical effects of general anesthetics to their molecular mechanism(s) of actions, it is necessary to dissect out specific neural structures/networks involved that mediate the different components of general anesthesia, for example analgesia.
1
General Introduction
1.1. Mechanism(s) of Actions of General Anesthetics: From Lipid to Protein Theory
Since substances with a wide array of chemical structures and/or classes can induce general anesthesia, several hypotheses were proposed to link their actions to a single mechanism. Following the first public demonstration of general anesthesia, three theories have emerged to explain the mechanisms of general anesthetic actions. The very first theory of general anesthesia was proposed by the French physiologist, Claude Bernard in 1875. Bernard proposed that general anesthetics act by “reversible coagulation” of chemical constituents of nerves and muscles, in particular, their proteins (Leake, 1971). Bernard’s theory was subsequently refuted for the reasons that coagulation of proteins required a given general anesthetic in a concentration that was much higher than that required for general anesthesia. About thirty years later, Meyer (1899) and Overton (1901) independently proposed the lipid theory of general anesthesia. The Meyer‐Overton lipid hypothesis was based on the observed correlation between the lipid solubility and potency of general anesthetics. Accordingly, the lipid hypothesis proposed that general anesthetics act by perturbation of the lipid membrane. The lipid theory enjoyed a wide, unchallenged acceptance for nearly eight decades.
The lipid theory paradigm was severely challenged by the pioneering work of
Franks and Lieb (1984), who, in their ‘protein theory’, proposed that anesthetics could directly bind and modulate membrane proteins. Since then, the research emphasis has shifted from the lipid theory to membrane receptors. Studies over the last two decades have
2
General Introduction revealed several voltage‐gated (Na+, K+ and Ca2+) and ligand‐gated (GABA, glycine, acetylcholine, NMDA and AMPA) ion channels as targets of general anesthetics (for reviews, see Franks and Lieb, 1998; Belelli et al., 1999; Krasowski and Harrison, 1999; Thompson and Wafford, 2001; Campagna et al., 2003; Mashour et al., 2005). The current consensus is that general anesthetics modulate a variety of neurotransmitter channels in the CNS in a distributed manner to cause general anesthesia.
1.2. Central Sites of General Anesthetic Actions
Although much is now known about the molecular and cellular mechanisms of general anesthetics, our understanding of the regions of the CNS affected by them remains elusive. An understanding of the neural networks affected by general anesthetics is required for linking their molecular actions to their observed clinical effects. Along these lines, the effects of various anesthetics have been studied primarily in the brain including various cortical (Alkire et al., 1995; Alkire, 1998; Fiset et al., 1999; Hayton et al., 1999) and sub‐cortical (Guilbaud et al., 1981; Antognini and Carstens, 1999a; Detsch et al., 1999; Ries and Puil, 1999; Alkire et al., 2000) sites. Parallel experiments in rats (Rampil et al., 1993; King and Rampil, 1994; Rampil, 1994; Rampil and King, 1996), cats (Namiki et al., 1980), goats (Antognini and Schwartz, 1993; Antognini and Kien, 1994), and humans (Zhou et al., 1997) indicate that besides the brain, the spinal cord is another important site, for anesthetic action. The principal putative sites in the spinal cord for the actions of general anesthetics are the dorsal horn and motoneuron pools. It is now widely accepted that the unconsciousness and amnesia caused by the general anesthetics are attributed to their supraspinal actions, while
3
General Introduction analgesia and atonia are due to the actions of general anesthetics in the spinal cord (Collins et al., 1995; Antognini, 1997; Antognini and Carstens, 1998, 1999a; Antognini et al., 1999). In addition, many non‐neural sites, including glial cells, cells of the skeleton, cardiomyocytes and cells comprising the immune systems have also been reported as targets of general anesthetics (Urban, 2002).
1.3. Mesopontine Tegmental Anesthesia Area: Potential Central Site for the Induction of General Anesthesia
The studies in the field of general anesthesia so far have assessed global but not specific neural circuits in the CNS where anesthetics might act. Recent intracerebral microinjection studies in rats have provided evidence of discrete loci in the brain that may likely be involved in barbiturate‐induced anesthesia. (Devor and Zalkind, 2001) recently reported on the discovery in conscious rats of a discreet locus in the brainstem pontomesencephalic tegmentum, which might be involved in pentobarbital (PB)‐induced general anesthesia. In this exploratory study, microliter quantities of PB were injected into various brain stem areas of conscious rats while the animals’ anesthesia scores (based on standard behavioral assessment) and electroencephalogram (EEG) were recorded. The authors reported that bilateral microinjections of PB into a focal zone in the mesopontine tegmentum induced a reversible “anesthesia‐like” behavioral state characterized by flaccid muscle atonia, analgesia, loss of consciousness and righting reflexes along with a shift in the EEG waveform pattern from low‐voltage, desynchronized, “fast‐wave” pattern to a high‐voltage, synchronized, “slow‐wave” pattern. In the same study, microinjections of phenobarbital, the
4
General Introduction selective GABAA receptor agonist, muscimol (Johnston, 1996) and alphathesin, a steroid anesthetic, mimicked the effects of PB. Since the cytoarchitectonic boundaries and the target neuron population of this brain stem area were not clearly defined, the authors coined the term mesopontine tegmental anesthesia area (MPTA) to describe this focal site. The authors concluded that the MPTA contains a barbiturate‐sensitive “switch” that may modulate ascending and descending pathways producing the state of anesthesia. The authors have further reported that, the anesthetic actions of PB within the MPTA were highly site‐specific. That is, microinjections of PB in the areas surrounding MPTA either failed to induce anesthesia or induced only mild sedation. Notably, these sites surrounding the MPTA included the periaqueductal grey (PAG), which is involved in morphine‐induced analgesia (Fields et al., 2006) and the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PTg), which plays an important role in regulation of the sleep‐wake cycle (Rye et al., 1987; Steriade and McCarley, 2005).
Surprisingly, in the Devor and Zalkind (2001) study, microinjections of the local anesthetic lidocaine into MPTA failed to reproduce the anesthetic effects of PB. The reason for this discrepancy is not presently known. One possible reason may be that the concentration of the intracerebrally microinjected lidocaine (2%, 0.5 μL volume) used by Devor and Zalkind (2001). In some earlier intracerebral microinjection studies in rats (Aimone and Gebhart, 1986; Ren et al., 1990) a 4% lidocaine (0.5 μL volume) was used to block the activity of local circuit neurons. Thus it may be possible that the lower
5
General Introduction concentration used by Devor and Zalkind (2001) was insufficient to block the MPTA neurons to induce general anesthesia.
Recently, the Devor group has reported that the anesthetic effects of PB microinjections were antagonized by pre‐microinjections of selective GABAA receptor antagonist, bicuculline (Seutin and Johnson, 1999) into the MPTA (Sukhotinsky et al., 2007). This suggests that the anesthesia induced by PB microinjections into the MPTA involves GABAA receptor‐mediated mechanisms. In further neuroanatomical tracing studies, the Devor group has demonstrated that the neurons in the MPTA express GABAA receptors and send axonal projections to various anatomical sites in the higher and lower brain centers as well as spinal cord (Sukhotinsky et al., 2003). The targets of MPTA projections include components of the endogenous motor control systems including the pontine and medullary reticular formation, structures in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM), and substantia nigra (Sukhotinsky et al., 2005). MPTA neurons are also reciprocally connected with several supraspinal structures involved in the control of pain transmission, including the periaqueductal grey (PAG), relay nuclei in the RVM, in particular, the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis (NRGc) (Sukhotinsky et al., 2006). Recently, Sukhotinsky et al. (2007) have reported axonal projections of the MPTA neurons to higher brain centers, which are involved in the control of consciousness. These structures include the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the cholinergic PTg, the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, and forebrain (Sukhotinsky et al., 2007). Interestingly, there are almost no MPTA projections to the thalamic sensory relay nuclei (Sukhotinsky et al., 2007). Finally, MPTA neurons send
6
General Introduction distinct axonal projections to the dorsal and ventral horns of the spinal cord (Sukhotinsky et al., 2006; Reiner et al., 2007; Sukhotinsky et al., 2007). Thus, microinjection of barbiturate anesthetics into the MPTA may inhibit local circuit GABAergic neurons, which in turn, modulate the activities of various target regions of the MPTA in the brain and spinal cord inducing the behavioral state of general anesthesia.
In a recent study, Voss et al. (2005) have corroborated the findings of Devor and Zalkind (2001) by reporting that microinjections of the short‐acting barbiturate anesthetic, thiopental into the MPTA of conscious rats induced general anesthesia‐like state. In the same study, microinjections of non‐barbiturate anesthetic propofol into the MPTA failed to induce general anesthesia. This finding by Voss et al. (2005) is interesting, given that propofol, like barbiturate anesthetics, acts by enhancing the inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission (Trapani et al., 2000; Irifune et al., 2003). It may be possible, that the dose of propofol microinjected into the MPTA may have been insufficient to induce general anesthesia. Secondly, propofol may be acting by engaging neurons other than the MPTA neurons. Alternately, this may also be attributable to the mechanisms by which propofol and barbiturates modulate the kinetic properties of GABAA receptor‐Clˉ channel. While at anesthetic concentrations, both the barbiturates and propofol increase the Clˉ flux through the GABAA receptor channel, barbiturates increase the mean channel open time of GABAA receptor without altering the channel conductance (Macdonald and Olsen, 1994). On the other hand, therapeutic concentrations of propofol increase the probability of GABAA receptor Clˉ channel being in the open state (Hara et al., 1993; Orser et al., 1994; Trapani et al.,
7
General Introduction 2000). This raises a question whether MPTA‐mediated induction of general anesthesia is dependent on the way in which the kinetic properties of GABAA receptors are modulated.
From the studies of the Devor group, it appears that MPTA has an important role in the induction of general anesthesia. However, is MPTA the sole site for induction of general anesthesia? One potential way to answer this question is by microinjecting bicuculline, into the MPTA of the same animal model as used by Devor and Zalkind (2001), followed by intravenous (i.v.) administration of anesthetic dose of PB. If i.v. administration of PB following bicuculline microinjections into the MPTA fails to induce a general anesthetic state, it may be logical to suggest that the MPTA plays a significant role in engaging the state of barbiturate‐induced general anesthesia. There are, however parallel studies, which indicate that brain nuclei distinct from the MPTA, may also play important role(s) in general anesthetic unconsciousness. For example, Nelson et al.(2002) recently reported dose‐ dependent sedation and a loss of the righting reflex, a hallmark of anesthesia in animals, after microinjection of muscimol, a GABAA agonist into the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of conscious rats. In the same study, microinjections of PB and propofol in the TMN produced only sedation. These responses were antagonized by the putative GABAA receptor antagonist, gabazine. The TMN is a small area located in the hypothalamus which sends major histaminergic input to the cortex and is known to play a critical role in the sleep‐wake cycle (Lin et al., 1990; Wada et al., 1991). Interestingly, the MPTA has very little connectivity with the TMN (Sukhotinsky et al., 2007). Thus these two brain areas, i.e., MPTA and TMN, may be acting independently in the control of consciousness. In a similar type of study,
8
General Introduction microinjections of PB into the medial preoptic area (MPA) of rat brain induced sleep with reduced sleep onset latency and increased non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep as well as total sleep time (Mendelson, 1996). It is not known presently if any neural connectivity exists between MPA and MPTA.
1.4. The Spinothalamic Tract
The spinothalamic tract (STT) is the most important and extensively studied ascending sensory pathway in the anterolateral quadrant of the spinal cord projecting to the thalamus (Hodge and Apkarian, 1990; Willis and Westlund, 1997). STT neurons receive and relay nociceptive, tactile, and thermal information from the periphery to the higher centers in the brain (Willis, 1985; Willis and Westlund, 1997; Willis and Coggeshall, 2004). In addition, the STT has also been implicated in postural changes and locomotion (Menetrey et al., 1984). The distribution of the cell bodies of STT neurons in the spinal cord is species‐specific. Studies in the rat have shown that majority of the STT neurons are located in the nucleus proprious, deep dorsal horn, ventromedial zone and dorsomedial ventral horn (Giesler et al., 1979; Giesler et al., 1981a; Yezierski and Bowker, 1981). The axons of the majority of rat STT neurons decussate initially towards the ventral funiculus and then migrate to the lateral funiculus while ascending to the contralateral thalamus. In rodent brain, the major termination site for STT axons is the ventral posterior lateral (VPL) nucleus of the thalamus (Willis, 1985; Hodge and Apkarian, 1990). STT axons also send collaterals to the medullary reticular formation (Kevetter and Willis, 1982), parabracheal area (Hylden et al., 1989) and periaqueductal gray (Kevetter and Willis, 1983; Liu, 1986; Harmann et al., 1988). STT
9
General Introduction neurons receive a variety of both somatic and visceral afferent inputs. This has been shown by electrically stimulating visceral, cutaneous, and motor nerves (Foreman et al., 1975; Chung et al., 1979; Ammons, 1989).
1.5. Study Rationale
The intracerebral microinjection studies reviewed here suggest that certain neural foci within the brain may play important roles in the generation of unconsciousness due to sleep or general anesthesia. The discoveries of discrete intracerebral foci, when modulated by an anesthetic drug to evoke a behavioral anesthetic state, have challenged the contemporary view that general anesthetics act in a non‐site‐specific manner by ubiquitous inhibition of CNS neurons. The Devor and Zalkind (2001) study, however, was based on the behavioral assessment of the animals. The neurophysiological basis of PB microinjection‐induced anesthesia is not known. The purpose of the study presented in this thesis was to partially address this issue.
The two very important components that are considered as part of the state of general anesthesia are analgesia and atonia. In the microinjection study of Devor and Zalkind (2001), the behavioral assessment of the animal showed that presence of PB in the MPTA caused both analgesia and atonia. However, it may very well be that the analgesia reported in this study was a consequence of the animal’s failure to elicit nociceptive motor responses to the noxious stimuli due to atonia. Accordingly, there is lack of sound evidence that microinjections of PB into the MPTA caused analgesia. One way to address this
10
General Introduction question is by assessing the physiological properties of sensory tract neurons in the spinal cord after PB microinjections into the MPTA.
The afferent fibers carrying sensory (and nociceptive) information from the peripheral tissues make synaptic connectivities with several second‐order ascending pathways in the spinal cord. These ascending pathways, in turn, transmit the sensory signals to the higher brain centers. As mentioned previously, suppression of noxious stimuli‐induced responses by most of the general anesthetics (inhalational, barbiturates, propofol and nitrous oxide) is thought to be due to their direct actions on the spinal cord (Collins et al., 1995; Antognini and Carstens, 1998). Thus, it may be possible that general anesthetic‐induced analgesia is due to the suppression of the spinal ascending pathways (e.g., the STT), which transmit nociceptive input from the periphery to the brain. Surprisingly, there are few, if any, studies assessing the anesthetic‐induced changes in the physiological characteristics of ascending spinal sensory tract neurons.
Soja et al. (2002) have reported that intravenous injection of thiopental reversibly suppressed the spike activities of electrophysiologically identified (proprioceptive) dorsal spinocerebellar tract (DSCT) and (nociceptive) spinoreticular tract (SRT) neurons in the chronic cat preparation. Their study was unique because it examined the activity of DSCT and SRT neurons in the awake, unanesthetized animal, free from recent surgery. The effects of the anesthetic, thiopental were examined on DSCT and SRT neurons under near‐natural conditions. The results obtained by Soja et al. (2002) indicate that barbiturate anesthetics suppress ascending non‐nociceptive and nociceptive transmission through the spinal cord.
11
General Introduction However, since, the anesthetic was delivered through the i.v. route it may have acted in other parts of the CNS besides the spinal sensory neurons, perhaps even the MPTA (Devor and Zalkind, 2001).
The PB microinjection studies reported by Devor and Zalkind (2001) and the electrophysiological studies reported by Soja et al. (2002), thus, present a unique provenance for studying the effects of intracerebrally administered barbiturate anesthetics on the activity of spinal nociceptive neurons. Accordingly, in the present thesis, the excitability of identified spinothalamic tract (STT) neurons was assessed before, during and after microinjections of PB into the MPTA of the rat brain.
1.6. Research Hypothesis
The research hypothesis for the present study was: “Bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the mesopontine tegmental anesthesia area (MPTA) of the rat brain, suppresses sensory inflow through the spinothalamic tract.”
1.7. Research Objectives
The overall objective of the study reported in this thesis was to assess the electrophysiological parameters of identified spinothalamic tract (STT) neurons of the rat, namely, the spontaneous discharge, antidromic excitability and afferent nerve stimulation‐ evoked responses after bilateral microinjections of PB into the MPTA. For the purpose of
12
General Introduction this study, the highest effective concentration of 200 μg/μL (800 nM) with the largest volume of 1 μL/side of PB, which induced a behavioral state of general anesthesia in conscious rats (Devor and Zalkind, 2001) was used. In the control studies, PB‐free vehicle control solution (Vh, 1 μL/side) was microinjected into the MPTA. Since the cytoarchitectonic boundaries of MPTA are not yet clearly defined, the stereotaxic coordinates referring to the MPTA zone in this study were derived from the information of the surrounding structures reported by Devor and Zalkind (2001) and the stereotaxic atlas of the rat brain (Paxinos and Watson, 2007), which together, corroborated with those reported in recent papers (Voss et al., 2005; Sukhotinsky et al., 2006). A brief detail of each electrophysiological parameter is given below.
Electrophysiological Parameter 1: Assessment of Spontaneous Firing Rate
The spontaneous spike activity of a STT neuron is defined as the cell’s background spike activity in the absence of any stimulus. Thus, it would be useful to determine if bilateral microinjections of PB into the MPTA modulate the ongoing afferent input and rhythmic properties of individual STT neurons. In this experimental paradigm, once the STT cell was antidromically identified and confirmed, its spontaneous spike activity was recorded before and at specified time intervals after microinjections of PB/Vh into the MPTA. Samples of recorded spike activity were analyzed to determined mean spike rate, interspike interval, coefficient of variation, and coefficient of dispersion. These two latter parameters are useful for detecting indirectly whether changes in spontaneous firing rate due to drug actions are
13
General Introduction also accompanied by changes in spike patterns (Cocatre‐Zilgien and Delcomyn, 1992; Soja et al., 1996).
Electrophysiological Parameter 2: Assessment of Antidromic Firing Index.
The firing index (FI) is the probability of evoking action potentials in the neuron in response to a consecutive number of stimuli applied to it (Lloyd and McIntyre, 1955). The FI method has long being used for assessing changes in the postsynaptic excitability of motor neurons (Hunt, 1955; Lloyd and McIntyre, 1955; Wilson and Burgess, 1962), group Ia and Ib afferents (Wall, 1958; Willis et al., 1976), tooth pulp afferents (Lisney, 1979; Cairns et al., 1996), and some descending fiber systems (Rudomin and Jankowska, 1981). To assess changes in the FI, the identified STT neurons were “backfired” with 100 consecutive stimuli applied to the VPL nucleus at threshold stimulus intensity. The numbers of antidromic spikes obtained from 75 consecutive stimuli (excluding the collision between the antidromic and orthodromic spikes) were calculated before and after microinjections of PB/ Vh into the MPTA. A decrease in the FI after the microinjections compared to the baseline FI would indicate reduced excitability of the STT cell due to putative somatic hyperpolarization (Wall, 1958, 1962; Lipski, 1981).
Electrophysiological Parameter 3: Assessment of Peripheral Nerve Stimulation‐Evoked Responses
STT neurons receive tactile and afferent nociceptive input from the skin and viscera. Therefore, in this study, the responsiveness of the STT neurons to the afferent peripheral
14
General Introduction nerve stimulation was assessed following the microinjections. In the present experiments, the sciatic (Sc) and sural (Su) nerves were stimulated to evoke synaptic responses recorded in STT neurons. The Sc nerve is the largest nerve originating from the lumbosacral spinal segments and innervates the lower extremities. It is a mixed nerve containing both sensory and motor nerve fibers. The Su nerve is a sensory cutaneous nerve innervating the foot. It joins to the peroneal nerve, which is a branch of the sciatic nerve. The mean response magnitude and latency of the STT neurons, evoked by the stimulation of both of these nerves were studied before and after microinjection of PB into the MPTA. In addition, to determine if microinjections of PB/Vh changed the presynaptic input, the peak‐trough amplitude and latency of orthodromic afferent volley recorded within the spinal cord after peripheral nerve stimulation was analyzed around PB/Vh microinjections.
15
Materials and Methods
CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
All protocols of the studies reported in this thesis were approved by the University of British Columbia Committee on Animal Care and were carried out in accordance with the national (Canadian Council for Animal Care, 1993) and institutional (University of British Columbia Committee on Animal Care) guidelines. All the experiments were carried out in adult male Sprague‐Dawley rats (290‐590 g), obtained from the animal breeding facility at the University of British Columbia. The animals were housed in standardized conditions with 12:12 h light/dark cycles and ambient temperature (21˚C). The animals were fed on standard laboratory rodent chow and given water ad libitum.
2.1. SURGICAL PROCEDURES
All the surgical procedures were performed using aseptic techniques. During surgery a deep surgical plane of anesthesia was maintained and monitored.
2.1.1. Anesthetic Induction
On the day of the experiment, a rat was weighed and placed in an anesthetizing box (# 500108, Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA) that was supplied with a continuous stream of isoflurane (4 %) and nitrous oxide (0.6 L/min), in oxygen (3 L/min). The animal usually lost consciousness within 1‐2 min, which was confirmed by observing loss of righting reflex. Once the animal lost its righting reflex, it was taken out of the chamber and placed on its back on the surgery table. The anesthetic mixture thereafter was delivered through a
16
Materials and Methods custom‐made nose cone and the isoflurane level was lowered to 2.5%. The surgical plane of anesthesia was confirmed with the absence of blink and toe pinch reflexes. The core body temperature was maintained at 37 ± 0.5°C using a feedback‐controlled heating blanket. A lubricated rectal probe was gently inserted about 1 cm into the rectum and used to monitor the body temperature throughout the experiment.
Enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg, i.m.) was administered and lubricating ophthalmic ointment (Lacrilube®) was applied to the eyes to prevent corneal drying. The ointment was re‐applied as needed throughout the experiment. Warm, lactated Ringer’s solution was administered as a continuous drip (10 mL/kg/h) for the entire length of the experiment through a 24 or 26 gauge “over the needle” catheter placed in the lateral tail vein. The drip rate was intermittently checked throughout the experiment. The flow of the Lactated Ringer’s solution was adjusted as needed to compensate for bleeding during surgical manipulations. The portion of the tail, where the intravenous (i.v.) catheter was inserted was checked periodically to ensure proper i.v. catheterization. The skin overlying the neck, left thigh, back, and head was shaved for surgical manipulations. The shaved skin was disinfected by serial application of the disinfectants in the following order: chlorhexidine (4%), isopropyl alcohol (70%), and povidone iodine. Ampicillin sodium (33 mg/kg, slow i.v.) and dexamethasone (0.6 mg/kg, slow i.v.) were slowly administered through the i.v. catheter. Heart rate, blood oxygen levels, and end tidal CO2 were continuously monitored with a pulse oximeter/capnograph (SurgiVet™; Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA). The heart rate,
17
Materials and Methods oxygen saturation, end‐tidal CO2, and core body temperature were kept within normal physiological limits at all times.
2.1.2. Tracheotomy
When the animal was in a surgical plane of anesthesia, as confirmed by the absence of a pinch reflex, a partial tracheotomy was performed to allow intubation with an endotracheal tube. First, a vertical midline incision was made in the shaved skin of the ventral aspect of the neck. The subcutaneous tissue and sternohyoideus muscles were longitudinally split by blunt dissection and held apart using a self‐retaining retractor to expose the underlying trachea. The trachea was carefully dissected from the underlying connective tissue. A partial transverse incision was made between two tracheal rings rostral to the ring where the suture threads were tied. A custom made plastic cannula (ID: 0.05ʺ OD: 0.09ʺ), with a beveled end was used for tracheal intubation. The beveled end of the cannula was quickly but carefully inserted through the incision into the trachea. The other end of the cannula was connected to a mechanical respirator (Inspira; Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA) using a Y connector. The endotracheal tube was secured with sutures placed distal and proximal to the tracheal incision. The rat was then mechanically ventilated by the respirator after tracheal intubation for the entire length of the experiment. Once the artificial ventilation was started, the isoflurane level was adjusted between 2 ‐ 2.25%, depending on the depth of anesthesia required to complete the remaining surgery. The respiration rate was set between 65‐72 breaths/min. After tracheal intubation, the animal was closely observed for chest expansion. Blood oxygen saturation as well as an end tidal CO2 readings between 1.5% and 2% were
18
Materials and Methods maintained at all times throughout the experiment by adjusting the tidal volume and the respiration rate functions of the ventilator. Once the rat was stabilized after tracheal intubation, the neck incision was closed using tissue adhesive (Vetbond™; 3M Animal Care Products, St. Paul, MN). Thereafter, level of anesthesia was checked by observing heart rate, absence of toe and tail pinch reflexes as well as the eye blink responses.
2.1.3. Sciatic and Sural Nerve Surgery
Following tracheal intubation procedures, the animal was placed on its right side to expose the left sciatic and sural nerves. An incision was made in the shaved skin along the length of the femur. The skin around the incision was carefully separated from the underlying connective tissue and fascia. This was followed by blunt dissection of the biceps femoris muscles, caudal to the femur to expose the sciatic nerve. Once the sciatic nerve was visible, the dissection was continued along the gastrocnemius muscle and the sciatic nerve to expose the sural nerve. Both the nerves were carefully freed from the connective tissue in the popliteal fossa. The incision was irrigated with sterile saline, packed with saline‐soaked gauze, and closed with the tissue adhesive until the end of the thoracolumbar laminectomy.
2.1.4. Thoracolumbar Laminectomy
After peripheral nerve surgery, the animal was placed in prone position. A thoracolumbar laminectomy was then performed to expose the spinal cord between the T13 and L1 segments. The T13 segment was identified by first palpating the last floating rib at the T13 vertebra. Once the T13 vertebra was identified and marked, a midline incision in the shaved
19
Materials and Methods skin of the back was made along length from T12 to L2 vertebrae. The adhering fascia was gently separated from the underlying muscles. Paraspinal incisions were made on the either side of the vertebral column through the muscle layer to the bones extending from T12 to L2 vertebrae. The paravertebral muscles and the underlying connective tissue were carefully dissected from the vertebrae. Then the intervertebral space between L1 and L2 vertebrae was identified. A dorsal laminectomy was performed using microrongeurs, starting from the caudal part of the L1 vertebra to the rostral part of the T13 vertebra. Extreme care was taken to avoid damaging the underlying spinal cord. After completion of laminectomy, the exposed spinal segments were covered with a piece of sterile calcium alginate dressing (Curasorb™), soaked in sterile saline. The incision was temporarily closed with tissue adhesive.
2.1.5. Craniotomy
Following laminectomy procedures, the rat was placed in a stereotaxic frame (Kopf® 1430; David Kopf Instruments, Tujunga, CA). The head of the rat was secured firmly to the stereotaxic frame with ear bars and a palate bar. A midline incision was made in the scalp from the frontal bone to the atlanto‐occipital junction to expose the calvarium. The calvarium was exposed and partially etched with 35% phosphoric acid to clearly reveal the bregma (intersection of coronal and sagittal sutures) and lambda. The head was firmly secured in a stereotaxic zero position. Two bilateral trephinations were made in the frontal bones to fix screws for recording the cortical EEG. A unilateral trephination (~1 mm diameter) was made in the parietal bone, contralateral to the site of sciatic nerve surgery for
20
Materials and Methods introducing a microelectrode into the ventral posterior lateral (VPL) nucleus of the thalamus. Finally, two trephinations were also made bilaterally along the central suture in the left and right parietal bones for insertion of microinjection probes into the mesopontine tegmentum anesthesia area (MPTA). After completion of surgical manipulations, all the exposed nerve tissues were covered with warm mineral oil to prevent dehydration.
2.1.6. T13‐L1 Vertebral Immobilization Procedures
Following craniotomy procedures, the laminectomy site was carefully re‐opened. The T12 and L2 vertebrae were tightly secured by two spinal clamps, which in turn, were anchored to the stereotaxic frame, so that the exposed spinal segment was fixed between the two clamps. The clamps were adjusted so that the spinal cord was held level to the frame with no visible respiration‐induced movements. A recording well was constructed around the exposed spinal segments using denture repair acrylic. The dura of the exposed spinal cord was gently incised and reflected away from the recording site. The spinal cord was covered with a small pool of warm mineral oil.
The incision site of peripheral nerve dissection was also re‐opened. The skin flaps surrounding the incision were used to form a pool to contain warm, sterile mineral oil bathing the exposed sciatic and sural nerves. Both these nerves were carefully draped on small bipolar hook electrodes to synaptically activate recorded STT neurons.
21
Materials and Methods
2.2. EXTRACELLULAR RECORDING PROCEDURES
2.2.1. Antidromic Identification of Spinothalamic Tract (STT) Neurons
The experimental setup scheme for extracellular recording and intracerebral microinjections procedures is depicted in Figure 2.1. A Parylene‐C® insulated monopolar tungsten microelectrode (Catalog # 573500, Length: 76 mm, Diameter: 250 μm, 2 MΩ AC, A‐M Systems, Inc., Sequim, WA), secured to a three axis micromanipulator (Kopf® 1460‐61, David Kopf Instruments, Tujunga, CA), was directed into the VPL nucleus of thalamus using the following stereotaxic coordinates: AP: ‐3.0 to –3.5 mm from bregma, ML: 3.0 to 3.3 mm from the midline, and DV: 5.5 to 7 mm from the dorsal surface of the brain (Palecek et al., 1992; Paxinos and Watson, 2007). This electrode was used as the antidromic stimulating electrode for “backfiring” STT neurons. A second monopolar tungsten microelectrode, held by a hydraulic micropositioner (Kopf® 650, David Kopf Instruments, Tujunga, CA), was used for recording the spike activity of L1 spinal neurons.
At the beginning of each recording session, both the thalamic stimulation as well as the spinal recording microelectrodes were checked under a microscope to ensure that electrode tip was perfectly formed according to the manufacturer specifications. If the tip was even slightly bent, a fresh electrode was used. Care was taken that both the stimulating and recording electrodes were held vertically straight against two planes of the micropositioner.
22
Materials and Methods For antidromic identification of lumbar STT neurons, a systematic search of the exposed spinal segment was carried out. Initially, the stimulation electrode was positioned in the thalamus at the following stereotaxic coordinates: AP: ‐3.25 mm, ML: 3.15 mm and DV: 6 mm (references: bregma and dorsal surface of the brain). The “zero” position of the spinal recording electrode was adjusted so that the tip of the electrode just touched the surface of the exposed spinal cord close to the midline and contralateral to the thalamic stimulation site.
For antidromic identification of STT neurons, low‐intensity search stimuli (0.2 ms, 0.67 Hz, 200‐300 μA) were continuously delivered to the VPL nucleus through the stimulating electrode while searching the spinal gray matter for the antidromically activated spikes. While applying search stimuli to the VPL, the recording microelectrode was slowly lowered in 5 μm increments into the exposed spinal segment. The dorsal‐ventral advancement of the recording electrode into the spinal cord was controlled using the Kopf® 650 hydraulic micropositioner. Care was taken not to cause spinal cord compression during the electrode descent. The microelectrode was gradually lowered to a maximum depth of 1800 μm below the dorsal surface of the spinal cord as indicated on the digital display of the microdrive device. If no antidromic spike was detected, the electrode was slowly retracted while searching again for an antidromically propagated spike.
The spinal cord segment was systematically explored in grid‐like fashions from a caudal to rostral direction at 0.5 mm inter‐tract distance. This was carried also out in vertical tracts, 0.5 mm lateral from each other starting at the midline. Antidromic spikes were
23
Materials and Methods usually encountered when such tracking procedures were performed in each anesthetized rat preparation. When an antidromically activated spike was encountered, the recording electrode was moved slowly up or down in 2.5 μm increments until a maximum antidromic spike amplitude was obtained (a minimum signal‐to‐noise ratio of 3:1). The depth of the recording electrode corresponding to the maximum antidromic spike amplitude relative to the surface of the spinal cord was recorded as that depth reading indicated on the digital display of the micropositioner.
The following criteria were used for demonstrating antidromic activation of STT neurons from VPL nucleus: 1. spike responses with a constant antidromic latency ( 0.05, one‐way ANOVA).
Further details on the STT neuron groups and their treatment protocols are summarized in Figure 3.4.
45
Results
Axonal Conduction Velocity (m/s)
24 22 20
r = 0.07 18 16 14 12 0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Spinal Recording Depth (μm)
Figure 3.3 Correlation between axonal conduction velocity and spinal recording depth of STT neurons. The abouve figure depicts scatter plot of axonal conduction velocity (m/s) and the respective spinal recording depths (μm) of 18 antidromically identified STT neurons. The coefficient of correlation (r) was 0.07. Note that no significant correlation exists between the two parameters (p = 0.8, Pearson’s correlation).
46
Results
Measurement of SFR, FI, Sc‐Su ER of STT neuron
Group I (n =6)
Group II (n = 6)
Group III (n = 6)
Vh
PB
Vh
Microinjections
Microinjections
Microinjections
Recording of SFR, FI
Recording of SFR, FI
Recording of SFR, FI
and Sc‐Su ER at 2, 15,
and Sc‐Su ER at 2, 15,
and Sc‐Su ER at 2, 15,
30 and 60 min after Vh
30 and 60 min after PB
30 and 60 min after Vh
microinjections
microinjections
microinjections
Recovery period
(~ 60 min)
PB microinjections
Recording of SFR, FI and
Sc‐Su ER at 2, 15, 30 and 60 min after PB
End of the experiment
Figure 3.4 Schematic explanation of STT neurons classified into three groups based on the treatment(s) they received. Legend: FI – firing index, PB – pentobarbital, SFR – spontaneous firing rate, Sc‐Su ER ‐ sciatic and sural nerve‐evoked responses, Vh – vehicle control solution
47
Results
3.2.2. ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AT THE BASELINE
After a STT neuron was isolated and identified, all the electrophysiological parameters (SFR, FI, Su‐ER and Sc‐ER) were measured before the microinjections of Vh and/or PB. The values for each of these parameters served as baseline values for comparison with those obtained after microinjections of Vh and/or PB.
3.2.2.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate
All the STT neurons examined in this thesis were found to be spontaneously active. For determining the baseline spontaneous firing rate (SFR), two distinct epochs from the STT spike waveform of 2 min each were selected. The SFR (in spikes/s) obtained from each of the epochs were averaged to obtain the final baseline SFR. The SFR at the time points following the microinjections were compared against this baseline SFR. The group mean (± SEM) baseline SFR of all the 18 STT neurons was 13.1 ± 2.1 spikes/s (range: 4 ‐ 40). The group mean (± SEM) baseline SFR of Group I, Group II and Group III STT neurons were 8.6 ± 2.1 spikes/s (range: 4 – 18), 11.8 ± 2.9 spikes/s (range: 5 ‐ 22), and 19 ± 4.7 spikes/s (range: 11 – 40), respectively.
A statistical comparison between the baseline SFR of the three groups showed no significant differences (F(2, 15) = 2.7, p = 0.12, one‐way ANOVA).
To determine if baseline SFR of all 18 STT neurons depended on the depth at which they were recorded, a Pearson’s correlation analysis was performed between these two parameters. As shown in the Figure 3.5A no statistically significant correlation existed
48
Results between these two parameters (r(16) = 0.33, p = 0.18, Pearson’s correlation). Similarly, the correlation analysis between the baseline SFR and axonal conduction velocity of all the eighteen STT neurons revealed no significant relationship (Fig. 3.5B, r = 0.39, p > 0.05, Pearson’s correlation).
3.2.2.2. Antidromic Firing Index
The group mean ± SEM baseline FI of all the 18 STT neurons was 87.9 ± 3.3 (range: 53‐100). The group mean (± SEM) baseline FI of Group I, Group II and Group III STT neurons were 82.3 ± 6.1 (range: 63 ‐ 99), 88.9 ± 7.4 (range: 53 ‐ 100) and 93.8 ± 2.1 (range: 86 ‐100), respectively.
The baseline FI of the three groups did not differ significantly from each other (F(2, 15) = 1.04, p = 0.38, one‐way ANOVA).
3.2.2.3. Peripheral Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses
Of 18 STT neurons, no orthodromic responses could be elicited in 2 STT neurons (# 7 and 8) with either sural or sciatic nerve stimulation despite a gradual increase in the stimulus intensity. In case of one STT neuron (# 9), only sural nerve‐evoked responses could be recorded while for another STT neuron (# 11), only sciatic nerve‐evoked responses could be recorded. Thus, sural and sciatic nerve‐evoked responses were recorded and measured in 15 of 18 STT neurons.
49
Results
A. Baseline SFR (spikes/s)
50 40 30
r = 0.33
20 10 0 0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Spinal Recording Depth (μm)
B. Baseline SFR (spikes/s)
50 40 30
r = 0.39
20 10 0 0
5
10
15
Axonal conduction velocity (m/s)
20
25
Figure 3.5 Correlation of baseline spontaneous firing rate with spinal recording depth and axonal conduction velocity of STT neurons. The graph in A depicts relationship between the spontaneous firing rate (SFR, spikes/s) of STT neurons (n = 18) and their respective recording depth (μm) within the spinal gray matter. The graph in B shows relationship between the SFR of 18 STT neurons and their respective axonal conduction velocity (m/s). The lines of best fit are drawn through the points. Respective correlation coefficients (r) are denoted on the right side of each graph. Note that there was no significant correlation between these parameters (p > 0.05, Pearson’s correlation).
50
Results
3.2.2.3.1. Sural Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses
Of 18 STT neurons recorded in this project, responses of 15 STT neurons to stimulation of sural nerve were observed. For three STT neurons (# 7, 8 and 11), no response could be elicited with sural nerve stimulation despite a gradual increase in the stimulus intensity.
The threshold intensity for sural nerve stimulation was determined as the minimum stimulus intensity, required to produce a single or short train of orthodromic action potentials. The mean (± SEM) threshold intensity for sural nerve stimulation was 1.8 ± 0.4 mA (range: 0.2 ‐ 5). A typical sural nerve stimulation‐evoked STT response is illustrated in the Figure 3.6B.
Baseline sural nerve stimulation‐evoked responses (Su‐ER) of STT neurons were
recorded and measured before the microinjections. The baseline group mean (± SEM) magnitude of the Su‐ER of 15 STT neurons measured 7.4 ± 1.2 spikes/trial (range: 2 ‐ 18). The corresponding group mean (± SEM) response‐to‐latency measured 15 ± 2.8 ms (range: 13 ‐ 18). The group means (± SEM) of the baseline response magnitude of Su‐ER of Group I (n = 5), Group II (n = 6) and Group III (n = 4) STT neurons were 6 ± 2 (range: 2 ‐ 14), 8.8 ± 2.3 (range: 3 ‐ 18) and 7.1 ± 1.1 (range: 4 ‐ 10) spikes/trial, respectively. The baseline values for the response magnitude of the three groups did not differ significantly from each other (F(2, 12) = 0.53, p = 0.6, one‐way ANOVA). The response latencies of Group I, Group II and Group III STT neurons were 14.8 ± 5.9 (range: 13 ‐ 17), 16.1 ± 5.2 (range: 15 ‐ 18) and 14 ± 2.9 ms (range: 13 ‐ 15), respectively. The baseline values for the response latency of the three groups did not differ significantly from each other (F(2, 12) = 0.04, p = 0.96, one‐way ANOVA).
51
Results
Previous studies have shown that repetitive application of peripheral stimuli can
lead to suppression of spinal neurons, called the habituation phenomenon (Griffin and Pearson, 1967; Macdonald and Pearson, 1979). To test if repetitive stimulation of sural nerve in the present study underwent a habituation phenomenon, the magnitude of synaptic responses of five STT neurons to the first, second, third, fourth and fifth batteries of ten consecutive stimuli as well as to a total battery of fifty consecutive stimuli were compared. As shown in the Figure 3.7 there were no significant differences between the magnitudes of Su‐ER STT responses obtained from five individual batteries of ten stimuli (p > 0.05, one‐ way repeated measures ANOVA). Similarly, when response magnitudes obtained from all the five batteries of ten trials were compare with one battery of fifty stimuli no significant differences were found (p > 0.05, one‐way repeated measures ANOVA). This data indicates that repetitive stimulation of sural nerve did not undergo habituation of evoked responses of STT neurons and thus provided stable baseline response.
52
Results
Figure 3.6 Example of sural nerve‐evoked STT responses. The upper left trace (A) shows antidromic spike of a STT neuron recorded in the L1 spinal segment after single pulse (S) stimulation in the thalamus. The upper right trace (B) shows orthodromic responses of the same STT neuron evoked after single pulse (S) stimulation (0.1 ms, 0.9 mA) of the sural nerve (B). Post stimulus time histograms (bin width: 0.5 ms) of the antidromic spike (50 trials) and sural nerve‐evoked response (1 trial) are shown in the bottom traces (C and D), respectively. The insets in A and B are voltage and time calibration lines.
53
Results 14
Number of spikes/trial
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1-10
11-20
21-30
31-40
Stimulus Trials
41-50
1-50
Figure 3.7 Absence of habituation of sural nerve‐evoked STT responses. The sural nerve was stimulated using the intensity 2 times the threshold intensity. The first five bars represent the group mean (± SEM) response magnitude (number of spikes/trial) of five STT neurons obtained from five consecutive batteries of sural nerve stimulation, each consisting of 10 stimulus trials. The last bar represents group mean (± SEM) response magnitude of five STT neurons obtained from one battery of sural nerve stimulation consisting of 50 stimulus trials. Note that there were no differences among the magnitude of responses obtained from small number (10) of trials as well as large number (50) of trials (p > 0.05, one‐way repeated measures ANOVA).
54
Results
3.2.2.3.2. Sciatic Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses
The threshold intensity for sciatic nerve stimulation was determined as the minimum stimulus intensity, required to produce a single or short train of orthodromic action potentials. Out of 18 STT neurons, responses of 15 STT neurons were recorded after stimulation of sciatic nerve. In three STT neurons (# 7, 8 and 9), no response could be elicited with sciatic nerve stimulation despite a gradual increase in the stimulus intensity. The mean (± SEM) threshold intensity for sciatic nerve stimulation was 1.4 ± 0.7 mA (range: 0.08 ‐ 10).
A typical Sc nerve stimulation‐evoked response (Sc‐ER) of a STT neuron is illustrated in the Figure 3.8B. Note that the cellular response for this particular neuron consisted of “early” and “late” polysynaptic components, although this was observed for only three STT neurons examined.
The group mean (± SEM) magnitude and latency of the Sc‐ER (at 2 times the threshold intensity) of 15 STT neurons measured 8.1 ± 1.5 spikes/trail (range: 1 ‐ 17) and 44.8 ± 1.8 ms (range: 31 ‐ 54), respectively. The group means (± SEM) of the baseline response magnitudes of Group I (n = 5), Group II (n = 6) and Group III (n = 4) STT neurons measured 6.3 ± 2.3 (range: 3 ‐ 15), 9.7 ± 2.8 (range: 1 ‐ 17) and 8.1 ± 1.2 spikes/trial (range: 5 ‐ 11), respectively. The baseline values for the response magnitude of the three groups did not differ significantly from each other (F(2, 12) = 0.51, p = 0.61, one‐way ANOVA).The group means (± SEM) of the baseline response latencies of Group I, Group II, and Group III STT neurons measured 47.2 ± 2.4 (range: 44 ‐ 54), 42.3 ± 3.6 (range: 31 ‐ 54) and 44.5 ± 0.5 ms (range: 43 ‐ 46), respectively. The baseline values for the response latency of all the three
55
Results groups did not differ significantly from each other (F(2, 12) = 0.78, p = 0.48, one‐way ANOVA).
To determine if repetitive stimulation of Sc nerve in the present study underwent a habituation phenomenon (Griffin and Pearson, 1967; Macdonald and Pearson, 1979), the response magnitude of five STT neurons to the first, second, third, fourth and fifth batteries of ten consecutive stimuli with a battery comprising of fifty consecutive stimuli were compared. As shown in the Figure 3.9 there were no significant differences between the response magnitudes of obtained from five individual batteries of ten stimuli (p > 0.05, one‐ way repeated measures ANOVA) as well as with one battery of fifty stimuli (p > 0.05, one‐ way repeated measures ANOVA). This data indicates that repetitive stimulation of Sc nerve did not undergo habituation of evoked responses of STT neurons and thus provided stable baseline response.
56
Results
Figure 3.8 Example of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT responses. The upper left trace (A) shows antidromic spike (arrow) of a STT neuron evoked in the L1 spinal segment after single pulse (S) stimulation in the thalamus. The upper right trace (B) shows orthodromic responses (arrows) of the same STT neuron evoked after single pulse (S) stimulation (0.1 ms, 1.5 mA) of the sciatic nerve. Post stimulus time histograms (bin width: 0.5 ms) of the antidromic spike (50 trials) and sciatic nerve‐evoked response (1 trial) are shown in the bottom traces (C and D), respectively. The insets in A and B are voltage and time calibration lines.
57
Results
Number of spikes/trial
8
6
4
2
0 1-10
11-20
21-30
31-40
Stimulus trials
41-50
1-50
Figure 3.9 Absence of habituation of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT responses. The sciatic nerve was stimulated using the intensity 2 times the threshold intensity. The bars represent the group mean (± SEM) response magnitude (number of spikes/trial) of five STT neurons obtained from five consecutive batteries of sciatic nerve stimulation, each consisting of 10 stimuli as well as a single battery of 50 stimulus trials. Note that there were no differences among the magnitude of responses obtained from small number (10) of trials as well as large number (50) of trials (p > 0.05, one‐way repeated measures ANOVA).
58
Results
3.2.3. EFFECTS OF BILATERAL MICROINJECTIONS OF VEHICLE CONTROL SOLUTION/PENTOBARBITAL
INTO
THE
RAT
MPTA
ON
THE
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF STT NEURONS
3.2.3.1. MICROINJECTIONS OF VEHICLE CONTROL SOLUTION
In the present study, aqueous vehicle containing 10% ethanol and 20% propylene glycol as co‐solvents was used to dissolve PB (Devor and Zalkind, 2001). Ethanol itself can exert differential effects in the CNS, including analgesia (James et al., 1978; Woodrow and Eltherington, 1988). Further, ethanol is shown to suppress the excitability of primary sensory neurons (Oakes and Pozos, 1982; Nieminen, 1987; Gruss et al., 2001). On the other hand, subcutaneous microinjection of ethanol has been shown to increase the sensitivity of dorsal horn sensory neurons (Carstens, 1997). Accordingly, to examine if the vehicle control solution (Vh) itself had any effect on the ongoing as well as evoked spike activity of the STT neurons, all of the three electrophysiological parameters of the STT neurons were compared before and after microinjections of PB‐free vehicle into the MPTA.
3.2.3.1.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate: Vehicle Control Microinjections
To determine if changes in the mean SFR of the STT neurons occurred after microinjections of Vh (1 μL/side) into the MPTA, the SFR at time point (2, 15, 30 and 60 min) following Vh microinjections was compared with the baseline SFR. Figure 3.10 summarizes the group mean (± SEM) SFR of Group I (A, n = 6) and Group III (B, n = 6) STT neurons as well as their
59
Results combined SFR (Vh, n = 12) before and following microinjections of Vh. Comparisons of SFR at each of the time points after Vh microinjections with the respective baseline SFR showed no significant change for STT neurons in the Group I and Group III or when their results were combined (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
The SFR of each STT neuron in the Group I, Group III before and after Vh
microinjection are illustrated in the Figure 3.11. Figure 3.12 illustrates a typical rate‐meter histogram trace showing the firing rate of a STT neuron before and following control microinjections.
60
Results
Group III (n = 6)
B.
Group I (n = 6) 16
30
14
25
12
SFR (spikes/s)
SFR (spikes/s)
A.
10 8 6 4 2
20 15 10 5
Vh
Vh
0
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
SFR (spikes/s)
C.
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Combined SFR (Groups I and III, n = 12) 25 20 15 10 5
Vh
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.10 Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the spontaneous firing rate of STT neurons. Time relative to zero is indicated in minutes. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) spontaneous firing rate (SFR, spikes/s). The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time point where the baseline SFR was measured before vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side) microinjections. The graphs in A (open bars) and B (grey bars) show SFR of Group I and Group III STT neurons, respectively. The graph in C (black bars) shows the group mean (± SEM) combined SFR of the Groups I and III STT neurons. Note that the SFR following Vh microinjections in any of the groups as well as in the combined results did not change significantly compared to the baseline SFR (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
61
Results
A. Group I (n = 6)
STT 6 STT 9 STT 10 STT 11 STT 15 STT 18
SFR (spikes/s)
40 30 20 10 0
Vh -30
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
B. Group III (n = 6)
STT 7 STT 8 STT 12 STT 14 STT 17 STT 19
50
SFR (spikes/s)
40 30 20 10 0
Vh -30
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.11 Spontaneous firing rate of each STT neuron before and after bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. The Figure shows spontaneous firing rate (SFR, spikes/s) of each of the STT neurons in Group I (A) and Group III (B). The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time point where the baseline SFR was measured before vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side) microinjections. The downward arrow indicates time zero corresponding to the time of completion of the microinjections.
62
Figure 3.12 Example of a continuous ratemeter histogram trace depicting the spontaneous firing rate of a STT neuron before and following bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA. The completion of microinjections of vehicle control solution (Vh, 1 μL/side) is denoted by the upward arrow at the bottom of the trace. A sliding average (white line; bin width: 30 s) is superimposed over the rate histogram trace (bin width: 1 s). Spontaneous firing rate (SFR; spikes/s) at the baseline (SFRB) and at 2 min (SFR2), 15 min (SFR15), 30 min (SFR30), and 60 min (SFR60) following Vh microinjections are noted abouve the trace. Note that following microinjections of Vh, the firing rate does not change significantly from the baseline.
Results
63
Results
3.2.3.1.2. Interspike Interval Data: Vehicle Control Microinjections
To determine if the microinjections of the vehicle control solution caused any change in the firing pattern of the STT neurons, the interspike interval histograms (ISIH), as well as the coefficient of variation (CV) and dispersion (CD) were analyzed. To construct ISIHs at each time point, the same data files were used that were used for determining the SFR. The results of the interspike interval data analysis of the Groups I and III STT neurons as well as their combined results are summarized in the Table 3.1.
The ISIH distributions were leptokurtic and in the 10 of the 12 neurons positively
skewed. Since the ISIH distributions were skewed, median interval rather than mean interval was measured and analyzed. The overall analysis of the interspike interval data revealed no significant changes after microinjections of Vh.
Similarly, the CV and CD, which are measures of spike train irregularity (Cocatre‐
Zilgien and Delcomyn, 1992; Soja et al., 1996), were not altered by vehicle control microinjections (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test). Collectively, these data indicate that, microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA did not change the firing pattern of the recorded STT neurons.
An example of ISIH distribution of the spike activity of a STT neuron before and
after microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA is represented in Figure 3.13.
64
Figure 3.13 Example of interspike interval histogram (ISIH) distributions of spike activity of a lumbar STT neuron recorded before and after bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. Each ISIH was constructed from 2 min epoch of the spike activity recorded before (Baseline) and at each time point (2, 15, 30 and 60 min) following microinjections of vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side). The median intervals are indicated by dashed vertical lines. Computer‐generated spike trains (5 s) for the respective time points are shown as insets. The time calibration bars (500 ms) are Results
shown below each spike train. Note that the spike pattern of this cell did not change following microinjections of Vh.
65
Results
Interspike Interval Parameter Median Interval (ms)
CV
CD
STT Neuron Group I (n = 6)
Baseline
Minutes after vehicle control (1 μL/side) microinjections 2 15 30 60
28.3 ± 2.3
30 ± 2.7 30.3 ± 3.9
III (n = 6)
33.3 ± 7
31.5 ± 4.7
33 ± 10
27 ± 5.6
27.7 ± 2.2
34.2 ± 7.1 31.1 ± 4.9
Combined 30.8 ± 8.9 33.3 ± 2.3 31.7 ± 3.8 34.6 ± 5.3 29.4 ± 2.5 I and III I (n = 6)
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.7 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
1 ± 0.2
III (n = 6)
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
Combined I and III
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.1
0.8 ± 0.0
I (n = 6)
0.1 ± 0.1
0.1 ± 0.1
0.2 ± 0.1
0.2 ± 0.1
0.2 ± 0.1
III (n = 6)
0.1 ± 0.0
0.1 ± 0.1
0.1 ± 0.3
0.1 ± 0.1
0.1 ± 0.1
Combined I and III
0.1 ± 0.0
0.1 ± 0.0
0.3 ± 0.2
0.1 ± 0.0
0.1 ± 0.2
Table 3.1 Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on interspike interval parameters of STT neurons. The table summarizes results of interspike interval analysis of Groups I and III STT neurons as well as their combined data before (baseline) and at the four time points after microinjections of control vehicle solution (1 μL/side). Each parameter is represented as the group mean (± SEM). Note that none of the interspike interval parameters changed significantly following Vh microinjections (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test). CV: coefficient of variation; CD: coefficient of dispersion
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Results
3.2.3.1.3. Antidromic Firing Index: Vehicle Control Microinjections
To assess the effects of bilateral microinjections of Vh into MPTA on the excitability of STT neurons, the FI at various time points (2, 15, 30 and 60 min) after the microinjections was compared with the baseline FI.
As shown in Figure 3.14 there was no significant change in the group mean (± SEM) FI of Group I (Fig. 3.14A; n = 6) and Group III (Fig. 3.14B; n = 6) STT neurons after microinjections of Vh when compared to their respective baseline FI (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test). When the data from these two groups were combined (Fig. 3.14C; n = 12), the mean FI also remained unchanged following microinjections of Vh when compared to the baseline FI (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
The FI of each STT neuron in the Groups I (A; n = 6), and III (B; n = 6) before and following Vh microinjections are presented in the Figure 3.15.
The overall results indicate that the antidromic firing index (FI) and thus the excitability of STT neurons was not significantly altered following microinjections of vehicle control solution into MPTA (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
67
Results
A.
B.
Group I (n = 6)
Group III (n = 6)
100
120
80
100 80 FI
FI
60 40
60 40
20
20
Vh
0
Vh
0 -30
0
2
15
30
60
-30
0
Time Points (min)
C.
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Combined FI (Groups I and III, n = 12) 100 80
FI
60 40 20
Vh
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.14 Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA on the antidromic firing index of STT neurons in the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. Time relative to zero, is indicated in minutes. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) firing index (FI). The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time point where the baseline FI was measured before vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side) microinjections. The graphs in A (open bars) and B (grey bars) show FI of Group I and Group III STT neurons, respectively. The graph in C (black bars) shows the group mean (± SEM) SFR combined FI in Group I and Group III STT neurons. Note that the FI following Vh microinjections in any of the Groups I and III as well as in the combined results did not change significantly compared to the baseline (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
68
Results
A. Group I (n = 6) STT - 6 STT - 9 STT - 10 STT - 11 STT - 15 STT - 18
120 100
FI
80 60 40
Vh
20 -30
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
B. Group III (n = 6)
STT - 7 STT - 8 STT - 12 STT - 14 STT - 17 STT - 19
110 100
FI
90 80 70 60
Vh
50 -30
2
15
30
Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.15 Antidromic firing index of each STT neuron before and after bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. The figure depicts antidromic firing index (FI) of each of the STT neurons in Group I (A) and Group III (B). The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents when baseline antidromic firing index FI was measured before vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side) microinjections. The downward arrow indicates time zero corresponding to the time of completion of the microinjections.
69
Results
3.2.3.1.4. Sural Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses: Vehicle Control Microinjections
Out of 18 STT neurons recorded, sural nerve stimulation could elicit responses in 15 STT neurons. In three neurons, no responses could be elicited by sural (Su) nerve stimulation. Of the 15 STT neurons, 9 STT neurons were assessed for their responses to the stimulation of Su nerve before and following microinjections of Vh.
As shown in Figure 3.16, the microinjection of Vh did not alter the response magnitude as well as the latency of Su‐ER of STT neurons whether it was Group I (Fig. 3.16A), Group III (Fig. 3.16.B), or combined data set (Fig. 3.16C) (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
To examine if microinjections of Vh altered the presynaptic afferent input to the STT neurons, the peak‐trough amplitude analysis of the afferent volley recorded within the spinal cord after Su nerve stimulation were performed. Figure 3.17 illustrates an example of presynaptic afferent volley recorded in the spinal cord followed by a compound action potential evoked by Su nerve stimulation. As shown in the Figure 3.18, both the peak height as well as latency did not change significantly following microinjections of Vh (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
To summarize, both the magnitude as well as latency of responses of STT neurons to stimulation of the Su nerve were not significantly altered following bilateral microinjections of Vh into the MPTA. The afferent volley arising as a consequence of Su nerve stimulation also did not change following Vh microinjections into the MPTA.
70
Results Response Magnitude Mean Latency Group I (n = 5) 30
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Mean Latency (ms)
Spikes / Trial
A.
C
Vh
20 15 10 Vh
5 0
-30
0
2
15
30
60
-30
0
Time Points (min)
B.
15
30
60
30
60
30
60
Group III (n = 4) 25 Mean Latency (ms)
8 6 4 2
Vh C
20 15 10 5
Vh
0
0 -30
0
2
15
30
60
-30
0
Time Points (min)
C.
2
15
Time Points (min)
Combined (Groups I and III, n = 9) 14
25 Mean Latency (ms)
12 Spikes / Trial
2
Time Points (min)
10 Spikes / Trial
25
10 8 6
C
4 Vh
2 0 -30
0
2
15
Time Points (min)
30
60
20 15 10 5
Vh
0 -30
0
2
15
Time Points (min)
Figure 3.16 Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sural nerve‐evoked responses of STT neurons. Time relative to zero is indicated in minutes. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) value. The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time at which the baseline response was measured before microinjections of vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side). The response magnitudes (spikes/trial) and response latencies (ms) are represented in the left and right panels, respectively. Graphs in A and B represent results of Groups I and III STT neurons, respectively. The graphs in C show combined values of Group I and Group III. In all cases, p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test.
71
Results
B.
Peak height (μV)
A.
Peak latency (ms)
S
0.1 μ V 1 ms
S
0.2 μV 5 ms
Figure 3.17 Example of presynaptic afferent volley recorded in the spinal cord evoked by stimulation of sural nerve. The sural nerve was stimulated at 2 times the threshold intensity, which was the minimum intensity required to produce a single or short train of orthodromic action potentials. The stimulus (S) applied to the sural nerve is followed by afferent volley (enclosed in the box), which in turn, is followed by a compound action potential (A). The trace shown in the upper right (B) is time and amplitude expanded portion of the stimulus and afferent volley.
72
Results Peak‐Trough Amplitude Latency A.
Group I (n = 5) 4
0.7
0.5
Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
0.6
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
2 1
Vh
Vh
0.0
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
B.
60
-30
4
0.6
3
0.4
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
0.2
2 1
Vh
Vh
0.0
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
C.
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Combined (Groups I and III, n = 9) 0.7
3.5
0.6
3.0
0.5
2.5
Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
0
Group III (n = 4) 0.8
Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
3
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
Vh
0.0
Vh
0.0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.18 Effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sural nerve‐evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. Time relative to zero is indicated in minutes. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) value. The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time at which the baseline response was measured before microinjections of vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side).The peak‐trough amplitudes (μV) and latencies (ms) of afferent volley are shown in the left and right panels, respectively. The graphs in A and B represent results of Groups I and III STT neurons, respectively. The graphs in C show combined values of Group I and Group III. In all cases, p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test.
73
Results
3.2.3.1.5. Sciatic Nerve‐Evoked STT Responses: Vehicle Control Microinjections
Of the 18 STT neurons recorded, sciatic (Sc) nerve stimulation could elicit responses in 15 STT neurons. In three neurons (# 7, 8 and 9), no responses could be elicited by Sc nerve stimulation. Of the 15 STT neurons, 9 STT neurons were assessed for their responses to the stimulation of Sc nerve before and following microinjections of Vh.
As shown in Figure 3.19, microinjections of Vh did not alter the response magnitude or latency of Sc‐ER of STT neurons whether the neurons were from Group I (Fig. 3.19A), Group III (Fig. 3.19B), or combined data sets (Fig. 3.19C) (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
To examine if microinjections of Vh altered the presynaptic afferent input to the STT neurons, the peak‐trough amplitude analysis of the afferent volley recorded within the spinal cord after Sc nerve stimulation were performed. Figure 3.20 illustrates an example of presynaptic afferent volley recorded in the spinal cord followed by a compound action potential evoked by Sc nerve stimulation. The peak‐trough amplitude and latency of the afferent volleys were compared before and after microinjection. As shown in the Figure 3.21, both the amplitude as well as latency of the afferent volley did not change significantly following microinjections of Vh (Fig. 3.21; p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
To summarize, both the magnitude as well as latency of responses of STT neurons to
stimulation of the Sc nerve were not significantly altered following bilateral microinjections of Vh into the MPTA. The afferent volley arising as a consequence of Sc nerve stimulation also did not change following Vh microinjections into the MPTA.
74
Results Taken together, the results of the present study indicate that bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA did not alter all the four electrophysiological parameters (i.e. SFR, FI, Su‐ and Sc‐ER) of STT neurons recorded, thus establishing a good control.
Tables 3.2 through 3.4 summarize the results of effects of microinjections of Vh on the electrophysiological parameters of STT neurons recorded in this study.
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Results
Response Magnitude Response Latency A. 10
60
8
50
Latency (ms)
Spikes / Trial
Group I (n = 5)
6 4 2
Vh
0
40 30 20 Vh
10 0
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
B.
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
12
60
10
50
Latency (ms)
Spikes / Trial
Group III (n = 4)
8 6 4 Vh
2 0
40 30 20 Vh
10 0
-30
0
C.
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
-30
0
10
60
8
50
Latency (ms)
Spikes / Trial
Combined (Group I and III, n = 9)
6 4 2
Vh
0
40 30 20 Vh
10 0
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
-30
0
Figure 3.19 Effect of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐evoked responses of STT neurons. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) value. The time point ‐ 30 min in each graph represents the time at which the baseline response was measured before microinjections of vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side). The response magnitudes (spikes/trial) and response latencies (ms) are represented in the left right panels, respectively. The graphs in A and B show results of Group I and Group II STT neurons, respectively. The graphs in C show combined values of Group I and Group III. In all cases, p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test.
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Results
B.
Peak height (μV)
A.
0.1 μV
S Peak latency (ms)
2 ms
S 0.1 μV 10 ms
Figure 3.20 Example of presynaptic afferent volley recorded in the spinal cord evoked by stimulation of sciatic nerve. The sciatic nerve was stimulated at 2 times the threshold intensity, which was the minimum intensity required to produce a single or short train of orthodromic action potentials. The stimulus (S) applied to the sciatic nerve is followed by afferent volley (enclosed in the box), which in turn, is followed by a compound action potential (A). The trace shown in the upper right (B) is time and amplitude expanded portion of the stimulus and afferent volley.
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Results
Peak‐Trough Amplitude Latency Group I (n = 5) 1.4
3.5
1.2
3.0
1.0
2.5
Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
A.
0.8 0.6 0.4 Vh
0.2
2.0 1.5 1.0 Vh
0.5 0.0
0.0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
-30
60
0
2
15
30
60
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Time Points (min)
Group III (n = 4) 3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5 Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
B.
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
Vh
Vh
0.0
0.0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
C.
-30
60
0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5 Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
Combined (Groups I and III, n = 9)
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
Vh
Vh
0.0
0.0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.21 Effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. Time relative to zero is indicated in minutes. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) value. The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time at which the baseline response was measured before microinjections of vehicle control solution (Vh; 1 μL/side). The peak‐trough amplitudes (μV) and the latencies (ms) of afferent volley are shown in the left and right panels, respectively. The graphs in A and B show results of Group I and Group II STT neurons, respectively. The graphs in C show combined values of Group I and Group III. In all cases, p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test. 78
Results Group I STT Neurons
minutes after vehicle control (1 μL/side)
Electrophysiological Parameter
Baseline
SFR (n = 6)
8.6 ± 2.1
10 ± 4.6
8.5 ± 4.2
8.3 ± 3.43
10.4 ± 3.6
FI (n = 6)
82.3 ± 6.1
74.1 ± 11.3
74.3 ± 11.3
76.7 ± 8.2
84.9 ± 6.9
6 ± 2
7.3 ± 1.8
6.8 ± 1.7
7.1 ± 1.6
11.5 ± 5.4
14.8 ± 5.9
15.7 ± 4.4
15.7 ± 5.8
15 ± 4.6
15.8 ± 10.6
6.3 ± 2.3
6.7 ± 2.2
6.5 ± 2.1
6.5 ± 2.1
4.4 ± 1.2
47.2 ± 2.4
44.6 ± 0.67
43.3 ± 1.1
43.1 ± 1.6
43.2 ± 1
Su-ER Magnitude (n = 5) Su-ER Latency (n = 5) Sc-ER Magnitude (n = 5) Sc-ER Latency (n = 5)
2
microinjections 15 30
60
Table 3.2 Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group I STT neurons. The results are expressed as the group means (± SEM). The neurons in this group were treated with Vh microinjections (1 μL/side) only. Note that none of the parameters was significantly changed following Vh microinjections (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test). Legend: SFR: spontaneous firing rate (spikes/s) FI: firing index Su‐ER magnitude: magnitude of sural nerve‐evoked STT response (number of spikes/trial) Su‐ER latency: mean latency of sural nerve‐evoked STT response (ms) Sc‐ER magnitude: magnitude of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT response (number of spikes/trial) Sc‐ER latency: mean latency of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT response (ms)
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Results Group III STT Neurons
minutes after vehicle control (1 μL/side)
Electrophysiological Parameter
Baseline
SFR (n = 6)
19 ± 4.7
15.4 ± 4.8
14 ± 5.6
18.1 ± 6
18.9 ± 5.8
93.8 ± 2.1
83.8 ± 6.9
86.9 ± 6.7
89.1 ± 5.54
90.4 ± 4.7
7.1 ± 1.1
7.4 ± 2
6.2 ± 2.2
6.8 ± 1.9
7.2 ± 2
14 ± 2.9
14.4 ± 2
14.4 ± 0.4
13.8 ± 5.5
13.9 ± 2.1
8.1 ± 1.2
8.1 ± 1.9
6.7 ± 2.3
5.9 ± 2.1
6 ± 1.8
44.5 ± 0.53
43.4 ± 0.9
43.1 ± 1.9
41.8 ± 1.8
42 ± 1.3
FI (n = 6) Su-ER Magnitude (n = 4) Su-ER Latency (n = 4) Sc-ER Magnitude (n = 4) Sc-ER Latency (n = 4)
2
microinjections 15 30
60
Table 3.3 Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group III STT neurons. The results are expressed as the group means (± SEM). The STT neurons in this group were treated first with the bilateral microinjections of Vh (1 μL/side) into the MPTA. After recovery, these same neurons were treated with bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital (200 μg/side) into the MPTA. This table shows results obtained following the microinjections of Vh. Note that none of the parameters was significantly changed following Vh microinjections (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test). Legend: SFR: spontaneous firing rate (spikes/s) FI: firing index Su‐ER magnitude: magnitude of sural nerve‐evoked STT response (number of spikes/trial) Su‐ER latency: mean latency of sural nerve‐evoked STT response (ms) Sc‐ER magnitude: magnitude of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT response (number of spikes/trial) Sc‐ER latency: mean latency of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT response (ms)
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Combined results of Groups I & III STT Neurons minutes after vehicle control (1 μL/side)
Electrophysiological Parameter
Baseline
SFR (n = 12)
13.8 ± 2.9
12.7 ± 3.3
11.3 ± 3.4
13.2 ± 3.6
15.5 ± 4.1
FI (n = 12)
88 ± 3.5
78.9 ± 6.1
81.1 ± 6.3
82.9 ± 5.1
89.2 ± 1.2
Su-ER Magnitude (n = 9) Su-ER Latency (n = 9) Sc-ER Magnitude (n = 9) Sc-ER Latency (n = 9)
6.5 ± 1.2
7.3 ± 1.2
6.5 ± 1.4
7 ± 1.2
9 ± 2.5
14.5 ± 3.6
15.1 ± 3.4
15.1 ± 3.9
14.5 ± 3.9
14.7 ± 5.7
7.1 ± 1.4
7.3 ± 1.4
6.6 ± 1.5
6.2 ± 1.4
5.2 ± 1.1
43.6 ± 2.3
44.1 ± 3.7
45.6 ± 3.2
47.2 ± 3.9
46.5 ± 3.6
2
microinjections 15 30
60
Table 3.4 Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of vehicle control solution into the MPTA of isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on electrophysiological parameters obtained by combining the results obtained from Groups I and III STT neurons. The results are expressed as the group means (± SEM). Note that none of the parameters was significantly changed following Vh microinjections (p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test). Legend: SFR: spontaneous firing rate (spikes/s) FI: firing index Su‐ER magnitude: magnitude of sural nerve‐evoked STT response (number of spikes/trial) Su‐ER latency: mean latency of sural nerve‐evoked STT response (ms) Sc‐ER magnitude: magnitude of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT response (number of spikes/trial) Sc‐ER latency: mean latency of sciatic nerve‐evoked STT response (ms)
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3.2.3.2. MICROINJECTIONS OF PENTOBARBITAL
3.2.3.2.1. Spontaneous Firing Rate: Pentobarbital Microinjections
Figure 3.22 shows the group mean (± SEM) spontaneous firing rate (SFR) of the STT neurons before and at various time points after bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital (PB, 200 μg/side) into the MPTA.
STT neurons in group II (Fig. 3.22A, n = 6) were treated only with PB microinjections.
The group mean (± SEM) baseline control SFR of Group II STT neurons before PB microinjections measured 11.8 ± 2.9 spikes/s. For these same neurons, the SFR were significantly reduced to 5.3 ± 1.4 spikes/s at 2 min and to 5.5 ± 1.7 spikes/s at 15 min after microinjections of PB (p 0.05, paired Student’s t test).
These results indicate that bilateral microinjections of PB into the rat MPTA suppressed the magnitude of Sc‐ER of STT neurons. The mean latency of the evoked
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Results responses was not altered. Similarly the presynaptic volley arising from sciatic nerve stimulation was not affected by PB microinjections into the MPTA.
The results of effects of microinjections of PB into the MPTA on the four electrophysiological parameters are illustrated in Tables 3.6 through 3.8.
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Results Response Magnitude Response Latency A.
Group II (n = 6) 60 Mean Latency (ms)
14 Spikes / Trial
12 10
*
8 6
*
*
4 PB
2 0
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
B.
30 20 10
60
PB
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Group III (n = 4)
14 Mean Latency (ms)
60
12 Spikes / Trial
40
0 -30
10 8 6 4 PB
2 0
50 40 30 20 10
PB
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
C.
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Combined (Groups II and III, n = 10)
14 Mean Latency (ms)
60
12 Spikes / Trial
50
10
*
8
*
*
6 4 PB
2 0
50 40 30 20 10
PB
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.30 Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐ anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐evoked responses of STT neurons. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) value. Time relative to zero is indicated in minutes. The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time at which baseline responses were measured before microinjections of pentobarbital (PB; 200 μg/side). The response magnitude (spikes/trial) and response latency (ms) are represented in the left and right panels, respectively. The graphs in A and B represent results of Group II and Group III STT neurons, respectively. The graphs in C show combined data of Group II and Group III STT neurons. The asterisks (*) indicate statistically significant reduction in the response magnitude following PB microinjections compared to the baseline magnitude. The test statistics (paired Student’s t test) for significant differences is as follows: Group II (baseline‐2 min: t(5) = 3.66, p = 0.02; baseline‐15 min: t(5) = 4.07, p = 0.01; baseline‐30 min: t(5) = 4.89, p = 0.005); combined Groups II and III (baseline‐2 min: t(9) = 3.32, p = 0.009; baseline‐15 min: t(9) = 3.61, p = 0.006; baseline‐30 min: t(9) = 3.28, p = 0.01).
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Peak‐Trough Amplitude Latency A.
Group II (n = 6) 5
0.7
4
0.5
Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
0.6
0.4 0.3 0.2
3 2 1
PB
0.1
PB
0
0.0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
-30
60
B.
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
1.0
5
0.8
4 Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
Group III (n = 4)
0.6 0.4 0.2
3 2 1
PB
PB
0
0.0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
C.
-30
60
0
Combined (Groups II and III, n = 10) 4
0.6
Latency (ms)
Peak Height (μV)
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
3 2 1
PB
PB
0.0
0 -30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
-30
0
2 15 30 Time Points (min)
60
Figure 3.31 Effect of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of isoflurane‐ anesthetized rat preparation on sciatic nerve‐evoked afferent volley recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation. Each bar in each graph represents the group mean (± SEM) value. Time relative to zero is indicated in minutes. The time point ‐30 min in each graph represents the time at which baseline responses were measured before microinjections of pentobarbital (PB; 200 μg/side). The peak‐trough amplitude (μV) and the latency (ms) of afferent volley are shown in the left and right panels, respectively. The graphs in A and B depict results of Group II and Group III STT neurons, respectively. The graph in C shows combined results of Group II and Group III. For all cases p > 0.05, paired Student’s t test.
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Group II STT Neurons
Electrophysiological Parameter
Baseline
SFR (n = 6)
11.8 ± 2.9
FI (n = 6)
88.9 ± 7.4
Su-ER Magnitude (n = 6) Su-ER Latency (n = 6) Sc-ER Magnitude (n = 6) Sc-ER Latency (n = 6)
8.8 ± 2.3
minutes after pentobarbital (200 μg/side) microinjections 15 30
2
16.1 ± 5.2 9.7 ± 2.8 42.3 ± 3.6
9.7 ± 1.3
*
5.5 ± 1.9
*
66.8 ± 14.1 78.5 ± 14.2
5.3 ± 1.4 49.2 ± 13
*
60 12.1 ± 3.5 78 ± 12.2
*
5.8 ± 2.2
5.9 ± 2.3
10.2 ± 2.3
15.7 ± 3.7
16 ± 4.8
15.9 ± 6.6
16.6 ± 4.6
*
9.6 ± 2.6
4.9 ± 2.1
6.3 ± 2.7
*
5.6 ± 2.4
*
5.7 ± 2.4
43.2 ± 5.8
43.4 ± 4.8
41.2 ± 6.14
44.6 ± 5.6
Table 3.6 Summary of effects of bilateral microinjections of pentobarbital into the MPTA of the isoflurane‐anesthetized rat preparation on the electrophysiological parameters of Group II STT neurons. The results are expressed as the group means (± SEM). The neurons in this group were treated with pentobarbital microinjections (200 μg/side) only. The asterisks (*) indicate statistically significant reduction in the electrophysiological parameter following pentobarbital microinjections compared to its respective baseline value (p