Sustainability of Agriculture in Papua New Guinea

Sustainability of Agriculture in Bougainville Province Papua New Guinea R.M. Bourke and T. Betitis

Sustainab¡lity of Agriculture in Bougainville Province Papua New Guinea R.M. Bourke and T. Betitis

Report of a study conducted in SeptemberOctober 2002 of village agriculture in Bougainville Province, Papua New Guinea, for the Bougainville Provincial Government and PNG Department of National Planning and Monitoring and funded by the Australian Agency for International Development.

Produced by the Land Management Group, Depaftment of Human

Geograph¿ Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200 Australia. lune 2003 Reprinted March 2005

Dr Mike Bourke Department of Human Geography, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200 Australia. [email protected]

Mr Thomas Betitis Dami Oil Palm Research Station, PO Box 165, Kimbe, West New Br¡tain 621, Papua New Guinea. [email protected]

Summary This report presents the findings of a study of village agriculture conducted in Bougainville Province of PapuaNew Guinea in September-October 2002.The purpose of the study was to identiff problems with current land use for subsistence food production; to assess the sustainability of village food production systems; to identiff locations where stress is now occurring or may occur in the medium term (5-15 years); to assess the likely impact of increased cash cropping on food production; and to make recommendations for research and development activities to address any problems identified. Most parts of the province were visited over a six week period. Discussions were held with villagers in both formal and informal meetings, and numerous food gardens and plots of cash crops were inspected. Pressure is being exerted on land and the food production system by rapid population growth and, in some locations, by extensive plantings of export cash crops. In general, the supply of food

is adequate in most parts of the province. Nevertheless, there are actual or potential problems for food security in some locations. This is particularly the case on a number of small islands. The population densities on a number of islands are among the highest in PNG. There is considerable stress in the Carteret Islands where carbohydrate food is chronically scarce, cash income is low, timber for fuel and construction is scarce and some environmental damage is occurring. There is also stress on Pinipel Island in the Nissan Group and in the four islands in the group west of Buka. Food supply is just adequate, but there are shortages of firewood and timber for construction, and food security will be inadequate if the population continues to increase rapidly without other changes. Unless there are changes in food production techniques or, more importantly, greater incorporation into the cash economy, there is likely to be significant stress on food and timber in a number of other locations in the province in the coming 10-20 years. These locations include Nissan Island and Mortlock Island, and possibly the Tasman Islands, Buka Island, and the Siwai and Buin areas on Bougainville Island. Earlier plantings ofcoconut and cocoa and current cocoa plantings are increasing the pressure on land in a number of locations. The areas most affected are on the east and north coast of Buka Island and on north Bougainville Island. While there is currently some pressure on land in these locations, it is not decreasing food security now. Solutions to actual and potential food security problems include further intensification of land use; adoptions of new cultivation techniques; and greater involvement in the broader cash economy. There is information available within PNG that could be used to improve both food

and cash cropping'practices, but it is not being disseminated to villagers in the province. Much of the transport infrastructure in the province was destroyed during the civil war. It is vital that roads and bridges are restored and maintained. A number of suggestions are made for prioritising road repair from an agricultural perspective. The main source of cash income for rural villagers and the province will continue to be agriculture and marine produce as there is little likelihood of industry, mining or tourism providing an economic base. It is important to broaden the rural economy beyond the two main income sources of copra and cocoa. There are a number of possible altemative income sources. These include domestically marketed food; locally made coconut oil; betel nut; balsa; and several export crops, notably vanilla and cardamom. These possible sources need to be examined in more depth.

Overall, there is much that could be done to improve food security, cash cropping and other aspects of villagers' lives in the province. A number of recommendations are made that might assist this.

Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) through the Australian National University. Support was received from a number of divisions within the Bougainville Provincial Govemment, including the Planning Division and Division of Primary Industry. In particular, Patrick Koles and Gabriel Wayen of DPI assisted by providing information on transport options. Gabriel Wayen accompanied us during three weeks of the field work and kindly provided data on local rice production. Others who assisted in Bougainville included: Stan Basiou (European Union representative, Buka), Gordon Bure (Chairman, Council of Elders, Wakunai), Trevor Clarke (Bougainville Cocoa and Copra Drier Rehabilitation Project, Buka), Damien Dameng (inland Kieta area), Sister Lorraine Garasu (Bougainville Inter-Church Women's Forum, Buka), Hajily Kele (Provincial Statistician, Buka), Roslyn Kenneth (LINDP, Buka), Julie-Ann Moroko (Jayes Enterprises, Buka), Augustine Niamis (DPI officer, Wakunai), Stuart Priestly (Provincial Administration, Buka), Ursula Rakova (Oxfam, Arawa), Jacob Raveisire (middleman, Togerau area), Jacob Rerevate (District Manager, Wakunai), Bernard Simiha and Lesley Tseraha (Planning Office, Buka) and Jack Talemai (DPI, Nissan). Brett Schofield, the Marketing Manager for Trukai Industries Ltd in Port Moresby, kindly provided information on sales of imported rice in the province.

In all locations visited, villagers were generous with their time and knowledge and assisted in a number of ways, including discussing the issues, accompanying our party to gardens and providing accommodation. This study would not have been possible without their help. Mike Bourke is particularly grateful for the kindness and assistance received in the Mortlock Islands during his extended stay there. The help of the following is greatly appreciated: Alolo Nunua, Chief Avo, Kit, Paasia, Sione Nash, Sione Paasia, Slate, Tefatu Apawa, Teopis and Veronica Taromana. The preliminary findings of this study were presented at seminars in Buka, Keravat and Port Moresby. Comments by a number of people, particularly Dr John Moxon at NARI Keravat, have been incorporated.

In the Land Management Group, Veerle Vlassak prepared figures and assisted with document layout, and Tracy Harwood edited, proofread and formatted the report. Anthony Bright of Cartographic Services, RSPAS, prepared the maps and figures. The assistance of those named above is acknowledged with thanks.

Iu

Gontents Summary Acknowledgments .............,..... List of Tables List of Figures^...... Abbreviations.................

1. 2.

3. 4.

lntroduction Methods...... lndicators of stress on agricultural systems....

2.1

Background to the province............... Food production in Bougainville The agricultural systems................. Changes in agricultural systems..

4.1 4.2

5.

Cash income.................

6

Locations experiencing stress..........

6.1 Carteretlslands........ 6.2 Pinipel 1s|and.......... 6.3 Western islands (Hetau, Pororan, Yame, Petats, Matsungan).^.. 6.4 Nissan lsland 6.5 Polynesianatolls.......... 6.6 Siwai Local Level Government area............ 6.7 Buin Local Level Government area........... 6.8 Mountainous areas of inland Bougainville lsland 6.9 Buka lsland 6. 0 Selau/Suir and Tinputz local level government areas ................. 1

6.11

Summary of locations experiencing stress on food and firewood

25 26 27 27

7.

Environmental damage

28

B.

lmprovements for subsistence agriculture and food security.. ..".. .......

29

9.

lmpact of cash cropping on food supply

31

10. Alternative sources of cash income to copra and cocoa 10.1 Domestically marketed food ...........

10.2 Coconut oi|........ .,,... 10.3 Export crops.....,.... 10.4 Marine produce......

31

32 34 35 36

11. Some broader development issues

36

11.1 Population growth 11.2 Agriculturalissues... . 11.3 Road transport infrastructure 11.4 Water transport

36 36

.

11

.5

11.6

..."........

lnformation dissemination............... HIV/AIDS epidemic....

37 37

-.

3B

39

12. Conclusions............ 13. Recommendations

13.1 Agriculture 13.2 Subsistence food production 13.3 Cash cropping. .. 13.4 Management of marine resources 13.5 lnformation for rural villagers 13.6 Transport... 13.7 Population growth .

References Figures: colour insert

Appendix 1. Summary of food supply, indications of stress and sustainability of agriculture for each sub-region visited

1.

Carteret lslands Field visit

1.1 1.2 Geography 1.3 Population 1.4 Socialaspects....". 1.5 Food supply 1.6 Firewood and timber 1.7 Land use and the agriculturalsystem 1.8 Cashincome................. 1.9 lndications of stress 1.10

Sustainability of the agriculturalsystem and food security

2. Mortlock

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

2.10 2.11

lslands

Field visit Geography Population

Socialaspects...... Food supply Firewood and timber Descriptions of agriculture in the literature ............^ Land use and the agricultural system

Cash income................. lndications of stress Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security

3. Nuguria lslands 4. Tasman lslands

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

vl

....................

Field visit Geography Population Social aspects...... Food supply Land use and the agricultural system

4.7 4.8 5.

Cashincome.................

64

lndications of stress and food security.......

64

Nissan 1s|and..........

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10

65

Field visit Geography Population

65

Socialaspects.......

65

Food supply Firewood and timber.. Land use and the agriculturalsystem........

65

Cashincome...,.............

66

lndications of stress Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security..

bb

65 65

6. Pinipel lsland

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

6.10

7.

.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7

8.

.10

67 67 67

Geography Population Social aspects... Food supply Firewood and timber.. Land use and the agriculturalsystem.......

67

Cash income.............

..

lndications of stress Sustainability of the agriculturalsystem and food security..

67 67 67 68 6B 6B 6B

69 69

Field visit . ... Geography Population Social aspects....... Food supply Firewood and timber Land use and the agricultural system........

69

Cashincome............."...

72

lndications of stress Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security..

72

Buka lsland Field visit.... Geography Population Social aspects....... Food supply Firewood and timber. Land use and the agriculturalsystem........

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9

bb

Field visit....

Western islands........ 7

66

69 70 70 70 71

72

73 74 74 74 75 75 75 76 76

Cashincome...............,.

77

lndications of stress

77

vll

8.10 9.

Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security

..

Selau/Suir Local Level Government area ....".... Field visit

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

9.10

Geography Population Social aspects...... Food supply Firewood and timber Land use and the agricultural system

Cashincome....,.........".. lndications of stress Sustainability of the agriculturalsystem and food security...

10. Tinputz Local Level Government area.^.......

10.1 Field visit 10.2 Geography 10.3 Population 10.4 Socialaspects. . .. 10.5 Food supply 10.6 Firewood and timber 10.7 Land use and the agricultural 10.8 Cash income... ..... ....... 10.9 lndications of stress

system

10.10 Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security... 11. Wakunai Local Level Government area.......... 11.1 Field visit 11.2 Geography 11.3 Population 11.4 Social aspects ..... 11.5 Food supply 11.6 Firewood and timber 11.7 Land use and the agricultural system 11.8 Cash income....,............ 11.9 lndications of stress 1 1.10 Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security

...

12. Arawa Local Level Government area...^......

12.1 Field visit 12.2 Geography 12.3 Population 12.4 Socialaspects 12.5 Food supply 12.6 Firewood and timber 12.7 Land use and the agricultural 12.8 Cash income...... .......... 12.9 lndications of stress

system

12.10 Sustainability of the agriculturalsystem and food security..

vlll

13. Buin Local Level Government area............

86

13.1 Field visit.... 13.2 Geography 13.3 Population 13.4 Social aspects....... 13.5 Food supply 13.6 Firewood and timber.. 13.7 Land use and the agriculturalsystem....... 13.8 Cash income........."....... 13.9 lndications of stress

87

13.10 Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security

89

86 86 87 87 BB

8B B8 BB

14. Siwai Local Level Government area......."... 14.1 Field visit..." 14.2 Geography 14.3 Population 14.4 Social aspects....... 14.5 Food supply 14.6 Firewood and timber.. 147 Land use and the agriculturalsystem....... 14.8 Cash income.........,".."... 14.9 lndications of stress 14.10 Sustainability of the agriculturalsystem and food security

89 89 B9

90 90 90 90 90 92 92 92

15. Bana Local Level Government area ...........

93

15.1 Field visit.... 15.2 Geography 15.3 Population 15.4 Social aspects....... 15.5 Food supply 15.6 Land use and the agriculturalsystem....... 15.7 Cash income.."......."...... '15.8 lndications of stress

93 93 93 93 94 94 94 94

16. West Coast (Kunua and Torokina Local Level Government areas)

16.1 Field visit.... 16.2 Geography 16.3 Population 16.4 Social aspects..... 16.5 Food supply 16.6 Land use and the agriculturalsystem....... 16.7 Cash income .... .. .... 16.8 lndications of stress 16.9 Sustainability of the agricultural system and food Appendix 2. MASP field form Version 5 - example

94 94 94 95 95 95 95 95 95

security

"..

95 96

IX

List of Tables Table

1

Resident population, totalarea and crude population density by Local Level Government areas, Bougainville Province................

Table 2.

Resident population, total area and crude population density by island, Bougainville Province

Table 3.

Estimated energy (staple) food production for Bougainville Province in 2000.

Table 4.

Rice production, Bougainville Province, 1994 lo 2002

Table 5.

Cocoa production, Bougainville Province, 1979 to 2002....."......

10

Table 6.

Copra production, Bougainville Province, 1976 to2002

12

Table 7.

Marine produce exported from Bougainville Province, first quarter, 2000........

13

Table 41.

Census figures at various dates, Carteret lslands...

47

Table 42.

Census figures at various dates, Mortlock lslands..

52

Table 43.

Plant foods consumed on Mortlock 1s|ands.....,.......

55

Table 44.

Uses of coconut as food in the Mortlock lslands.....

56

Table 45.

Some methods of preparing swamp taro, Mortlock lslands ......

56

Table 46.

Some uses of coconut palm products for non-food purposes in the Mortlock lslands

57

Contribution (per cent) of various foods to food energy, Ontong Java Atoll, Solomon lslands, 1970-7'l and 1986

57

Estimated cash income, Mortlock lslands, 2001-2002

61

Table Table

47. 48.

List of Figures Figure 1a. lsland groups of Bougainville Province

Figure 1b. lsland groups of Bougainville Province Figure 2.

Population densities of island groups in Bougainville Province. Local level government areas (LLGs) are shown on Bougainville and Buka islands

Figure 3.

Production potential for sweet potato in Bougainville Province

Figure 4.

Production potential for cocoa in Bougainville Province

Figure 5.

Proportion of various energy (staple) food crops produced in Bougainville Province in 2000

Figure 6

Cocoa production in Bougainville Province, 1979-2002

Figure 7

Copra production in Bougainville Province, 1976-2002

x

Abbreviations ANU

The Australian National University

APO

Aid Post Orderly

AusAlD

Australian Agency for lnternational Development

BRA

Bougainville Resistance Army

cBo

Community-Based Organisation

CCEA

Cocoa and Coconut Extension Agency

ccRl

Cocoa and Coconut Research lnstitute

DAL

(Papua New Guinea) Department of Agriculture and Livestock

DNPM

(Papua New Guinea) Department of National Planning and Monitoring

DPI

(Bougainville Provincial Government) Division of Primary lndustry

ENB

East New Britain

HEO

Health Extension Officer

ITTO

lnternational Tropical Timber Organization

LLG

Local Level Government area

LMG

Land Management Group (ANU)

MASP

Mapping Agricultural Systems of Papua New Guinea Project

NARI

(Papua New Guinea) National Agricultural Research lnstitute

NGO

Non-Government Organisation

OCGA

Organic Cocoa Growers Association

OPRA

Papua New Guinea Oil Palm Research Association

PNG

Papua New Guinea

PMV

Public Motor Vehicle

RRA

Rapid RuralAppraisal

RSPAS

Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies (ANU)

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UPNG

University of Papua New Guinea

xl

Sustainability of Agriculture in Bougainville

1,

Introduction

This study * Sustainability of Agriculture in Bougainville Province - is part of a larger project funded by AusAID titled Informationfor Rural Development and Planning in Papua New Guinea. The project is being done by the Land Management Group in the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at the Australian National University, in conjunction with staff from a number of PNG institutions that include the National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI), the Department of Agriculture and Livestock (DAL), and the Department ofNational Planning and Monitoring (DNPM). Some of the work is being done in collaboration with staff from other institutions, such as for the Bougainville study, where collaborators came from the PNG Oil Palm Research Association (OPRA), University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG) and Bougainville Division of Primary Industry (DPI). The concept for the Bougainville study arose at a workshop held at the ANU in August 2000, titled Bougainville: Change and ldentities, Division and Integration.Duringthis workshop, pressure on land, caused by extensive planting of village cocoa and population increase, was discussed, as was consequent possible subsistence food shortages. It became apparent there had been no relevant study since the early 1980s, hence the contracting of this assignment. The Terms of Reference for this study were:

1.

To identify problems with current land use for subsistence food production in Bougainville Province through indicators of stress on the agricultural system.

2.

To assess the sustainability of village food production systems, given high population growth and changing economic conditions in the province as norrnality returns following the'Bougainville ciisis' .

3.

To identifo locations where stress is now occurring or may occur in the medium term

(5-15 years).

4. 5.

To assess the likely impact of increased cash cropping on food production. To make recommendations for research and development activities to be conducted by national and provincial authorities to address any problems identified.

The detailed rationale for this study was:

l.

The economic base for the province will have to be agriculture, marine resources and forestry, given the strong opposition to mining, and with no realistic chance of an industrial or tourism economic base in the short to medium term. In the medium to long term, there are better prospects for tourism.

2.

The Bougainville Provincial Government and donors need information to facilitate planning with the new autonomy arrangements.

3.

There has been a period of rapid change in the province following a nine-year civil war between 1989 and 1997.

4.

Field data was not gathered in Bougainville as part of the Mapping Agricultural Systems in PNG (MASP) project, although a monograph on Bougainville agriculture was produced based mainly on interviews with Bougainvilleans (Bourke et al. 1998). Information on current agricultural practices is required for broader PNG-wide studies, such as those commissioned by the DNPM.

5.

The province is experiencing very rapid population growth. This high population growth rate is likely to result in pressure on land resources where most people are dependent on the land for their livelihood. This is the situation in Bougainville Province


where there are very limited prospects for wage employment within the province or elsewhere in PNG, given the stagnant state of the PNG economy.

7.

Extensive cocoa plantings have been made in much of the province over the past two years, with cocoa seedlings distributed by the Cocoa and Coconut Extension Agency (CCEA) with funding from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and AusAID and seed provided by the Cocoa and Coconut Research Institute (CCRI) in East New Britain.

8.

There is concern about the impact of global climate change, in particular rising sea levels, among atoll dwellers.

A seven week field study was conducted in September-October 2002.In practice five main questions were addressed during the fieldwork, viz:

1. 2.

How do people obtain food and timber now?

3.

Are these problems likely to arise in the next l0-15 years, without major changes to the local economy and agricultural practices?

4. 5.

What is the current and future impact of cash cropping on food production?

2.

Are there any problems now with: food supply, firewood, timber for building or canoe construction, or environmental degradation?

What are the possible alternative sources of cash income other than cocoa and coconut?

Methods

Prior to and during the fieldwork, all accessible literature on agriculture and land use in the province was read. Some is cited in this report. We also accessed seven reports prepared by staff of the PNG DAL Land Use Section between 1956 and 1988. Six weeks of the seven week trip in September-October 2002 was spent conducting fieldwork in villages throughout the province, with several additional days in Buka township (the cunent provincial capital) and in Port Moresby. The work was done by Dr Mike Bourke in conjunction with Mr Thomas Betitis (Land Use Specialist, OPRA) on Bougainville and Buka Islands; and local DPI staff (Gabriel Wayen and Patrick Koles). Dr Jane Mogina of UPNG joined the party for a week for visits to small islands west of Buka, as preparatory work for the Millennium Assessment of locations in PNG which are experiencing pressure on resources.

Mike Bourke travelled to villages in most parts of the province (Figures la, 1b), visiting nine of the twelve Local Level Govemment areas (LLGs) (Figure 2). The three LLGs not visited were Kunua, Torokina and Bana on the west coast of Bougainville Island. The inhabited mountainous areas on Bougainville Island (in particular, inland'Wakunai and the area between Arawa, Panguna and Boku) were also not visited because of the poor state of the roads and ongoing political problems associated with the Bougainville crisis. There is little land pressure in these mountainous or west coast areas, and indications are that food security is not an issue there. The method used was a form of Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). The party met briefly with local officials if they could be found readily; met with villagers in both formal and informal settings; visited food gardens and plots of cash crops; and made observations during walking, boat and vehicle traverses. As always, excellent cooperation, openness, interest and

2


hospitality was received from villagers, and sometimes other people, in particular community or primary school teachers. More emphasis was given to locations where land pressure is being experienced; in practice all islands in the province and south and southwest Bougainville. Because Mike Bourke was stranded on Mortlock Island for twelve days by transport delays, there is more detail for this group than for other islands. For each community or group of communities visited, the following information was recorded:

l.

Social data, including results ofany local census; transport, education and health infrastructure; access to markets; church membership and impact of the Bougainville crisis.

2.

The main sources of food, including food gardens, coconut palms, trees, marine produce, purchased food and traded food.

3.

Sources for firewood and timber for construction and for canoe making (where

fruit- and nut-bearing

relevant).

4.

The main land use and components of the agricultural system. The latter included fallow type, fallow period, cropping period, main food crops, minor food crops, soil fertility maintenance techniques and spatial and temporal arrangements of crops. A total of 108 data fields were filled in on a standard Mapping Agricultural Systems of PNG form (MASP field form Version 5; see Appendix2 for an example of a completed

form).

5. 6. 7. 8.

Sources of cash income and an estimate of value and changes over time.

Alternative sources of cash income not currently being used. Indications of stress. These are discussed in more detail below. Environmental issues raised by villagers. (This was not raised specially by us in discussions).

Based on this and other information, such as that provided by outside observers, an assessment was made of levels of stress on the food production system and sustainability the agricultural system.

2.1

of

lndicators of stress on agr¡cultural systems

The following indicators are used here to assess whether people are suffering stress on their

agricultural system:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Food shortages: either chronic, periodic or occasional.

Yield of food crops declining over time. Marked changes in fallow vegetation type, for example the conversion of woody regrowth to grasslands or a mixture of grassland and woody regrowth. Shortages of firewood. Shortages of timber for construction or canoe making. A marked dependence on a single staple food of low status, in particular cassava or mangrove fruit, because other crops do not yield well. Soil erosion. Social stress caused by land pressure and resource shortages, for example, village-level court cases over ownership oftrees used to construct hulls ofcanoes.

Out-migration because of inadequate land.

3


3.

Background to the province

Bougainville is the most easterly province in Papua New Guinea. It consists of Bougainville Island, Buka Island, two main islands in the Nissan group to the north of Buka, a series of small islands west of Buka and north-west of Bougainville, and four atoll groups (Carteret, Mortlock, Tasman and Nuguria) (Figures la, lb). Most of Bougainville Island is of volcanic origin, except for the northern tip. All other islands are derived from limestone or coral rubble in the case of the atolls. The majority of the population live and practice agriculture near the ocean, but populations in the mountains inland of Tinputz and Wakunai in north-east Bougainville and in the southern part of Bougainville Island live at up to I100 m above sea level. The rainfall increases from north to south. Mean annual rainfall at Buka is about 2400 mm, with the period June to October somewhat drier on average, but with mean rainfall in all months exceeding 100 mm. Rainfall at Kieta in central Bougainville is 3000 mm per year, with all months receiving 20F300 mm on average. Rainfall in south and south-west Bougainville is higher again, with Buin receiving about 4100 mm per year, with all months wet (mean of over 200 mm per month) and July and August the wettest period of the year (450-600 mm per month). The provincial population was enumerated as 175,000 people inmid-2002 (National Statistical Office 2002), although the census was not conducted in 39 Census Units and the actual population is estimated as about 180,000 people in mid-2000 (Table 1).If the population is growing at the PNG average rate of 2.7Yo per year, the provincial population will reach 200,000 people in about mid-2004 and 300,000 people by about 2020. In mid2000,74.4yo of the enumerated population lived on Bougainville Island, with a further 19.3% living on Buka Island and the remaining 6.3Yoliving on smaller islands in the province (Table 2). The average annual population growth rate for the period 1980-2000 is l.5o/o (National Statistical Office 2002). This figure does not indicate the current or future growth rates because of the large exodus of non-Bougainvilleans from the province during the Bougainville crisis and because the 1990 national census was not conducted in the province due to the crisis situation.

However, there are a number of indications that the population growth rate is very high. These indications include the high rate of natural increase prior to 1980; the low median age of the population; the limited out-migration from the province; and recent census figures for a number of locations in the province, such as the Carteret and Mortlock Islands. Prior to 1980 (when the last reliable growth rates were calculated), Bougainville Province had one of the highest rates of natural population growth in PNG. For example, the rate of natural increase for the period 1971-l 980 was 3 .5%o, the highest growth rate for any province in the country (Hayes 1993:.53,60). As with other locations in PNG, the youthful nature of the population is a built-in mechanism for fuither growth (Office ofNational Planning 1999:70).

4


Table 1. Resident population, total area and crude population density by Local Level Government areas, Bougainville Province Area2

Population density (persons/km2)

LLG area

Populationl

Tinputz Kunua Selau/Suir Buka Nissan

9,767 9,089

641 1429

15

9,446

443

21

616

60

39

147

Atolls

36,676 5,725 2,388

11

217

Wakunai

10,023

1't47

I

Arawa Buin Siwai Bana Torokina Total

3'l,462

161 0

20

26,469

147',!

18

13,724

743

18

14,882

367 13't2

4',!

9429

19

5,509 1 75,1 60

(rm')

I

4

I

The populations given are the final figures for the 2000 National Census (National Statistical Office 2002). The census was not conducted in 39 Census Units due to ongoing civil disturbances. The estimated population ofthese CUs is about 4700 people (Hajily Kele, Provincial Census Officer, pers. comm., September 2002). Thus the actual population ofthe province was about 180,000 in mid-2000. 2 The areas given are the total land area. This includes land that has been used for agriculture and land that is unsuitable for agriculture because it is swampy or too steep or too high. These areas are not exact because of minor variation in the boundaries on the map ofLLG areas and coastlines (Figure 2). For example, the total land area ofthe province is given as 9329 krn2 (100 km' less than the total used here) by McAlpine and Quigley (n.d.). About 55% ofthe land area ofthe province has been used for agriculture and 80olo is forested (McAlpine and Quigley n.d., Table 1).

The median age of the population for all LLGs is low at about 16.8 years,l and the range is 1 5.5-l 8.7 years at the LLG level (National Statistical Office 2002). Even casual observations indicate that a high proportion of the population in most locations visited were children (under l8 years old). There is little recent out-migrâtion from the province, and some Bougainvilleans are returning home from other parts of PNG. Census figures for 2000 aîd2002 for the Mortlock and Carteret Islands are presented in Tables Al and A'2. The interval is too short to indicate clear trends for such small populations, but there are signs that the growth rate has been rapid over the past two years on these islands after decades of

little growth. Figures for population density by LLG and by island are presented in Tables I and,2 and in Figure 2.The population density on all land is not particularly high on Bougainville Island, with a range of 4-41 personslkm2 atthel-I-G level (Table l) and a mean figure of 15 persons/km2 for the entire island (Table 2). The density is somewhat higher on Buka Island at 55 persons/km2 (Tabl e 2). Apartfrom Nuguria atoll, the population density is high (above 100 persons/km2) on all other islands groups (Table 2, Figure 2¡.2 The population density on the Carteret Islands (1224 persons/km2 in mid-2000) was by far the highest for any island or comparable unit in all of Papua New Guinea. The densities on the islands west of Buka (refened to as the Western islands here) are very high at a mean of 610 personslkm2 in mid2000. However, only 55o/o of land in the province has ever been used for agriculture, so the density on agricultural land is approximately double the figures presented here for population density on all land.

t

For comparison purposes, it can be noted that this is about halfthe median age ofthe Australian population 100 persons/km2 or greater is considered high for rural villagers in PNG.

2 A population density of

5


Table

2.

Resident population, total area and crude populat¡on density by island, Bougainville Province

lsland

Area' (km')


33,809

8763.0 611.0

55

Population

Bougainville ls3 Buka ls

130,371

15

Western ¡slands Pororan/Hetau llsa Petats ls Matsungan ls Nissan lslands Nissan ls Pinipel ls

Atolls Carteret ls Mortlock ls Nuguria ls

Tasman Is Total

t

't,225

2.0

1,145

1.9

613 603

497

0.8

62',1

4,824

30.1

160

901

8.6

105

979

0.8

1224

443 502 464

1.1

6.1

403 82

3.1

'150

175.160

9429.0

19

The populations given are the final figures for the 2000 National Census (National Statistical Office 2002). areas given are the total land area. This includes land that has been used for agriculture and land that is unsuitable for agriculture because it is swampy or too steep or too high.

2 The

3 ThepopulationandareafiguresforBougainvillelslandincludeanumberofsmallislandsnearthemainislandwhere villagers cultivate land on the mainland.

a The figures for Pororan and Hetau islands have been combined

as Hetau people have no garden land on their island and make

some gardens on Pororan Island.

The potential of land to grow crops varies considerably within the province. An analysis by Hanson et al. (2001) for sweet potato production is presented in Figure 3. Another analysis by Hanson et al. (1998) for cocoa production potential gave a similar but not identical result (Figure 4). The Wakunai and Tinputz areas of the north-east coast of Bougainville Island have very high production potential for cocoa, s\¡/eet potato and other crops. Production potential is moderate in most of south and south-west Bougainville in the Buin, Siwai and Boku areas (Figures 3 and 4).

A civil war known

as the 'Bougainville crisis' engulfed most of Bougainville and Buka islands from mid-1989 to the end of 1997. The strength and length of the impact was very uneven. There was minimal impact on the small offshore islands, apaft from loss of employment and education opportunities. The crisis had the greatest impact in central, south and south*west Bougainville. Much infrastructure was destroyed by the war or neglect. Some has been restored, such as the main east coast road on Bougainville, but much has not. Recovery is continuing and rapid change is still occurring as normality returns.

4.

Food production in Bougainville

Food in the province is derived from food gardens; coconut palms; fruit and nut trees; fishing and other marine produce; imported or market purchases; some pigs and chickens and hunting. For most villagers, food gardens are the main source of food. Sweet potato is by far the most important food crop grown in the province, and accounts for 650/o of production of energy foods by weight (Table 3, Figure 5). Other garden foods include cassava, banana, Chinese taro, true taro (especially in mountainous locations), yam and green vegetables, including aibikq, pumpkin tips and fems. There are numerous other food crops grown, including swamp taro on the Polynesian atolls. While sometimes important locally, the contribution of other food crops to total provincial production is not great (Table 3, Figure 5).

6


Table

3.

Estimated energy (staple) food production for Bougainville Province in 2000

Food crop Sweet potato Cassava Banana Goconutr Chinese laro (Xa nthosom a) Taro (Colocasia) Yam, lesser (Dioscorea esculenta) Yam, greater (Dioscorea alata) Swamp taro (Cyrto spe rm a) Sago Rice (0.02%) Total

Estimated production (tonnes/year)

Proportion of total (%)

103,600 18,900

64.8 11.8

12,600 9,500 7,800

7.9 5.9 4.9 2.4 0.9 0.8

3,900 1,400 1,300 560 300 40 159,900

0.4 0.2 0.0 00.0

I

The estimate of coconut consumption is for food only, and does not include unharvested nuts or those used for making copra or feeding pigs. Source: Estimates offood crop production in Papua New Guinea.Draftreport prepared by R.M. Bourke and V. Vlassak, Land Management Group, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, April2002.

Coconut is used to cook food in most locations on or near the coast and is eaten in many ways. It is estimated that 9500 tonnes of coconut is consumed in the province each year (Table 3). It is an especially important food source on the small islands. Fruit and nut trees are common in most locations, and are especially abundant on small islands. The most important fruits are mango, Malay apple, pawpaw, pineapple and rambutan. The most important nut species are galip, Polynesian chestnut,pao (cut nut) and sea almond (talis). Marine foods, including fish, shellfish, octopus and clam meat, are eaten in varying quantities. They range from very important on the small islands to barely consumed in inland Bougainville. In inland locations on Bougainville, people eat more pig meat and game meat, including possums and flying foxes. Food markets provide some fresh food, especially for communities living near Buka township. Barter markets are an important food source for villagers living on the islands west of Buka. Some pigs and chickens are maintained, but probably contribute little to overall food intake. People gain very little food from hunting and this is not a source of food for people where the population density is high, as on the small islands.

4.1 Theagriculturalsystems The agricultural system is generally based on fallowing of land, although land use is permanent on some of the small islands. Fallow periods vary in length as do the cropping periods. Details for each LLG or island are given in Appendix 1. In general, land use is moderately intensive on Bougainville and Buka islands, and very intensive on all other islands. Natural fallows are used to maintain soil fertility in most locations, although there are some exceptions. In the Siwai area, people are also using composting with sweet potato vines from the previous planting to increase yield. In north Buka Island, some people are planting a leguminous cover crop (Puerana) to enhance soil fertility in the fallow phase, and some people are experimenting with planted Glíricidía (a leguminous shrub) in central Pinipel Island in the Nissan group. On the Polynesian atolls of Mortlock, Tasman and Nuguria, yield of true taro and swamp taro is maintained by applying mulch. This is most developed on Mortlock where cash income levels are low and people do not consume a lot of imported food. These techniques are described in detail under the heading 'Land use and the agricultural system' for the respective locations in Appendix 1.

7


A few tonnes of rice are produced in the province. There is only one rice mill now operating, located at Kokopau, the township on the northern tip of Bougainville Island. During the early and late 1990s, somewhat more rice was grown as it was difficult to obtain imported rice, but the quantities produced were still very small. Over the period 1994 to 2000, the average quantity of rice milled was 6 tonnes per year (Table 4). It is estimated that the maximum production in 2000 was 40 tonnes (and was probably less). This represents 0.02% of total estimated energy food production in the province (Table 3, Figure 5). A negligible area of rice was grown in Bougainville Province in2002 (Table 4).3 Table

4.

Rice production, Bougainville Province, 1994 to 2002

Year 1994 1 995 1 996 1 997 998 999 2000 1

't

2001

2002

Rice production (milled tonnes) 11.5 8.8 4.0 1.6 3.5 3.6 13.5 0 0

Note: These figures are for rice milled in small milling units. Only one unit wæ operating by lahe 2002. As well, a small quantity of rice was milled in hand-operated units in a number ofvillages. In late 2002, there was only a negligible quantity ofrice grown and milled in the province. Source: Provincial Division of Primary Industry records provided by Gabriel Wayen, DPI, Buka.

4.2

Changes in agricultural systems

A number of major and minor modifications have been made to the agricultural systems used in the province over the past 60 years. Until the early 1940s, taro was the most important food crop grown in the province, and dominated land use on Bougainville and Buka islands. In the early 1940s (probably in 1940 or 1941), the disease taro blight, caused by the fungus Phytophthora colocasiae, was introduced into Bougainville and Buka islands (Packard 1975).It had a devastating impact on taro production, although the impact was less severe at higher altitudes. Villagers responded by switching to sweet potato as their staple food. The change occurred quite quickly and by the time that Australian Administration Officers resumed duties towards the end of the Pacific War in 1945, sweet potato had become the main food for most people.a This situation continues till the present.

A number of other staple crops have become more important in recent decades. There has been a significant expansion in planting of banana since the 1997 drought, particularly along north and east coast Buka Island, and to a lesser degree in north and north-west Bougainville Island. It is planted under mature coconut palms, near villages, beside paths and in small spare areas of land. People say they are putting in these plots for two reasons. Firstly, it is easier to grow and harvest banana in small plots near hamlets than it is to grow and harvest

' a

8

Over a six-week period in the field visiting village food gardens, we observed only four plots of rice. One was at a Vocational Training Centre, another at a mission station, the third had been destroyed by pests and the fourth was in a village sweet potato plot. All plots were minuscule compared with the a¡ea of sweet potato and other food crops. Sweet potato was introduced into Bougainville, most probably by missionaries, in the late nineteenth century.


sweet potato now that people are devoting more time and energy to planting cocoa. Secondly, the major drought in 1997 made villagers aware that sweet potato is vulnerable to major water stress, as well as to periods of excessive rainfall. The failure of sweet potato crops in the 1997 drought, and the ability of banana to produce some food even during such an extreme event, has induced villagers to diversifo their food sources away from just sweet

potato. The other food crop that has been much more widely adopted in recent decades is cassava. Cassava is now widely grown in the province and its production is second to sweet potato (Table 3). It is the main food grown on Pororan Island west of Buka Island, and is reported to be a co-staple with taro in the mountainous area inland of Kieta (Damien Dameng, pers. comm.). The last claim was not confirmed by a field visit, but is consistent with the pattem of parts of inland West New Britain where cassava, sweet potato and taro are co-staples

(Bourke etal.2002). Throughout the province, villagers have intensified land use in response to increasing population pressure and dedication ofgarden land to export tree crop plantings. This has been done by shortening the fallow period and extending the cropping period, which in some locations has resulted in reduced crop yield. This is most pronounced on the islands where land pressure is intense, including the islands west of Buka Island, Nissan Island, Pinipel Island and north and east coast Buka Island. This process has gone so far on the islands west of Buka (Pororan, Petats and Matsungan) that arable agriculture there is virtually permanent, with short fallows of only 614 months duration. Rice sales in the province have risen steeply since the crisis years. In the years 1998 to 2000, sales were estimated as about 3000-3500 tonnes per year, with most being purchased in Rabaul. Trukai Industries established a sales centre in Buka township in December 2001. Sales for the year to December 2002 were 4600 tonnes.5 This rate of consumption is similar to the PNG national average in2002. Trukai Industries attribute the increase in sales to a better supply of product in the province, more competitive pricing, active sales promotion within the province and higher cash income for villagers from sales of cocoa and copra. The resumption of copra sales in the province in mid-2002, and the high prices prevailing for cocoa, have undoubtedly contributed to this increased demand for imported rice. In some communities, people are now buying most of their fresh food in Buka market or purchasing rice. This is particularly the case in Selau/Suir and Tinputz LLGs. The recent increased input into planting cocoa is possibly also a contributing factor. This has taken the pressure off food gardens in some locations, but this solution depends on the maintenance of good prices, a functioning marketing system for cocoa and ongoing road maintenance.

5.

Cash income

Overall, the level of cash income for rural villagers in Bougainville Province is moderate. It ranges from very low in the interior of Bougainville Island and the more remote islands to moderately high on Buka Island, Selau/Suir LLG and coastal locations in Tinputz and Wakunai LLGs. The main source of cash income is sales of agricultural and marine produce, including cocoa, copra, fresh food, betel nut, fish, bêche-de-mer, trochus and shark fin. Overall, remittances of cash from relatives working in urban centres are a relatively minor 5

Information on rice sales was provided by Brett Schofield, Marketing Manager, Trukai Industries Ltd, Port Moresby, in December 2002.

9


source, although they may be signifìcant in some locations. A little income is earned from the sale of handicrafts for some people. Cocoa. A significant amount of cocoa was gro\¡/n in Bougainville Province and it produced about half of the cocoa grown in PNG until the Bougainville crisis in 1989. In the eleven year period from 1979 to 1989, cocoa production averaged 15,400 tonnes per year, ofwhich almost three quarters (72%) was grown by smallholders (village growers) and the remainder by larger plantations (Table 5, Figure 6). Much of the production came from the Tinputz and Wakunai areas of north-east Bougainville Island, but cocoa was also grown on Buka and in central and south Bougainville. Table

5.

Cocoa production, Bougainville Province, 19791o2002

Year

1

979 980

1

981

Plantation (tonnes)

Smallholder (tonnes)

Total (tonnes)

Proportion as smallholder (%)

4657

9281

3938

67

5690

10151

I 5841

1022',1

15',t47

1982

4926 4812

1

0405

983

4372

1't943

15217 16315

1984

3463 3667 3686 4104 4008 4600

10441 '12618

64 67 68 73 75 77 77 74

1

1

985 1 986 1 987 1

988 989 1 990 1 1

1

2395

'11448

8895

1

3904 16285

1

1

6081

'15552 1

2903

'13841

'18441

69 75

1923

10019

1991

15

3131

11942 3146

1992

21

5348

5369

84 100 100

993 1 994 1 995 1 996 1 997 1 998

16

5442

'100

4779 51 09 261 9 41 08

99 100 99 99 100 100 99 100 100

7

5426 4752 5086 2587 4066 3805

I 999

8

3641

2000

15

2962

200'l 2002

7

4480

1

27 23 32 42

3812 3649 2977 4487 81

00

Note: The 'cocoa year' is from I October to 30 September. The figures given here are for the year ending 30 September. Thus the figure for 2002 is the twelve month period from I October 2001 to 30 September 2002. Source: The PNG Cocoa Board and the Bougainville Cocoa and Copra Drier Rehabilitation Project.

Most of the large plantations are located in the Tinputzand Wakunai areas, with some on the Bougainville west coast and a few on Buka Island. These plantations still exist, but are very run-down. Local people are harvesting cocoa, but there is very little rehabilitation of the plantations. On the other hand, smallholder blocks are in reasonable condition. The Bougainville crisis resulted in a collapse in cocoa production in the province, with almost all plantation production ceasing by 1991 (Table 5, Figure 6). Between 1991 and 2001, production averaged 4100 tonnes per year, most of which was grown by smallholders. Cocoa production increased significantly in the year to end of September 2002, although it was still somewhat less than smallholder levels prior to the crisis. This increase resulted from

l0


the particularly high prices being realised in 2002, but was facilitated by the improved road infrastructure on Bougainville and Buka islands. The potential production is likely to increase in the coming years, although actual production will depend on the prevailing price each year. The PNG Cocoa and Coconut Extension Agency (CCEA) report they have distributed some 9.6 million cocoa seedlings over the past two years. This is sufficient to plant 13,300 ha of cocoa if all seedlings were planted, or 1 0,000 ha ( I 00 km2¡ if I S% of the seedlings produced were actually planted in the field. Seed is supplied by the Cocoa and Coconut Research Institute (CCRI) in East New Britain.

Copra. Over the period 1976 to 1989, copra production averaged almost 25,000 tonnes per year (Table 6, Figure 7). This was 180/o of total PNG production over this period. Copra production collapsed in 1990 and 1991as a result of the Bougainville crisis. The plantation sector has never recovered. However, provincial copra production improved somewhat from 1992 onwards as services to Buka and the northern tip of Bougainville - the main copra producing areas in the province - were restored and most people were able to market copra again. Over the nine year period 1992-2000, copra production averaged 13,500 tonnes per year, which is 55%o of total pre-crisis levels. Marketing problems with the PNG Kokonas Industri Koporeson resulted in low production in2002. However, in August 2002,the Rabaul-based company Coconut Products commenced buying copra in Buka. Since then, many people on Buka and northern Bougainville have recommenced producing copra. The price paid (K4G-K60 per bag) is too low to entice people who are distant from Buka township to recommence production as the transport cost erodes too much of the total retum. A number of villagers commented that they are prepared to produce copra once the price reaches or exceeds K50 per bag (which weighs 60-90 kg). Fresh food and betel nut. Fresh food is sold at most centres in the province. There is a large market in Buka township, and smaller ones in Arawa and all other government stations. People also sell food and other items, including an illegal alcoholic spirit drink known as hom bru (home brew) at roadside markets. There is a wide range of produce offered for sale, including many types of fresh food, betel nut, fish, other marine foods, cooked food items, as well as handicrafts in the larger markets. The income ranges from negligible to significant for some villagers living near Buka township. Some betel nut is occasionally shipped to Lae and Port Moresby, but our sense is that the volume shipped out is not great.

ll


Table

6.

Copra production, Bougainville Province, 19761o 2002

Year

Copra production (tonnes)

976 1977

22049 22532

'1978

26',t14

1979 I 980

23773 26584

981

24991

1982

20877 20859 26658

1

1

983 1 984 1

985

30782

't986

25835

't987

24698 27',t28

1

988 1 989 1 990 1

1

991

1992 993 1994 1 995 1 996 1997 1

998 1 999 2000 2001 1

20021

26756 957 1984 10211 1 0899 1',t410

14342 I 3453

15158 12475 8868 14427 936 337 1

I

From about August 2002, Coconut Products in Rabaul bought directly from agents in Buka and the figure given here fo¡ 2002 is for Kokonæ Industri Koporesen (KIK) purchases only. Purchases in 2001 and early- to mid-2002 were low because ofproblems in the Copra Marketing Board/KIK. Source: Statistics Section, PNG Department of Agriculture and Livestock (197Ç1989); Kokonas Industri Koporesen (1990-2002).

Marine produce. Fresh fish, smoked fish, shellfish and clam meat are sold in urban markets in Buka township, Arawa and some village markets. Most of the supply for Buka township market comes from south Buka and the islands west of Buka Island. Some marine products are gathered, processed in the village and exported to Buka or Rabaul. Production data for bêche-de-mer, trochus shell and shark fin for the first quarter in 2000 is available (Table 7). Bêche-de-mer and trochus shell are important income sources on some of the atolls and small islands in the province. For this period, a significant proportion of the bêche-de-mer came from the Tasman Islands and a significant proportion of the trochus shell came from the Nuguria group.

12


Table

7.

Marine produce exported from Bougainville Province, flrst quarter, 2000

Commodity

Quantity (kg)

Bêche-de-mer

60,567

Trochus shell

56,575

Shark fin

304

Note: About a quarter ofthe bêche-de-mer wæ from the Tasman Islands, as was about halfthe shark fin. About 40oá of the trochus shell came from the Nuguria Group. The total value of these items for this period was K2,647 ,925. Source: Provincial Division ofPrimary Industry records. There is some confusion about the period, and these data may refer to a longer period than one quarter, such as a full year.

Vanilla. In response to the high prices that have prevailed in recent years and reports of the success of vanilla elsewhere in PNG, many people have planted small plots of vanilla throughout the province. Most growers with whom we spoke had little idea about the correct pollination, harvesting and processing procedures necessary to obtain a product satisfactory to the market. A number of growers had sold some beans to Agmark Pacific Ltd at Kokopo in East New Britain (ENB), including one grower at Tonu in the Siwai area who had received top price for his product (about K320 per kg). A limited number of villagers have been to a training course at Keravat in ENB, but they represent a small proportion of all people who have planted vanilla. There is good potential for production to expand, even if prices fall considerably. However, this potential will not be realised unless growers are trained in the correct pollination, harvesting and processing procedures. Some small chilli plots were noted, mainly in the Siwai area. A Rabaul-based company, Pacific Spices, purchased some three tonnes of chilli in the province in late 2001 and about three tonnes in2002. However, a few growers with whom we spoke were dissatisfied with the low price and were not interested in selling more chilli. The company buying the produce believes the dissatisfaction of villagers may reflect the failure of certain middlemen to pass payments on to growers in the province prior to ihe 2002 election. Chilli production and drying is quite labour intensive and thus returns on people's labour inputs are poor. AgMark in ENB previously purchased chilli in Bougainville, but ceased this when supply became inadequate. Buyers report that the quality of chilli from Bougainville is not good.

Chilli.

Balsa. There are a number of mature balsa plots on Buka and Nissan islands and in the Wakunai area on Bougainville Island. There is no cunent market outlet in the province. The balsa manufacturing companies in ENB will only purchase logs if growers affange them to be shipped to Rabaul. Existing plots are too old to harvest, as balsa must be harvested before it is six years old (Neville Howcroft, ITTO ENB Balsa Project, Keravat, pers. comm.,2003).

6.

Locations experienc¡ng stress

Findings are now presented on locations in the province which are experiencing stress on the supply of food, firewood, and timber for construction and canoe building. A fuller description of agriculture, the economy, land use and the stresses being experienced in these and other locations is given in Appendix 1. The locations are ranked from those suffering the most stress to those with the least stress.

l3


6.1

Garteret lslands

The group consists of six small islands surrounding Tulun Lagoon, about 100 km north-east of Buka township (Figures la, 1b). The islands are composed of sand and soil and are only 1-2 metres above sea level. All are very small, with a combined area of 80 ha (0.8 km2). There is almost no arable agriculture on the islands, with most land devoted to the villages, coconut palms and other tree crops. The resident population at the time of the 2000 census was 979 people, giving a population density of 1224 persons/km2 (Table 2). This is the highest population density of any island or other comparable sub-region in Papua New Guinea. The population in the Carteret Islands grew rapidly from the early 1950s until 1980 and then it stabilised for the next 20 years (Table Al). There is an indication that the resident population is again increasing rapidly.

Transport beyond the atoll is a problem. The provincial government ship, the MV Sankamap, only visits the group several times each year. Locally owned open dinghies ('banana boats') provide the main transport to Buka township. There are a limited number of motorised boats in the islands and fuel ('pre-mix') is difficult to access. Cash income is limited. Some men sell bêche-de-mer and trochus shell in Buka township, but the quantity sold is small. Food supply in this group is limited and food shortages are common. The main foods eaten are the flesh ofyoung coconut and fish. These are readily available, but other carbohydrate foods are chronically scarce. Dry coconut and coconut embryo are also eaten when available. There are virtually no food gardens as such in the Carteret Islands. Some banana is eaten irregularly. A limited quantity of rice and flour-based foods are eaten, but local supply is limited. People with a higher cash income consume more imported food. If a consistent supply of imported food was available on the islands, more would be consumed because of the shortages of carbohydrate foods. Fish, shellfish and clams are abundant and are eaten regularly. The main fuel source for cooking is coconut husks. All other woody parts of the coconut palm are also used, as is driftwood. Timber for canoe manufacture and house construction is very limited and people depend on driftwood and timber occasionally brought from Buka Island. The issue of pressure on resources in the Carteret Islands is not new (O'Collins 1990). By 1960, all available agricultural land was intensively cultivated. Patrol reports throughout the 1960s described how many small pockets of land would be cultivated by one family to provide adequate food supplies. A survey was conducted by Australian Administration Officers in 1964 (Redmond et al. 1964).It was noted that timber was chronically scarce and much use was made of driftwood for construction. Reports continued of periodic food shortages during the 1960s to 1980s (O'Collins 1990) and also in the 1990s.

The 1964 survey team noted that 'erosion is a constant menace in those islands' (Redmond et al. 1964). During the 1960s, efforts were made to alleviate or prevent the effects of sea erosion and the consequent losses of tree crops and arable land (O'Collins 1990:253). A number of sea walls were constructed, but none proved effective in preventing land loss.

In response to land pressure in the Carteret Islands, an Atolls Resettlement Scheme was established in 1984 at Kuveria, near Arawa on Bougainville Island. The scheme was abandoned five years after being established when the Bougainville crisis commenced in mid-1989. Life is reported to have improved for the islanders while the scheme operated

l4


(Ursula Rakova, pers. comm., September 2002). Garden food from the resettlement area was sent back to the islands, together with timber for building. People residing on the islands shipped fish to their relatives who had resettled. Health of people on the resettlement blocks is reported to have improved significantly, with mild malnutrition evident in some children when they arived there (Connell 1990:153).

Indications ofstress. There are clear indications ofstress in the Carteret Islands. There are serious and chronic food supply problems. Carbohydrate foods are chronically scarce and cash income is low. As well, it is extremely difficult to transport produce to Buka for sale and to bring back purchased food. The food supply problems are so severe that it is possible that inadequate nutrition is inhibiting children's mental development. The problem may also be responsible for the reported lack of energy and initiative by islanders. Firewood and timber for canoe construction and building houses is very scarce. There are also clear indications of environmental stress in these islands. The area on Han Island which was previously devoted to swamp taro production was flooded by sea water several years ago. The small areas of swamp taro pits were then abandoned. This area is now covered with the creeper kangkong, which is used as a vegetable and to feed pigs. These problems are not new and have been reported for up to 40 years. Wave action has caused significant erosion of land on all six inhabited islands in the Carteret group. This has been attributed by Connell (1990) to rising sea levels, but this has not been established. It is not clear whether rising sea level is responsible for the erosion in the Carteret and most other islands in the province. In recent years, sea erosion problems in the Carteret Islands have been reported in the PNG press from time to time (e.g. The National Newspaper 20 December 2001:14). A coastal rehabilitation project based on mangrove planting was funded by the UNDP in the mid-1990s. However, it is reported that there was little community support for this project after the overseas volunteers left the project. Some mangroves have survived, but the impact is limited. A work boat was provided by AusAID to assist marketing marine produce, but it subsequently broke down and is no longer operating.

Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security. Clearly the present situation is barely tenable and will not be sustainable as the resident population continues to increase. Resettlement on the Bougainville mainland has provided some relief in the past. However, in the post-crisis situation, it is unlikely now that land for resettling islanders could be obtained on Buka or Bougainville islands. Marine products for both subsistence and sale are abundant. This offers a possible solution to the food supply problems. It is suggested that the best solution to the food scarcities would be to increase the sale of marine produce, in particular, bêche-de-mer and trochus shell, and possibly clam meat and fresh or smoked fish. This would increase cash income to villagers, enabling them to buy market or imported food regularly in Buka township. Some development initiatives which may facilitate this trade are:

1.

Sea transport based on inboard diesel motors, such as the 'work boats' made in parts of Milne Bay Province, which would be managed locally.

2.

Island-based buyers of bêche-de-mer, trochus shell and possibly fish, who would sell these products in Buka township or Rabaul.

15


A number of failed attempts have been made to resolve the problems of the Carteret Islands. These include the resettlement scheme on Bougainville Island in the 1980s, and provision of a boat and land reclamation project in the mid-1990s. The failure of the 1990s project to solve the problems indicates how intractable they are. Despite these past failures, it is important that the problems on the Carteret Islands be addressed as they are so severe.

6.2

Pinipel lsland

Pinipel Island is immediately north of Nissan Island. Nissan is located between Buka Island and New Ireland and is about I 10 km from Buka township (Figures I a, I b). There were 900 people on Pinipel in mid-2000, giving a population density of 105 personslkm2 (Table 2). People previously depended on a combination of garden food, fruit and nuts from trees, seafood and coconut, supplemented by mangrove fruit. However, population pressure on land has rendered garden and tree foods inadequate. The staple food now is the fruit ofa mangrove tree (Bruguiera eriopetala). This is supplemented by limited garden food, mainly sweet potato and cassava, fruit and nuts, and significant amounts of coconut, fish and other seafood.

The supply of firewood is inadequate. It comes from mangroves and old fruit and nut trees, including Polynesian chestnut,pao nut, breadfruit and coconut. Timber for building canoes is reported to be scarce and is obtained from breadfruit, galip and two self-sown tree species. The main source for building was mangrove, but coconut is now the most common source of building timber. Other sources include breadfruit, galip, ton, bukabuk and two self-sown species. The use of timber from fruit and nut trees for building is uncommon in PNG and is a further indication of the shortage of timber on Pinipel. Land is devoted to mangrove stands, extensive orchards of fruit and nut trees, small areas of current food gardens and some very small areas of low woody regrowth. The most important food is a mangrove fruit from self-sown stands. Food gardens are semi-permanent, with a short fallow period of 4-12 months after each planting or after two plantings. The main garden food is sweet potato, with cassava also an important garden food. Some garden land has been cleared from old coconut stands or fruit and nut tree orchards. Household garden plots are very small, with many households having plots within one garden area. Villagers attempt to reduce the rate of soil fertility loss by rotating sweet potato with cassava. In central Pinipel, some people are now planting Gliricidia (a leguminous shrub) in garden land in an attempt to maintain soil fertility. Cash incomes are very low on Pinipel. The only source of income for most people is the sale of bêche-de-mer, but a current ban on harvesting means that most people have very limited cash income or reserves. Previously mangrove fruit from Pinipel was bartered for banana, taro, sweet potato and breadfruit from Nissan. A little barter trade still takes place, but is now limited. The low price of copra and the high cost of transportation to Nissan make copra production uneconomic.

Indications of stress. There are clear indications of stress on Pinipel Island. These include the limited area of land available for food gardening; intensive cropping with continuous planting and only short fallow periods; reduced soil fertility and consequent low crop yields; occasional total crop failure; dependence on an unusual staple food, and one that is not a

t6


preferred food (mangrove fruit);very low cash income; food shortages when mangrove fails to bear fruit and requests to the provincial government for food aid. The sea has caused erosion of the sea edge in places, with up to 30 metres of land being lost in one location over the past 40 years. Villagers have countered this by planting mangroves to preserve the shoreline. The north-west winds bring sea spray to food gardens in north Pinipel and damage the gardens, so that gardening is not possible during part of that season (October to March). The south-east winds damage native vegetation in south Pinipel and this land is not used for agriculture. The current food production system is under considerable stress. Unless there is a significant change, the current problems will intensi$ in the coming 10-20 years. The pressure could be eased to a limited degree by adoption of soil fertility enhancing techniques. The greatest benefit would come from an enhanced cash income, so that people could purchase food on Nissan, either locally grown or imported. Possibilities for increasing cash income include more sales of marine produce, production and sale of coconut oil, or sale of locally preserved breadfruit and nuts in urban centres in PNG.

6.3

Western islands (Hetau, Pororan, Yame, Petats, Matsungan)

There are four inhabited islands 2-5 km off the west coast of Buka (Figure 1a). These are Hetau, Pororan, Petats and Matsungan islands. They are characterised by small land area, very high population density, limited resources and limited cash-earning opportunities. Villagers also grow coconut on two other nearby islands - Mauwau and Yame islands. The resident population in mid-2000 was2867 people, giving an average population density of 610 personslkm2 lTable 2, Figure 2). This is one of the highest population densities anywhere in PNG. These islands have been densely populated for a very long time. Transport remains a significant constraint to development. To travel to Buka township, people depend on fibreglass 'banana' boats powered by outboard motors. Canoes are used for fishing and to travel to barter markets on Buka Island. Transport is a greater constraint on the northern islands of Hetau and Pororan than on the southern islands of Petats and Matsungan. This is because of the greater distance from Buka township and the consequent higher cost of fuel, as well as the poor state of roads in west Buka Island which limits road access between westem Buka and Buka township.

The source of carbohydrate food varies between islands. Villagers on Hetau have no gardens on their island. Some make small gardens on Pororan, but most of their food comes from barter markets on Buka Island where they supply fish and receive sweet potato, Chinese taro, greens and other garden foods. People on Pororan depend on barter markets for most of their garden food. They also obtain food from imported sources (mainly rice), from some small food gardens on the west coast of Buka where the main crop grown is sweet potato, and from small plots of mainly cassava on Pororan itself. The barter markets are located at Kahiso and Karula on Buka Island. On Petats and Matsungan islands, villagers obtain most of their food from gardens on the islands, where sweet potato is the main crop, together with some banana and cassava. A little imported rice is consumed and people buy some garden food in Buka township market where they sell fish. Petats islanders also obtain some food at the barter market at Skotolan United Church on the west coast of Buka where they provide fish and shellfrsh and receive

l7

Sustainability of Agriculture in Bougainvil le

garden produce in return. Fish is abundant for all islanders, as is other seafood, including octopus and shellfish. Significant quantities of coconut are eaten on all these islands.

Firewood is scarce on Pororan and Hetau islands. Villagers source it from some woody regrowth on the islands and from nearby locations on Buka. Other sources are driftwood, coconut (the shell, husk and spathe), as well as palms cut down specifically for firewood. On Pororan, villagers have banned the use of mangroves for firewood so as to preserve the mangroves and protect the island from sea erosion. Pororan people obtain mangrove timber and other timber for building from the Buka mainland. Suitable timber to build canoes is especially scarce. The main species used for hulls is l/sronia scholar¡s and disputes are common over the very limited number of trees. Canoes are critical for survival in these islands. They are needed for fishing, although people can fish off reefs without canoes. Most importantly, they are needed to transport people and fish to the barter markets on Buka Island. Without canoes, people cannot trade fish for carbohydrate food; and without trade there is insufficient food. Repeatedly, people said to our party: 'Sapos yu no gat wanpela kanu, bai yu no inap canoe, you cannot eat].

kaikai' [If you do not have a

On Petats Island, firewood and timber to build canoes and buildings was reported to be sufficient. On Matsungan, the source for firewood is mangrove stands. This was reported as being abundant. However, an extensive area of mangrove on this small island has been destroyed and current practices are clearly unsustainable. Timber for canoe construction and building is obtained from Buka Island and is reported to be in adequate supply.

Arable agriculture on Pororan, Petats and Matsungan is virtually permanent, with minimum use of short-period fallows of 624 months in duration. Cassava is the main food crop grown on Pororan, but is occasionally rotated with sweet potato. Sweet potato is the main food crop grown on the other islands. Banana is also grown on all islands. On Hetau and Pororan islands, cassava and sweet potato are the most important garden foods, with banana and coconut next in importance. Cassava is a somewhat less important food on the two southern islands, but otherwise the crops are similar. Prior to the Bougainville crisis, many people from these islands migrated to other localities in the province and elsewhere in PNG for employment. The crisis resulted in the return of many people to the islands and this has increased pressure on resources. Cash income is limited in these islands. This is especially so in the two northern inhabited islands where access to Buka township is limited by the high cost of sea transport and the poor state of roads to west coast Buka Island. Some fish is sold by people from Hetau and Pororan islands, both locally and occasionally in Buka township. Some copra is made by people on all islands and sold in Buka. Bêche-de-mer is sold at times, but there was a ban on selling it in late 2002 which was scheduled to extend to about March 2003. Some trochus shell is also sold from all islands. Cash income is somewhat higher in the two southern inhabited islands, but is still low. The main source of income for people on Petats and Matsungan is fish sold at Skotolan United Church Mission on the west coast of Buka and at

Buka township market.

l8

Sustainabil

of

ln

Indications of stress. There are very clear indications of stress on the food supply systems on Hetau, Pororan, and to a lesser degree, on Petats and Matsungan islands. On Pororan, symptoms of stress include:

l.

The very limited area of land available for food gardens, with cassava plots on Pororan Island and sweet potato plots on Buka Island only 50-100 mt per household.

2.

Low yields of the staple foods. An estimate for cassava yield based on a very small sample was 8-10 tonnes per hectare. This is low, given that village cassava in PNG averages about2025lha, but yields up to twice that under favourable conditions.

3.

Food crops lack vigour, with cassava plants typically about one metre high with very thin stems. The problem of low soil fertility is compounded as these cassava stems of low vigour make poor planting material for the next planting.

4. 5.

Lowyieldsof othercrops, including aibika, corn,tobacco,pitpit andpumpkin.

6.

Timber for building canoes is scarce and there are disputes over the limited number trees suitable for making canoe hulls.

l.

There is no land available to plant trees for canoe or house construction.

Firewood is scarce. Coconut palms are being cut down for firewood and people other than the palm's owner are banned from using the felled coconut trunks for firewood.

of

On the southern islands of Petats and Matsungan, there is less evidence of stress, but it is present. Symptoms include:

1. 2. 3. 4.

A shortage ofland for food gardens. Removal of mature coconut palms to establish food gardens.

Virtually permanent land use, with minimal fallowing of garden land. Low crop yields of sweet potato and cassava on both islands and very low yields of other food crops on Matsungan, including aíbika, com, tobacco and pumpkin.

Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security. The agricultural system and food security is under considerable pressure on Hetau and Pororan islands and under some pressure on Petats and Matsungan islands. Given the very small area of land in the islands, the high population growth rate, and the lack of employment opportunities, this pressure is likely to intensify greatly over the coming l0-15 years. For Petats people, the pressure can be relieved by clearing cocónut palms on Yame Island to plant food gardens and a new village site. People on Petats and Matsungan claim that they could access land for food gardens on the nearby west coast of Buka Island if necessary.

In contrast, villagers on Hetau and Pororan have considerable difficulty in accessing land on Buka Island and have lost land rights granted in the mid-1980s. The current sites used for gardening were made available by the Catholic Church where land is held for the Burunutui Rural Education Centre. Food security in these islands could be enhanced by the following:

l.

Provision of technical advice to villagers on how best to manage their critical marine resources, including mangroves, reefs, fish, bêche-de-mer and trochus shell.

2.

Advising people on intensification techniques, including composting and fallow species management.

t9


3. 4.

Provision of advice on planting trees for timber.

5.

Facilitation of new cash-earning activities so that people could purchase food, including:

Maintenance of access roads in the north-west and west coast of Buka Island, so that islanders and west coast villagers could more readily access Buka township market and sell produce in town.

.

village-based extraction of coconut oil which can be used for body decoration, cooking oil and as fuel for diesel motors

o .

planting high value cash crops, including vanilla

6.4

provision of advice on improved production of fruit and nuts which could be marketed, including mandarin, orange, mango and pineapple.

Nissan lsland

Nissan Island is located between Buka Island and New Ireland and is about 110 km from Buka township (Figures 1a, lb). There were 4800 people resident on Nissan in mid-2000, giving a high population density of 160 persons/km' lTable 2). People depend on garden food, various fruits and nuts and a little imported rice. Unlike on Bougainville and Buka islands, gardens contain significant amounts of crops other than sweet potato. Significant quantities of fish, other seafood and coconut are also eaten. Pigs remain an important part of traditional life and pig meat is eaten occasionally. The supply of firewood, and timber for constructing canoes and buildings, is reported to be adequate. Firewood comes from woody fallow vegetation and old fruit and nüt trees.

Many people moved to the Bougainville mainland to work on plantations prior to the Bougainville crisis. Following the conflict, most returned to Nissan, which increased pressure on resources there. Cash income levels are low and the main source is copra. There is some cocoa grown, but none is currently being processed. Bêche-de-mer is sold, but there was a six month ban on

harvesting in late 2002 to allow stock regeneration. There are some indications of stress on Nissan. These include the limited area of land available for gardening per household, the relatively short fallow periods and the failure of certain crops, including tobacco and corn, to grow well except after a long fallow. The only specific environmental issue raised by villagers was that trochus shell was said to have been over-exploited and was no longer available for harvest. Food supply is adequate and sustainable in the short to medium term (2-10 years). Population pressure and over-exploitation of garden land is likely to result in food security problems in the medium to long term (10-20 years) unless the pressure is relieved. This pressure could be eased to some degree by adoption of soil fertility enhancement techniques, including composting and management of fallow species composition. Better management of marine resources would also be beneficial. The greatest improvement is likely to come through enhancing sources of cash income. Income levels are low and narrowly based. Two avenues for increasing cash income are worth further investigation. The first is the use of locally produced coconut oil for sale as

20


fuel for motors, cooking and body decoration. The second is the sale of locally preserved breadfruit and several nuts in Rabaul, Lae, Port Moresby and the PNG highlands.

6.5

Polynesian atolls

There are three atoll groups in the province inhabited by people of mainly Polynesian descent. The Mortlock group is located about270 km ENE of Buka township (Figures la, 1b). The Tasman Islands are the most easterly part of PNG and are about 500 km NNE of Buka township (Figures la, 1b). Travel on the ship MV Sankamap takes about 35 hours from Buka. However, the islands are only about 50 km from the nearest inhabited atoll (Pelau) in the Ontong Java group in the Solomon Islands, and can be reached from there by speedboat in about five hours. The Nuguria Islands are located some 200 km north of Buka township (Figures 1a, lb) and about 260 km east of Namatanai township on New Ireland. There is an airstrip on Paopao, the largest island in the group. Of the three atoll groups, Mortlock is the most isolated as, unlike Nuguria, it has no airstrip and, unlike Tasman, it is not possible to travel to other islands by speedboat. The combined population of these three atoll groups was 1409 people in mid-2000 (Table 2). The population density in the Mortlock Islands is very high at 403 persons/km2, high on the Tasman Islands (150 persons/km2) and moderate in the Nuguria group (82 persons/km2) (Table 2).The population grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s in the Mortlock Islands (3.5% per year), then stabilised between 1970 and 2000 (Table A2). A census conducted during my visit in September 2002 suggests that rapid population growth may now be occurring again. The main foods eaten are imported rice and flour-based products, swamp taro and true taro, coconut, fish and other marine foods. People eat more imported food and less swamp taro in the Tasman Islands. Most agriculture in the Mortlock Islands is practiced on Takuu Island. Land use there is very intensive, with permanent cropping of swamp taro and true taro maintained by inputs of organic fertiliser gathered from the edge of the island. A problem is affecting swamp taro and has destroyed some plots on Takuu Island. Villagers attribute the dieback to salt water rising from the soil and some educated Mortlock people blame sea level rise for this. The villagers' explanation seems likely, but it is also possible that the condition is caused by a fungal disease associated with occasional high water levels. Food supply is adequate in all three groups. The supply of timber for canoe building and repair is limited. However, villagers have adapted to living in a resource-poor environment. There has been some beach erosion on islands in the Mortlock Islands, and possibly in the other groups. The main sources of cash income are sales of trochus shell and bêche-de-mer, remittances and some minor sales of handicrafts. Copra sales were previously the mainstay of the cash economy, but production ceased in the mid-1980s. Cash income levels are low in the Mortlock Islands. I estimate that the gross income received by the entire population in 20012002 was about K42,000 or K86 per person per year (Table A8). Cash income has been high in the Tasman Islands for the past two years, with significant sales of bêche-de-mer. Gross sales were about K500,000 in 2001-2002. Some older villagers at least are conscious of potential food security problems as the population rises. The following statement is paraphrased from one made by the teriki Avo on the Mortlock Islands:

(chief)

21


Food supply is adequate now, but there are very many children on the island and the populøtion will conlinue 1o increase. Resources are limited and eventually locally grownfood will become scarce. lle think that eventually resettlement on Bougainville Island will be necessary. Our judgement is the same as Chief Avo. Terrestrial resources are limited; increases in population growth are likely given the absence of possibilities for employment elsewhere in the province or PNG; and there is likely to be considerable pressure on agricultural land, particularly in the Mortlock Islands where the population density is already over 400 persons/km2. The pressure on land has been eased considerably in the Tasman Islands with relatively high cash income with which villagers can purchase imported food. However, increased consumption of imported food could lead to health problems such as diabetes and other 'diseases of affluence'. People's vulnerability to rapid shifts in income level is also increased, given that the newfound affluence is based on the sale of one marine product (bêche-de-mer) only.

Transport remains a chronic problem in these islands. The provincial government ship used to make regular runs to all islands in the province. For a number of reasons, this no longer occurs and trips are irregular. The trip that I joined to travel to the atolls was the first for almost three months, and there are just 7-8 visits ayear by this ship. There are few possibilities for further intensification of agriculture, given the already intensive land use. It is also unlikely that large scale out-migration to Buka or Bougainville islands will be possible given the resistance to outsiders occupying land. Solutions to the pressure caused by population increase

l.

will include:

Better management of marine resources. Villagers need advice about this from specialists.

2. 3.

Greater marketing opportunities for marine produce and handicrafts.

Education of islanders, especially women and girls, on the nutritional value of different foods and dangers of predominantly Polynesian populations becoming dependent on a refined carbohydrate diet.

6.6

Siwai Local Level Government area

The Siwai LLG is located in south-west Bougainville Island (Figure 2). Most villagers live inland, with a few on the coast. The resident population in mid-2000 was 13,700 people, giving an average population density of 18 personslkm2, which is low (Table 1, Figure 2). The area is characterised by very high rainfall (average of 5200 mm per year), with about 500 mm per month in July and August. This is associated with high levels of cloud cover. Both the high rainfall and the cloud cover reduce the potential for food and cash crops, despite the generally fertile soils derived from volcanic ash (Hanson et al. 1998; Hanson et al. 2001). The Bougainville crisis had a severe impact on the Siwai area; many people were displaced and many lives were lost. Following cessation of hostilities, villagers have returned to their traditional land and this is contributing to pressure on land, as are ne\ry plantings of cocoa.

22


Land use is dominated by low woody regrowth, food gardens, coconut and cocoa plots. Small areas of tall forest are preserved by villagers to provide timber for building, bush vines and other non-timber forest products. There is considerable land pressure in the central Korikunu area centred on Tonu station, and somewhat less land pressure on the edge of the Siwai LLG. The main source of food is sweet potato gardens. Foods from tree crops are reasonably important and include sago, tulip leaves and a number of fruits and nuts. Pigs are commonly maintained and eaten. Firewood is somewhat scarce in the centralpart of the area. People obtain firewood from the softwood of woody regrowth in fallows, coconut fronds and offcuts from hardwood timber used for construction. Fuel to dry cocoa is a greater problem and some people are forced to buy loads of timber from others who clear garden land from longer fallows and who have more spare firewood. The most important food crop is sweet potato and it dominates land use. Significant amounts of coconut are used to prepare meals. Sago is common in the area and a lot is consumed when sweet potato is scarce. This occurred most recently in early 2002 when sweet potato production was disrupted by heavy and continuous rain associated with the 2002 El Niño event. Duringthe 1997 drought, sweet potato production was greatly diminished and much sago was eaten for seven to eight months in 1997-98. Fruit is abundant seasonally, especially pineapple, rambutan and watery rose apple. Other staple foods include banana, Chinese taro and cassava. In the Korikunu area, villagers are now composting sweet potato gardens to maintain crop yield. This is said to be a locally developed technology adopted in the mid-1980s. This technique is common in parts of the PNG highlands and is used in a few other locations, such as in the Teptep area on the Huon Peninsula, but this is the first time that composting has been noted in village gardens in the PNG lowlands.

An insect pest (the mirid Haltic¿r,s sp., identified by John Moxon, NARI, Keravat) is reducing sweet potato yield. The insect feeds on the upper surface of leaves and removes the chlorophyll containing layer, so that the surface turns a white-yellow colour. A few people are spraying crops with insecticides (Orthene@ or Karate@) purchased in Buka township. Others are spraying crops with locally produced repellents, including those derived from an unidentified bush tree, derris vine, the sap of a wild banana, tobacco sap or chilli seed. It is recommended that a NARI entomologist conduct a field investigation of this pest and make recommendations for control using repellents made from locally available plants. The main source of cash income is cocoa. During the crisis years, cocoa was not maintained because of the considerable disruption to villagers' lives. Many plots (estimated at about 40%by local DPI staff) have been overgrown. Extensive replanting is now under way and it is reported by DPI that 300,000 seedlings (sufficient to plant about 400 ha) have been distributed in the Siwai area over the past two years.

There are clear indications of stress in the Siwai area. These include the high intensity of land use and associated decline in sweet potato yield; the recent adoption of composting in part of the area to counteract this; and shortages of firewood, especially for drying cocoa. Food shortages are caused by prolonged excessively wet periods and drought, but droughts such as occurred in 1997 are very uncommon.

23


Sustainability of the âgricultural system and food security. There is no immediate shortfall in food production in the Siwai area, aside from that caused by adverse weather conditions. Nevertheless, there is considerable pressure on land in the Siwai area. This is being managed by intensification of land use, including the use of composting. This pressure is likely to increase over the coming 10-20 years as the population continues to increase rapidly and garden land is converted into cocoa plots. Likely outcomes include more intensive land use, with shorter fallow periods and longer cropping periods, greater use of composting and use of land on the fringe of the LLG for food gardens. Consumption of imported food is likely to continue to increase, provided that cash income is available to support this. Income from cocoa, while low, is adequate now, but prospects for large increases in cocoa income are not great given the poor environment for growing cocoa with excessive rainfall and high cloud cover.

In contrast with the lack of possibilities for developing a viable village-level rice industry, there are a number of opportunities to improve marketing of fresh food in the local and PNG domestic markets. Rambutan is particularly abundant and, aside from the Buin, Arawa and Wakunai areas of Bougainville and the Gazelle Peninsula of EastNew Britain, is uncommon elsewhere in PNG. Pulasan, another fruit of South-East Asian origin, is also reported to yield well in the Siwai area. Some of the possibilities for selling produce from the Siwai area include:

1. 2.

Production of out-oÊseason pineapple fruit. Sale of exotic fruit, particularly rambutan, but also durian, pulasan, mangosteen and

langsat.

3.

Production of pineapple and other fruit juice drinks for local sale, using simple technology being used elsewhere in PNG, such as that used in Western Province.

It is suggested that trial shipments of rambutan

be sold to highlands middlemen in Lae. It is also suggested that the economic feasibility of shipment of rambutan, pulasan, durian, langsat, mangosteen, gølip nut and giant betel nut be investigated for the highlands, Lae and Port Moresby markets.

6.7

Buin Local Level Government area

The Buin LLG is located in the south of Bougainville Island (Figure 2).Like Siwai, most villagers live inland, with a few on the coast. The mean annual rainfall is high (3800-4100 mm per year), with July and August the wettest months. The high rainfall, together with the associated high cloud cover, serye to reduce the potential for both food and cash crops, despite the generally fertile soils derived from volcanic ash (Hanson et al. 1998; Hanson et

aI.2001). The resident population in mid-2000 was 26,400 people, giving an average population density of 18 persons/km2, which is low (Table l, Figure 2). The Bougainville crisis had a major impact on the area. Many people were displaced or lived in PNG govemment-run care centres. A significant proportion of cocoa plantings became overgrown due to neglect during the crisis years.

24


The main source of food is sweet potato gardens. Banana and coconut are also important foods. Food from tree crops is moderately important, including sago, which is eaten when the supply of sweet potato is low, tulip leaves and galip nuts. Consumption of imported food, especially rice, is moderately high. More rice is consumed when sweet potato is in poor supply, as it was in2002 when the rainfall was exceptionally high. The yield of sweet potato, other foods and cocoa is adversely affected by excessively high rainfall. This occurred between January and September 2002. Yields of sweet potato and other crops, including banana and peanuts, are reported to be lower in recent years than in the pre-crisis period, that is, during the 1980s. Some villagers attribute this to land pressure, that is, shofter fallow periods and longer cropping periods. Others blame pollution from the distant Panguna copper mine (which ceased production in mid-1989 and which did not generate significant atmospheric pollution), and the effects of a limited number of mortar shells fìred by the PNG Defence Force during the crisis years.

Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security. In the short to medium term (1-5 years), the food supply is likely to remain generally adequate, but remains vulnerable to excessively high rainfall. However, the widespread reports of low crop yields suggest that land pressure is reducing soil fertility and hence crop yields. In the medium to long term (520 years), increasing land pressure is likely to further reduce food crop yields. People remain vulnerable to occasional food shortages caused by excessive rainfall. The soils are of a heavy texture, and tuber initiation is inhibited during prolonged wet periods. This problem will be reduced to some degree as new cocoa plantings come into bearing and people can used the cash income from cocoa sales to buy supplementary food. However, cocoa itself is also vulnerable to the excessively wet conditions that affect sweet potato. Hence cash income from cocoa sales is likely to be impacted at the same time that sweet potato is affected by very high rainfall. Food security would be enhanced by a more broadly based economy, in particular with a greater range of cash crops. Candidates include vanilla, rambutan and other sweet fruit which could be sold in the province or elsewhere in PNG.

6.8

Mountainous areas of inland Bougainville lsland

Villagers live at up to 1100 m altitude in locations inland from Wakunai, Kieta and Nagovisi. These areas were not visited because of the poor state of the roads and.some ongoing political problems. These locations are spread over a number of LLGs, so no population figures are readily available. These areas are characterised by poor access to services and markets, and generally low to very low cash income levels. Indications are that the supply of carbohydrate food is adequate, although the quantity of seafood and coconut consumed is low. Consequently, intake of oils and protein is likely to be lower than for coastal villagers in the province.

The consequences of a low cash income are a limited ability to educate children beyond community school level; reduced ability to transport a sick person to a hospital in a medical emergency; limited capacity to buy supplementary food when subsistence food supplies are inadequate; and less chance of being able to buy food to complement the traditional diet, in particular, high protein or energy-dense foods, which are likely to be scarce in mountain environments.

25


Two approaches are likely to improve the low income and poor access to services. These are for access roads to be maintained and upgraded; and promotion of alternative cash crops, with the focus on both marketing as well as good production techniques. These inland areas are well suited to production of temperate climate vegetables, including potato, round cabbage, Chinese cabbage, carrot, French beans and lettuce. Locations above 600 m are also good sites for cardamom production. Mandarin and orange produce the best

quality fruit at intermediate altitude locations (600-1200 m) in PNG. Again, inland locations on Bougainville Island are well suited to production of sweet mandarin and orange, which would find a ready market in urban centres in the province, in Rabaul and possibly elsewhere in PNG. The chairman of the Council of Elders at Wakunai (Gordon Bure) is interested in having an agricultural research station developed for the Wakunai area. He would be prepared to devote land for this purpose in the Togerau area.

6.9

Buka lsland

Buka Island lies at the north-west end of the Solomon chain (Figure la). The resident population on Buka Island in mid-2000 was 33,800 people, giving an average population density of 55 persons/km2 lTable 2, Figure 2). The main foods eaten are sweet potato from subsistence food gardens and purchased imported rice. The latter is now possibly more important than garden foods, at least in southeast Buka. Food gardens are reputedly smaller.now on the east coast because of land shortages and people's preference to buy imported rice rather than to work hard in the gardens and to grow as much garden food as previously. Banana has become an important food crop since the Bougainville crisis, and especially after the 1997 drought. Coconut is used to prepare most meals and significant amounts are consumed. Firewood and timber for building is becoming more difficult to obtain in north-west Buka and along the east coast. Disputes are not uncommon over tree ownership in the north-west of the island. Land use intensity is high in the north-west, north, central and east coast areas. This is because the extensive coconut plantings have tied up much flat land. Only in the south-west of Buka Island is land use intensity moderately high. Significant areas of cocoa are currently being planted, especially on the east coast. Some cocoa is being planted under existing or new coconut stands, while fallow land is also being planted with sweet potato and banana and converted into cocoa plots. Copra is the main source of cash income. A significant amount of village cocoa is also sold, with sales estimated as about 20-30 per cent of the value of copra sales inlate 2002. There are a number of indications of stress on the east coast and especially in north-west

Buka. These include:

1.

The high intensity of land use for food production and associated low yields of a number of crops, including taro, corn and cucumber.

2.

Disputes over trees used for building, with fìrewood and timber for building reported to be somewhat scarce.

3.

Limited land available for food gardens, leading to shortened fallow periods (about three years) and extended cropping periods (typically about five years).

26


4

The longer distances required for people to walk to food gardens because of extensive coconut and cocoa plantings.

Sustainability of the agricultural system and food security. Pressure on the limited available land for food gardens is being relieved by widespread planting of cooking-type banana on most available land near hamlets. There are possibilities for some people to access land for gardening at locations further from their villages, but this depends on maintenance of feeder roads (which are currently in poor condition). These changes are unlikely to be sufficient to relieve pressure on land. Over the coming l015 years, pressure on land is likely to increase over much of Buka Island. Yields of food crops are likely to fall further unless there is significant use of more intensive garden techniques, including composting and management of fallow vegetation.

6.10 Selau/Suir and T¡nputz local level government areas The Selau/Suir LLG is located on the northern end of Bougainville Island and Tinputz LLG adjoins its south-east boundary (Figure 2). The populations of the LLGs are 9446 (21 persons/km2) and 97 67 ( 1 5 personslkm2) respectively (Table 1). Food supply is adequate and there is little current stress on the agricultural system. Some people in the Selau area make few food gardens because of potential damage by wild pigs. The level of consumption of imported food is quite high as cash income from cocoa sales is currently high. The extensive recent plantings of cocoa are generating pressure on land in some locations. This pressure is likely to increase as further cocoa is planted and may result in some food security problems in the future, particularly if the price of cocoa drops considerably.

6.11 Summary of locations exper¡encing stress on food and firewood The greatest immediate problem with food supply and other resources is in the Carteret Islands. Carbohydrate food is chronically scarce, as is firewood and timber for building. Cash income is also low. These problems are not new, but they continue to deteriorate as the high poþulation growth continues. A number of solutions are suggested here to improve access to cash and purchased food by improving sea transport and training local men in marketing marine produce for sale in Buka or Rabaul. The second location in Bougainville Province where there are major problems is Pinipel Island in the Nissan group. Here food supply is barely adequate, there are seasonal environmental problems, firewood supply is meagre and the level of cash income is very low. The shortage ofcarbohydrate food has been solved by dependence on a non-preferred staple: the fruit of a mangrove. A number of recommendations have been made to address these problems, including provision of technical advice to villagers on how best to manage their critical marine resources. Problems of food supply, timber for building and canoe construction, low cash income and environmental damage were identified in the inhabited islands west of Buka Island. The problems are especially severe in the two northern islands of Hetau and Pororan and less severe in the southern islands of Petats and Matsungan. The population pressure on land is very high at over 600 persons/km2 and will only increase as the population continues to

rapidly escalate.

27


There is less stress at other locations in the province. The problems on Nissan Island are similar to those on Pinipel, but are less severe. However, they are likely to intensifo over the next 10-15 years unless changes occur. Factors which would improve the situation include better management and marketing of marine resources, more intensive land use and particularly production and sale of high value crops. There are few curent problems on the other atolls in the province. Pressure is greatest in the Mortlock group. High population growth rate and shrinking possibilities for wage employment elsewhere in PNG may cause problems in the medium to long term (10-20 years), but environmental stress is minimal now. Villagers in the Tasman Islands are vulnerable to marked drops in income from sale of bêche-de-mer because of marketing problems or over-exploitation of the resource. Land pressure is being felt in the east and north coasts ofBuka Island because extensive areas are devoted to village coconut and cocoa. Food supply is curently adequate, but this pressure is likely to increase and may cause problems in the medium to long term.

Food supply in south and south-west Bougainville Island is vulnerable to periods of excessive rainfall, as occurred in2002. Villagers in both the Buin and Siwai areas are coming under pressure as sweet potato yields decline, with the problems more acute in the Siwai area. There are a number of interventions that could improve sweet potato production. As elsewhere in the province, these problems could be alleviated if villagers had more cash income and more diverse sources of cash income. People in the interior of Bougainville do not suffer from food shortages generally, but have poorer access to markets and services than those living on the coast (access roads are in bad shape at present). This situation could be improved by maintenance of access roads and cash crop diversification.

7,

Environmentaldamage

Comments are given here on environmental issues raised by villagers or noted by us. We did not examine any possible environmental issues associated with the Bougainville Copper Limited mine. Sea erosion. There are widespread reports of wave damage on most inhabited islands visited, including on Carteret, Mortlock, Pinipel, Pororan, Petats, Matsungan and Buka islands. This was not noted on Bougainville, but it is possible that sea erosion has occurred, but was not raised by villagers as there is less pressure on land there. In a number of locations, people said that the erosion commenced in the 1960s, but has accelerated since the 1980s. No indications \¡/ere received that this represents simply a transfer of sand from one location to another location on the same island, although this is possible. It is not known what is causing the reported sea erosion and whether it is related to changes in sea level. There are a number of possible explanations for this and investigation by a specialist would be needed to identiff the cause ofthe erosion. Sea level rise. Throughout the Pacific there is widespread concern about the impact of rising sea levels. This has arisen in part by alarmist projections about sea level rise and inundation of low-lying islands promulgated by some academics, journalists and others. This has caused

much unnecessary alarm among islanders in the Pacific.6

6

For example, the Takuu (Mortlock) Islands web site (700


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