Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating ...

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating Geographic Information Systems into the Entire Environmental Impact Assessment Process El-Gendawy, A.H.S.1, Othman, A.A.E.2, Mahmoud, A.H.A.3 1

The British University in Egypt, Architectural Engineering Department, El-Sherouk City, Cairo-Suez Desert Road, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

2

The British University in Egypt, Architectural Engineering Department, El-Sherouk City, Cairo-Suez Desert Road, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] 3

Cairo University, Architectural Engineering Department, Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The physical environment in which our inhabitant and continuing existence depends on has limited resources, therefore current generations are responsible for using these resources efficiently, to achieve their objectives without compromising those of future generations. Rapid development and ill-informed decisions usually cause indefinable environmental degradation and ecological deterioration. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process was developed to ensure protection and conservation of the environment and natural resources including human health aspects against uncontrolled development. Due to the dynamic characteristics and multivariate nature of the environment, it has often been difficult to collate, analyse and interpret its datasets. Overcoming these difficulties can be achieved with the application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and related technologies. GIS also offers a graphical presentation of the EIA study, through graphics and spatial analysis tools for supporting decision-making. This research aims to investigate the integration of GIS into each stage of the EIA process, in addition to developing a conceptual framework to integrate GIS into the entire EIA process. The integration aims to facilitate the EIA process execution, improve data analysis, and assist decision-makers to make sound decisions as an attempt towards sustainable decision-making. To achieve this aim, a research methodology is designed to accomplish three objectives. First, build an in-depth understanding of the research topic by conducting an intensive literature review on EIA and GIS main concepts. Second, present and analyse examples where EIA practice benefited from GIS through analytic case studies. Third, propose an innovative decision-making framework through developing a conceptual framework for GIS integration into the entire EIA process. Keywords: GIS, EIA, Decision-making, Environment, Sustainable Development

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1.

Background

Rapid development causes different environmental problems, such as air pollution, acidic rain, water pollution and land pollution. Cities of developing countries have experienced a much greater indefinable environmental degradation and ecological deterioration, due to the overwhelming scale and speed of development. To slow the damage caused by development, it is essential that human actions become more sustainable. Since 1987, the world’s nations have been discussing the need for greater sustainable development worldwide (UNCHS, 2001). The EIA process was developed as an effective planning tool in order to reduce environmental deterioration. EIA ensures the protection and conservation of the environment and natural resources including human health aspects against uncontrolled development (Olivier, 2004). For the dynamic characteristics and multivariate nature of the environment, it has often been difficult to collate, analyse and interpret its datasets (Bhatt, 2009). This complexity can be overcome with the application of a system of computer tools such as GIS and related technologies (World Bank, 1995). GIS storage capability makes environmental data easier to upgrade, update and retrieve as desired. GIS also offers a graphical presentation of the EIA study, through graphics and spatial analysis tools for easy analysis during decision-making. The use of GIS for proper EIA processes is strongly recommended to help contribute to the resolution of many environmental problems (João, 1998; Olivier, 2004; Bhatt, 2009). However, despite this acknowledged potential, the actual use of GIS for impact assessment has been sparingly documented (João, 1998; Smith, 2005). The available literature provides narrow discussions of how GIS are important in facilitating the entire EIA process. Very few literatures gave practical steps for the integration and tools required more over focused on the use of GIS as a graphical representation tool only without reflecting to its other functionalities (Smith, 2005).

1.2.

Aim and Methodology

This research aims to investigate the integration of GIS into each stage of the EIA process, in addition to developing a conceptual framework to integrate GIS into the entire EIA process. The integration aims to facilitate the EIA process execution, improve data analysis, and assist decision-makers to make sound decisions as an attempt towards sustainable decision-making. A research methodology was designed to accomplish the aim of the study through three objectives. First, build an in-depth understanding of the research topic by conducting an intensive literature review on EIA and GIS main concepts. Second, present and analyse examples where EIA practice benefited from GIS through analytic case studies. Third, develop a conceptual framework for GIS integration into the entire EIA process.

2. MAIN CONCEPTS Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – is described as “a systematic, well documented and multidisciplinary procedure, where identification, description and assessment of the direct and indirect effects of a project or an activity on different environmental factors takes place such as soil, water, air, climate, landscape, cultural heritage, flora, fauna, human beings; and also interactions among the factors” (Agrawal and Dikshit, 2002).

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA) – is described by the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) in the US as “the impact on the environment which results from the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency or person undertakes such other actions” (Blaser et al., 2004). Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) - Therival et al. (1992) quite clearly position SEA as being a natural extension of the well-established EIA process, and defined it as “a formalized, systematic and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental impacts of a policy, plan or program (PPP) and its alternatives, including the preparation of a written report on the evaluation findings, and using the findings in publicly accountable decision-making.” Geographical Information Systems (GIS) - The acronym GIS is sometimes used for Geographical Information Science or Geospatial Information Studies to refer to the academic discipline or career of working with Geographic Information Systems. Several definitions for the term GIS exist in literature, each of which has been developed to suit a different perspective or discipline (Maguire, 1991). The most suitable definition for the purpose of this research was defined by Campo (2008) “as an array of technological tools for the management, analysis and display of spatial data which, when operated skilfully within appropriate organizational contexts, can provide evidence-based information to support better decision-making.” Many have characterized GIS as one of the most powerful of all information technologies, because it focuses on integrating knowledge from multiple sources and creates a crosscutting environment for collaboration. In addition, GIS is attractive to most people who encounter it, because GIS is both intuitive and cognitive. GIS combines a powerful visualization environment with a strong analytic and modelling framework that is rooted in the science of geography. To support this vision, GIS combines three fundamental views, geodatabase, geovisualization and geoprocessing view (Maguire, 1991).

3. Evolution of EIA and GIS Both EIA and GIS have evolved through four phases as in Table (1): Table 1: EIA and GIS evolution (UNEP, 2002; Rodriguez and Glasson, 2004)

EIA 

1970 to 1975 - Introduction and early development  Mid 70’s to early 80’s - Increasing scope and sophistication  Early 80’s to early 90’s - Process strengthening and integration  Early 90’s to present - Strategic and sustainability orientation

GIS 

Early 60s to mid 70s - Initiation of GIS  1973 to early 80s - Agencies and organizations take over GIS development  1982 to early 90s - Commercial phase  Early 90s to present - User dominance

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

4. EIA PROCESS AND GIS INTEGRATION Most EIA processes have a common structure as seen in Figure (1). The application of the main stages is a basic standard of good practice.

Figure ‎1: Generalized EIA Process Flowchart (UNEP, 2002)

4.1.

GIS in Screening

It is the procedure to select if a proposal activity requires EIA, before a full and detailed assessment process starts. It has two main objectives within the EIA process: clear identification of projects requiring EIA, and quick and easy operation in order to avoid unnecessary delay in the process (Gilpin A., 1995). MEXSES (Mekong Expert System for Environmental Screening) is a tool for the screening of EIA, designed for the Lower Mekong Basin, Bangkok, Thailand. This tool links qualitative project characteristics, checklists, planning data, and environmental features to likely expected impacts using a simple logic of IF...THEN rules (Fedra et al., 1991). GIS provides both a means of input for the spatial planning data as well as the all-important means of communicating the end results in an understandable and visual manner (Bao and Lu, 2001).

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

Figure 2: GIS Provinces Map in MEXEUS (Fedra et al., 1991)

4.2.

GIS in Scoping

It is a procedure, carried out by project proponent as early as possible, to help ensure that EIA focuses on key environmental issues associated with a proposed activity. The result should determine the scope and depth of the significant issues to be examined through creating Terms of Reference (TOR) for the upcoming Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) (Gilpin, 1995). GIS can serve as a basis for scoping of environmental effects. Once the basic databases are available, a GIS-based system may provide better targeted guidelines for EIS. Along with providing rapid and effective identification of spatially-specific potential impacts that need further consideration especially in large scale projects (Olivier, 2004). Automation provides standardization of the scoping system within particular geographic areas, as well as improved visibility of the scoping process for decision-makers and public (Haklay et al., 1998). SCREEN-SCOPE GIS research project at Oxford Brookes is a tool for screening and scoping. In this application, an expert system is first used to guide the user through the screening process by asking a series of questions concerning the projects location, characteristics, and magnitude. Then, the same expert system poses additional questions that are relevant to scoping, based on the answers given in the screening step. In the third step the spatial capabilities of a GIS are then called upon in order to automatically check the relevance of potential impacts highlighted by the expert system. The GIS component is capable of automatically checking most quantifiable factors involved in scoping (Rodriguez, 2000). In a second example, Haklay et al. (1998) offer an alternative approach to the creation of an automated scoping system, by placing a Relational DataBase Management System (RDBMS) in the central role, which is used to model information contained in existing scoping checklists. By utilizing the entity-relationship model of the RDBMS together with the scoping checklists (Bisset, 1987). Projects of different types are related to lists of potential impacts, which in turn are then related to the environmental elements involved. Next, each impact-environmental element pair is then related to the appropriate spatial analyst technique as well as to the relevant spatial data layers containing physical data (DEM, geology etc.), coverage data (buildings, roads etc.), ecological data, and data from environmental studies (e.g. sensitive water bodies). Wherever

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

possible the appropriate spatial analysis is then performed automatically using common GIS functions, and the results are then checked against predefined thresholds to see whether the issue should be incorporated into the environmental assessment. For socio-economic impacts where automation is not possible a note is made that this issue should be considered in the initial stages of the environmental assessment. Again, the end result of the system is that the user is provided with a list of impacts to be considered in the assessment.

4.3.

GIS in Baseline Studies

The aim of this step is to “assess the value of the baseline environment” and provide data needed to predict the likely changes resulting from the proposed development (Morris and Therivel, 1995). This information may have various sources (e.g. local authorities, city councils, libraries, databases, remote sensing, etc.) and collecting it may require a large investment in terms of time and money (Olivier, 2004). Spatial data layers showing the different aspects of the area relevant to the impacts, newly derived data layers, and statistical data are all gathered from various sources to form a spatial database. The creation of such a database facilitates the later stages of impact assessment and monitoring (Smith, 2005). In the past, the role of GIS in EIA largely focused upon the generation of baseline maps (Vanderhaegen and Muro, 2005; João and Fonseca, 1996). This is a result of GIS’s cartographic background, and its functionality of fast production of new maps from existing information (João and Fonseca, 1996). In addition to improved information delivery, and time and resources optimization (Campo, 2008). A good example of the creation of a baseline GIS database can be found in a case study by Duong et al. (1999). In this case a database was compiled to include physical, socio-economic, and biological/ecological data layers for the region of Ha Long Bay, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Vietnam that was under threat from the application of Ad hoc planning strategies. The database layers (Figure 3), formed from processing a combination of satellite images (Landsat TM) and aerial photographs, and was prepared in order to facilitate an impact assessment of the “Master plan of Ha Long City”. In the Ha Long City case study no indication is given as to the steps that were required in order to obtain the data used for the creation of the database. However, obtaining such baseline data can be problematic. Even if data exists and can be found sometimes the access to the data can still be difficult due to political, legal or other reasons (Duong et al., 1999).

Figure 3: Land Use Interpretation Result (Duong et al., 1999)

4.4.

GIS in Impact Analysis

Impact analysis considers the impacts of a project when it is under construction, operation, and ‘no project’ situation (Gilpin A., 1995). Environmental impact can never be predicted with absolute certainty and this is all the more reason to consider all possible factors and take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty (Agrawal and Dikshit, 2002). Once

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

predictions have been generated for each of the different scenarios, the predicted effects for each scenario must then be compared to one-another. Traditional methods used for such comparisons, such as matrices and networks, have one major limitation in that they lack the spatial dimension (Vanderhaegen and Muro, 2005). GIS is useful for spatially displaying the impact significance and how that variation changes with different alternatives, including the ‘do nothing’ option (João and Fonseca, 1996). GIS allows performing comparison of both environmental and socio-economic impacts between different scenarios in a quick and efficient manner (Smith, 2005). The ability of GIS to rapidly change and update information is crucial for scenario building (Vanderhaegen and Muro, 2005). GIS techniques such as overlay analysis, buffering, and interpolation are commonly used to produce thematic layers allowing quick and easy visual comparison of a range of potential impacts associated with different alternatives/scenarios and the preferred option (João and Fonseca, 1996).The visual representation of such an assessment of alternatives provides more comprehensive results (e.g. better identification, more accurate description, better quantification and improved evaluation of spatial and temporal variability of impacts) for evidence-based decision-making (Campo, 2008).

Figure ‎4: SIAM Case Study Indicator Maps (Antunes et al., 2001)

Antunes et al. (2001) give a good example, where Spatial Impact Assessment Methodology (SIAM) is used to create thematic maps predicting different impacts. In a case study used to test out the methodology, indicator maps showing air quality (NOx emissions) and noise levels were produced to predict how the local population and ecology would be affected by a proposed plan to construct a new highway. For the two factors the study area was divided into a series of cells, with each cell assigned a value (reclassified) according to the likely level of air quality/noise. These likely levels were calculated based on a combination of the distance from proposed

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

highway (buffering) together with expert knowledge. The resulting maps were then overlaid with grids of population density in order to show where the impact of the two factors was most likely to be significant, (Figure 4). The results of this example were used as part of an impact assessment carried out at project level (EIA) and used for the locating of mitigation measures such as noise barriers.

4.5.

GIS in Mitigation Measures

These measures are proposed to control, avoid or minimize the adverse impacts of the project and are incorporated into the project description (Morris and Therivel, 1995). Measures might include abandoning or modifying a proposal, relocating it, or substitution of techniques; cleaner methods; recycling; pollution control methods; closure of older plant; landscaping and rehabilitation; acquisition of properties; and better programming (Gilpin, 1995). Aside from that no specific GIS techniques have been developed for this stage in the EIA area, the enhanced evaluation of environmental impacts through GIS can help to adequately identify quantitative, spatially precise mitigation measures and the extent of mitigation activities over time (Vanderhaegen and Muro, 2005). Therefore, previous spatial analyses can potentially support and improve the formulation of mitigation measures. Figure (5) shows an example of a quantitative estimation of noise levels for a proposed railway line, the output of noise models typically in the form of noise contours; i.e. lines indicating equal noise levels (Figure 5a), and when noise barriers are applied to minimise noise propagation near concentrations of houses (Figure 5b). By using GIS it becomes easy to assess the impact of these barriers in terms of a reduction in the number of houses within certain critical noise contours. GIS provides an analytical tool for easy comparison of different mitigation measures (Olivier, 2004).

b)

a)

Figure ‎5: Mitigating Effect of Noise Barriers on Noise Contours for a Railway Road (Olivier, 2004)

4.6.

GIS in Reporting

It is the presentation of the results of the EIA in an appropriate and useable format. The EIS is a statement that assists the proponent to plan and design; the responsible authority to decide; and the public to understand (UNEP, 2002). GIS application in the reporting stage provides an improved quality and accuracy of the assessment, and improved presentation and enhanced information delivery. In addition to the optimization of time and resources required. However, data quality issues (i.e. access, availability, scale, accuracy and comprehensiveness) affect the reliability of the assessment outcomes (Campo, 2008).

4.7.

GIS in Review

The review stage is an essential quality control feature conducted by the responsible authority. Reviewing ensures that the data collected and information about environmental impacts

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

presented in an EIS are adequate, before the report is used as the basis for decision-making (Fuller, 1999). Methods to ensure the objectivity of the review should include the use of EIS review criteria, accreditation of EIS review consultants, the setting up of an independent review body and involvement of consultants and the public (Ahmad and Wood, 2002).

4.8.

GIS in Decision-Making

The term ‘decision-making’ is used in EIA to mean the final approval of a proposal. However, a series of ‘interim’ decisions about the proposal are made throughout the EIA process (UNEP, 2002). Decision-making process involves the consultation between the project proponent/developer (assisted by a consultant) and the assessment authority. The final decision on acceptance or rejection is arrived at through a number of steps including evaluation of EIA and Environmental Management Plan (Agrawal and Dikshit, 2002). Decision-making is a continual process of consultation, decision, evaluation and revision, and, in the context of land use management and planning, frequently is specifically concerned with adaptive management of change and design of alternative future directions for land use within a given geographic area (Aspinall and Pearson, 2000). GIS application provides an enhanced transparency of the process and improved quantity and quality of environmental information provided (Campo, 2008). When additional data is requested or new impacts have to be studied, GIS is very useful if used from the beginning of EIA study. This will assist replication of assessment, with saved time and effort.

4.9.

GIS in Monitoring

Monitoring is the iterative process to validate the “effectiveness of mitigation measures and assessing residual impacts” (Morris and Therivel, 1995). It is considered that monitoring is the most important step in EIA, since monitoring the impacts of a project during its construction and operation phases is the only way to validate the process of EIA. Without appropriate implementation and follow up to decision-making, EIA becomes a paper exercise to secure an approval, rather than a practical exercise to achieve environmental benefits (UNEP, 2002). GIS possess considerable power for the management and organization of spatial data (Vanderhaegen and Muro, 2005). The potential of GIS as a central repository for spatial data, facilitating visual analysis of impact monitoring data to be performed over time, provides a much-needed extra dimension to impact assessment (Haklay et al., 1998). GIS can be used for designing monitoring programs, processing and storage of monitoring data, comparison of actual outcomes with predicted outcomes and baseline condition, and for data presentation showing the variation with time (João and Fonseca, 1996). The successful integration of GIS in earlier stages of the EIA process, particularly within baseline generation and impact prediction will serve as a strong foundation for the implementation of impact monitoring and auditing (Smith, 2005), where data sources and methods used during impact analysis stages are suitable for reuse during monitoring.

4.10. GIS in Public Participation According to international good practice principles, public participation should occur as early as possible, beginning at the screening and scoping stages, and continuing throughout the project assessment process to the EIS. Effective public participation should involve consultation via two-way communication between the developer and public, and between the environmental agency/government and the local communities (Vasconcelos et al., 2000). In public meetings, many of the consultation methods used at such meetings fail to make the decision-making

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

process satisfying to the public. Such problems often lead to miscommunication and mistrust of planners and politicians. One problem is the difficulty that citizens attending public meetings often experience when understanding the spatial relationships of features represented on plans and maps. Spatial visualization tools such as GIS offer a means to breakdown these perception problems and at the same time promote meaningful and valuable public input, and allow quick response to questions and suggested changes (João and Fonseca, 1996). Such user input can provide both valuable and cost reducing input at all stages of the EIA process (Evans et aI., 1999). Another prospect is the potential for breaking down the GIS usability barriers via its use over the Internet. There are numerous examples whereby attempts have been made to develop and test bi-directional web-based GIS applications that aim to extract decision-related information from the public (Smith, 2005). Web-based GIS systems offer the opportunity for public anonymity, public equality, wider accessibility, longer response times, and ease of processing public feedback. However, when using the Internet for public consultation a number of limiting factors need also to be considered, for example the limited availability of access to the Internet, and problems of unrepresentative user groups (Evans et aI., 1999). Campo (2008) developed a participative GIS tool, GISEA website was structured following a user-friendly approach. The website design (Figure 6) followed a number of steps guiding the user through the public consultation process. The GISEA website subsequently displayed a map showing the selected environmental criteria for users to view and interact with the information. Personal perceptions, observations and comments could be submitted via semistructured questionnaires. The participative website also contained a rated voting system, which allowed users ranking the proposed planning alternatives for the area. These qualitative and quantitative data were gathered on a database for future analysis and incorporation into the assessment.

Figure 6: GISEA Web Browser (Campo, 2008)

5. EIA AND GIS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Sustainable development is the balance of meeting humankind's present needs while protecting the environment to ensure the fulfilment of future generations' needs. To apply sustainable development concept a variety of analytical and applied management tools have been

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

implemented in order to bring harmony between traditional development and the environment, EIA is one of these tools (Carroll and Turpin, 2009). It is important to note that EIA doesn’t in itself, guarantee sustainable development. But it can guide decision-makers in the right direction from the outset by including the costs of environmental protection measures and offering creative alternatives to harmonize the different requirements (Espinoza and Richards, 2002). Figure (7a) is a representation of the levels of planning towards sustainable development, where EIA is the base for this influence.

b)

a)

Figure 7: Attempt Towards Sustainability through EIA and Levels of Planning, and GIS Utilization (Weaver, 2003; Agius, 2005)

The growing human population and its demands on the earth's resources generate a need for sustainable practices. Implementing these practices often requires collaboration between different organizations. GIS software sets the stage for cooperation between organizations in order to make well-informed decisions. The capability of GIS will allow decision-makers not only to see the current state of the managed resources, but also to see the impacts of their decisions and the future state of those resources. GIS allows users across the globe to share ideas on how to meet their resource needs, plan efficient land-use, and protect the environment to guarantee the survival of future generations (Latu, 2009). Figure (7b) was adapted to show how GIS can deal with different data inputs (economic, social and environmental) and perform a number of GIS analysis processes to reach an integrated output, where sustainability can be achieved.

6. BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF GIS INTEGRATION IN EIA 6.1.

Benefits of GIS Integration in EIA

Although EIA requires more inputs than geo-information alone, there are many synergies between EIA and GIS, where GIS can add substantial value (Olivier, 2004; Atkinson et al., 2008). Including three main benefits summarized according to GIS capabilities as follows:  Geoprocessing - The ability of GIS to perform rapid construction of multi-layered electronic maps. In addition to spatial query, spatial analysis functions and modelling that contribute to better impact prediction and assessment (João, 1998; Miles and Ho, 1999).  Geodatabase - The ability to efficiently store, organize and easily update spatial digital data relevant for impact assessment studies. This allows the integration of different kinds of spatial information previously unrelated, to easily obtain new results for changing conditions, and to compare or integrate data from different IA studies (Maguire et al., 1991). Areas of environmental constraint are easily identified and can be assigned different

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

weights. Different scenarios may be generated with minimal effort and time to provide multiple choices and options for decision-makers (Warner and Diab, 2002).  Geovisualization - The ability of GIS to provide good visual cartographic display capabilities, which is a powerful means of conveying results easily interpreted like maps, tables, and other analysis results. This helps provide a better explanation of development plans or alternatives to the public (João, 1998). GIS also offers a virtual environment within which decision-makers and scientists can explore theory and evaluate competing management strategies (Miles and Ho, 1999).

6.2.

Challenges of GIS Integration in EIA

The main challenges preventing GIS from being used more widely in EIA or to their full potential can be summarized as follows (Epstein E., 1991; Olivier, 2004; Smith, 2005):  Data accuracy and quality, as EIS may turn out to be used as legal documents  Information accessibility  Willingness of developer to make data available to the public, which involves some risks for the developer  Time required to set up the GIS  Initial start-up costs (where data represents between 50% and 80% of the total cost of the project (Huxhold and Levinsohn, 1995))  Technical experience required  Integrating data from different sources (e.g. socio-economic with technical data)  User-related errors when using computer-based GIS techniques rather than conventional manual methods  Lack of GIS/spatial awareness

7. GIS-EIA PROCESS INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK 7.1.

Need for the Framework

In many countries around the world, EIA for developmental projects must be applied by law before the approval of project construction. There is a simultaneous increasing need for tools to help perform the entire process prior project construction (Ogola, 2007). The main consideration for all stages of the EIA process is that they should be systematic and consistent. Time is a major constrain for conducting the entire process as not to delay the project construction (UNEP, 2002). Thus the need for the GIS-EIA Process Integration Framework (GIS-EIAPIF) is ascertained by the international recognition of GIS that is used to assist the practice of EIA. The necessity for the GIS-EIAPIF is also established from the importance of sustaining our surrounding environment. In order for projects development to be sustainable, contributions are needed from all segments of society, including public and private sectors, communities, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), as well as individuals. The communication and interaction between the project stakeholders is facilitated by GIS. This therefore highlights the need to integrate GIS into EIA as a contribution, toward assisting EIA to accomplish the key role it plays towards sustainable decision-making which results in environmental protection.

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

7.2.

Description of the Framework

The GIS-EIAPIF developed through this research represents the researcher’s direct contribution to this area of knowledge. The framework aims to integrate the economic, social and environmental dimensions of an initiated project/development in an EIA study as a means towards supporting sustainable development decision-making. Figure (8) illustrates the concept of achieving sustainable development for a construction project through the GIS-EIAPIF. Any project has three dimensions that should be put into consideration, social, economic and environmental. For sustainable development to be achieved, those three dimensions should be fully integrated. By integrating GIS into EIA a more enhanced sustainable decision is achieved through all the stages of the EIA process and including the final decision.

Figure 8: Concept of GIS-EIAPIF towards Sustainable Development

The GIS-EIAPIF is designed to guide personnel concerned with the study which are mainly the project proponent and concerned authorities to employ GIS as a platform to perform EIA study for construction projects. The framework gives the overall picture for GIS integration into the EIA process through the ten stages. Figure (9) illustrates the nine sequential stages of the EIA process beginning with screening and ending with monitoring. Public participation, the tenth stage surrounds the sequential stages as it is conducted during most stages. GIS is at the centre which is utilized in each stage of the process to enhance and improve its performance.

Figure 9: Conceptual GIS-EIA Process Integration Framework

8. CONCLUSION As a result from the conducted research it was found that both GIS and EIA have great benefit towards achieving a more sustainable development. From the literature review conducted it was found that GIS was integrated in most of the EIA stages separately as presented in the case

© SB13-Cairo 2013 Sustainable Decision-Making through Integrating GIS into the Entire EIA Process El-Gendawy, A. H. S. et al.

studies. Most of the presented case studies didn’t use the full potentials of GIS. There was no evidence of a framework or case study where GIS was integrated through the entire EIA study. Conducting the entire EIA process in a GIS platform has many benefits to the EIA study and the environment. Some of the main benefits include digitizing the spatial component of EIA study, and achieving a more visual perspective of the study. The use of such technology allows for saved time, effort and long term costs. Once a project spatial database is created the EIA study or separate stages can be easily replicated, as well as further environmental studies including CEA which can be easily conducted. A detailed description of the developed framework, including its evaluation though structured interviews with professionals and application on a developmental construction project will be presented in a coming paper.

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