sustainable development - Unesco

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT –

A PACIFIC ISLANDS PERSPECTIVE A Report on Follow up to the Mauritius 2005 Review of the Barbados Programme of Action

Kanayathu Koshy, Melchior Mataki, and Murari Lal Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (PACE-SD) University of the South Pacific

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT –

A PACIFIC ISLANDS PERSPECTIVE

A Report on Follow up to the Mauritius 2005 Review of the Barbados Programme of Action

Kanayathu Koshy, Melchior Mataki, and Murari Lal Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (PACE-SD) University of the South Pacific

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT – A PACIFIC ISLANDS PERSPECTIVE

© UNESCO 2008 Published by the UNESCO Cluster Office for the Pacific States P.O. Box 615 Apia Samoa Printed in New Zealand. The designations employed and the presentation of material througout the publication do not imply the expression of any option whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. Cover photo: Katrina Adams.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword

5

Introduction

6

Acknowledgements

7

Executive Summary

8

1.

2.

3.

4.

Sustainable Development in the Pacific Island Countries 10 1.1

General Concept of Sustainable Development

10

1.2

The Small Island Developing State and Sustainable Development

11

1.3

Pacific Island Countries: Major Challenges

12

1.4

WSSD Type II Initiatives as a Vehicle for Implementing Sustainable Development in PICTs

14

1.5

BPoA: The Blueprint and the Mauritius Strategy

15

1.6

International and Regional Negotiations on Multilateral Environmental Agreements

16

1.7

Sustainable Development Pathways: Environmental Opportunities and Challenges

18

Conceptual Frameworks for Sustainable Development in the Pacific Context 32 2.1

Sustainability in the Local Context: Traditional or Indigenous Approaches

32

2.2

Sustainable Development Articulated from Outside the Pacific

33

2.3

The need for Participatory Approaches to Sustainable Development

34

2.4

Innovative Articulation of Sustainable Development

35

New and Emerging Issues 35 3.1

International Trade, Sustainability Production and Consumption

36

3.2

Information and Communication Technology

38

3.3

Governance and Policy Issues

41

3.4

Human Resource Capacity Building – Education for Sustainable Development

44

3.5

The Financing Context

47

3.6

Customary Land Tenure: Barrier or Bonus for Sustainable Development?

49

3.7

Coupling Indigenous Knowledge and Management Systems with Science

50

3.8

Demographic Change / Population Movements and Migration

51

3.9

Human health

53

Pacific Responses to Sustainable Development Challenges 4.1

4.2

4.3

56

Regional Level Environmental Responses (Participation in Rio, Johannesburg, Mauritius, UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal Protocol etc.)

57

National Level Responses: Mainstreaming of Sustainable Development, NEMS, National Capacity Self Assessment, National Sustainable Development Strategies, Sector Policies and Frameworks

57

Community Level Actions: Ideas that can be Replicated

59


5.

UNESCO’s Role in Furthering Pacific Island Sustainable Development: A Critical Anaylsis 62 5.1

6.

Education: Promote Education for Sustainable Development through the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

62

5.2

Promote Culturally Sensitive Development

66

5.3

Support Community Level Activities for Stakeholder Empowerment

67

5.4

Specific Sectors, Issues or Countries where Intervention is Warranted

68

Concluding Remarks

73

References Cited

74

Appendix I: Pacific Country Status with Multilateral Environmental Agreements Global Agreements / Conventions

77

Appendix 1I: Country and Territory Profiles

78

List of Acronyms

95

FOREWORD

FOREWORD

U

NESCO has long recognised the significance of sustainable development. While the most broadly accepted definition as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" emerged with the Brundtland Report published in 1987, programmes such as Man and the Biosphere, established in the late 1960s, clearly anticipated the need to address human development with the needs of future generations in mind – and advocated innovative and interdisciplinary means to do so. In the publication Sixty Years of Science at UNESCO 1945–2005, sustainable development was defined as a key subject area for UNESCO's work in the natural sciences – a unifying concept for the organization's work. Recognizing that sustainable development rests of four pillars – the three classical economic, social, and environmental pillars, as well as the cultural pillar with which the organization is often associated – UNESCO advocates the mainstreaming of culture, education, and science into development. Seeing these as cross-cutting elements underpinning sustainable development, UNESCO believes that such mainstreaming will reduce inequalities and their associated costs, while at the same time supporting environmental sustainability. However, as a global organization with 193 member countries facing a formidable range of development challenges, UNESCO realizes that the definitions and interpretations of sustainable development must necessarily be as diverse as it member countries. It therefore follows that in order to effectively serve its member states in their pursuit of sustainable development, UNESCO must first take steps to ascertain how its member states perceive the concept. What are their key sustainable development priorities? Are there issues and trends that are shared at the wider regional scales? And how can UNESCO best utilize its mandate, programmes and instruments to assist in addressing these? Prepared by the University of the South Pacific's Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development in partnership with UNESCO, this report is the result of a pilot project with the objective of defining and outlining sustainable development challenges and responses in the Pacific island region. One of the most biologically and culturally diverse regions of the world, the Pacific faces a broad range of development challenges. Comprising small island developing states ranging in size from Niue with less than 2,000 inhabitants to Papua New Guinea with more than 6 million, and dispersed over an area covering roughly one third of the globe, the Pacific is home to hundreds of languages, traditions and cultures. The peoples of the Pacific have for generations relied on the local and indigenous systems and technologies that allowed them to settle and thrive in a region connected and dominated by the ocean rather than by land. Faced with globalization, climate change and variability, and rapid economic, political and social transformation, Pacific island countries are at a crossroads - seeking economic growth as well as social and political stability, while retaining and building upon the local and indigenous values, knowledge and technologies that define the region. Articulating and pursuing sustainable development in a setting that is appropriate and unique to the Pacific is an essential element in this quest. Walter Erdelen UNESCO Assistant Director-General for Natural Sciences Paris, France, November 2007


INTRODUCTION

T

here is universal agreement that sustainable development is desirable for all peoples and nations of the world. However, when it comes to defining what the term embodies, broad agreement is harder to come by.

Perhaps because it is utilised to such an extent – and in such a wide range of contexts – by the development aid and international cooperation community, the meaning of the word “sustainable” can itself be hard to come to grips with. This report examines how the small island nations of the Pacific are devising and advancing locally specific and often unique interpretations of what constitutes sustainable development, as they confront considerable development challenges. Covering more than one fourth of the surface of the globe, yet with a population of less than seven million, characterised by very high biological and cultural diversity, the prevalence of strong local and indigenous cultures, and faced with considerable challenges such as geographical isolation and vulnerability to climate change, the Pacific is unlike any other region in the world. However, in the unique and creative responses to the development challenges it faces, as well as in the difficulties in overcoming some of these, the Pacific holds valuable lessons for the world as a whole. This report is a product of the University of the South Pacific (USP)’s Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development. A university and an intergovernmental organization with membership from all the independent Pacific island states, USP plays a crucial role in addressing the region’s development challenges. My sincere thanks go to the university and to the authors of this report, who have managed to synthesize a tremendous effort into a compact and readable format. As Director of the UNESCO Apia Office – the representative office of UNESCO to the Pacific island states – I am happy for our office to be associated with this report, which was conceived during a visit to the region by the UNESCO Assistant Director-General for the Natural Sciences three years ago. It is my hope that this document will be found useful as a contribution to both the Pacific and the global debate on sustainable development, and that it may provide assistance towards guiding the work not only of our own organization and sister UN agencies as we embark on increasingly closely coordinated programming, but also the wider network of Pacific and global organizations with an interest in the sustainable development of small island states and communities.

Visesio Pongi Director, UNESCO Office, Apia Apia, Samoa, November 2007

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T

his report benefited from the attention of numerous individuals within UNESCO, at the University of the South Pacific and elsewhere.

At UNESCO I should like to especially thank Walter Erdelen, Assistant Director-General for Natural Sciences, for his inspiration in conceiving this project and his support throughout the exercise. Hans Thulstrup of UNESCO Apia Office coordinated the compilation of UNESCO input to the report with support and editing from L. Anathea Brooks at UNESCO Headquarters and Susan Vize and James Elise at UNESCO Apia. Additional thanks are due to Dirk Troost and Douglas Nakashima from the Coastal and Small Islands group at UNESCO, Salvatore Arico, Mike Bonnell, Miguel Clusener-Godt, Peggy Dunlop, Christine Galitzine, Mirjam Kuzee and other colleagues who commented on and added to the drafts. Finally, I would like to thank Ralph Regenvanu of the Vanuatu Cultural Centre for his review of this document.

Visesio Pongi


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

T

hough there are many interpretations of sustainable development, the most widely quoted definition is the one given in the Brundtland Report: “development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). The three pillars of sustainable development are now recognised to be economic growth, social development and environmental protection. In its applications, sustainable development is truly multi-dimensional (society and nature), multi-temporal (spans short and long time horizons), multi-geographic (covers all regions of the world), multi-scale (micro and macro levels) and invokes intra- and inter-generational equity. Traditionally, Pacific Island people have lived a subsistence lifestyle with taboos and practices that promoted sustainability of resource use. The traditional and indigenous approaches to sustainability were embodied in systems of knowledge and practice applicable to all sectors of their livelihood, such as controlled access and use of natural resources, food security (agriculture and marine) and food preservation techniques, weather and seasonal climate forecasting, traditional medicines, waste management and social relationships. Worldwide, there is increasing recognition of the intrinsic importance of local culture underlying the whole development process. The need to protect cultural diversity, promote cultural industries, respect intellectual property rights and encourage public-private partnerships resulting in job creation and poverty reduction has been recognised in the Pacific. Traditional and local knowledge has also played a role in protecting the coral reefs, rainforest environments, mangroves, and traditional medicines. It should also be recognised that traditional and local knowledge has assisted Pacific communities to sustain themselves effectively throughout history without complex technological interventions and therefore has continuing importance in Pacific Island countries. Without any prejudice to the benefits arising from modernization, it has led to a general decline in the quality of life in recent decades, with problems affecting aspects of life under all three pillars of sustainable development. On the other hand, the combination of local and traditional knowledge with modern knowledge, especially in natural resource management at the community level, has proven to be effective in a number of Pacific Island countries. Although the benefit of augmenting modern knowledge with traditional knowledge has been recognised and applied in a few Pacific Island countries, the broader notion of sustainable development continues to be articulated without significant regard for sustainable practices within Pacific cultures. Consequently, sustainable development is often expressed as a new development paradigm arising from international and subsequently regional and national level discussions, lacking substance to ordinary citizens at large. To allay this misconception, and more importantly draw from indigenous knowledge systems and practices (IKSP), the mainstreaming of IKSP into national level planning with due consideration to its intellectual property aspects of IKSP cannot be over-emphasised. In the Pacific, a variety of customary land tenure systems have been practised over decades, often sharing similarities such as communal ownership and spiritual association with the land. More importantly, customary land laws (and therefore customary land tenure) and constitutional land laws are currently being recognised and applied simultaneously, where the latter seldom reflect customary land tenure principles and are often regarded as the ultimate land law. The parallel recognition and application of both land tenure systems, without any facilitative links between them, gives rise to a “grey area” where conflicts often arise. Consequently, the customary land tenure systems in the Pacific have often been criticised for being obstacles to economic development. The way forward is to ensure that the interests and benefits arising from the utilization of land resources are equitably distributed between local communities and entrepreneurs. In an ever-globalising world the situation of Pacific Island countries continues to be one of exposure and growing vulnerability with an increasing inability to respond. There are many disadvantages that derive from small size: a narrow range of resources, excessive dependence on international trade, high population

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

density, overuse of natural resources, climate vulnerability, relatively small watersheds, costly infrastructure, fragile ecosystems with high levels of endemism and waste management challenges. In addition to regional multilateral environmental agreements, the region and the individual Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs) have made strong commitments to prevent further irreversible environmental change and to promote sustainable development by becoming party to numerous international multilateral environmental agreements such as the Earth Summit conventions (Framework Convention on Climate Change, Convention on Biological Diversity and Convention to Combat Desertification), the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and the Barbados Programme of Action, including the Pacific Type II initiatives and the Mauritius Strategy. These commitments result in reporting and implementation obligations often beyond the compliance capacity of PICTs. While the PICTs are still grappling with the implementation challenges of Agenda 21, (an outcome of the Rio Earth Summit), the Barbados Programme of Action, and the Millennium Development Goals, the list has increased with additional priorities resulting from changes taking place in the world. These include climate change and sea level rise, natural and environmental disasters, diseases such as HIV/AIDS, as well as governance and management issues linked to globalisation, trade liberalization, information and communication technology and broadening security challenges. These have profound impacts on ecosystems, economies and socio-cultural aspects of life in PICTs. The weakening economic performance of many PICTs since the adoption of the Barbados Programme of Action is a matter of concern, due in part to their declining trade performance. Whilst it is recognised that international trade is important for the building of resilience and sustainable development of PICTs, the necessity for the international financial and trading systems granting special and differential treatment to PICTs is also imperative. Truly, PICTs will be unable to effectively participate in the multilateral trade negotiations, resulting in their further marginalization unless the World Trade Organization recognises the special case of Small Island Developing States in general and PICTs in particular and takes appropriate action. It is now clear that no single group or given set of activities alone will be able to change the development paradigms of the present; instead the solution lies in partnerships and integrated activities involving all stakeholders. At the Special Retreat in Auckland on 6 April 2004, Pacific Island leaders adopted a new vision for the Pacific, which sought to give all Pacific peoples lives that are “free and worthwhile”. In addition to economic growth, additional elements were also recognised as key priorities for bringing about sustainable development, namely socio-cultural and environmental protection, good governance and security. A Pacific Plan has been developed to “give effect to” their new vision through the promotion of “deeper and broader regional cooperation”. Public awareness, education and training are key to moving society toward sustainability. Building capacity for making decisions that consider the long-term future of economy, ecology and society is a key task of education and awareness raising. Human capacity building, particularly scientific and technical capacity building, in the PICTs is one of the priority requirements to improve their own policy making to effectively address issues and to ensure a safe and sustainable future for their people. The vicious cycle of environmental degradation and poverty and the unavailability of accurate environmental data in the PICTs make it very difficult to find a tangible way towards sustainable development. Globally, a more inclusive educational approach is being promoted for sustainable development. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) needs not to be seen merely as a “chalk and talk” exercise, but as an holistic approach, involving all stakeholders, using all modalities such as formal, non-formal and informal educational approaches, underpinned by flexible delivery methods. Some areas where UNESCO can have role in addressing the PICT’s challenges have been identified under four sub-sections in the last chapter of this document. The four areas include: (1)

promotion of education-based capacity building for sustainable development,

(2)

promotion of culture-sensitive development,


(3)

support for community-based activities that empower stakeholders, and

(4)

support for regionally agreed plans and strategies within the ambit of sustainable development. PICTs should actively endeavour

1.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES

1.1

General Concept of Sustainable Development

M

ore than 800 million people in the world are currently malnourished – food production must double in the next 35 years to feed the growing population. More than 1.3 billion people are without clean water while 2 billion people are without sanitation. Over 2 billion people are without electricity today. As many as 1.3 billion people live on less than $1 per day and 3 billion people on less than $2 per day. The top 20% income group uses 86% of resources, while the bottom 20% uses under 1.3% of available resources. In addition, about 1.4 billion people are exposed Photo: UNESCO Apia. to dangerous levels of outdoor pollution and even larger numbers are exposed to dangerous levels of indoor air pollution and vector-borne diseases. A large number of people are living today in areas susceptible to civil strife, environmental degradation, and natural disasters. The continued growth of the world population and production combined with unsustainable consumption patterns places increasingly severe stress on the life support systems of the planet. These interactive processes affect the use of land, water, air, energy and other resources. A major change in the stewardship of the Earth and the life on it is required to move away from paradigms that rely exclusively on concepts of continuous economic growth, corporate profit, and consumer avarice. The development pathways need to maintain a balance between humanity’s economic and social needs and the capacity of the earth’s resources and ecosystems to meet present and future needs. The concept of sustainable human development is essentially a vision flexible enough to include changes in selective components of the development strategy as long as it leads to a people-centred development. Sustainability, as popularised by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in its 1987 report “Our Common Future” promotes economic growth in the development processes without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development is a process for improving the range of opportunities that will enable individual human beings and communities to achieve their aspirations and full potential over a sustained period of time, while maintaining the resilience of economic, social and environmental systems. Sustainable development is, in essence, about ensuring better quality of life for everyone, now and for generations to come (Munasinghe, 1994). In its applications, sustainable development is truly multi-dimensional (society and nature), multi-temporal (spans short and long time horizons), multi-geographic (covers all regions of the world) and multi-scale (micro and macro levels) and invokes intra- and inter-generational equity. Issues such as food security, adequate provision of water and energy to all, poverty alleviation and equity are some of the key global sustainable development challenges. In order to effectively address these issues, all nations must agree to work towards sustainable patterns of production and consumption – meeting 10


their individual and collective economic, social and environmental objectives through efficient use of resources and decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation and taking steps on reform in trade-distorting and environmentally damaging practices so that all can compete in world markets in an equitable manner, particularly in agriculture, fisheries and energy. To make sustainable development a reality, it must be built into policies and sound decision-making at all levels. This requires meeting four key objectives in the overall regional context namely: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

social progress which recognises the needs of everyone; safeguarding of indigenous cultures; effective management of the environment and prudent use of natural resources; and generation of employment and the establishment and maintenance of sustainable economies.

1.2

The Small Island Developing States and Sustainable Development

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are “a special case” both for environment and development and a host of complex challenges need to be addressed to ensure that sustainable development becomes a reality. They are limited in size, have vulnerable economies and are dependent both upon narrow resource bases and on international trade, without the means of influencing the terms of that trade. Their biodiversity is among the most threatened in the world and their ecosystems provide ecological corridors linking major areas of biodiversity around the world. Limited freshwater resources, Photo: Laura Berdejo. population growth, increasing amounts of waste and hazardous substances, and limited facilities for waste disposal are some of the key issues for SIDS. The Island States would suffer most from the adverse effects of climate change and sea level rise and could in some cases become uninhabitable. There is an urgent need in SIDS to address the constraints to sustainable development, including scarce land resources, which lead to difficult land and agriculture use decisions; limited freshwater; education and training needs; expanding health and human settlement requirements; inordinate pressures on coastal and marine environment and resources; and limited means available to exploit natural resources on a sustainable basis. Since the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of SIDS in April-May 1994 (which translated Agenda 21 into specific policies, actions and measures to be taken at the national, regional and international levels to achieve sustainable development) and the adoption of the Barbados Plan of Action (BPoA), several initiatives have been undertaken by SIDS to implement sustainable development strategies through action at the national and the regional level in spite of limited institutional capacity and access to technology. In September 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) reaffirmed the special case of SIDS and highlighted a series of SIDS-specific issues and concerns in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI), adopted by the Summit. Senior representatives of the Governments of the SIDS, under the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) umbrella, reaffirmed their commitment to the targets and time tables in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the JPOI, and in particular the matters of significance to SIDS in the JPOI in Nassau during 26–30 January 2004, and further committed themselves to the monitoring and evaluation of progress at regular intervals towards the achievement of the MDGs and sustainable development. In January 2005, a 10-year review of the BPoA on the sustainable development of SIDS resulted in adoption of the Mauritius Declaration and also of the Mauritius Strategy to further the implementation of the programme of action as collective commitments of all nations. 11


SIDS continue to face constraints in fully implementing sustainable development strategies due to insufficient resources (due particularly to declining levels of official development assistance), the increasing frequency and intensity of disasters and the increasingly severe damage to national productive capacity and infrastructure, adverse effects of globalisation and trade liberalization for their small, highly open economies, lack of institutional capacity and the increasing risk of their marginalization in the fast changing international economic structure. The weakening economic performance of many SIDS since the adoption of the BPoA is a matter of concern, due in part to their declining trade performance. Whilst recognizing that international trade is important for building the resilience and sustainable development of SIDS, the necessity for the international financial and trading systems grant special and differential treatment to SIDS is also imperative. Moreover, SIDS communities are now faced with additional issues resulting from changes taking place in the world, in particular, climate change and sea level rise, natural and environmental disasters, diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and governance and management issues linked to globalisation, trade liberalization and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). These have profound impacts on ecosystems, economies, socio-cultural aspects of life, the way the people in SIDS communicate and the way they do business internationally. In an ever-globalising world, the situation of SIDS continues to be one of exposure and growing vulnerability with an increasing inability to respond (poor resilience). There are many disadvantages that derive from small size, which are magnified by the fact that many island states are not only small but are themselves made up of a number of small islands. Those disadvantages include a narrow range of resources, which forces undue specialization; excessive dependence on international trade and hence vulnerability to global developments; high population density, which increases the pressure on already limited resources; overuse of resources and premature depletion; relatively small watersheds and threatened supplies of fresh water; costly public administration and infrastructure, including transportation and communication affecting the availability and quality of basic service provisions in areas such as education and health; and limited institutional capacities and domestic markets, which are too small to provide significant economies of scale, while their limited export volumes, sometimes from remote locations, lead to high freight costs and reduced competitiveness. The development partners of SIDS need to extend greater support and improved coordination for the effective implementation of the BPoA at the national and regional levels. SIDS would need new and additional financial resources provided in adequate, predictable and timely flows, in order to respond effectively to their sustainable development challenges.

1.3

Pacific Island Countries: Major Challenges

The PICTs cover a land area of only 553,959 km2 spread in the world’s largest ocean. The land areas vary considerably, with the largest island country in the South Pacific, Papua New Guinea (PNG), being slightly larger than Japan while most of the countries are very small (Table 1). Nauru, Pitcairn, Tokelau and Tuvalu can be described as wafer-sized, none being larger than 27 km2. Eleven of the twenty-two countries and territories in this region are less than 500 km2. Interestingly, the ratio of sea to land area for the developing countries in the South Pacific is quite large. Kiribati, for instance, has a sea area of 3,550,000 km2, over 5,000 times its land area. At the regional level, the inter-relatedness of the economic and ecological characteristics for islands is manifest in several areas. Insular natural resources such as water, vegetation, soil, near-shore systems, and wildlife, ultimately dictate the capacity of islands to accept and sustain development. Resource productivity is intricately linked to the function of neighbouring ecosystems such that damage to one ecosystem invariably impacts on other ecosystems for islands to a much greater degree than is the case for continental societies. Natural disasters impose serious constraints on development; the damages caused per unit area and cost per capita are typically much greater due to the small size of the island countries and economies. Economic impacts include devastation of agricultural sectors, setbacks in the tourist industries due to 12


extensive damage to beaches and coastal ecosystems, and disruption of communication services, which impacts on all sectors.. The Pacific PICTs have one of the highest level of indigeneity of any part of the world, with over 90% of Pacific populations comprised of indigenous Pacific people. Traditional culture and societies are therefore strong and form a key part in shaping lifestyles and responses to globalisation. At the sub-regional level, the sub-division into Melanesian PICTs (Papua New Guinea (PNG), Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Fiji), Polynesian PICTs (American Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Tokelau and Wallis & Futuna) and Micronesian PICTs (Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas and Palau) is an alternative lens to obtain a finer overview of the region, reflecting the unique characteristics of individual PICTs. The Melanesian PICTs geographically have larger land areas and are ethnically more diverse relative to the Polynesian and Micronesian PICTs. In Melanesian PICTs, economic activities such as commercial logging, agricultural plantations and mining are common; however, these economic activities are often fraught with land disputes, which may result in social and political tensions. The smaller Micronesian and Polynesian PICTs often rely more on their sea-based resources for economic growth; whilst at the subsistence and rural economic levels, sea-based resources are equally important to all PICTs. It is important to note that natural endowments alone are not the only differentiating factors in the sustainable development challenges and opportunities of PICTs. Key issues such as political stability, provision and quality of basic government services, the viability of the private sector, better and transparent governance at all levels, adaptive societies and the maintenance of cordial relationships with development partners are central to the challenges and opportunities confronting PICTs. In addition, the relationship with past and present colonisers (in the case of the territories) also has a significant influence on the present and future development directions of PICTs. Most Pacific island nation states are very young with the period of independence commencing with Samoa in 1962. An example in point is the Compact of Free Association (COFA)1 which the FSM, Palau and the Republic of Marshall Islands have with the United Sates of America (USA). The COFA has clear economic and social dimensions in these independent countries given its 15–20 year tenure and guaranteed financial assistance and access to USA development programmes. During the 1990s, dramatic changes occurred within the Pacific, stimulated by long-term international and regional trends, such as globalisation, deteriorating terms of trade, rising external debt and unsustainable development policies, and by more short-term developments such as the financial crisis in Asia. The security and stability of several PICTs have consequently declined marked by growing unemployment, poverty, social disintegration and widening income differentials (PIFS, 2002). Pacific Islanders remain highly dependent on biological resources and healthy ecosystems for survival. Fishing and agriculture are still the mainstays of the economies of most PICTs. The priority environmental sustainable development issues identified in PICTs progressively over the last ten years include loss of biological diversity, land degradation, lack of and threats to freshwater resources, degradation of coastal environments, land and sea-based waste and pollution, and poor institutional capacity for environmental planning and management. PICTs will have to face a host of these and also new emerging challenges due to geographic isolation, environmental degradation, climate change, rising sea levels, poor trading opportunities in a globalising economy and limited resources (natural, human and institutional) as they work towards positive long-term development that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. 1

The USA provides guaranteed financial assistance to these countries in exchange for certain defense rights. All these countries were former members of the United Nations Pacific Islands Trust Territory that used to be administered by the USA. 13


The survival of SIDS in the Pacific is firmly rooted in their human resources and cultural heritage, which are their most significant assets; those assets are under severe stress and all efforts must be taken to ensure the central position of people in the process of sustainable development so as to enhance the quality of life of peoples, including their health, well-being and safety. Table 1: Pacific Island countries and territories – Land and Oceanic Areas Country or Territory

Land Area (km2)

EEZ2 (km2)

Ratio of ocean to land area

462,860

3,100,000

7

Solomon Islands

29,785

1,340,000

45

New Caledonia

19,103

1,740,000

91

Fiji

18,376

1,290,000

70

Vanuatu

12,189

680,000

56

French Polynesia

3,521

5,030,000

1,429

Samoa

2,934

120,000

41

Tonga

696

700,000

1,006

Niue

258

390,000

1,512

American Samoa

197

390,000

1,980

Cooks Islands

180

1,830,000

10,167

Wallis and Futuna

Melanesia Papua New Guinea

Polynesia

124

300,000

2,419

Tuvalu

26

900,000

34,615

Tokelau

12

290,000

24,167

Pitcairn

5

800,000

160,000

Kiribati

726

3,550,000

4,890

Marshall Islands

720

2,131,000

2,960

Micronesia

FSM

702

2,978,000

4,242

Guam

549

218,000

397

Palau

500

629,000

1,258

Northern Marianas

475

1,823,000

3,838

Nauru

21

320,000

15,238

Total

553,959

30,549,000

Source: World Bank, accessed from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPACIFICISLANDS/Resources/3-chapter+1.pdf (as per 5th August 2007)

1.4

WSSD Type II Initiatives as a Vehicle for Implementing Sustainable Development in PICTs

For more than two decades, sustainable development and ecosystem conservation issues in PICTs have been subjects of international discussion and negotiation. PICTs are directly or indirectly affected by events occurring on a global scale, be they economic, political or ecological in character. Further, it is beyond the capacity of Island States to control or influence these events, the impacts of which must be addressed in the context of global and regional cooperation. As part of the WSSD, the Heads of Government from 2

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is the 200-mile limit sea area surrounding coastal states. Within this area, the Pacific Islands have exclusive rights to exploit their natural resources.

14


the Pacific launched a set of fourteen umbrella initiatives in Johannesburg (see Appendix 1). These have been developed on the basis of the Pacific Regional Submission to WSSD as well as the needs reflected in National Assessments of the Island Countries. The current list of umbrella initiatives (also known as Type II Initiatives) includes: capacity building, land, tourism, vulnerability and disaster management, ICT, conservation, education and community development, energy, adaptation, governance, health, water, oceans, and waste management. These initiatives are at various stages of development and intense efforts are being made to embrace them into comprehensive national and regional action plans for effective implementation through appropriate partnerships representing all the stakeholders and clients. Table 2: Pacific Type II initiatives Pacific Umbrella Initiative Capacity building through Education and Training for the Sustainable Use and Management of Natural Resources and the Environment Pacific Islands Energy for Sustainable Development Sustainable Land Resources Development

Facilitating Agency(ies) USP & SPREP PIFS & SOPAC SPC

Pacific Islands Adaptation

SPREP

Sustainable Tourism Development for the Pacific

SPTO

Pacific Islands Governance Vulnerability and Disaster Management

PIFS SOPAC

Pacific Islands Health for Sustainable Development

SPC

Information and Communication Technology for Sustainable Development

PIFS

Pacific Strategies for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, and Regional Consultation on Sustainable Water Management

SOPAC

Mainstreaming Conservation of Biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge

SPREP

Ocean

SPC

Planning and Community Development

SPREP

Waste Management

SPREP

1.5

BPoA:The Blueprint and the Mauritius Strategy

The delegates of the Pacific Regional Meeting held in Apia in August 2003 for the review of the BPoA in preparation for the Mauritius International Meeting (MIM) reaffirmed the continued validity of the BPoA as the blueprint for sustainable development in the region and for SIDS in general. They expressed continued support to the principles expressed in the Declaration of Barbados, the need to build on Pacific traditions and to strengthen the use of culture and history in the development of strategic planning processes for sustainable development. It was also recognised that there was a need to strengthen self-reliance and build on internal Photo: Katrina Adams. strengths and to commit domestic resources to strengthen the capacity for national implementation of the BPoA. However, even after decade-long serious efforts, the well-crafted and well-intentioned Barbados blue print for SIDS development largely remains unimplemented. It has not been able to capture the required political will to bring about real actions. 15


In the years following the Barbados Conference in 1994, the focus of the international agenda changed with increasing attention toward security concerns, the implementation of the MDGs, and the prioritisation of domestic good governance over governance reforms at the international level. However, the special case of SIDS and the concerns highlighted in the BPoA was given further support through the ten-year review of the BPoA at Mauritius in January 2005. An encouraging feature of the Mauritius Strategy is the effort to prioritise support for resilience building and vulnerability projects, adding social and economic development considerations to the BPoA and making it considerably more attractive to donors. Supporting this recognition, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) – the UN’s lead agency for the implementation of the MDGs – launched a SIDS Resilience Building Facility to assist SIDS to develop the capacity to formulate and implement initiatives to reduce their vulnerabilities. There is little doubt that the MIM has strengthened partnerships including increased SIDS ownership of responsibility over their sustainable development, renewed and/or reprioritised international community support, improved South-South cooperation, increased UN agency engagement in SIDS issues, and identified new means of implementation, including through the launching of a SIDS University Consortium. However, the Mauritius Strategy does not provide clear direction to other international organizations and processes, such as the international financial institutions and multilateral environmental agreements, and no commitments have been made for new and additional financing or projects at the meeting apart from addressing vulnerability to disasters, such as tsunamis. The BPoA priority areas requiring action include: climate change and sea level rise, natural and environmental disasters, management of wastes, coastal and marine resources, freshwater resources, land resources, energy resources, tourism resources, biodiversity resources, national institutions and administrative capacity, regional institutions and technical cooperation, transport and communication, science and technology, and human resource development. The BPoA has further identified several cross-sectoral areas requiring attention: capacity building; institutional development at the national, regional and international levels; cooperation in the transfer of environmentally sound technologies, trade and economic diversification; and finance. The Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) has been entrusted with the responsibility to follow up on the implementation of the BPoA.

1.6 International and Regional Negotiations on Multilateral Environmental Agreements Even before the Earth Summit of June 1992 which led to the widespread international acceptance of the concept of sustainable development, the PICTs had begun to seriously look at their environmental and developmental situation, as evidenced by the Conference on the Human Environment in the South Pacific in June 1982, the establishment of the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) in 1995, and others. PICTs continue to demonstrate their resolve and commitment to sustainable development, and, within their limited means and resources, are taking appropriate steps to frame Photo: Jim Maragos. the policies and measures that they plan to utilise in their quest for achieving sustainable development. Today, the concept of sustainable development is widely acknowledged in the PICTs. The Pacific region and the individual island nations have made a strong commitment to international efforts to prevent further irreversible environmental change and to promote sustainable development by becoming party to numerous MEAs. 16


PICTs have signed up to most of the global and regional MEAs. For example, most independent states have signed the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Kyoto Protocol to name a few. PICTs are active participants in conferences linked to these MEAs and to the related forums including the WSSD, the BPoA, and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). A notable exception however, is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which has only been acceded by PNG (1975), Vanuatu (1989), Fiji (1997) and Palau (2004). A list of MEAs that have been adopted by most of the countries in Pacific is given in Appendix I. Regional cooperation on environmental matters in PICTs continues to be built on two Regional MEAs. The first is the “Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific” (the Apia Convention), adopted in 1976, which came into force in 1990. The second is the “Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region” (the Noumea Convention), which was adopted in 1986 and came into force in 1990. The former provides the basic structure for regional cooperation on biological conservation and the use of protected areas. The latter deals with pollution and the protection of marine resources in the Pacific region. Implementation by PICTs of the relevant MEAs will assist in finding long-lasting solutions to priority environmental problems both regionally and on a country-by-country basis. Activities in support of this could include: •

Establishment of a Regional MEA Legal Experts Network for capacity-building and institutional support, including periodic coordination meetings;

•

Production of a regional report: “Assessment of MEA Applicability and Implementation in Pacific Island countries” followed by a facilitated process of prioritisation and identification of resources on national and regional basis, according to subject;

•

Securing commitment from international experts to work in collaboration with responsible officials to draft MEA implementation legislation and develop policy-making tools;

•

Establishment of national / local MEA advisory committees, involving multi-stakeholder participation and holding periodic meetings; and

•

Conducting periodic exchanges and seminars related to environmental issues, in addition to capacitybuilding workshops on selected topics relevant to PICTs (such as legislative drafting, implementation and enforcement and public participation), beginning with the regional conference on “Assessment of MEA Applicability and Implementation in Pacific Island countries”.

In a study by the United Nations University (UNU), as many as 29 MEAs were examined for their linkages in the Pacific.3 Among these, particular attention was paid to the Basel, Rotterdam, Stockholm and Waigani Conventions, which deal with the management of hazardous and chemical wastes and pollutants on a global and regional scale, as examples of possible synergies. Utilising four Pacific countries as a sample for the study, the findings showed that the MEA processes proved to be placing substantial demands on the capacity of a broad range of government agencies. At times, these international demands actually competed for limited resources against domestic policy implementation. This shows that while MEA processes may be important for building up resources and capacities to address the full range of environmental issues over the medium to long term, in the short term they can impose significant additional stresses on PICTs. As a result of the study, a number of common themes emerged.

3

Pacific Countries included in the Study: Cook Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea and Samoa.

17


The negotiation and signature of environmental protocols requires substantial internal coordination involving many different government agencies, such as foreign affairs and environment and other departments or agencies that later become involved in implementation and enforcement processes. The speed and efficacy of the ratification and implementation processes also depend on the constitutional requirements of countries. In terms of formulating and implementing the required legislation, countries differ considerably with regard to timelines and political complexity. The best possible way for convention secretariats, or regional organizations, to support countries with regard to their legal processes is through the production and distribution of clear policy documentation. This should cover the commitments and responsibilities of countries implementing the convention in question, and should include concise executive summaries. As a way forward, a set of three key needs of the Oceanic States was identified: •

Sufficient means to enable them to manage and meet their obligations and responsibilities under the conventions and protocols to which they are Parties;

•

Information policies to enable the agencies involved to better cooperate and to translate international obligations under MEAs into national and local environmental agendas to receive political support and to make these agendas meaningful to the general public; and

•

Effective regional support mechanisms that reflect the regional interest in promoting in-country capacity development and, at the same time are able to represent regional concerns in the global context. For both the global community and the relevant regional mechanism, the ultimate goal is to attain the best balance between the benefits offered by approaching different issues and functions, such as coordination, information management or awareness raising, at regional, national and local levels. It is crucial, for example, that the specific technical capacity and needs that exist at the national level be supported by the benefits and the efficiency to be gained by collective capacity development at the regional level.

1.7

Sustainable Development Pathways: Environmental Opportunities and Challenges

Photo: Thomas Jensen.

(i)

PICTs depend heavily on the natural environment for economic growth and employment. Most PICTs currently have varying degrees of institutionalised environment planning and management functions and some have legislation that supports environment objectives. Generally, environmental legislation is difficult to administer and enforce in the region. However, positive steps have been taken in recent years as regards environment legislation formulation and strengthening the capacity of people and the institutions in Pacific to achieve sustainable development. Some of the limiting issues, which lead to constraints on implementation of sustainability in PICTs, are discussed here.

Disaster Management

The impact of natural disasters in terms of human and economic losses has risen in recent years, and society in general has become more vulnerable to natural disasters. The poor and socially disadvantaged groups in the PICTs are most affected by natural and other disasters, since they are least equipped to cope with them. Natural and environmental disasters continue to pose an enormous threat to sustainable development in the region. Table 3 overleaf provides the best-aggregated information on the estimated level of vulnerability of PICTs to some of the natural disasters and hazards. 18


Table 3: Pacific Islands Countries estimated level of vulnerability to specific natural hazards4 Country

Tropical Cyclones

Storm Coastal River Volcanic Surges Floods Floods Drought Earthquake Landslide Tsunami Eruptions

Cook Islands

H

H

M

L

H

L

L

M

–

FSM

M

M

H

H

L

L

M

–

Fiji Islands

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

L

Kiribati

L

M

H

–

H

L

L

L

–

Marshall Islands

H

H

H

–

H

L

L

L

–

Nauru

L

L

L

–

H

L

L

L

–

Niue

H

H

L

–

H

M

L

M

–

Palau

H

H

M

–

H

L

L

M

–

PNG

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

Samoa

H

H

H

M

L

M

H

H

M

Solomon Islands

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

Tokelau

H

H

H

–

M

L

L

M

–

Tonga

H

H

H

L

H

H

L

H

H

Tuvalu

H

M

H

–

H

L

L

M

–

Vanuatu

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H: high; M: medium; L: low Source: United Nations Development Programme South Pacific Office (2002).

In the past decade a number of international and regional initiatives have supported the capacity building process in the Pacific for reducing community vulnerability to the impacts of natural and environmental disasters. Several initiatives have been undertaken during the past few years to better understand the impacts of environmental disasters in the region, for example: •

The development of the Environmental Vulnerability Index tool for application in the region to improve understanding and management of vulnerability in SIDS;

•

A partnership between South Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission (SOPAC) and the Secretariat of International Strategy for Disaster Reduction to conduct a Pacific Review of the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action in 2004;

•

The development of comprehensive hazard and risk management systems as decision-making tools in the region; and

•

University of the South Pacific Training Institutes on Climate Variability and Extreme Events.

•

The expansion of NOAA’s Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, Hawaii

Disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and relief are four key elements, which contribute to and should gain from the implementation of sustainable development policies in the PICTs. Also, environmental protection as a integral component of sustainable development is imperative in the prevention and mitigation of natural disasters. Sustainable development can contribute to reduction of this vulnerability, if planned and managed in a way to ameliorate the social and economic conditions of the affected groups and communities.

(ii)

Agriculture and Food Security

Traditional agriculture5 is still a key source of subsistence, income generation and the main insurance against poverty for the majority of rural, and many urban, communities in PICTs. This form of agriculture is often underestimated in the context of modern economic analysis, seldom quantified, and often relegated 4

This only indicates the degree to which countries are susceptible to each type of natural hazard.

19


to second place compared to commercial agriculture in terms of direct government support. In addition to providing subsistence needs and meeting the food and exchange requirements of cultural ceremonies, traditional agriculture has also been used as a platform for the commercialization of traditional Pacific crops and trees such as Piper methysticum (Kava, Yaqona, Sakau) and Morinda citrifolia (Nonu, Noni). Another demonstration of the significance of traditional agriculture has been the recent ethnic social unrest in the Solomon Islands. Whist the commercial agriculture was wrecked with subsequent disruptions to the cash economy, national food security at that time was not compromised because of the vibrant traditional agricultural economy, which also stepped up its contribution to the domestic economy. Expanding urban settlements with limited land resources available for food production have contributed to the weakening of traditional agriculture and led to local food security problems. This has been exacerbated by the influences of globalisation on food preferences and livelihood choices. A further consequence of changing lifestyles is the rise in unhealthy eating habits with resulting increases in the incidence of obesity, diabetes and cardio-vascular disease within PICTs. Commercial agriculture accounts for over 85% of foreign exchange earnings in PICTs, contributing substantially to employment (40–80%), representing 20–40% of gross domestic product (GDP) and over 50% of exports. In most PICTs, only a small fraction of land mass is suitable for agriculture and much of the agriculture is confined along coastal plains, river deltas and valleys. Commercial agriculture is also confined to a limited number of dominant crops including sugar, copra, taro and bananas, plus beef cattle production. As such the industry is highly vulnerable to market fluctuations, natural disasters, invasive species and plant diseases, and the impacts of international trade negotiations. Agriculture in the PICTs has made modest strides over the last 20 years. However, despite its importance in the economy, agricultural productivity is declining in recent years as a share of total income. Furthermore, the opportunities for expansion of the sector are limited due to logistic disadvantages such as small land areas and distance from potential export markets. In the PICTs, about 70% of gross cropped area corresponds to the summer season rainfall zones indicating its heavy dependence on seasonal rainfall. Agricultural research and extension have been weak in promoting and marketing new crops in most PICTs. In conformity with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Plan of Action on Sustainable Agriculture launched in 2002, PICTs need to move towards more intensified, diversified and sustainable agriculture in order to create an enabling environment for agricultural intensification and diversification, remove production constraints, and improve domestic and export marketing and processing in the years to come. This will strengthen national capacities and institutions to accommodate and take advantage of the new international trade regime, and strengthen support services to agriculture, forestry and fisheries. In addition, it should provide a coherent framework for sustainable natural resource management and environmental protection in a rapidly changing world. Increasing food security (with focus on agriculture diversification) and generating employment opportunities would go along way in improving the lives of people in the PICTs. Achieving food security in the PICTs requires policy and investment reforms on multiple fronts, including human resources, agricultural research, rural infrastructure, water resources, and farm- and communitybased agricultural and natural resources management.

(iii)

Freshwater Resources

Freshwater availability in the Pacific Islands is dependent on changes in the hydrological cycle resulting from interannual climate variability, pollution of existing supplies and changes in the water table as a result of human activities. Freshwater shortage is a major issue in most atoll islands and states where the sources 5

In the context of this publication, traditional agriculture refers to the inherent and adapted agricultural farming systems, technology and knowledge on cropping, agroforestry and livestock held within Pacific Island societies.

20


and capacity for surface run-off and rainwater harvesting are very limited. A summary of water supply coverage and sources in selected countries is provided in Table 4. Many Pacific Islands rely on limited sources of supply, such as groundwater (Kiribati), rainwater (Tuvalu, northern atolls of Cook Islands), surface reservoirs, or rivers and other surface flows. Water supply in the atoll states of the Pacific is most vulnerable to precipitation patterns and changes in storm tracks. Captured rainwater is stored in cisterns; the only backup reserve for these islands is a thin wedge of fresh groundwater that sits as a lens on top of the saltwater. A decline in rainfall coupled with sea level rise would not only cause a diminution of the volume of potable water but would reduce the size of the narrow freshwater lens in the PICTs. Water quantity and its sustainability have always been a problem but are likely to get much worse as a result of depleted resources, mismanagement, and poor governance. The increasing demand emanating from population pressures and industries are depleting groundwater, and increased pollution is threatening its quality. Climate change can present additional water management and related challenges arising from a variety of sources, including increased flood and drought risks. For many PICTs, the prospect of salinity intrusion into the freshwater lens is a matter of great concern. Changes in climate will affect water demand, supply and quality. Any shortfall in water supply will enhance competition for water use for a wide range of economic, social and environmental applications. In countries such as Tuvalu and the Marshall Islands where rainwater is the main source of supply, more frequent and intense El Niño – Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events will impose further stress on already meagre water resources. A rise in sea level will lead to intrusion of saline water far into the land mass through the rivers draining into the sea and it will also increase groundwater contamination by making water saline. Table 4: Water Supply Coverage (fraction of population for that particular year in %) and main water sources in selected PICTs Countries

Urban Rural Urban 1995 1995 2000

Rural Urban 2000 2004

Rural 2004

Main Water Sources

Cook Island

99

87

99

87

98

88

SW, GW, RW

Fiji

43

51

43

51

43

51

SW, GW, RW, D (tourist resort only)

FSM

94

89

94

92

95

94

SW, GW, RW

Kiribati

77

41

77

50

77

53

GW, RW, D (limited)

Marshall Is

89

97

83

96

82

96

RW (from airport catchment and buildings), GW, D (emergency)

Niue

100

100

100

100

100

100

GW, RW

Palau

74

97

78

95

79

94

SW, GW, RW

PNG

88

32

88

32

88

32

SW, GW, RW

Samoa

96

88

92

88

90

87

SW, GW, RW

Solomon Islands

94

65

94

65

94

65

SW, GW, RW

GW, RW

Tonga

100

100

100

100

100

100

GW, RW

Tuvalu

93

90

94

91

94

92

RW (primary) GW (limited)

Vanuatu

90

53

86

52

86

52

SW, GW, RW

Tokelau

Note: SW = Surface Water; GW = Ground Water; RW = Rain Water; D = Desalination. (1)

WHO and UNICEF 2003. Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation Database for Oceania. http://www.wssinfo. org/en/watquery.html, Last accessed 26 July 2007.

(2)

UNDP, 1996. The State of Human Settlements and Urbanization in the Pacific Islands: Regional Report on PIC served by the UNDP, Suva Fiji for the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), Istanbul, Turkey, 3–14 June 1996. UNDP, Suva;

(3)

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 1995. Integrated Water Resources Management in Asia and the Pacific. Water Resources Series No. 75. United Nations New York; Seckler, D., U. Amerasinghe, D. Molden, R. de Silva, and R. Baker, 1998. World Water Demand and Supply, 1990 to 2005: Scenarios and Issues. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Rashin, P., P. Gleick, P. Kirshen, G. Pontius, and K. Strzepek, 1997. Water Futures: Assessment of Long Range Patterns and Problems. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.

21


The sustainability of water supplies in the PICTs in decades to come would depend on the emphasis placed on improving water resource management efforts, including inventorying of resources and their rational and equitable allocation. Implementation of more efficient rainwater harvesting methods, efficient leak detection and repair, use of water-saving devices, and aggressive recycling efforts are strategies worth considering. Desalination also is becoming an increasingly attractive option, especially where the necessary technical and financial capacity is available and in cases in which more traditional strategies are inadequate or not feasible. One of the MDGs is to halve the proportion of people who do not have access to safe drinking water (declared a basic human right by the UN) by 2015 even though financial barriers remain. PICTs would need to do much more than meet the MDGs to avoid disaster for the majority of their population. By 2025, at least one third of the PICTs population may have to live in water stressed conditions. Compounding these problems are political, social, and technical barriers. The governments, donors, nongovernmental organizations, and communities in PICTs need to work together as a collective responsibility to safeguard their water resources through sustainable water practices. Appropriate legislative tools and their faithful implementation to protect the national water resources through sustainable consumption practices in the PICTs should significantly ease the problem.

(iv) Coastal and Marine Resources including Fisheries The nature of island countries is that coastal and marine resources form the basis of both cultural practice and traditional economies. Key coastal and marine habitats including coral reef systems, mangroves, wetlands and the deep oceans are therefore the basis of island societies and a key opportunity for economic development. Achieving a balance between societal, environmental and economic needs is therefore critical in SIDS, particularly when coupled with threats such as climate change. Photo: Jim Maragos.

Coral reefs represent some of the most diverse and complex ecosystems, providing essential ecosystem services. Coral reef systems play a central role in maintaining precious beach and coastal land levels against the eroding forces of storms and rising seas, and they provide critical habitat to approximately 25% of marine species and essential resources in terms of construction materials in addition to attraction for the tourist industry. Pacific Islands account for nearly 20% of the 284,300 km2 of the world’s coral reefs (Spalding et al., 2001), which occurs only in 80 countries of the world (Table 5). Most of the large coral reef areas in this region occur in the south west Pacific. Pacific Islanders depend on the ecosystem services provided by coral reefs. However, human activities such as marine pollution (from land-based activities: e.g. sedimentation, surface run-off and sewerage input), overexploitation, destructive fishing practices, and climate change (UNEP, 2004) pose a threat to the well-being of these important ecosystems. One of the latest coral reef assessments carried out by Lovell et al. (2004) indicated that coral reefs in the South West Pacific are presently in good condition, and coral reefs that were bleached during 2000–2002 bleaching event have partly or fully recovered. The projections for the future include increased stress on coral reefs that are near populated areas such as towns and cities. Furthermore, the risks posed by global climate change and intermittent climate variability and extreme weather events will also exacerbate damage to coral reefs. For the low-lying atolls,

22


the potential economic disruption caused by the deterioration of coral reef systems could be catastrophic. Multiple environmental management strategies, from local to regional, are being pursued to ensure the long-term sustainability of the coral reef ecosystem of the Pacific. Table 5: Coral Reef Areas in some Pacific Island Countries Country

Coral Reef Area (km2)

% of Global Coral Reefs

PNG

13,840

4.87

Fiji

10,020

3.52

Marshall Islands

6,110

2.15

Solomon Islands

5,750

2.02

FSM

4,340

1.53

Vanuatu

4,110

1.45

Kiribati

2,940

1.03

Tonga

1,500

0.52

Tuvalu

710

0.25

Total

49,320

17.34

6

Source: Spalding et al., 2001.

Pacific Island communities have fished the Pacific Ocean for thousands of years, utilising traditional management strategies for the maintenance of community fishing grounds. The Western and Central Pacific Ocean is home to the world’s largest tuna fishery. More than half the world’s tuna comes from this region. Fishing is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy in Pacific Islands. At 1.29 million square kilometres, Fiji’s exclusive economic zone is by no means the largest in the Pacific Islands region (Exclusive Economic Zones of Pacific Islands occupy about 15 million km2; Fig. 1), and far from being the richest in fish. The tuna fishing in this region produces 60% of all canned tuna in the world (with a catch averaging around one million tonnes a year) and 30% of all tuna for the Japanese sashimi market. Unfortunately, the fishery resources of the Pacific Ocean are fast depleting due to over fishing, use of pesticides and industrial activities (which are threatening the viability of the regional tuna stock) in recent years. The increase in marine culture products and decline in the marine fishery output is the current trend in commercial fishery activity. The fish populations need protection and conservation. Of an average of about a thousand fishing vessels engaged in the Western Pacific tuna fishery, fewer than a hundred are locally owned. If large-scale fishing by vessels from distant water fishing nations is not controlled, some tuna species, like bigeye and yellowfin, may become extinct (Myers and Worm, 2003). PICTs are currently engaged in serious negotiations with relevant countries over the conservation of the entire region’s tuna fishery within the context of the Forum Fisheries Agency and the newly established Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission. The conservation of critical wetland habitats in the Pacific including coral reefs, mangrove forests, sea grass beds and their fisheries has gained considerable urgency in recent years. Nearly all Melanesian countries, including PNG, Fiji and Vanuatu, have reported falling numbers of several fish species since the early 1990s. The complicated nutrient cycle in the ocean food chain, likely to be disturbed by a host of human activities in the coastal areas, sea level rise, change in ocean currents, and alteration of the mixing layer thickness, is expected to reduce plankton productivity and thus contribute to a general decline in fishery production in the coastal waters of the PICTs. Some PICTs are considering allowing citizens to reclaim legal control 6

Countries and Territories with less than 50 km2 of coral reef areas not included in this Table. In the report by Spalding et al., 2001, territories are listed under their colonisers: American Samoa, Guam (United States of America), Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau (New Zealand) and Pitcairn (United Kingdom). 23


Figure 1: PICTs and their EEZ

Source: SOPAC, 2007.

of their local seas, in the hope they can use their traditional knowledge, customs and laws to protect fish stocks and biodiversity. The move is a tacit acknowledgement that western-style centralised fishing regulations may not protect many of the marine ecosystems in this region. Coastal wetland ecosystems provide fundamental ecological functions including the regulation of water regimes as well as providing habitats for flora and fauna. In addition to their ecological function, Pacific wetlands play an important role in both the subsistence and local commercial economies as sources of food, firewood, building materials, traditional medicines and cultural products. The observed trends in the mean sea level along the coastline of the PICTs indicate a rising trend of 1 cm or more per decade, which is close to that noticed in other parts of the globe (Table 6). A mean sea level rise of between 25 and 58 cm is projected by the mid-twenty-first century along the coastline of the PICTs. The sea level rise could inundate low lying areas, drown coastal marshes and wetlands, erode beaches, exacerbate flooding and increase the salinity of rivers, bays and aquifers. The land loss from sea level rise, especially on atolls in the Pacific Ocean is likely to be of a magnitude that could disrupt virtually all economic and social sectors in the PICTs. PICTs are heavily reliant on their coastal and marine resources and their future is dependent on how people maintain the health of the ocean. The challenges faced by the maritime people of the Pacific in maintaining their livelihood will depend heavily on sustainable use and management of coastal and marine resources. The marine environment including the oceans, seas and coastal areas are seen as an integrated whole, which form an essential component of the global life support system and also provide island nations with opportunities for sustainable development. A precautionary approach, integrated development and adaptive management principles are required to ensure the sustainable use of the marine environment and its resources in the PICTs. 24


Table 6: Recent short-term sea level trends in some Pacific Island countries (Based on SEAFRAME data through July 2004)

Location

Duration of data (in months)

Trend (mm/yr)

Cook Islands

136

+1.0

Tonga

137

+11.3

Fiji

141

+4.1

Vanuatu

127

+6.0

Samoa

136

+5.3

Tuvalu

134

+6.0

Kiribati

134

+5.6

Nauru

131

+7.5

Solomon Islands

116

+6.1

PNG

103

+8.5

FSM

31

+23.5

129

+6.0

Marshall Islands

(v)

Forests

Forest ecosystems are essential component of the larger Pacific Island environments and are by nature highly fragile and vulnerable to external disturbances. The impacts of human induced activities (e.g., logging and forest clearance for agricultural activities) and the introduction of invasive species can severely degrade island forest ecosystems. The inevitable pressure on resources and on the natural systems from increasing population and its unplanned density levels give urgency to sustainable natural resource management considerations. Pressure for global market economies has seen significant commercial harvesting of natural resources in addition to subsistence harvesting. Approximately one-third of the land resources in the PICTs are covered by forests which makes forest ecosystems prominent natural resources that provide biodiversity, water quality, sources of firewood, building materials and Photo: UNESCO Apia. foods, as well as places for recreation. These forests have many unique species and communities of plants and animals. For some islands, 80% or more of the species are endemic, with some species only found in micro-ecosystems within a single island. Forests also play a significant role in the region’s economy, and forestry or forestry-related enterprises are the dominant industries in many communities. Climate change is virtually certain to impact on the distribution of tree species, resulting in changes in the geographic distribution of forest types and new combinations of species within forests. In addition, forest productivity would be affected depending upon location, tree species, water availability, and the effects of carbon dioxide fertilization. Increased temperatures could increase fire risk in areas that experience increased aridity, and proliferation of diseases and pests that attack tree species are likely. Forests are an important natural resource for both their traditional and cultural uses as well as for commercial enterprises. In Melanesia, timber is a large source of foreign income and the timber industry is a significant employer. Poor implementation of environmental standards in forest management has led to significant environmental impacts in some logging operations, and there have been detrimental social impacts arising from activities directly associated with the timber industry. The Melanesian countries have invested in improving codes of practice for timber harvesting, monitoring timber exports and other environmental policy responses. Social policy responses are less clear, though are gaining impetus particularly from the 25


NGO sector. Although on a smaller scale, logging has also raised similar environmental issues in other Pacific countries.

(vi) Biodiversity PICTs have more rare, endangered and threatened species per capita than anywhere else in the world. Rates of endemism and restricted ranges of occurrence are also high for many plant and animal species in the region. In addition, the region is the centre of origin for some crop and fruit-tree species that are important sources of genes from their wild relatives. Key threats to terrestrial biodiversity arise from land clearance and habitat fragmentation; the impacts of invasive species; over exploitation of natural resources; and climate change. Up to 50% of the region’s total biodiversity is at risk due to climate change alone. It is likely that with a one meter rise in sea level, many of the current wetlands and mangroves will disappear. Many species are at risk of extinction as a result of the combined effects of climate change and habitat fragmentation. Threats to marine biodiversity are less well documented but include over exploitation of marine resources; climate change (in particular coral bleaching and disease); impacts of land-based pollution and sedimentation; and the impact of invasive species. Empowerment of communities to increasingly play leading roles in biodiversity conservation has revived the use of traditional methods of resource conservation. As exempliified by the “raui” in the Cook Islands, “tabu” areas in Fiji and Tonga, “tapu” in Samoa and Niue, “bul” in Palau, “mo” in the Marshall Islands – traditional protection mechanisms are gaining mounting respect by regional and international stakeholders. They involve setting aside areas from use, and their success is based on traditional beliefs and respect for elders at the village level. They have been used for the introduction of no-take regimes in critical spawning, nesting, and roosting areas for many species. An innovative approach that has taken natural resource management and community empowerment to a higher level is the concept of locally managed marine areas (see section 4). Reversing unsustainable trends in resource use and ecosystem health is an urgent priority and a critical requirement for sustainable development in PICTs. It demands greater political commitment to putting into practice the concept of sustainable use. Biodiversity also faces newer challenges, such as those posed by the release into the environment of genetically modified organisms. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety continues to raise issues about the relationship between the international environment and trade regimes. The need for conservation of biodiversity is now widely accepted, and there are various international treaties and agreements in place that aim to halt its rapid decline. However, for these agreements to be successful in the PICTs, they have to be enforced alongside other international agreements dealing with economic development, trade and investment, and the underlying causes of biodiversity loss must be identified and addressed within this framework.

(vii) Integrated Waste Management Waste of all types – municipal, hazardous and nuclear – has become a major problem in many of the PICTs (Table 7). Rapid urbanization and changing consumption patterns, limited land areas and vulnerable ecosystems add to the complexity of this issue and impose considerable burden on environmental (e.g. pollution), economic (e.g. management costs) and social (e.g. public health) aspects of island life. The limited land area of many of the islands combined with a lack of appropriate technology for waste recycling has resulted in a proliferation of plastics, paper, glass, metal and even drums of hazardous chemicals. Much of this rubbish slowly breaks down and leaches into the soil and into drinking water. Any substance that does not break down takes up space. Foul-smelling organic wastes attract disease-carrying pests such as mosquitoes, rats and flies. Piles of household rubbish are developing on beaches and in mangrove swamps. The issue of plastics is thought to be a priority pollution threat in the region today; the occurrence of plastic bags in the ocean is increasing and it is known that the ingestion of only a few plastic bags can kill juvenile cetaceans and turtles. Persistent organic pollutants (Table 8), which include pesticides, polychlorinated 26


biphenyls and dioxins, are also potentially a significant threat to cetaceans. These compounds effect hormonal systems and can cause low fertility and birth defects. The major industries in the Pacific Islands are agriculture, tourism, forestry, mining and fisheries. All of these generate wastes – some a by-product of the activity, some a necessary part of the product stream. Byproduct wastes are generally the result of poorly managed operations and include siltation (from mining and land clearing of marginal forests for agricultural activities), oil pollution (used oil from machinery and from accidental spills), poisons (from pest control), and miscellaneous plastic trash (old fishing gear, plastic sheeting, drums and bags). Production of wastes includes organic wastes from food processing, chemical wastes (from oil palm refineries, mining processes and wood treatment). Mining activities are major contributors to the region’s environmental load of heavy metals. Other industrial operations such as foundries, metal plating and other processes involving combustion and use of petroleum products are also contributors. Batteries can form a significant source of lead and mercury if their disposal is not properly managed. Also, serious concerns have been raised in recent years about the transport of radioactive materials, marine debris, and ballast water and World War II shipwrecks in the region. Subsequent to nuclear testing in the Pacific until 1996, the shipment of plutonium and high-level nuclear wastes and proposals to dump nuclear waste by developed nuclear countries on isolated atolls continue to threaten the region. Ships transporting radioactive nuclear material (MOX – plutonium and uranium mixed oxide fuel) to Japan continue to sail through the Pacific Ocean. There are plans for up to 30 shipments over the next 15 years. In the case of a severe accident leading to the breach of nuclear casks being carried as cargo on these ships, the impact on the health, environment and economies of Pacific Island communities would be devastating. Growing environmental and social threats posed by the transportation and importation of hazardous and radioactive wastes in the Pacific region re-iterates the urgency for Pacific Governments to implement the Waigani Convention. Table 7: Characteristics of solid waste in selected Pacific Island countries (1990–1994) (% by wet weight) Waste Classification

Honiara Nukualofa (Solomon Is.) (Tonga)

Lautoka Port Vila Average (Fiji Is.) (Vanuatu) Weight %

Paper

5.9

31.3

14.7

11.4

15.8

Plastic

16.8

5.2

8.1

7.7

9.5

Glass

4.5

3.3

2.7

3.3

3.5

Metals

6.1

8

3.2

3.6

5.2

64.6

47.2

67.8

71

62.7

Textiles

1.8

3.7

3

1.6

2.5

Potentially Hazardous

0.1

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