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Synthesis, Bioevaluation and Molecular Dynamic Simulation Studies of Dexibuprofen–Antioxidant Mutual Prodrugs Zaman Ashraf 1 , Alamgeer 2 , Raqiqatur Rasool 1 , Mubashir Hassan 3 , Haseeb Ahsan 2 , Samina Afzal 4 , Khurram Afzal 4 , Hongsik Cho 5,6 and Song Ja Kim 3, * 1 2 3 4 5 6

*

Department of Chemistry, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan; [email protected] (Z.A.); [email protected] (R.R.) Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy University of Sargodha, Sargodha 40100, Pakistan; [email protected] (A.); [email protected] (H.A.) Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Kongju National University, Gongju 314701, Korea; [email protected] Faculty of Pharmacy, BahauddinZakria University, Multan 60800, Pakistan; [email protected] (S.A.); [email protected] (K.A.) Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee Health Science Center-Campbell Clinic, Memphis, TN 38104, USA; [email protected] Research 151, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Memphis, TN 38104, USA Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-41-850-8507

Academic Editors: Ge Zhang and Aiping Lu Received: 1 November 2016; Accepted: 14 December 2016; Published: 21 December 2016

Abstract: Dexibuprofen–antioxidant conjugates were synthesized with the aim to reduce its gastrointestinal effects. The esters analogs of dexibuprofen 5a–c were obtained by reacting its –COOH group with chloroacetyl derivatives 3a–c. The in vitro hydrolysis data confirmed that synthesized prodrugs 5a–c were stable in stomach while undergo significant hydrolysis in 80% human plasma and thus release free dexibuprofen. The minimum reversion was observed at pH 1.2 suggesting that prodrugs are less irritating to stomach than dexibuprofen. The anti-inflammatory activity of 5c (p < 0.001) is more significant than the parent dexibuprofen. The prodrug 5c produced maximum inhibition (42.06%) of paw-edema against egg-albumin induced inflammation in mice. Anti-pyretic effects in mice indicated that prodrugs 5a and 5b showed significant inhibition of pyrexia (p < 0.001). The analgesic activity of 5a is more pronounced compared to other synthesized prodrugs. The mean percent inhibition indicated that the prodrug 5a was more active in decreasing the number of writhes induced by acetic acid than standard dexibuprofen. The ulcerogenic activity results assured that synthesized prodrugs produce less gastrointestinal adverse effects than dexibuprofen. The ex vivo antiplatelet aggregation activity results also confirmed that synthesized prodrugs are less irritant to gastrointestinal mucosa than the parent dexibuprofen. Molecular docking analysis showed that the prodrugs 5a–c interacts with the residues present in active binding sites of target protein. The stability of drug–target complexes is verified by molecular dynamic simulation study. It exhibited that synthesized prodrugs formed stable complexes with the COX-2 protein thus support our wet lab results. It is therefore concluded that the synthesized prodrugs have promising pharmacological activities with reduced gastrointestinal adverse effects than the parent drug. Keywords: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); mutual prodrugs; dexibuprofen; antioxidants; in vitro hydrolysis; pharmacological activity; molecular dynamics simulation

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 2151; doi:10.3390/ijms17122151

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1. Introduction Ibuprofen, (R,S-2-(4-isobutylphenyl)-propionic acid) a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug exists in two enantiomeric forms which are present in the racemate [1]. Dexibuprofen, S-(+)-ibuprofen is pharmacologically more active than racemic ibuprofen which has equal quantities of R-(−) and S-(+) enantiomers [2]. In the dose ratio of 1:0.5 (Racemic ibuprofen vs. dexibuprofen), at least equivalent efficacy was proven in acute mild to severe somatic and visceral pain models. The physico-chemical properties of dexibuprofen are also different than the racemic ibuprofen. Dexibuprofen has a slower dissolution rate in the simulated gastric and enteric juices compared with the racemic ibuprofen [3]. Dexibuprofen possesses comparable pharmacological efficacy and tolerability to that of diclofenac, naproxen and celecoxib [4]. The most commonly encountered adverse effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) including dexibuprofen are stomach ulceration, bleeding, perforation and gastrointestinal (GI) irritations [5,6]. The free carboxylic acid group (–COOH) present in dexibuprofen is responsible for the GI side effects [7,8]. Previously, a number of prodrugs of ibuprofen have been designed to temporarily mask the free carboxylic acid group to overcome gastrointestinal irritation [9–11] but so far no single NSAIDs available in market without gastrointestinal adverse effects. Esters and amides functionalities have been frequently employed for the preparation of prodrugs because they can easily be cleaved in to active drug by enzymatic hydrolysis [12,13]. Mutual prodrug consists of two pharmacologically active agents coupled together in such a way to get synergistic action. A number of prodrugs of ibuprofen have been reported [14–16] but very few mutual prodrugs of dexibuprofen were reported [17,18]. The current study was undertaken to synthesize novel mutual prodrugs of dexibuprofen to reduce its gastrointestinal effects while maintaining the pharmacological profile. The carboxylic group of dexiboprofen was temporarily masked by synthesizing its ester analogs with naturally occurring phenolic antioxidants sesamol and umbelliferon as well as alcoholic compound menthol. The selected promoieties have traditional medicinal uses and flavoring properties with well-documented safety profiles [19]. The in vitro hydrolysis of the synthesized mutual prodrugs (5a–c) was carried out in aqueous buffers and in 80% human plasma pH 7.4 for ensuring their stability. Pharmacological screenings like anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic and ulcerogenic activities of these prodrugs were evaluated and results were compared with standard dexibuprofen. The ex vivo platelet aggregation activity of the synthesized prodrugs was also carried out. Molecular docking and simulation studies were performed to predict the binding affinity of synthesized prodrugs with COX-2. 2. Result and Discussion 2.1. Synthesis of Prodrugs The mutual prodrugs synthesis is beneficial as it minimizes the undesirable effects of a drug along with increase the pharmacological response. Dexibuprofen–antioxidants mutual prodrugs have been synthesized by following the previously reported method with slight modification [20]. For the first time natural antioxidants menthol, sesamol and umbelliferon were used for the preparation of mutual prodrugs of dexibuprofen. Chloroacetyl chloride was condensed with these natural antioxidants 2a–c to afford their chloroacetyl chloride derivatives 3a–c. Dexibuprofen was then reacted with derivatives 3a–c to afford mutual prodrugs 5a–c (Scheme 1). The structures of the synthesized prodrugs were confirmed by FTIR, 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR and Mass spectral data. The FTIR spectral data showed the characteristic absorption for C=O at 1730–1718 cm−1 with disappearance of –OH for carboxylic group which confirmed the formation of ester prodrugs.

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Int. J. Mol. Sci.125.21 2016, 17, 2151 117.08 (C-4′′), 140.64 (C-5′′), 109.50 (C-6′′), 160.92 (C-7′′), 147.64 (C-8′′), 108.28 (C-9′′);3 of 21 (C-2′′), (C-3′′),

ESI-MS: m/z 431 (36%) (M + 23) (M + Na), 247 (30%), 189 (100%), 161 (63%), 134 (49%), 133 (32%). O Cl

Cl

+

Cl

CH2Cl2

(2a-c)

(1)

O

(C2H5)3N

Ar/R-OH

O-Ar/R (3a-c)

O H3C

H3C

O OH

CH3

+

H

H3C

Cl

O-Ar/R

(C2H5)3N/KI

O

DMF

(3a-c)

(4) Ar/R=

O

CH3

CH3 (5a-c)

O-Ar/R

H O

CH3 O b)

a)

H3C

c) O

O

O

O

O

O

CH3

CH3

O

O H 3C

O

O CH 3

H3C

H

H 3C

H H3C

CH3

(5a)

(5b)

H3C

O CH3

O

CH3 H3C

O

H3C

O

O

O

H

(5c)

Scheme 1. Synthesis and chemical structures of dexibuprofen–antioxidant mutual prodrugs (5a–c).

Scheme 1. Synthesis and chemical structures of dexibuprofen–antioxidant mutual prodrugs (5a–c).

3.5. In Vitro Hydrolysis

2.2. Hydrolysis Studies of Mutual Prodrugs Dexibuprofen

The in vitrohydrolytic studies of mutual prodrugs 5a–c were performed in simulated fluid (pH

1.2 and 7.4) and in 80% human plasma (pH 7.4). These to simulated fluids i.e., simulated gastric fluid The in vitrohydrolysis of the synthesized prodrugs free dexibuprofen was performed at pH 1.2 (SGF pH 1.2) and simulated and intestinal fluid (SIF pH 7.4) arerespectively. extensively utilized in pharmaceutical and 7.4 to mimic the stomach intestinal environment The release of free drug Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 2151 3 of 20by industries for dissolution tests. Hydrochloric acid solution and potassium phosphate monobasic were hydrolysis of the prodrugs was also studied in 80% human plasma at pH 7.4 to mimic the pH of blood. used to prepare these media. The simulated gastric fluid is prepared by mixing the 0.2 M aqueous The prodrugs at gastric pH (SGF, pH 1.2) to free whilewhile at higher blood. The prodrugs at gastric pH (SGF, pHare 1.2)not arehydrolyzed not hydrolyzed to dexibuprofen free dexibuprofen at potassium chloride with a 0.2 M hydrochloric acid solution. The SGF was degassed after adjusting (SIF pH of the prodrugs is higherisresulting increaseinthe amountthe freeamount dexibuprofen. higher (SIF7.4) pHhydrolysis 7.4) hydrolysis of the prodrugs higher in resulting increase free the final pH. The monobasic potassium phosphate buffer was prepared in water and final pH 7.4 was The dexibuprofen produced on potassium hydrolysishydroxide after 1 h solution. (in SIF, pH 7.4) prodrugs 5a–c was10found from dexibuprofen. dexibuprofen on hydrolysis after h (inofSIF, 7.4) of prodrugs 5a–c adjustedThe by slow addition of produced To1 prepare thepH stock solution, mg of 6.34% to 18.02%. The amount of dexibuprofen regenerated on hydrolysis after 1 h (in 80% human was found from 6.34% to 18.02%. The amount of dexibuprofen regenerated on hydrolysis after 1 each prodrug was mixed in 90 mL of SGF (pH 1.2) or SIF (pH 7.4). The 15 mL of this stock solution h plasma, pH 7.4) was found be was 69.4%, 61.5% and prodrugs 5a–c, respectively. All5a–c, of the (in 80%was human plasma, pH 7.4) found to be 64.7% 69.4%, 61.5% andFrom 64.7% intest prodrugs taken repeatedly andto kept in test tubes maintained at in 37 ± 0.5 °C. these tubes some mutual prodrugs showed very encouraging hydrolysis in 880% human (pH and the respectively. Allwas of taken the mutual very rate in 80% human solution after a prodrugs fixed timeshowed interval (0.5, 1,encouraging 2rate up to h) hydrolysis and was plasma transferred to7.4) micro centrifuge The solution then high speed rpm) for92%. 5 minpatterns andIn clear regeneration active drug was was found tocentrifuged be 61% 92%. The to In(3000 vitro hydrolytic of the plasma (pH 7.4)oftubes. and the regeneration of active drugtoat was found be 61% to The vitro supernatant was obtained. The amount of dexibuprofen released was then measured on UV ester prodrugs 5a–c in SIF 7.4) and in 80% plasma are presented in 7.4) Figures hydrolytic patterns of the ester(pH prodrugs 5a–c in SIFhuman (pH 7.4) and in(pH 80%7.4) human plasma (pH are 1 (Shimadzu, NAKAGYO-KU, Kyoto 604-8511, Japan) after hydrolysis in buffer and 2,spectrophotometer respectively. presented in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. solutions at 230–215 and 280–260 nm respectively. 3.6. Pharmacology Animals The animals used for this study were 20–30 g weight mice either male or female and were housed at animal house department of Pharmacology, University of Sargodha. Animals were provided standard diet and water at libitum. All animals were treated according to instructions of National Institute of Health (NIH) guidelines. The study protocol was approved by the ethical Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sargodha in the month of June 2014 vide project approval number PHRM-UOS-125.

FigureFigure 1. In vitro patternpattern of the ester prodrugs (5a–c) in(5a–c) simulated intestinalintestinal fluid (SIF) (pH(SIF) 7.4). 1. Inhydrolytic vitro hydrolytic of the ester prodrugs in simulated fluid (pH 7.4).

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Figure 1. In vitro hydrolytic pattern of the ester prodrugs (5a–c) in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) (pH 7.4).

Figure Figure2.2.InInvitro vitrohydrolytic hydrolyticpattern patternof ofthe theester esterprodrugs prodrugs(5a–c) (5a–c)in in80% 80%human humanplasma plasma(pH (pH7.4). 7.4).

2.3. Pharmacology 2.3. Pharmacology Anti-Inflammatory Anti-InflammatoryActivity Activity Anti-inflammatory confirmed that thatthere therewas wasaagradual gradualincrease increaseininpaw paw volume Anti-inflammatory activity activity results results confirmed volume of of mice in the control group. However, in the treated groups, all prodrugs 5a–c produced a significant mice in the control group. However, in the treated groups, all prodrugs 5a–c produced a significant reduction reductionin inedema edemaformation. formation.The Theprodrug prodrug5c 5c exhibited exhibitedanti-inflammatory anti-inflammatoryeffects effectsby bysignificantly significantly (p < 0.001) 0.001)inhibiting inhibitingthethe paw-edema h ofcarrageenan post carrageenan induced inflammation with (p < paw-edema at 4 at h of4 post induced inflammation with percentage percentage inhibition of (28.99%). However, prodrugs 5a and 5b produced comparatively less inhibition of (28.99%). However, prodrugs 5a and 5b produced comparatively less anti-inflammatory anti-inflammatory response (p 5b > 5c (Table 3). Table 3. Effect of prodrugs (5a–c) against acetic acid induced writhing and formalin induced licking in mice. Treatment/Dose

No. of Writhing

Lickings Time

Dose

Mean ± SEM

Mean ± SEM

Control 10 mL/kg

37.20 ± 1.10

2.83 ± 0.26

Dexibuprofen 20 mg/kg

17.06 ± 1.08 *** (54.12%)

1.60 ± 0.22 *** (43.46%)

5a 20 mg/kg

15.00 ± 1.29 *** (59.67%)

0.70 ± 0.22 *** (75.26%)

5b 20 mg/kg

17.50 ± 0.64 *** (52.95%)

0.98 ± 0.17 *** (65.37%)

5c 20 mg/kg

18.25 ± 0.85 *** (50.94%)

1.31 ± 0.07 *** (53.71%)

Results are expressed as means ± SEM. Significant at *** = p < 0.001 when compared to control. The figure in brackets represents percentage inhibition.

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In acetic acid induced writhing model, abdominal constriction response is due to peritoneal receptors [26]. It is reported that level of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and PGF2 in peritoneal fluids has been increased [27] as well as lipoxygenase products [28] when acetic acid is administered to induce writhing. The analgesic activity of prodrugs might be due to inhibition of synthesis and release of PGs and other endogenous substances as already proposed. Likewise, formalin produces response in two phases; the first phase is due to stimulation of nociceptors while second phase is of inflammatory pain origin [29]. The mutual prodrugs at a dose of 20 mg/kg significantly (p < 0.001) reduced licking time in mice. The analgesic activity of prodrugs 5a–c was evaluated on the first and second phase of formalin-induced paw licking test. The results verified that these analgesic effects may be due to its central action as proposed previously by Ghannadi et al., 2005 [30]. 2.5. Antipyretic Activity Anti-pyretic effects in mice indicated that prodrugs 5a and 5b showed significant inhibition of pyrexia (p < 0.001). Prodrug 5c showed significant inhibition of pyrexia after 2 h induction of pyrexia while standard dexibuprofen showed less significant (p < 0.05) inhibition of pyrexia. It has been well established that yeast induces pyrexia by increasing the production of prostaglandins (PGE2 ), which raises the set point of thermoregulatory center in hypothalamus [31]. Therefore, it is proposed that 5b may likely to reduce pyrexia by decreasing prostaglandin E2 concentration in brain particularly in the hypothalamus [32] or by increasing the production of the body0 s own antipyretic substances such as vasopressin and arginine [33]. Antipyretic effects of dexibuprofen may be due to the action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation and subsequent heat dissipation. Table 4 depicts the antipyretic activity results of the synthesized mutual prodrugs 5a–c. Table 4. Effect of prodrugs (5a–c) against yeast induced pyrexia (◦ F) in mice.

Treatment/Dose Dose Control (10 mL/kg) Dexibuprofen (20 mg/kg) 5a (20 mg/kg) 5b (20 mg/kg) 5c (20 mg/kg)

Temperature before Induction (◦ F)

After 24 h of Induction (◦ F)

1 h (◦ F)

2 h (◦ F)

3 h (◦ F)

Mean ± SEM

Mean ± SEM

Mean ± SEM

Mean ± SEM

Mean ± SEM

95.17 ± 0.34

96.02 ± 0.44

96.25 ± 0.39

96.22 ± 0.39

96.22 ± 0.39

95.20 ± 0.21

95.77 ± 0.26

95.25 ± 0.37 ns

95.02 ± 0.35 *

94.97 ± 0.31 *

94.37 ± 0.04 94.25 ± 0.10 98.95 ± 0.04

95.14 ± 0.02 95.47 ± 0.19 102.1 ± 0.96

94.97 ± 0.06 * 94.87 ± 0.06 ** 98.35 ± 0.05 ***

94.62 ± 0.08 ** 94.5 ± 0.12 *** 97.65 ± 0.15 **

94.37 ± 0.08 *** 94.17 ± 0.06 *** 97.25 ± 0.08 ns

Results are expressed as means ± SEM. Significant at * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01, *** = p < 0.001, ns = non-significant when compared to control.

2.6. Ulcerogenic Activity To find adverse effects on gastrointestinal mucosa the ulcerogenic activity of the synthesized dexibuprofen–antioxidant mutual prodrugs 5a–c was performed. The ulcer index (UI) of animals administered with dexibuprofen prodrugs 5a–c were compared with that of dexibuprofen and results were evaluated using one way ANOVA (followed by Tukey) test (Table 5). Ulcer index shown by dexibuprofen treated animals is 2.89 and is due to direct contact mechanism as well as prostaglandin inhibition. All of the synthesized dexibuprofen–antioxidant mutual prodrugs 5a–c significantly reduce the gastrotxicity of dexibuprofen as the ulcer index produced by synthesized prodrugs is less than parent dexibuprofen. The present study did not include the side effects associated with the long term use of the prodrugs.

were evaluated using one way ANOVA (followed by Tukey) test (Table 5). Ulcer index shown by dexibuprofen treated animals is 2.89 and is due to direct contact mechanism as well as prostaglandin inhibition. All of the synthesized dexibuprofen–antioxidant mutual prodrugs 5a–c significantly reduce the gastrotxicity of dexibuprofen as the ulcer index produced by synthesized prodrugs is less than parent dexibuprofen. The present study did not include the side effects associated with the long Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 2151 7 of 21 term use of the prodrugs. Table (5a–c) and and Dexibuprofen. Dexibuprofen. Table 5. 5. Ulcerogenic Ulcerogenic activity activity of of synthesized synthesized mutual mutual prodrugs prodrugs (5a–c)

Serial. No. Serial. No. Control group Control group 1 1 2 2 33 44

Compounds CMC * CMC * Dexibuprofen Dexibuprofen 5a 5a 5b 5b 5c5c Compounds

Ulcer Index (Mean±SEM) Ulcer Index (Mean±SEM) 0.37 ± 0.37 0.37±±0.63 0.37 2.89 2.89 ± 0.63 1.55 ± 0.09 ** 1.55 ± 0.09 ** 1.34 1.34±±0.06 0.06** ** 1.61 1.61±±0.58 0.58**

CMC cellulose, Values are expressed as ± Mean (none = 6)way by ANOVA one way(followed ANOVA CMC* *==Carboxymethyl Carboxymethyl cellulose, Values are expressed as Mean SEM,±(nSEM, = 6) by by Tukey) test, Significant at * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01 vs. Dexibuprofen. (followed by Tukey) test, Significant at * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01 vs. Dexibuprofen.

2.7. Ex Ex Vivo Vivo Antiplatelet Antiplatelet Aggregation Aggregation Activity Activity 2.7. Dexibuprofen–antioxidant mutual mutual prodrugs prodrugs (5a–c) (5a–c) significantly significantly inhibited inhibited platelet aggregation Dexibuprofen–antioxidant Figure 33 displays displays the the inhibitory inhibitory effects effects of of rat platelet rich plasma induced by ADP or collagen. Figure synthesized prodrugs 5a–c. All of the synthesized prodrugs 5a–c having higher potential to inhibit the prodrugs 5a–c. All of the synthesized prodrugs 5a–c having higher potential to inhibit platelet aggregation than the controlcontrol ASA. The prodrug 5c exhibited most potent inhibitory the platelet aggregation thanpositive the positive ASA. The prodrug 5c exhibited most potent effects compared to other synthesized prodrugs. prodrugs. inhibitory effects compared to other synthesized

Figure 3. Antiplatelet Figure 3. Antiplatelet aggregation aggregation activity activity of of synthesized synthesized prodrugs prodrugs (5a–c) (5a–c) in in rats rats administered administered orally. The platelet rich plasma was obtained from the blood 90 min after prodrugs (100 mg/kg) were orally. The platelet rich plasma was obtained from the blood 90 min after prodrugs (100 mg/kg) orally administered into Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, and platelet aggregation was induced were orally administered into Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, and platelet aggregation was induced by by adenosinediphosphate adenosinediphosphate (ADP) (ADP) (1.3 (1.3 µmol/L) µmol/L)or orcollagen collagen(32.8 (32.8µg/mL), µg/mL),Significant Significantatat*** ***==p p<