Table of Contents - Assets - Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87858-6 - Building Scientific Apparatus: Fourth Edition John H. Moore, Christopher C. Davis and Michael A. Coplan, Table of Contents More information

CONTENTS

Preface xiii

1

MECHANICAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION 1

1.1 Tools and Shop Processes 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.1.5 1.1.6 1.1.7 1.1.8 1.1.9

1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3

1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7

1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3

2 Hand Tools 2 Machines for Making Holes 2 The Lathe 4 Milling Machines 7 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) 9 Grinders 9 Tools for Working Sheet Metal 10 Casting 10 Tolerance and Surface Quality for Shop Processes 12 Properties of Materials 12 Parameters to Specify Properties of Materials 13 Heat Treating and Cold Working 14 Effect of Stress Concentration 16 Materials 18 Iron and Steel 18 Nickel Alloys 20 Copper and Copper Alloys 21 Aluminum Alloys 22 Other Metals 22 Plastics 23 Glasses and Ceramics 24 Joining Materials 25 Threaded Fasteners 25 Rivets 28 Pins 29

1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.4.7 1.4.8 1.4.9 1.4.10

1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5

Retaining Rings 29 Soldering 30 Brazing 31 Welding 33 Adhesives 34 Design of Joints 34 Joints in Piping and Pressure Vessels 37 Mechanical Drawing 39 Drawing Tools 39 Basic Principles of Mechanical Drawing 40 Dimensions 44 Tolerances 46 From Design to Working Drawings 48

1.6 Physical Principles of Mechanical Design 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5

1.7 1.7.1 1.7.2 1.7.3 1.7.4 1.7.5 1.7.6

49

Bending of a Beam or Shaft 50 Twisting of a Shaft 52 Internal Pressure 52 Vibration of Beams and Shafts 54 Shaft Whirl and Vibration 55 Constrained Motion 57 Kinematic Design 57 Plain Bearings 59 Ball Bearings 60 Linear-Motion Bearings 61 Springs 62 Flexures 63 Cited References 66 General References 66 Chapter 1 Appendix 68

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viii

2

CONTENTS

3.2.6

WORKING WITH GLASS

76

2.1 Properties of Glasses 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4

76 Chemical Composition and Chemical Properties of Some Laboratory Glasses 76 Thermal Properties of Laboratory Glasses 77 Optical Properties of Laboratory Glassware 78 Mechanical Properties of Glass 78

2.2 Laboratory Components Available in Glass 78 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4

Tubing and Rod 78 Demountable Joints 79 Valves and Stopcocks 80 Graded Glass Seals and Glass-to-Metal Seals 81 2.3 Laboratory Glassblowing Skills 81 2.3.1 The Glassblower’s Tools 81 2.3.2 Cutting Glass Tubing 82 2.3.3 Pulling Points 83 2.3.4 Sealing Off a Tube: The Test-Tube End 84 2.3.5 Making a T-Seal 85 2.3.6 Making a Straight Seal 87 2.3.7 Making a Ring Seal 87 2.3.8 Bending Glass Tubing 88 2.3.9 Annealing 88 2.3.10 Sealing Glass to Metal 89 2.3.11 Grinding and Drilling Glass 91 Cited References 92 General References 92

3

VACUUM TECHNOLOGY

3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4

3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5

98

3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6

3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3

3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 3.5.7

Mechanical Gauges 98 Thermal-Conductivity Gauges 100 Viscous-Drag Gauges 101 Ionization Gauges 101 Mass Spectrometers 103 Flowmeters 103 Vacuum Pumps 104 Mechanical Pumps 105 Vapor Diffusion Pumps 109 Entrainment Pumps 112 Vacuum Hardware 115 Materials 115 Demountable Vacuum Connections 118 Valves 120 Mechanical Motion in the Vacuum System Traps and Baffles 124 Molecular Beams and Gas Jets 127 Electronics and Electricity in Vacuo 130

123

3.6 Vacuum-System Design and Construction 131 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6

Some Typical Vacuum Systems 132 Differential Pumping 138 The Construction of Metal Vacuum Apparatus Surface Preparation 142 Leak Detection 143 Ultrahigh Vacuum 144 Cited References 145 General References 145

139

93

3.1 Gases 93 3.1.1

Outgassing

3.3 Pressure and Flow Measurement 98

The Nature of the Residual Gases in a Vacuum System 93 Gas Kinetic Theory 93 Surface Collisions 95 Bulk Behavior versus Molecular Behavior 95 Gas Flow 95 Parameters for Specifying Gas Flow 95 Network Equations 96 The Master Equation 96 Conductance Formulae 97 Pumpdown Time 98


4

OPTICAL SYSTEMS

147

4.1 Optical Terminology 147 4.2 Characterization and Analysis of Optical Systems 150 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7

Simple Reflection and Refraction Analysis Paraxial-Ray Analysis 151 Nonimaging Light Collectors 162 Imaging Systems 162 Exact Ray Tracing and Aberrations 166 The Use of Impedances in Optics 174 Gaussian Beams 179

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4.3 Optical Components 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4.3.9 4.3.10 4.3.11 4.3.12 4.3.13 4.3.14 4.3.15

4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2

4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.5

4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7

4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 4.7.6

182 Mirrors 182 Windows 187 Lenses and Lens Systems 187 Prisms 196 Diffraction Gratings 201 Polarizers 204 Optical Isolators 211 Filters 212 Fiber Optics 217 Precision Mechanical Movement Systems 219 Devices for Positional and Orientational Adjustment of Optical Components 222 Optical Tables and Vibration Isolation 229 Alignment of Optical Systems 229 Mounting Optical Components 230 Cleaning Optical Components 232 Optical Materials 236 Materials for Windows, Lenses, and Prisms 236 Materials for Mirrors and Diffraction Gratings 245 Optical Sources 247 Coherence 248 Radiometry: Units and Definitions 248 Photometry 249 Line Sources 250 Continuum Sources 252 Lasers 261 General Principles of Laser Operation 267 General Features of Laser Design 268 Specific Laser Systems 270 Laser Radiation 283 Coupling Light from a Source to an Aperture 284 Optical Modulators 287 How to Work Safely with Light Sources 289 Optical Dispersing Instruments 291 Comparison of Prism and Grating Spectrometers 293 Design of Spectrometers and Spectrographs 295 Calibration of Spectrometers and Spectrographs 299 Fabry–Perot Interferometers and Etalons 299 Design Considerations for Fabry–Perot Systems 308 Double-Beam Interferometers 309 Endnotes 314 Cited References 314 General References 318


5

ix

CHARGED-PARTICLE OPTICS 324

5.1 Basic Concepts of Charged-Particle Optics 324 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4

5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.7

5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3

5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.4.7

5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3

Brightness 324 Snell’s Law 325 The Helmholtz–Lagrange Law 325 Vignetting 326 Electrostatic Lenses 327 Geometrical Optics of Thick Lenses 327 Cylinder Lenses 329 Aperture Lenses 331 Matrix Methods 332 Aberrations 333 Lens Design Example 336 Computer Simulations 338 Charged-Particle Sources 338 Electron Guns 338 Electron-Gun Design Example 341 Ion Sources 343 Energy Analyzers 345 Parallel-Plate Analyzers 346 Cylindrical Analyzers 347 Spherical Analyzers 348 Preretardation 350 The Energy-Add Lens 350 Fringing-Field Correction 352 Magnetic Energy Analyzers 353 Mass Analyzers 354 Magnetic Sector Mass Analyzers 354 Wien Filter 354 Dynamic Mass Spectrometers 355

5.6 Electron- and Ion-Beam Devices: Construction 355 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3 5.6.4 5.6.5

Vacuum Requirements 355 Materials 356 Lens and Lens-Mount Design 357 Charged-Particle Detection 358 Magnetic-Field Control 358 Cited References 360

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CONTENTS

6

ELECTRONICS

362

6.1 Preliminaries 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6 6.1.7 6.1.8 6.1.9 6.1.10 6.1.11

6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5

6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5

6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.4.6

6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3

6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3

362 Circuit Theory 362 Circuit Analysis 365 High-Pass and Low-Pass Circuits 369 Resonant Circuits 372 The Laplace-Transform Method 374 RLC Circuits 377 Transient Response of Resonant Circuits 378 Transformers and Mutual Inductance 379 Compensation 380 Filters 380 Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis 381 Passive Components 382 Fixed Resistors and Capacitors 383 Variable Resistors 384 Transmission Lines 389 Coaxial Connectors 398 Relays 399 Active Components 402 Diodes 403 Transistors 406 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 419 Unijunction Transistors 420 Thyratrons 421 Amplifiers and Pulse Electronics 421 Definition of Terms 421 General Transistor-Amplifier Operating Principles 424 Operational-Amplifier Circuit Analysis 428 Instrumentation and Isolation Amplifiers 432 Stability and Oscillators 434 Detecting and Processing Pulses 435 Power Supplies 441 Power-Supply Specifications 442 Regulator Circuits and Programmable Power Supplies 443 Bridges 445 Digital Electronics 447 Binary Counting 447 Elementary Functions 447 Boolean Algebra 448


6.6.4 6.6.5 6.6.6 6.6.7 6.6.8 6.6.9 6.6.10

6.7 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.4 6.7.5 6.7.6 6.7.7 6.7.8 6.7.9

6.8 6.8.1 6.8.2 6.8.3 6.8.4 6.8.5 6.8.6

6.9 6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3 6.9.4 6.9.5 6.9.6

6.10 6.10.1 6.10.2 6.10.3 6.10.4 6.10.5 6.10.6

6.11 6.11.1 6.11.2

Arithmetic Units 448 Data Units 448 Dynamic Systems 450 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 453 Memories 458 Logic and Function 460 Implementing Logic Functions 464 Data Acquisition 467 Data Rates 467 Voltage Levels and Timing 469 Format 469 System Overhead 470 Analog Input Signals 472 Multiple Signal Sources: Data Loggers 474 Standardized Data-Acquisition Systems 474 Control Systems 479 Personal Computer (PC) Control of Experiments 482 Extraction of Signal from Noise 491 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 491 Optimizing the Signal-to-Noise Ratio 492 The Lock-In Amplifier and Gated Integrator or Boxcar 493 Signal Averaging 494 Waveform Recovery 495 Coincidence and Time-Correlation Techniques 496 Grounds and Grounding 500 Electrical Grounds and Safety 500 Electrical Pickup: Capacitive Effects 503 Electrical Pickup: Inductive Effects 504 Electromagnetic Interference and r.f.i 505 Power-Line-Coupled Noise 505 Ground Loops 506 Hardware and Construction 508 Circuit Diagrams 508 Component Selection and Construction Techniques 508 Printed Circuit Boards 513 Wire Wrapä Boards 523 Wires and Cables 524 Connectors 528 Troubleshooting 534 General Procedures 534 Identifying Parts 535 Cited References 537 General References 538 Chapter 6 Appendix 541

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CONTENTS

7

DETECTORS

7.9 Particle and Ionizing Radiation Detectors 585

547

7.1 Optical Detectors 547 7.2 Noise in Optical Detection Process 548 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4

Shot Noise 548 Johnson Noise 549 Generation-Recombination (gr) Noise 1/f Noise 549

7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4

549

550 Noise-Equivalent Power 550 Detectivity 550 Responsivity 551 Quantum Efficiency 552 Frequency Response and Time Constant 553 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 553 Photoemissive Detectors 554 Vacuum Photodiodes 554 Photomultipliers 555 Photocathode and Dynode Materials 556 Practical Operating Considerations for Photomultiplier Tubes 561 Photoconductive Detectors 566

7.5 7.6 Photovoltaic Detectors (Photodiodes) 572 7.6.1 7.6.2

7.7 7.7.1 7.7.2 7.7.3 7.7.4 7.7.5

Avalanche Photodiodes 574 Geiger Mode Avalanche Photodetectors Detector Arrays 578 Reticons 578 Quadrant Detectors 578 Lateral Effect Photodetectors 578 Imaging Arrays 580 Image Intensifiers 581 Photomultipliers 582 Direct Detection with p–i–n Photodiodes Direct Detection with APDs 584 Photon Counting 585


7.10.1 7.10.2 7.10.3 7.10.4

8

8.1.9

8.2

582

596

MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 600

8.1 The Measurement of Temperature 600 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1.5 8.1.6 8.1.7 8.1.8

582

Solid-State Detectors 589 Scintillation Counters 591 X-Ray Detectors 591 Thermal Detectors 591 Thermopiles 593 Pyroelectric Detectors 593 Bolometers 594 The Golay Cell 595

7.11 Electronics to be Used With Detectors 7.12 Detector Calibration 597 Endnotes 597 Cited References 597 General References 599

577

7.8 Signal-to-Noise Ratio Calculations 7.8.1 7.8.2 7.8.3 7.8.4

7.9.1 7.9.2 7.9.3

7.10

7.3 Figures of Merit for Detectors 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5 7.3.6

xi

8.2.1 8.2.2

Expansion Thermometers 601 Thermocouples 602 Resistance Thermometers 605 Semiconductor Thermometers 609 Temperatures Very Low: Cryogenic Thermometry 610 Temperatures Very High 611 New, Evolving, and Specialized Thermometry 612 Comparison of Main Categories of Thermometers 612 Thermometer Calibration 612 The Control of Temperature 613 Temperature Control at Fixed Temperatures 613 Temperature Control at Variable Temperatures 613 Cited References 621 General References 623

Index

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