Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers' Career ... https://www.researchgate.net/...Teacherpreneurism...Teachers'...TEACHERPRENEURI...

RUNNING HEAD: Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction

TEACHERPRENEURISM: IMPACT ON TEACHERS’ CAREER SATISFACTION

BY

CHERI MCMANUS Bachelor Degree in Social Work, University of New Hampshire, 1982 Master’s Degree of Education, Rivier College, 1994

DISSERTATION

Submitted to New England College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctorate of Education

May, 2018

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction

ii


iii

Table of Contents Dedication………………………………………………………………………………… Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………… List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………… List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………. Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. Background of the Problem……………………………………………………. Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………. Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………… Research Questions and Hypothesis…………………………………………… Significance of the Study………………………………………………………. Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………… Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………… Introduction……………………………………………………………………. Synthesis……………………………………………………………………… Critique………………………………………………………………………… Summary………………………………………………………………………. METHODS………………………………………………………………………………. Introduction…………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Research Design………………………………………………... Rationale……………………………………………………………………… Research Design………………………………………………………………... Participants……………………………………………………………………… Setting………………………………………………………………………….. Informed Consent……………………………………………………………… Data Collection………………………………………………………………… Data Integrity…………………………………………………………………... Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………... Storage…………………………………………………………………………. RESULTS/ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………….. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. Analysis of Data……………………………………………………………….. Interpretation of Findings……………………………………………………… Limitations of the Study and Analysis of Data………………………………… DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….. Synthesis of Qualitative Findings……………………………………………… Situated in the Larger Context…………………………………………………. Synthesis of Quantitative Findings…………………………………………….. Situated in the Larger Context………………………………………………….

iii iv vii ix x 1 1 3 5 21 21 25 27 35 38 38 51 57 57 60 60 64 68 68 70 70 73 74 75 78 80 81 81 81 99 100 102 105 105 105 107 107

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction Implications…………………………………………………………………….. APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………….. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….

iv 110 116 157


List of Figures 1. Figure 1: Graphic representation of study variables 2. Figure 2: Graphic representation of flow 3. Figure 3: Scatterplot between TeacherPreneurism and TeacherCareerSatisfaction. (See Appendices) 4. Figure 4: Scatterplot matrix among Teacherpreneurism, Teacher_Job_Satisfaction, Intent_to_Leave_Inverted, and Work_Related_Flow. (See Appendices) 5. Figure 5: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted (See Appendices) 6. Figure 6: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted (See Appendices) 7. Figure 7: Studentized residuals plot for outlier detection. (See Appendices) 8. Figure 8: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 9. Figure 9: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 10. Figure 10: Studentized residuals plot for outlier detection. (See Appendices) 11. Figure 11: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow. (See Appendices) 12. Figure 12: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow. (See Appendices) 13. Figure 13: Studentized residuals plot for outlier detection. (See Appendices) 14. Figure 14: Scatterplot between Teacherpreneurism and Teacher_Career_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 15. Figure 15: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Career_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 16. Figure 16: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Career_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 17. Figure 17: Scatterplot matrix among TeacherPreneurism, Teacher_Job_Satisfaction, Intent_to_Leave_Inverted, and Work_Related_Flow. (See Appendices) 18. Figure 18: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 19. Figure 19: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction. (See Appendices) 20. Figure 20: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted. (See Appendices) 21. Figure 21: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted. (See Appendices)

v


vi

22. Figure 22: Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow. (See Appendices) 23. Figure 23: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow. (See Appendices)


vii

List of Tables 1. Table 1: Data Integrity 2. Table 2: Pearson Correlation Matrix between Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Career Satisfaction 3. Table 3: Pearson Correlation Matrix among Teacherpreneurism, Teacher Job Satisfaction, Intent to Stay, and Work Related Flow 4. Table 4: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher Job Satisfaction 5. Table 5: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent to Stay 6. Table 6: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Work Related Flow 7. Table 7: Pearson Correlation Matrix between Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Career Satisfaction 8. Table 8: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher Career Satisfaction 9. Table 9: Pearson Correlation Matrix among Teacherpreneurism, Teacher Job Satisfaction, Intent to Leave Stay, and Work Related Flow 10. Table 10: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher Job Satisfaction 11. Table 11: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent to Stay 12. Table 12: Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow


viii

Abstract Teacherpreneurism: impact on teachers’ career satisfaction By Cheri McManus New England College, May 2018

Our nation’s schools are suffering from a growing shortage of qualified teachers. Nearly 90% of the demand for teachers has been shown to be the result of teachers’ decisions to leave the profession. (Strauss, 2017). If we could find ways to reverse the accelerating trend of teachers leaving the profession we could end the teacher shortage overnight (Darling-Hammond, L., 2017). The purpose of this dissertation is to study the complex issues surrounding teacher career satisfaction and to identify factors that might elevate the teaching profession and lead to fewer teachers choosing to leave the field. Using a mixed methods approach, this study examined teacherpreneurism, a distinctive practice of perceived teacher empowerment and ability to craft one’s own hybrid job, and its relationships to teacher career satisfaction. Eight blogs containing 62 posts and 10 published case studies were examined for qualitative data and more than 500 teachers were surveyed to obtain the quantitative results reported herein. This study tests the hypothesis that teachers who feel empowered, crafting their own jobs, are more professionally satisfied and will more likely to remain in the field. Both the qualitative and quantitative data gathered and analyzed for this study pointed to positive effects of teacherpreneurism on teacher career satisfaction (Effect size = .86). Multiple


ix

linear regression analysis determined that approximately 75% of the variance of teacher career satisfaction is explainable by teacherpreneurism. Keywords: teacherpreneurism, teacherpreneur, job crafting, empowerment, flow, intent to stay, teacher career satisfaction, hybrid roles


1

INTRODUCTION Introduction Recent research documents that teachers are feeling dissatisfied, the quality of their work life is suffering, and they are leaving the profession at increasing rates (Nilsen, 2016; Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014; Carroll & Foster, 2010). Dissatisfied teachers leave and as one consequence, student achievement is negatively impacted. A study done at the University of Washington, determined “the correlation between teacher turnover and student achievement in reading was -.306 and in mathematics was -.282 it further found that school climate was negatively impacted by teacher turnover with a correlation coefficient of -.168.” (Guin, 2004). This study presents an historical context that looks at demographics, policy changes, corporate influence, educational reform and organizational structure to explain the rising levels of teacher dissatisfaction and its correlation to the reduction in the rates of teacher retention. Parallels between the 21st century best practice of personalized learning and teaching suggest a rationale for a shift in the traditional role of the teacher. The purpose of this study is to submit potential options that can improve the conditions of teacher dissatisfaction, attrition, and churn to stabilize and elevate the teaching profession and improve student outcomes. Specifically, this pursuit seeks to gain an in-depth qualitative understanding of teacherpreneurs, the embodiment of teacherpreneurism, to quantitatively examine the relationships between this distinctive practice and teacher career satisfaction. Further, this study tests the hypothesis that, teacherpreneurism, measured by teachers who feel empowered and craft their own jobs, are more satisfied in their profession, measured by teacher job satisfaction, work related flow and their intent to stay in their job, see Figure 1.0 below.


2

Figure 1: Graphic representation of study variables , This study also intends to contribute to the body of knowledge on the importance of work life, the use of a positive psychological point of view and the power of perceived organizational supports and their relationships to empowerment and job crafting. Finally, the theoretical frameworks of flow, job calling, positive psychology and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory ground this endeavor. Teacherpreneurs tTeacherpreneurs are teachers who possess the agency to take on leadership roles that benefit the profession, such as developing colleague proficiency, writing curriculum and contributing to local and national education policy, while still maintaining a solid foothold in the classroom teaching students (Berry, Byrd, & Wieder, 2013). There are other interpretations of what a teacherpreneur is that focus more on the “entrepreneurial” or income producing roles teachers might play. This study however examines the more politically motivated leadership and change agent function of teacherpreneurs. For political and professional reasons it is time to


3

embrace and incubate the concept of teacherpreneurism; doing so can stabilize the work force, improve professional agency and efficacy, thereby elevating both student and professional outcomes. Background of the Problem tTo more clearly understand the current state of teacher dissatisfaction, one must explore the historical context that gave rise to this condition. Recent studies have identified a growing and significant trend of teacher dissatisfaction in American public schools. Almost half of the 50,000 teachers surveyed in 2014 claim to be dissatisfied in their positions (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014). This confirms a 2012 study (Markow, Marcia, & Lee, 2013) in which 23% fewer teachers reported feeling satisfied than they did four years earlier. This statistic marked the lowest level of teacher satisfaction in 25 years (Markow et al., 2013). What took place over that span of time? In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education was established to examine the quality of US public schools. Their findings were delivered in the report, A Nation at Risk, issued for the purpose of “providing leadership, constructive criticism, and effective assistance to schools and universities" ("A Nation At Risk:," 1983, Introduction section). It noted that US public school students were being outperformed on certain tests by students in schools from a growing number of other countries ("A Nation At Risk:," 1983). One of the analysts who contributed to this report, Paul Copperman, summed up his impression of the findings this way: Each generation of Americans has outstripped its parents in education, in literacy, and in economic attainment. For the first time in the history of our country, the educational skills of one generation will not surpass, will not equal, will not even approach, those of their parents. ("A Nation At Risk:," 1983, Indicators of Risk Section)


4

A Nation at Risk (1983) offered reasons and politically conservative remedies for this decline. It stated that there is no one source that bears the full responsibility and suggested that “we avoid the unproductive tendency of some to search for scapegoats among the victims, such as the beleaguered teachers” ("A Nation At Risk:," 1983, Hope and Frustration Section). ‘New Basics’ ("A Nation At Risk:,"1983) for a modern curriculum that emphasized the acquisition of greater and greater amounts of facts and knowledge was recommended. Federal performance standards were written and adopted (A Nation Accountable Twenty-five Years After a Nation at Risk, 2008). These were the latest in academic expectations for all students and the birth of the conversation that later gave rise to Common Core, Career and College Ready, and nation-wide standardized testing. The Changing Demographics in the Field As the reform took hold, the profile of the teacher began to change. The median age of teachers grew from 37 to 42 years of age ("The Condition of Education 1994: America's Teachers Ten Year After "A Nation at Risk"," n.d.). More special educators and support staff were hired between 1984 and 1994 ("The Condition of Education 1994”). New teachers made up 41% of the teacher workforce as compared to 31% just three years earlier ("The Condition of Education 1994”). Twice as many teachers in 1991, or just over half of all teachers (53%), held advanced degrees and certifications in comparison to 20 years prior ("The Condition of Education 1994”). The majority of teachers in the early 1990’s, were female, older, less experienced and more educated than their predecessors. In terms of teachers’ roles, in particular secondary level teachers, few reported having influence on decision making and school policy, but most reported having high control over their classroom policies, teaching techniques, grading and determining amounts of homework. Consequently, teachers reported a slightly improved rate


5

when asked if they were likely to return, from a rate of 56% in 1981 to a rate of 59% when polled in 1991 ("The Condition of Education 1994”). Policy Changes In 2008 yet another government publication was issued, this one titled A Nation Accountable: Twenty-five years after A Nation at Risk, and according to this latest review, the nation was even more at risk. This was depicted as The Attainment Crisis, as an example the following was noted: •

20 children born in 1983 start school in 1988

•

14 graduate on time in 2001

•

10 start college that fall

•

5 earn a degree by spring 2007 ("The Condition of Education 1994: America's Teachers Ten Year After "A Nation at Risk"," n.d.)

Between 1984’s initial Nation at Risk publication and the 2008, A Nation Accountable: Twentyfive years after A Nation at Risk, the US Congress enacted No Child Left Behind. Federal monies for education were then only accessible to states that maintained academic standards and standardized testing. More grade levels began to be tested and more accountability measures were developed, setting the stage for the top down authoritarian management that lead to a loss of teacher autonomy, the squelching of creativity and rising rates of teacher dissatisfaction. The national report card, in the form of the National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP), offered numerical representations of student performance that were made public, contributing to a new level of discourse. The results were intended to be used to identify areas of weakness in curriculum that could then be targeted for improvement ("The Condition of Education 1994: America's Teachers Ten Year After "A Nation at Risk"," n.d.). This led to more specific


6

educational standards and curricula, followed by new textbooks and tests that aligned with those standards, opening the door to for-profit publishers and the birth of a new cottage industry tasked with developing that curricula and the assessments that would measure student success. As corporate America stepped in the voices of educators were drowned out. A public dialogue ensued and stakeholders from taxpayers, parents, policy makers, unions, teachers, administrators, publishers and politicians all engaged at some level. The Highly Qualified Teacher (HQT) status was born as a means of addressing the role of the teacher by ensuring their level of qualification (No Child Left Behind: A Toolkit for Teachers, 2003). By 2006, incentive or merit pay was introduced, rewarding teachers whose students demonstrated proficiency on the assessments, marking the birth of the ‘age of accountability’. This had bearing on the “profession”. Education researchers Leiter and Samuels (as cited in Demirkasimoglu, 2011) determined more than a quarter century earlier that teaching was “…a semi-professional job because [teachers] are directed to perform certain standards by

their superiors... As a result of this, teachers’ individual autonomy and decision making powers are limited” (Demirkasimoglu, 2011). These reforms validated this finding. Updated curricula, teacher degrees, certification and competency based on HQT status were key focal points of this standards-based, top-down reform. This as it turned out was a double-edged sword, elevating the professional certification criteria for becoming a teacher while handcuffing professionals’ ability to put into practice the pedagogy they developed during the certification process. These actions, consequently, left teachers feeling disempowered, under strict limits and controls, sowing the seeds of dissatisfaction, and perpetuating the perception of the “semi-professional” status of teachers.


7

In 2007, President Bush began rewarding schools with elevated test scores in reading, math and later science. ‘Blue Ribbon Awards’ were given in recognition of their achievement and these schools were held up as examples to the country’s other public schools (Zhao, 2009). The sense of competition was palpable; under the Bush administration, the American Competitive Initiative was launched and served to fund research and development to strengthen education and teacher training (Zhao, 2009, p. 4). Corporate Influence A competitive market-based system structured around high-stakes testing is a corporate, not teacher influenced, reform. Just one example of this corporate influence is the impact that the Bill and Melinda Gates, the Eli and Edythe Broad, and Walton Family Foundations have on public education policy. In 2007, the day before the Democratic presidential debate, “Gates and Broad announced they were jointly funding a $60 million campaign to get both political parties to address the foundations’ version of education reform” (Barkan, 2010, para. 32). Critics of American education, such as Diane Ravitch (2013), note that school reform intends “to eliminate the geographically based system of education and replace it with a competitive market-based system of school choice” (p.19). Furthermore, according to Au and Tempel, “The entire package of corporate-like educational reform hinges on the use of highstakes standardized tests… forming the justification for charter schools, union busting, merit pay, value-added teacher evaluations, school closures, turnarounds, reconstitutions, and just about any other way free-market competition manifests in education policy today.” (Au & Tempel, 2012, p.2).


8

In spite of all of these efforts, 25 years after the A Nation at Risk 1983 report was delivered, a progress check revealed minimal improvement. The new basics, highly qualified teachers and standardized tests to hold schools accountable and even the introduction of performance pay did not have the desired or expected result (Rice, 2003; A Nation Accountable Twenty-five Years After a Nation at Risk, 2008). Avenues for teachers to be able to engage in hybrid roles were limited at best in such an environment. Michigan State University professor Yong Zhao defines the state of American education as authoritarian, or driven from the top down with little or no consideration for input from the teachers tasked with putting the policies into practice (Zhao, 2009; Tatlow, 2014). “It is fundamentally undemocratic… and [reformers] have no interest in the voices of students, teachers, parents or administrators. Education is [should be] a human endeavor” (Au & Tempel, 2012, p.2). Twenty-first century teachers lack a voice in this version of reform. Teacherpreneurism is a means by which teacher voices can be heard and their professional agency elevated. Education Reform and Current Impact on Teachers Recent studies have found (Sass, Seal, & Martin, 2011) that new education reforms focusing on teacher accountability add stress to a teacher’s workload. Accountability, specifically with regard to high-stakes test scores and lack of administrative support, has been widely reported as a stressor (Petrilli, 2013; Burns, 2014). “Half (51%) of teachers report feeling under stress several days a week, an increase of 15 percentage points over [the] 36% of teachers reporting that level in 1985” (Markowm, Marcia, & Lee, 2013, p. 6). One of the major causes for teacher dissatisfaction is stress (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014), an apparent internal consequence of, or at least a correlation to, the standards-based reform movement that serves as


9

the historical context for this study (Hamilton, Stecher, & Yuan, 2008; Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014). Current teacher attrition rates reflect ever-increasing levels of dissatisfaction. According to Carroll and Foster (2010), after five years, more than 30% of beginning teachers leave the profession, and in some demographics, that number is as high as 40-50%. When including teachers who have surpassed the five-year mark, the rate of leaving the field for reasons other than retirement are on average 16%. This is compounded by the recent mass exodus of the baby boomer generation; the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future recently reported, “more than a million teachers are expected to retire in the next 10 years” (Chappell, 2015). During this reform movement, the number of teachers leaving the profession grew to four times what it was in the 1987-88 school year (Carroll & Foster, 2010), back when the reform movement was in its infancy. This level of attrition also has ramifications for those who stay as novice and alternatively certified teachers are on-boarded. According to Guin, (2014, para. 8) [remaining] teachers spend less time with their own students because they are supporting their new colleagues. She also reported that teachers who remained had to repeat professional development to solidify a common experience with their new counterparts and experienced a reduction in the opportunity to collaborate with other experienced teachers (Guin, 2014). Furthermore, “In order to fill vacant teaching positions, many states and districts choose to loosen hiring standards by, for instance, issuing emergency teaching certificates and allowing teachers to teach in classrooms for which they are not qualified to teach” (Aragon, 2016, p.7), ironically subverting the HQT efforts put in place in the early years of the reform. The Learning Policy Institute reported that, in the school years 2015-2017, of the 36 states polled, “the minimum number of teachers who were not fully


10

certified for their assignments was 87,091” ("Uncertified Teachers and Teacher Vacancies by State," 2018, p. 11). Extrapolated to include all 50 states and DC, that number was projected to be “108,757, with a reported number of vacancies at 6,424” (p.11). These are key factors that lead to teacher dissatisfaction, and The Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) claims the reason for the teacher exodus is dissatisfaction (2014). Test- Based Reform/ Standards-Based Reform Jesse Hagopian, author of More Than a Score: The New Uprising Against High-Stakes Testing (2014), refers to education reform as the ‘testocracy’ driven by the ‘testocratic elite’ (p. 10). He further states that these elite “are committed to reducing the intellectual and emotional process of teaching and learning to a single number” (2014, p. 10). Hagopian (2014) represents the belief that “standardized tests measure above all else a student’s access to resources” (p. 15). He criticizes value-added modeling (VAM) or performance pay as a response to this dynamic, acknowledging that rewarding teachers whose students’ test scores improve is not a reallocation of resources (2014). He believes that standards-based reform is intended to improve education for the purpose of global competition (2014). Like Ravitch’s assertion regarding the move to corporate based principles, Hagopian (2014) claims that “corporate deform… [or] remaking our schools on a business model is not the result of ignorance but of arrogance, not of misunderstanding but of the profit motive, not of silliness but rather of a desire for supremacy” (pp. 60, 21). Au and Tempel (2012) claim “[reform] needs to be democratic and bottom up, instead of the current crop of top down, corporate-style reformers…public education is not an island, but rather part of an interconnected and integrated network of social services and socioeconomic relations” (p.3). Public education is a social entity but reformers treat it as a competitive, market-based business entity.


11

Is US public education a failing ‘business’? Not according to some. Zhao (2014) and others (Hagopian, 2014; Ravitch, 2013; Berliner & Glass, 2014; Tucker, 2011; Elmore, 2011) view the premise for this latest education reform as erroneous; he claims that American schools were and are not in crisis. The crisis was defined by technical means, driven by external sources, not true or accurate measures of success. In this view only “test scores equal quality” (Zhao, 2014, p. 45), when the issue is a philosophical one based on a broader view of what education is. Zhao considers Gardener’s multiple intelligences, the value of creativity, and Richard Florida’s recognition of tolerance, technology, and talent as key factors in successful education. He further recognizes and embraces diversity in learners and learning experiences. These cannot be reduced to numbers or test scores. In these terms, America’s schools excel. The evidence of this excellence is that the US • Has seen its workforce productivity increase by 125 percent since 1983, • Is the global leader in technology and innovation, • Is the world’s undisputed military superpower, • Leads all nations in the number of patents in force, and • Is still the preeminent education destination of choice for those seeking technical degrees and career opportunities ("A Nation at Risk?," 2013). 25 years of education reform and virtually unchanged test scores, is that the whole picture or even the true picture? Zhao’s (2014) perspective offers another point of view, and if we choose to see it from that angle then there is reason to celebrate. Educators, however, continue to express a feeling of repression. A 2017 study that analyzed teacher resignation letters found that, scripted lessons, an oppressive testing culture, and a punitive evaluation system are the main reasons teachers are heading for the exit” (Iasevoli, 2017).


12

Authoritarian vs. Holacratic Organizational Structures Top-down organizational structures may be effective for a myriad of entities and even public schools during the industrial age. Today however, in the informational or conceptual age, what is needed is a shift from an authoritarian top-down organizational structure to a holacracy, “a system of organizational governance in which authority and decision-making are distributed throughout a holarchy of self-organizing teams rather than being vested in a management hierarchy” (Berry, n.d.). Dinant Rhodes, an educator and blogger in the Netherlands suggests,” there are some in education who believe holacracy could breathe new life into an industry bogged down with red tape and legacy thinking. He advocates an entrepreneurial approach to education, with holacracy helping to break down the structures that create barriers to creativity and innovation” (Rees, 2018, para. 3). Further according to Huitt and Monetti, in their chapter of the book, Open: The Philosophy and Practices that are Revolutionizing Education and Science, titled, Openness and the Transformation of Education and Schooling The hierarchical structure that presently dominates educational institutions will slowly give way to more holarchical structures that rely more on consultation than authority. The key element is that the decision making process moves from an industrial-age, military-like centralized decision-making process to one more like a set of embedded networks where most decisions are made by those who will actually implement them (Huitt & Monetti, 2017, p.54). Huitt and Monetti describe leadership from the inside out, a key component of teacherpreneurism. A system that values teachers’ input in policy development and implementation, nurtures innovation and creative hybrid roles with a respect for a variety of styles of teaching and learning is needed (Ravitch, 2010; Zhao, 2014; Kofie, Forwrd Hagopian 2014). Factors driven by an authoritarian top-down system incite psychological ramifications or


13

a “disillusionment with the teaching profession and the aims of the education system” (Iasevoli, 2017). 21st Century Education A psychological approach to remedy this disillusionment, as opposed to solely a social and organizational one, may be in order. In terms of teachers, this study will attempt to do just that, by examining the internal factors that contribute to career satisfaction for public school educators. Personalized learning fostering creativity, diversity, multiple intelligences, tolerance, technology skills, and talent, in other words, a new aim for the American educational system, will require a new teaching approach. A consequent psychological shift in teacher agency is therefore necessary to provide that type of education and exemplify those types of 21st century skills. Daniel Pink supports Zhao and agrees that a new approach to teaching is needed. He believes that we are entering what he refers to as the conceptual age, a time when a shift from an affinity for L-Directed Thinking, “sequential, literal, functional, textual, and analytic”, that led the Informational Age to R-Directed thinking, “metaphorical, aesthetic, contextual and synthetic… producing creators and caregivers” (Pink, 2012, p. 26) needs to take place. Tony Wagner proposes Seven Survival Skills as an essential foundation for education. These include: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, assessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2014). These are not skills that can be evaluated through standardized testing. Further, these are abilities and behaviors that teachers must possess and exemplify, as is the case of a teacherpreneur, to prepare their students for the conceptual age, thus practicing what they preach.


14

Parallels Between Personalized Learning and Personalized Teaching John Hattie reminds us that, “learning is personal” (Hattie, 2009, p. 241), and as a best practice, 21st century education has embraced personalized learning or “tailoring learning for each student’s strengths, needs and interests–including enabling student voice and choice in what, how, when and where they learn–to provide flexibility and supports to ensure mastery of the highest standards possible” (Patrick, Kennedy, & Powell, 2013, p.4). Personalized learning affords students agency. Why personalized learning? Because “school” is no longer defined merely as a physical space, classrooms lined with rows of desks and a teacher who lectures at the front of the room” (Abel, 2016, para.8). This is a major paradigm shift in education and to maintain an environmental and structural equilibrium in schools that have adopted personalized learning, the need for a change of equal proportions in teaching must occur. Consider personalized teaching, where teachers can be “agents of their own careers, they [can] actively take the reins and prepare themselves for the transitions they will encounter, then confront those transitions head-on with personal resources for navigating the change” (Dik & Duffy, 2012, pgs. 123-124). Personalized teaching roles like personalized learning can afford both teachers and their students opportunities to meet their individual goals thus elevating the success of the masses in both pools. Imagine new 21st century schools where: •

An understanding that tapping into unique interests, individual styles and specific needs can make work and learning meaningful and authentic;

•

Asking each [teacher and] student, “What is best for you?”

•

About relationships, knowing each individual [teacher and] student based on their [professional] academic and personal interests;

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction •

15

[Teachers and] students accessing a curriculum that meets their individual needs, reflects their zone of proximal development, and gives them the opportunity to access resources to progress at their personal rate of [teaching, leading and] learning;

•

Engaging [teachers and] students with [personally job crafted opportunities and] personal learning plans, where contributions from students, parents, support staff and teachers provide a path for ubiquitous [teaching, leading and] learning to address [teachers’ and] students’ individual needs, interests and learning [teaching and leading] styles;

•

Every [teacher teaching and leading and every] student learning at his/her own pace using the tools that help them [teach, lead and] learn and augment their strengths; and

•

Meeting the [teacher and] learner where they are, determining where they need to be and finding and scaffolding the right zone of proximal development to get them there (Abel, 2016, para.7).

With the adoption of personalized learning, the traditional role of the teacher is becoming obsolete; alternative challenges and opportunities must be accessible and afforded to teachers to meet the personalized needs of their students and alleviate their current levels of work related dissatisfaction. Impact of Empowerment and Job-Crafting Empowerment and crafting one’s own position combine to form the independent variable of this study. Empowerment is a process of transition from a state of powerlessness to a state of relative control over one’s life, destiny, and environment. This transition can manifest itself in an improvement in the perceived ability to control [emphasis added], as well as in an improvement in the actual ability to control (Cowdery, n.d.).


16

Dependent upon this study’s findings, the aspect of actual control, which implies a social and organizational factor, will be addressed in the discussion portion of this work in the form of recommendations. For the purpose of the data gathering portion of this study, however, it is perceived control that is being examined. When teachers are empowered they will be more satisfied (Bogler & Nir, 2012), and “teacher empowerment has a much stronger impact on teacher satisfaction when it takes place in an organizational context that supports individuals” (p. 287). Perceived Organizational Supports (POS) are what Bogler and Nir (2012) are referencing as organizational context. Their study revealed that “teacher empowerment mediated the relations between perceived organizational supports and job satisfaction” (p. 302). Teachers who identify as being empowered perceive that their organizations support them and experience a higher degree of career satisfaction. Teacher career satisfaction would likely decrease attrition rates and stabilize the workforce thus contributing to •

Stable and established support systems;

•

Capacity for planning over extended time;

•

Capacity for cohesive planning and program implementation; and

•

Capacity for strong teamwork and collaboration within—and across—grade levels. (Guin, 2004, para 8.) This study is also grounded in control theory for its relevance to ownership, as job-crafting

is also grounded in ownership. Job-crafting is the “self- initiated change[s] that employees [in this case teachers] make in the design of their job”, (Tim’s et al., 2016, p. 44). Psychological ownership, “that state in which an employee has developed possessive feelings” (Pierce, O'Driscoll, & Coghlan, 2004, p. 561), is key to this theoretical framework. To achieve a feeling of ownership, one must exercise control (Pierce et al. 2004). Prelinger, as noted in the study by


17

Pierce et al. (2004), found “the more an individual feels that she or he has control over and can manipulate an object, the more likely it is that this object will be perceived as part of the self” (p. 512). Job-crafting takes back the control from the authoritarian system and shifts the agency to the teacher, to his pedagogical internal guidance system rather than the corporate top-down approach that the ‘testocracy’ has put in place. Control and ownership offer theoretical justification for the concept of job-crafting as it pertains to teacherpreneurism. The profile of 21st century teacher is changing. Education reform especially with regard to political policy changes and corporate involvement are diminishing teachers’ passion for their craft with its test and standardized based competitive top-down authoritative approach. Teachers thirst for greater levels of autonomy, more decision-making power, voice and empowerment that begets the acknowledgement and respect they and their profession are due. This study expects to find that building intrinsic capital, in the form of career satisfaction through empowerment and job-crafting as in the case of the teacherpreneur, neutralizes the negative effects of recent outside policy developments and the collateral damage that standardized testing is causing teachers. Statement of the Problem The pool of American public school educators has sprung a leak. Attrition and churn are on the rise, and dissatisfaction with these educators’ chosen profession is the cause. The April 2014 University of Phoenix K-12 teacher survey indicates the two major contributors to teacher dissatisfaction are “policy development by those outside the profession (78 percent) [of respondents, name this as] the greatest source of frustration for teachers, followed by standardized testing [which was identified by] (67 percent) [of respondents]” (K-12 Teachers Rate, 2015, para 6). Further, current education assessment requirements are impacting teacher autonomy which adds to their dissatisfaction. This is evidenced in Richard Ingersoll’s research


18

on math teachers, as cited by Ravitch (2015), “One thing we’ve found is that the shrinking classroom autonomy is now the biggest dissatisfaction of math teachers nationally… and it’s no doubt tied to the testing and accountability environment where math is one of the main subjects tested” (para 10). Achieving job satisfaction is key because, “a workplace with happiness will be more satisfied within their jobs, more motivated to perform them well, and therefore enhance the productivity and … performance for the organization” ("The A&DC Thought Leadership Series Enhancing Employee Productivity: Go with the Flow," 2008, p. 6).. Hence, this study will examine factors of teacher satisfaction and their relationship to the empowerment qualities of teacherpreneurs for the purpose of identifying positive impacts that may have implications for reversing the current state of teacher dissatisfaction and their choice to leave the profession Teacher Stress In addition to the factors noted above, policy changes, the impact of required standardized testing, and the loss of autonomy, leaves teachers also feeling stress. In a 2015 survey of 30,000 educators, conducted by the American Federation of Teachers and the Badass Teachers Association, it was determined that “Workplace stress, associated with increasing job demands, is a significant concern” (Barrett et al., 2016, p. 1). Similarly, “nearly half of the 53,000 teachers from the state of Georgia surveyed plan to leave the profession within five years and cite the inordinate emphasis on test scores in teacher evaluations as a primary reason for their dissatisfaction” (Barrett et al., 2016, p. 1). Since research indicates that work place stress leads to increased job demands resulting in teacher dissatisfaction that in turn contribute to rising attrition rates, this dynamic must be reversed if teacher satisfaction is to be improved. Even the US Department of Education


19

recognizes that an increasing problem exists. The recent US educational reform movement may have policy changes that were originally thought to be beneficial but have since proven to have negative repercussions. Diane Ravitch, an early supporter of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) wave of education reform, later reversed her support stating, “accountability did not produce the result that she had wished for” (Denby, 2012, para 33). Professor Ravitch now advocates on behalf of public education and teachers, opposing those reform policies that she now perceives as shifting public education into a for-profit business (Denby, 2012). To offset increasing job demands teacherpreneurs rely on their job resources, including “social support, feedback, and opportunities for autonomy, variety, and growth…when job resources are rich, work is more rewarding for the worker, which in turn increases her engagement and effectiveness” (Bakker, 2011, para. 1). Lack of Professional Empowerment Teacher empowerment has been diminished as a result of recent reforms, and teachers are seeking improvements. This is documented in a recent publication that includes a letter from former Secretary of Education Arne Duncan to teachers. The letter introduces President Obama’s Blueprint for Reform of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) which in turn led to the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) that was signed into law in December 2015. Like the change of heart that Ravitch experienced upon closer examination of NCLB and the impact of standardized-based education reform, the Department of Education under President Obama introduced and passed legislation addressing some of the concerns shared by Ravitch. Duncan notes in his letter that, While NCLB helped schools to focus on specific student groups, its emphasis was more on punishing than empowering. An effect of the program was that teachers and school leaders lived


20

in fear of not measuring up on a few key tests and of being reprimanded and labeled as failures … if students did not score well on tests. (Duncan & Cunningham, 2010, p. 9) Some of these same issues were echoed in the 2014 North Carolina Teacher Working Conditions Survey (2014) which listed specific factors contributing to an increase in the percentage of teachers with a desire to leave the field of education including “time to plan, collaborate and provide instruction - [less access to] professional development opportunities… [and] issues related to the timing and utility of student assessments” (p.8). These working conditions affect organizations both structurally and behaviorally. One such consequence is in regard to perceived organizational supports (POS), a construct that emanates from the teacher, based on personal perceptions. Empowerment mediates the relationship between POS and job satisfaction (Bogler & Nir, 2012). According to Bogler and Nir (2012), when teachers feel more empowered they will be more satisfied, less likely to leave their jobs, improving the stability of the workforce, student achievement and overall school climate. Identifying whether job-crafting and empowerment, the factors of this study that combine to form teacherpreneurism, positively correlate to career satisfaction, then cultivating these factors to improve teachers’ perceptions of their organizational support, may in turn, counteract the increasing job demands or fuel that feeds teacher dissatisfaction and their consequent choice to leave the field. Current practices have focused on recruiting the most talented among the new teacher pool; however, as Barnett Berry (2008, p. 1), founder of the Center for Teaching Quality states, “It is one thing to identify and recruit talent; it is another to create conditions necessary for their success and their long-term retention in schools with students who are best served by a stable and cohesive group of effective teachers”. It is for this reason that nurturing teacher empowerment in public school organizations is important “… [as] teacher empowerment has a strong impact on


21

teacher satisfaction” (Bogler, & Nir, 2012, p 1). In support of that statement, the results of this study seek to determine if a variance in teacher career satisfaction is explainable by teacherpreneurism. Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which teachers who take on empowering, complex and independent hybrid roles (teacherpreneurs) have higher degrees of career satisfaction in terms of the quality of their work life and deeper levels of work related flow than those teachers who have more traditional roles in school. A positive relationship between these variables could lead to recommendations about how to reimagine and redefine the role of the public school teacher. By affording job-crafting opportunities that better align teacher resources with their demands, to achieve better job-fit, and thus improve opportunities to experience greater career satisfaction, this can bring stability and new vitality to the profession, effect student achievement and improve school climate. Research Questions and Hypothesis This study examines the extent to which empowerment and job-crafting impact three components of teacher career satisfaction: general job satisfaction, work related flow, and intent to stay in the teaching profession. As part of this research study and to deepen that understanding of the quantitative data it gathers, published teacherpreneur blogs were scrutinized for qualitative data to identify the ways that teacherpreneurs describe their roles, perceptions and experiences as educators to answer the following research questions. 1.) In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles? 2.) In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs?


22

The following was the quantitative research question this study answered through analysis of survey data. 3.) To what extent does teacherpreneurism impact career satisfaction? The hypothesis of this study contends that teachers who feel empowered and craft their own jobs are more satisfied in their profession. Specifically, this study was seeking to determine if relationships exists between teachers who score high on the teacherpreneurism portion of the survey, (composed of questions this researcher originally designed informed by the qualitative data gleaned, and the reliable and validated Job Crafting Scale and the School Participants Empowerment Scale and those who also report significantly higher levels of career satisfaction as reflected in their ratings on the general Teacher Job Satisfaction , Work Related Flow , and Intent to Stay sections of this survey. Teacher career satisfaction As a point of clarity, teacher job satisfaction must be distinguished from teacher career satisfaction as teachers may in fact not be satisfied with the position they held at the time of the survey, and may have even intended to leave the position but do not intend to leave the profession and instead seek to find a more fulfilling position within their chosen career. Moving within the profession is known as churn, a factor that contributes to destabilization (Sawchuk, 2016) but recognizes the distinction between job and career. Some degree of churn is necessary for professionals in search of optimal job fit, a match between a worker’s abilities, needs, and values and the organizational demands, rewards and values, (Dik & Duffy, 2012). Targeting work-related flow may serve to bring focus to this match. “The state of flow is a byproduct of engagement in a task or activity with high level challenge [demands] matched with corresponding high level skill [resources]”


23

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 1); in the case of work related flow, the task or activity is work. Using work related flow as one of the composite factors making up the dependent variable career satisfaction elevates mere job satisfaction to a level that includes engagement. Engagement is tied to job retention and productivity, as Terri Griffith a professor of management at Santa Clara University notes in a 2014 Harvard Business Review article. Greater employee freedom can create a better sense of ‘flow’, which enhances engagement, retention, and performance”(Guin, 2004, para. 1). The hypothesis, teachers who feel empowered and craft their own jobs are more satisfied in their profession, has been tested against the null hypothesis which maintains that the effect may be the result of chance. To prove that a measured impact is not the result of chance, one must verify that teachers who score high on the teacherpreneurism portion of the survey do not generally score low on the scales measuring general teacher job satisfaction, work related flow, and intent to stay scale. Examining the correlation of responses from participants who scored high on the teacherpreneur portion of this study with their responses to the composite dependent variable or teacher career satisfaction portion of the survey may reveal key aspects missing in the role of the traditional teacher, potentially identifying targets to improve job satisfaction. As the landscape of public education changes, the role of the educator must adapt. The public educator role is evolving from its earliest form more than a century ago, … educators have repeatedly sought to upend the notion that teaching is akin to lowerskill industrial work where teachers are interchangeable and easily replaced, and they have sought to promote the view that teaching is highly complex work, requiring specialized knowledge and skills, and deserving of the same status as traditional


24

professions, like law, medicine, engineering, and academia. (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014, p. 28) As this evolution continues, the time has arrived for empowering the educator, affording them the opportunity to craft positions that achieve high levels of job fit, leading to improved career satisfaction and ultimately elevate this noble profession. Professional Empowerment Empowered teachers can both teach and lead the profession. Empowering the traditional isolated classroom teacher to craft a new position that embraces other aspects of the profession such as leading by developing and supporting learning structures and best practices in the field, actively participating in educational and organizational policy development and initiatives, connecting one’s practice with the local and/or global community, opening one’s practice to colleagues as an example and mentor, conducting professional development, serving as a resource to colleagues for problem solving in one’s area of expertise, and taking an active role in the climate control of the organization while continuing to teach students can offer empowerment options that otherwise are incongruent with traditional teacher job descriptions and can lead to improved career satisfaction. This study intends to reveal whether a higher level of teacher career satisfaction among empowered and creative teachers who engage in such hybrid roles that marry their love for teaching with other professional designations add to general teacher job satisfaction, work related flow (a goal driven byproduct of engagement), and the intent to remain in their profession. Significance of the Study Importance of Work to One’s Life


25

Because work is a major facet of one’s life and thereby has a significant impact on the quality of one’s life (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014), the study of general teacher job satisfaction and work related flow in relation to overall teacher career satisfaction is worthy and can have a significant impact on the evolving role of the teacher. This study embraces the science of positive psychology and its premise of increasing well-being (Sandlea, director, 2012), bolstering the benefit of determining targets that correlate to increased teacher career satisfaction. 13% of the overall US workforce is comprised of public school educators (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014); therefore, a study to examine possible impactful options to address the rise of attrition and dissatisfaction in this population can serve to offer insight toward raising the value of and bringing stability to the profession. Additionally, a branch of positive psychology, work-related flow, “or short-term peak experience at work, that is characterized by absorption, work enjoyment and intrinsic work motivation” (Bakker, 2005, p. 401). This “is a relatively new construct and only a limited number of studies have investigated its relationship with job resources” (Mäkikangas, Bakker, Aunola, & Demerouti, 2010, p 797), a key factor in relationship to job demands. This study contributes to that body of knowledge through the examination of work-related flow as a specific factor of career satisfaction. Positive psychology point of view Furthermore, we know less about why teachers chose to stay than why they leave. In a 2015 NPR interview with Richard Ingersoll, a University of Pennsylvania professor who studies teacher turnover and retention, he was asked, What do we know about why some teachers stay in the profession and why some don't? [He replied] We actually don't have a lot of research on the decision to stay or not. But


26

we have a lot of data on the flip side: why teachers move to other schools or leave the profession. (Phillips, 201, para 7-8) As a consequent void in the research, it would seem beneficial to study why some teachers stay, a positive psychology point-of-view. Rather than focus on what is wrong with the profession, shift the view to what is or can be right with it (Sandlea, director, 2012). POS, Job Crafting and Empowerment Likewise, “Perceived organizational supports (POS) have not been studied intensively in the field of education” (Bogler & Nir, 2012, p. 291). Recognizing job-crafting as a vehicle in developing new hybrid roles that empower public educators with reference to POS can have mainstream implications as found in the work done by Bogler and Nir (2010). Because jobcrafting is initiated by the teacher not their supervisor, it is therefore tied to the concept of ownership and the theoretical construct of control. That ownership, or the manifestation of one’s authority, can be the catalyst for an elevated sense of empowerment. For these reasons, it seems worthy to study job-crafting as it pertains to teacher roles, and its application to educator empowerment for the purpose of providing options to increase career satisfaction and thereby retain the best and brightest teachers for the betterment of the profession and outcomes for the students it serves. It is time for a new version of what a public school teacher can engage in and accomplish. It is time for teachers to craft their own roles. A shift in decision-making power, upward mobility without the requirement of complete removal from the classroom, and earned status and respect that is not simply tied to a committee or extracurricular activity, can be crafted. The promotion and recognition of self-efficacy and autonomy as well as having an impact on the school community may translate into intrinsic capital and job resources which can offset the ever-


27

increasing demands placed on teachers. This study explores whether career satisfaction is propagated, through empowerment and job-crafting, as determined by increased incidences of work-related flow, general teacher job satisfaction and the intent for such teachers to stay in the profession. Conditions such as providing teachers a voice, the ability to impact the school community, and decision-making power can be formulated and nurtured by forward thinking administrators and school districts regardless of their budgetary constraints (Phillips, 2015), and therefore are worthy of sincere consideration in their endeavor to retain good teachers, reduce replacement costs, and foster a higher level of stability in their staff to benefit the profession and ultimately student achievement. Ingersoll states that, “this would not cost money to fix. This is an issue of management” (Phillips, 2015, para. 10). Results from this study will serve to disrupt convention and disenthrall the traditional view of a teacher while informing management decisions in such a way that attrition rates may be decreased and stability more prevalent. Theoretical Framework In an effort to advance the theories of empowerment, job-crafting and flow, this study will attempt to explore the connections between these constructs and their relationship to teacher career satisfaction. Each factor will be examined individually and as part of composite variables for potential correlational relationships to identify factors that contribute to teacher career satisfaction. Each of these theories has been used in educational research and may hold potential keys to understanding contributing factors to teacher career satisfaction. Empowerment, Ownership and Job-Crafting The following theoretical constructs: Empowerment Theory; Psychological Ownership Theory; Flow Theory; and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory, provide a foundation for


28

studying the relationship of teacher empowerment and job-crafting to teacher career satisfaction. To begin, this work is grounded in Gretchen Spreitzer’s study of psychological empowerment in the workplace. The study of this topic in the 1990’s was in response to changes in the global economy and the rise of innovation. Examining the psychology of empowerment was thought to provide a window into the individual’s perspective, separate from, but in relation to, the work place organizational context. A 2009 study of empowerment and retention revealed, “when an employee feels psychological empowerment, then it will contribute to job satisfaction … which in turn will help in retaining employees (Wadhwa, Verghese, Kowar, Sharma, & Wadhwa, 2011, p. 9). This study is based upon the same construct that drove Spreitzer’s work. Her work built on that of Conger and Kanungo (1988) and Thomas and Velthouse (1990) to craft this definition of psychological empowerment: [A] motivational construct manifested in four cognitions: meaning, competence, selfdetermination, and impact. Together … these … reflect an active rather than passive, orientation to a work role… in which an individual wishes and feels able to shape his or her work role and context. (Spreitzer, 1995, p. 1444) Spreitzer, Conger, Kanungo, Thomas and Velthouse’s work supports the connection that this study attempts to make between empowerment and job-crafting and recognizes that although psychological empowerment embodies an individual’s perspective, it is also shaped by the work environment, exists on a continuum, and is work role specific. The personal traits that contribute to this condition are self-esteem, as a ‘work specific sense of competence’ and locus of control, where individuals perceives themselves as “causal agents affecting their work environment, rather than as being externally controlled by organizational forces” (Spreitzer, 1995, pgs. 1446-


29

7). Because, “employees can increase their own work engagement and job performance through job-crafting” (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2014, p. 914) and increased engagement and performance are valuable to the profession; it would therefore be in keeping that job-crafting would also be valuable. “Psychological empowerment increases employees’ sense of personal control and motivates them to engage in work, which in turn results in positive managerial and organizational outcomes”, according to Marius Stander and Sabastiaan Rothmann, writing for the Journal of Industrial Psychology (Raymer, 2015, para. 4). Psychological empowerment dovetails with Pierce, O’Driscoll and Coghlan’s (2004) work on psychological ownership as a work environment structure. Psychological ownership in the work place serves as a bridge connecting the employee and the organization; however, it lives solely in the individual, and “it is recognized foremost by the individual who holds this feeling… it is the individual who manifests the felt rights associated with psychological ownership” (Pierce et al., 2004, p. 509). Ownership implies the extension of one’s self, and responsibility for one’s role. As found in a number of earlier works (as cited in Pierce et al., 2004, p. 511) “control exercised over an object eventually gives rise to feelings of ownership for that object”. This theory serves to reinforce the relationship between empowerment and job-crafting as it supports the belief that when one crafts one’s own job, one is likely to feel ownership of it. That ownership exists as an internal locus of control which exemplifies an active orientation to ones’ work thus contributing to ones’ psychological empowerment. In a meta-analysis of more than 140 studies on empowerment Scott Seibert, professor of management and organizations in University of Iowa’s Tippie College of Business found that “Empowered employees also are more innovative and perform better at their jobs” (Walter, 2011, para. 2).


30

Flow theory, quality of life and quality of work life. Additionally, this research is informed by Flow Theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Keller & Bless, 2007), and its compatibility to a model of intrinsic motivation for the purpose of measuring teachers’ satisfaction with their public school teaching practice (see figure 2.0). The state of flow consciousness is a construct based in the quality of life (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow or optimal experience is “a balance between perceived action capacities [defined as demands in relation to job-crafting] and perceived action opportunities [defined as resources in relation to job-crafting]” (Keller & Bless, 2007, p. 198). “The state of flow is a byproduct of engagement in a task or activity with high level challenge [demands] matched with corresponding high level skill [resources]” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 1). Flow or optimal experience implies a growth mindset, where motivation spurs increased challenge, unlike Stetton’s view of optimal performance, and thus does not consider individuals whose disposition is one of amotivation and a fixed mindset. It could be argued that such a disposition is not a desired quality for a 21st century educator, but that is not a focus of this particular study. Conversely, when job demands are higher than the skill level possessed by the teacher, an entropic state of anxiety ensues as a result of this disparity. To the other extreme, boredom erupts when employees’ skill level exceeds their job demand (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1990). The flow state represented in figure 2.0, similar to the motivation model, exists at that optimal center where skill or competency level and task or challenge demand match, here both anxiety and boredom are negated.


31

Figure 2.0

(Arsaga, 2011) Figure 2: Graphic representation of flow theory Csikszentmihalyi, the seminal researcher of flow consciousness, references Sigmund Freud’s view of the connection between work and the quality of life. “It is true if one finds flow in work, and in relations with other people, one is well on the way toward improving the quality of life as a whole” (as cited in Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p 144). To emphasize this point Csikszentmihalyi points to Marx, Men and women constructed their being through productive activities; there is no “human nature,” he held, except that which we create through work. Work not only transforms the environment by building bridges across rivers and cultivating barren plains, it also transforms the worker from an animal guided by instincts into a conscious, goal-directed, skillful person. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 149). Csikszentmihalyi draws a connection between Freud and Marx’s views of work and the quality of life and extends their perspectives to include the idea of achieving optimal experience, that flow state when challenge and skill are goal focused and in sync. He further comments that the


32

ability to alter one’s challenging circumstances and environment, as in taking personal control, can lead to a state of flow. He claims, That enjoyment depends on increasing complexity…The quality of experience of people who play with and transform the opportunities in their surroundings is more developed and enjoyable than that of people who resign themselves to live within the constraints of the barren reality they feel they cannot alter. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p. 149) This perspective of flow ties to empowerment and job-crafting as it refers to the transformation of opportunities and job satisfaction in the form of enjoyment. In the 2011 meta-analysis published in EHS Today, The Environment for Health and Safety Issues they determined, Empowered workers were more innovative and more willing to take the initiative to solve problems on their own. Employees said they were more engaged in their work when empowered, that they felt like they had an influence and an impact on the business around them… [and] these work improvements apply to improved team performance as well as individual performance. (Walter, 2011, para. 7) Empowerment leads to improved performance and with respect to the quality of life, flow extends that level of improved performance to a level of enjoyment and satisfaction. In his study of flow, Csikzentmihalyi found, “When challenges and skills were both high [participants] felt happier, more cheerful, stronger, more active; they concentrated more; they felt more creative and satisfied” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p. 159). Further, “Flow has been studied in secondary education, and researchers discovered that teachers who experience more flow are more adept at applying personal and organizational resources. Personal resources can be thought of as a sense of competency in one’s work” ("Flow," 2016, para. 11).


33

Job calling, positive psychology and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory. In terms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory, work-related flow consciousness is only possible when basic needs of food and shelter are first met (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p 10). One cannot seek to find satisfaction in work until that time. Assuming those needs are met, factors that contribute to or detract from job satisfaction can be found in Dik and Duffy’s book Make Your Job a Calling (2012). They view employment in three dimensions: a job, a means by which to pay the bills; a profession, where a career ladder exists and the goal is to climb that ladder; or a calling, meaningful work that benefits others. This construct can be thought of as a continuum, aligning the work of Martin Seligman’s three dimensions of positive psychology, to Dik and Duffy’s work and Maslow’s Theory. Seligman, a founding father of positive psychology identifies its first dimension as “the pleasant life”, basic companionship, engagement with the environment and meeting bodily needs, which aligns with Maslow’s basic needs and Dik and Duffy’s job dimension. Seligman’s second dimension is known as “the good life”, recognizing and utilizing one’s personal strength to improve one’s life; similar to moving up Maslow’s hierarchy to where one is safe and belongs or into the profession dimension of employment, according to Dik and Duffy. “The meaningful life” correlates to self-actualization, a calling or what Seligman describes as an extension of ones “deep sense of fulfillment… to a purpose much greater than ourselves” ("Martin Seligman," n.d.). When a job feels void of meaning and does not benefit others to a sufficient degree then the person holding that job is not likely experiencing engagement and incidences of flow, a mere pleasant life. The locus of control is external at the job level and is met with external rewards, salary or compensation as opposed to the calling level where an internal locus of control drives one’s course and the most valued rewards are intrinsic in nature and purposely serve to benefit others.


34

Alternative explanations to career satisfaction. Job calling, however, may in fact trump any impact that empowerment or job-crafting may have, as it is often considered a reason so strong that the employee would do the job for free and under extreme or even negative conditions. Mother Teresa could be considered an example of this as she did, in fact, endure many extreme challenges and negative conditions but was continually inspired intrinsically to persevere. Such iconic examples are not the only ones; in Dik and Duffy’s book (2012), they tell of a construction flagger, hospital janitor and a police officer who do their jobs because it is what they believed they are called to do. The flagger explains that, His work felt unmistakably meaningful to him and had a larger purpose, he kept people safe. He stated, ‘I love this job! … I care about these guys behind me, and I keep them safe, I also keep you safe and the people in all the cars behind you. I get to make a real tangible difference every day’. Then added, ‘I am grateful I was led here’ [to this job]. (Dik & Duffy, 2012, p. 4-5) One might say that a calling, whether it affords empowerment or job-crafting, may in fact be the real reason for career satisfaction. In a 2014 study conducted by the American Psychological Association that surveyed over 1,200 adults about why they stay in their job, 59% said they either agreed or strongly agreed that it was because of pay (Belsky, 2012). Pay or salary is not the only highly rated reason, others include (Belsky, 2012): • I enjoy the work I do (67%) • My job fits well with the other areas of my life (67%) • The benefits (60%) • I feel connected to the organization (56%)


35

• My co-workers (51%) Although some of these factors may also reside in aspects of empowerment and job-crafting, particularly job fit, independently they may, in fact, have an effect size related to career satisfaction that exceeds any this study has registered with the variables it considered. Therefore, the findings of this study must be considered in relation to other possible reasons and conditions that lead one to career satisfaction. While this study acknowledges that factors outside of its purview may be influencing the outcomes, it serves to start the investigation by exploring a specific set of variables. Future study may consider the results of this investigation to further advance the body of knowledge on teacher career satisfaction. Conclusion Understanding teacherpreneurism and examining its impact on teacher career satisfaction are the goals of this study. Changes in teacher demographics, education policy and the current reform movement with its authoritarian organizational structure serve as a historical backdrop and explanation for the problems this study addresses. High levels of teacher dissatisfaction, attrition and churn leading to negative impact on several aspects of public education are those problems. Teachers report significant levels of stress and lack of professional empowerment as negative consequences resulting from their current roles and the daily operations in their schools and classrooms. This study seeks to examine empowerment and job crafting as remedies to those negative factors in the form of the distinctive practice of teacherpreneurism. The significance of this study is that its findings may contribute to the body of knowledge regarding work life, a positive psychological point of view and the impact of perceived organizational supports relative the teaching profession. Finally, the theoretical framework by which this study is grounded lies in


36

theories of empowerment, job crafting, ownership, flow, job calling, positive psychology and hierarchy of needs. Definition of Terms Churn - The overall turnover, and shifting in an organization's staff and existing employees leave, change positions and new ones are hired and/or trained (WhatIs.com). Perceived Organizational Support (POS) - The degree to which employees believe that their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being and fulfills socioemotional needs (Bogler & Nir, year, p. 288). Teacherpreneur – A teacher who leads, but doesn’t ‘leave’ their students or schools. They have taken on leadership opportunities to further their career, yet are still able to devote time to classroom teaching (http://teachingquality.org/). Teacher Agency- “The capacity of teachers to act purposefully and constructively to direct their professional growth and contribute to the growth of their colleagues” (O'Brien, 2016, para.4). Teacher Leader- “Those teachers who lead within or beyond the classrooms, positively contribute to a teacher learner and leaders community, and finally influence others for the improvement in educational tasks” (Jumani & Malik, 2017, p. 23) Flow – “The state of flow is a byproduct of engagement in a task or activity with high level challenge [demands] matched with corresponding high level skill [resources]” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 1). Job Calling- A transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of


37

purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation (Dik & Duffy, 2012). Job-Crafting – Self-initiated changes that employees make in the design of their job (Tims et al, 2016). Job Fit – A match between a worker's abilities, needs, and values and organizational demands, rewards, and values (Dik & Duffy, 2012). Job Satisfaction- The level of contentment a person feels regarding his or her work. It can be influenced by a person's ability to complete required tasks, the level of communication in an organization, and the way management treats employees ("Defining Job Satisfaction Boundless Open Textbook," 2016).


38

LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This study will explore the relationships between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction. Levels of teacher satisfaction are at their lowest (Markow et al. p.6), which has implications for the quality of our educational system, the lives of American’s children and the future of our nation. The Learning Policy Institute in its 2012 survey polled teachers who left the field, 55% of whom reported being dissatisfied, listing teaching conditions, lack of administrative support, lack of autonomy, and lack of decision making on policy issues as reasons for their departure. In addition, one quarter of those polled identified accountability associated with testing and its ramifications as yet another key reason (Sutcher, DarlingHammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016, p.6). This chapter will examine relevant research on rising teacher attrition rates pointing to the organizational structure of schools, education reform and corporate influence as key contributors. Evidence is put forth as to how these factors provoke a litany of job demands that are disproportionate to teacher resources resulting in high levels of dissatisfaction and burnout. Teacher dissatisfaction and burnout impact rising attrition student performance, the teachers who remain and the budget. This chapter also includes a review of research that addresses factors which have been shown to have positive effects on teacher job satisfaction. These factors include Arnold Bakker’s work on job crafting, Gretchen Sprietzer and Bogler and Nir’s research on empowerment and Barnett Berry’s advocacy of teacherpreneurism are presented. Bakker’s Job Demands Theory connects the study of the adverse conditions of dissatisfaction and burnout to positive mitigating


39

forces. This literature review is extended to include Tims, Derks, & Bakker’s Identity Theory and Csikszentmihalyi’s Theory of Flow Consciousness in support of this study’s positive psychological query. A synthesis presenting the dynamics of job demands and job resources exposing flawed accountability measures, societal and environmental factors, and perceived organizational supports, serves to exemplify this study’s premise regarding rising attrition rates. Richard Ingersoll’s extensive work examining the profession further acknowledges these dynamics. Sources that contribute to career satisfaction not included in this research are then offered for consideration. Finally, a critique of the mixed methods research approach employed by this study is laid out. Reasons for Rising Attrition Why are teachers dissatisfied and leaving the profession? According to Richard Ingersoll, senior researcher at The Consortium of Policy Research in Education (CPRE) “…data suggests that school staffing problems are rooted in the way schools are organized and the way the teaching occupation is treated” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, p. 4). Education reform measures that began in the mid-1980’s are responsible for much of the organizational change and occupational treatment of teachers. These reforms ushered in the accountability movement and the adoption and application of a business perspective to education. Corporate reformers portray their weak comprehension of education by drawing false analogies between education and business. They think they can fix education by applying the principles of business, organization, management, law, and marketing and by developing a good data-collection system that provides the information necessary to


40

incentivize the workforce--- principals, teachers, and students --- with appropriate rewards and sanctions. (Ravitch, 2010, p. 11) Reformers’ input led to NCLB, placing significant importance on test scores, the “highstakes testing” movement, which gave rise to increased levels of imposed accountability (Ravitch, 2010). Ravitch further identifies two types of accountability, “positive accountability, where low scores trigger an effect to help the school, and punitive accountability, where low scores provide a reason to fire the staff and close the school” (Ravitch, 2010, p. 163). Ravitch’s widely publicized position is worthy of note as it exemplifies how this punitive version of accountability ran counter to the A Nation at Risk Report statement that there is no one source that bears the full responsibility declaring, “we [should] avoid the unproductive tendency of some to search for scapegoats among the victims, such as the beleaguered teachers” ("A Nation At Risk:," 1983, Hope and Frustration Section). NCLB mandated that all students had to reach proficiency by 2014. The social and professional sources of responsibility were not recognized; students, families, and teacher resources in the form of class sizes, space, well-educated teachers and well-rounded curriculum were not part of the testing accountability formula (Ravitch, 2010, p. 163). Finland’s Equity-Based Educational Reform, accounts for such factors. According to Simola (2005), “The respect for and inclusion of teachers and administrators in the development and execution of the curriculum mandates may explain part of the high level of teacher job satisfaction and committed professionalism that exists in Finland” (Frassinelli, 2012, para 12). As is noted in Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) study of flow consciousness, when demands are higher than the available resources, a state of anxiety and frustration ensues. The external pressures placed on teachers resulting from NCLB proved to be more demanding than their


41

resources could support and this contributed to teachers’ internal feelings of anxiety and consequent dissatisfaction and burnout. Shaprira-Lishchinsky (2012) adds that “Teachers’ motivation is related to job satisfaction” (p. 309). Several factors erode that satisfaction and contribute to depressed motivation and the condition commonly known as burnout. Burnout results from a sense of reduced personal accomplishment, disproportionate job demands, lack of participation in decision-making, limited autonomy, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization (Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2015). Furthermore, several studies point to trust as another factor contributing to dissatisfaction (Van Maele & Van Houtte, 2015; Bogler & Nir, 2012; Barrett, Cody, Martinez, Burris, Koolaba, McKelvy, Nolan & Meeks, 2016). Certainly when the lion’s share of the blame for what was publicly viewed as a failing public school system was placed at the feet of teachers, their trust in the system would diminish. Richard Ingersoll, while conducting research at the University of Pennsylvania on teacher attrition, reported, “Teachers feel a lack of respect and they do not call the shots” (Riggs, 2013, para.5). The traditional structure of public schools limits opportunities for advancement in the teaching profession if a shift to administration is not the desire (Berry, Byrd, & Weider, 2013). Lack of decision-making influence noted in Van Maele & Van Houtte’s research confirms Ingersoll’s contention. Likewise, isolated working conditions and low salaries (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014) are also known contributors to teacher dissatisfaction. In short, lack of respect and trust, lack of decision-making power, limited opportunities for upward mobility, feelings of isolation and insufficient financial compensation, are key factors contributing to teacher dissatisfaction and are reasons they leave.


42

To exacerbate this problem, the teachers who are leaving are the best and brightest; the top 20%, “the irreplaceables”, according to Jacob, Vidyarthi, & Carroll, (2012 p.12). Studies find that those who consider leaving are often the more qualified teachers, who are more likely to find alternate employment, and this may jeopardize organizational standards and affect colleagues’ motivation and efforts (Shaprira-Lishchinsky, 2012). Those that do stay, known as veterans, or teachers with five or more years of experience (Sass, Seal, & Martin, 2011), are required to be constantly mentoring the replacements and adjusting their practices to accommodate the learning curve of these new hires, contributing to that state of burnout. The ways schools are organized, the way the profession is treated, corporate influence, the reform movement and its lack of focus on social and professional sources contributing to student outcomes, lead to demands that exceed available resources. The consequences of this mismatch are dissatisfaction, burnout, and ultimately destabilizing the workforce via rising rates of attrition. Impact on student performance, veteran teachers, and cost. Teacher attrition has been found to have a direct and negative impact on student performance. Attrition and churn impacts teacher effectiveness, resulting in a “quality gap” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014), across the country, and most predominantly in urban and socioeconomically disadvantaged districts (Carroll & Foster, 2010) (Croasmun, Haberman 1987). Student performance is suffering due to a steady turnover of novice teachers, especially in special education roles (Croasum, Hampton, & Herrmann, 1999). This turnover impacts student connectedness and the stability of their programming, resulting in poorer performance (Croasmun, Ingersoll & Rossi 1995). Novice teachers do not practice long enough to develop their craft and accrue an appreciable depth of knowledge before they leave and are replaced with yet another novice teacher. As reported by


43

the Alliance for Excellent Education, (2014, p.5), “Teachers need from three to seven years in the field to become highly skilled – with the analytic and flexible thinking needed to engage learners, deepen their conceptual understanding, and respond to how well they are learning”. This is confirmed by Carroll & Foster (2010, p.12), “with each year of experience, teachers improve their proficiency during the first seven years…[and] are still gaining in proficiency and improving their effectiveness after an average of 11 years of teaching”. Teachers that do stay become frustrated and resentful because they are perpetually mentoring and supporting new teachers. The Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) reported in its Seven Trends: The Transformation of the Teaching Force (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014), “the modal school teacher in 1987-88 had 15 years of experience… in contrast to their 2011-2012 counterparts whose modal experience was only five years” (p. 11). There has also been a steady decline of teachers who remain in the profession after 15 years (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014). The Association of Teachers and Lecturers Union (ATL) surveyed teachers and 54% indicated that they did not think they would be teaching in 10 years, while 25% said they would leave in half that time (Marsh, 2015). The consequences of stress and burnout are damaging for teachers, students and the field of education in general. During the school year, stress can lead to a higher frequency of absenteeism (Griffith, Steptoe & Cropley, 1999) and burnout which may lead teachers to retire early, leaving the profession, thereby reducing the number of competent teachers available to teach and serve children. Perpetual mentoring and adjusting for novice level colleagues are key factors in the propagation of burnout, apathy and early retirement, consequently creating teacher drop out, whether mentally or physically— a brain drain.


44

Finally, teacher attrition including movers (churn), and leavers costs US school districts $2.2 - $7.2 billion a year (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014) (Carroll & Foster, 2010). The impact of teachers leaving and moving or “churn” is significant in terms of overall employment as teachers make up “13% of the American workforce annually” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, p. 2). This evidence confirms that the cost of teacher attrition has significant impact financially, and in terms of student performance and veteran burnout. Key elements of job satisfaction. Clear evidence exists explaining the factors that contribute to job satisfaction that can inform school practices and policies. The National Center for Education Information (NCEI) report indicated autonomy, decision-making power, and opportunities for upward mobility as being key factors in what would improve the profession. NECI surveyed teachers four times since 1990 finding that when asked what would improve the profession they indicated that, Giving teachers more autonomy in what and how they teach [was one response shared by] 72% in 2005 and 78% in 2011. Additionally, nearly all (96-98%) of the teachers surveyed in 1990, 1996, 2005 and 2011 agree that participation in decision-making at all levels would make teaching more a profession. Seventy-seven percent of teachers polled in 2011 [desire to] have career ladders to afford up-ward mobility within the teaching ranks. (Feistritzer, 2011, p. 42) These findings echo those of researchers Bogler and Nir noted earlier in this study. In terms of extrinsic conditions that contribute to teacher satisfaction, teachers identify working conditions as more important than salary. “Teachers indicate that a positive, collaborative school climate and support from colleagues and administrators are the most


45

important factors influencing whether they stay in a school”, (Berry et al, 2008, p.5). They also note autonomy and opportunities for upward mobility as reasons they choose to stay. Teachers who report more control over policies… and greater degrees of autonomy in their jobs are more likely to remain in teaching and to feel invested in their careers and schools…Schools that offer leadership opportunities for teachers appear likely to improve not just instructional quality but retention of their most effective teachers” (Berry, Daughtrey & Wieder, 2010, p. 1, 7). “Psychological empowerment increases employees’ sense of personal control and motivates them to engage in work, which in turn results in positive managerial and organizational outcomes”, according to Marius Stander and Sabastian Rothman, writing for the Journal of Industrial Psychology (Raymer, 2015, para 4). Ownership exists as an internal locus of control which exemplifies an active orientation to one’s work thus contributing to one’s psychological empowerment. In a meta-analysis of more than 140 studies on empowerment Scott Seibert, a professor of management and organizations at University of Iowa’s Tippie College of Business found that, “empowered employees … are more innovative and perform better at their jobs” (Walter, 2011, para 2.). This was also corroborated by Richard Ingersoll’s research (Berry et al, 2010, p. 5) as he found “a strong relationship between teachers’ reports of having influence in school wide decision-making processes and their retention in the profession.” This was further verified by the results of the 2006 North Carolina Teacher Working Conditions Survey that listed three keys to teacher empowerment: decision making about educational issues, trust to make sound professional decisions about instruction and engaging in an effective process for making group decisions and solving problems (Imig, Ndoye & Parker, n.d.).


46

Empowerment, autonomy, decision making power, and opportunities for upward mobility contribute to intrinsic job satisfaction. External contributors include working conditions, specifically school climate, support from colleagues and administration and salary. In general greater control through empowered action leads to greater teacher satisfaction. Options to Foster Job Satisfaction There is considerable evidence that specific practices can foster job satisfaction. In this section I will discuss recent research that school leaders can use to guide their thinking about ways to improve job satisfaction Job-crafting and empowerment. Meaningful work consisting of both intrinsic (job fulfillment) and extrinsic (job comfort) levels of satisfaction are reported by teachers who are in systems that promote empowered and job-crafting environments (Bogler & Nir, 2012). Tims, Bakker, & Derks, (2011) describe the concept of job-crafting “as self-initiated changes that employees make in the design of their jobs” (p. 1). Empowerment, as noted by Bogler and Nir, aligns with the principles of job-crafting as a proactive strategy to make work more meaningful (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2016) and can occur if organizational support is in place to allow for one to craft his or her own job. In the 1990’s Gretchen Sprietzer conducted a study of empowerment in response to changes in the global economy and the rise of innovation. Examining the psychology of empowerment was thought to provide a window into the individual’s perspective, separate from, but in relation to, the work place organization context. A 2009 study of empowerment and retention revealed, “when an employee feels psychological empowerment, then it will contribute to job satisfaction… which in turn will help in retaining employees. The personal traits that contribute to the condition of empowerment are, self-esteem, as a ‘work specific sense of


47

competence’ and locus of control, where individuals perceives themselves as “causal agents affecting their work environment, rather than being externally controlled by organizational forces” (Spreitzer, 1995, p.1446-7). Since, “employees can increase their own work engagement and job performance through job-crafting” (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2014, p. 914) and increased engagement and performance are valuable to the profession, it would therefore be in keeping that job-crafting would also be valuable. Arnold Bakker, Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at Erasmus University Rotterdam, has done extensive research on the concept of job-crafting as a means of attaining a good job fit. When teachers can design a role that is suited to their preferred skill set while embracing sufficient challenge they have attained a good job fit. Bakker (Tims et al, 2016) suggests that, “when employees engage in job-crafting, they can create ways to regain meaning in their work by changing tasks or creating opportunities for interpersonal contact” (p.45). He further contends that, “job-crafting is a proactive strategy to make work more meaningful” (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2016, p.45). Key to the concept of job-crafting is the idea of its selfdesign and not the design of an individual in authority over the employee. Job-crafting can take four forms, namely (1) increasing structural job resources such as autonomy, variety, and learning opportunities; (2) increasing social job resources, like social support, supervisory coaching, and feedback; (3) increasing challenging job demands, such as proactive involvement in new projects; and (4) decreasing hindering job demands, for example decreasing the number of emotional interactions or cognitive tasks. (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2016, p. 45) Autonomy, as noted, is one of the four forms of job-crafting according to


48

the work of Daniel Pink, and is one of three elements that contribute to motivation, productivity and job satisfaction. Pink cites British Economist Francis Green who “points to the lack of individual discretion at work as the main explanation for declining productivity and job satisfaction in the UK” (Pink, 2012, p. 89). Companies such as 3M, Cannon-Brooks and Google give their engineers ‘20 percent time’ to use as they wish to problem solve, refine or reimagine an existing product or process or for research and development of a new project of their own interest. Granting that level of autonomy empowers these employees and creates “fertile fields for a harvest of innovations” (Pink, p. 93). Alex Proudfoot boasts that, “Just about all the good ideas here at Google have bubbled up from 20 percent time”. (Pink, p. 94). Pink further explains that autonomy does not pre-empt accountability, it instead trusts that a motivated, engaged and satisfied employee wants to be accountable (Pink, p. 105). Like Csikszentmihalyi, Pink claims that compliance, an unavoidable consequence of authoritarian top-down leadership, rather than autonomy, squelches motivation and engagement thus negatively impacting job satisfaction. Job-crafted hybrid teaching positions can afford the autonomy and empowerment Tims, Derks, & Bakker, Pink, Csikszentmihalyi and others are advocating. As referenced in the work of Kelly Remijan on hybrid teacher positions, a MetLife 2008 study reported, “37 percent of the teachers across the country [are] interested in such work… providing growth opportunities for teachers… creating positions that allow teachers to extend their talents beyond the classroom and evolve their skillsets not only improves teacher satisfaction, but also keeps motivated teacher leaders in the classroom” (Remijan, 2016, para. 11). Teacherpreneurism. A teacherpreneur, “represents the bold concept that teachers can continue to teach while having time, space and initiatives to incubate big pedagogical and policy ideas and execute them in the best interests of both their students and their teaching colleagues”


49

(Berry, Byrd, & Wieder, 2013, p.16). Further, Jose Vilson himself a teacherpreneur explains, “The purpose of creating teacherpreneurs is not to identify ‘superteachers’ who will make a lot more money, but to empower expert teachers who can elevate their entire profession by making sure their colleagues, policymakers, and the public know what works best for students” (Berry, Byrd, & Wieder, 2013, p. 19). The key to being a teacherpreneur is its hybrid nature. Teacherpreneurs engage in a selfcrafted job while they maintain a position in the classroom. Such self-crafted jobs can be entrepreneurial (which represents the exercise of a set of enterprising qualities required to locate and translate opportunities for profitable creation and exchange of value in a situation of uncertainty) or intrapreneurial (someone who possesses entrepreneurial skills and uses them within a company, instead of using them to launch a business of his or her own) (Akintunde, 2013, p. 2) in nature and have a vision of improvement as their goal. For this study teacherpreneurs with more of a political motive as opposed to a profit motive are the focus. Examples of teacherpreneurs taken from the Center for Teacher Quality (CTQ) collaboratory are included in Appendix A. Job Demand- Resource Theory Job Demand–Resources Theory (JD-R) recognizes two overarching categories characterizing each job. “Jobs demands [are] based in the physical and psychological effort required [while] job resources [are the] specific aspects of the job that enable the employee to achieve success” (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2015, p 45). Job-crafting as it pertains to the hybrid role of the teacherpreneur speaks to these two conditions and can be extrapolated to job fit; which is the consequence of job-crafting that results in the optimum balance between job demand (challenge) and job resources (skills) in direct relation to the formula for the


50

achievement of flow. Restated, when teachers craft their own jobs around their best skill sets accompanied with the invigoration of appropriate challenges, their job satisfaction increases because their success in job related tasks increases. Work identity theory and the theory of flow consciousness. Work identity theory (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2016) recognizes that when work matches the individual’s preferred work identity it is likely to be experienced as interesting and significant whereas misalignment between work content and work identity may result in negative work experiences. It can therefore be presumed that affording teachers the opportunity to craft their own job would lead to a good job fit and result in satisfied employees. According to Keller and Bless (2007), “The fit of skills and task demands is at the heart of the conceptualization of intrinsic motivation of flow theory” (p. 197). The relationship between skill and demand is known as regulatory compatibility, “a match between… work and … work identity” (Tims et al., 2015, p. 47). It is also known as flow, as defined by Csikszentmihalyi, that zone of optimal experience between skill and demands when focused on a goal (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). “Individuals who enjoy regulatory compatibility experiences are willing to spend additional time experiencing a state of regulatory compatibility again, and are thus intrinsically motivated to engage in such behavioral episodes” (Keller & Bless, 2007, p. 197). Flow ties to empowerment and job-crafting as it refers to the transformation of opportunities and job satisfaction in the form of enjoyment. In the 2011 meta-analysis published in EHS Today, The Environment for Health and Safety Issues they determined, Empowered workers were more innovative and more willing to take the initiative to solve problems on their own. Employees said they were more engaged in their work when


51

empowered, that they felt they had an influence and an impact on business around them…[and] these work improvements apply to improved team performance as well as individual performance. (Walter, 2011, para. 7) Empowerment leads to improved performance and with respect to the quality of life, flow extends that level of improved performance to a level of enjoyment as well as satisfaction. In his study of flow, Csikzentmihalyi found, “When challenges and skills were both high [participants] felt happier, more cheerful, stronger, more active; they concentrated more; they felt more creative and satisfied” (Csikzentmihalyi, 1990, p.159). Further, “Flow has been studied in secondary education, and researchers discovered that teachers who experience more flow are more adept at applying personal and organizational resources. Personal resources can be thought of as a sense of competency in one’s work” (“Flow,” 2016, para.11). Teachers who experience regulatory compatibility or in effect, higher rates of flow, are more likely to stay in their role to continue to engage in such experiences. Therefore, by identifying the factors that contribute to flow then nurturing and replicating them, one can surmise that teacher dissatisfaction and attrition can be mitigated. Synthesis Much has been written about teacher dissatisfaction and how it coincides with education reform (Ingersoll, 2014) and the corporate influence (Ravitch, 2010) that led to the accountability movement and punitive consequences. Job Resources Verses Job Demands There is a disproportionate relationship of demands to resources resulting in a state of psychic entropy, or inner disorder that contributes to decreased teacher motivation, burnout and rising attrition rates. Richard Ingersoll and others identify specific factors in addition to the


52

disproportionate job resources and demands that include reduced personal accomplishments, lack of participation in decision making, limited autonomy, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, insufficient financial compensation, lack of trust and the continual mentoring of novice teachers. These factors correlate with rising attrition and churn causing effects that are far reaching. The current state of attrition and churn is linked to a quality gap in teacher effectiveness which in turn negatively impacts student performance and costs tax payers billions of dollars. “The costs in both human satisfaction and organizational health are high when a workplace is a no-flow zone”, (Pink, 2012, pp. 114-115). Flawed accountability measures. Less prevalent in the literature are the factors that contribute to the high stakes test results upon which the accountability and punishment or reward system is based. Six factors that combine to reduce the reliability and validity of high stakes tests include a significant statistical error rate, year to year test score instability, day to day instability, non-random student assignments, imprecise measurements and out of school factors (Au, 2010). US Department of Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics (Au, 2010) reported that, “an error rate of 35% occurs when using one-years’ worth of data, 25% when using three years of data to determine actual levels of proficiency”. This variance is not widely reviewed. Two thirds of teachers who are ranked in the bottom as a result of their student test scores, move to the top the following year and of those one third in the lowest 20% move to the top 40% the next year as reported by Tim Sass in “The Stability of Value-Added Measures of Teacher Quality and Implications for Teacher Compensation Policy” (Au, 2010). That level of shift is indicative of the group of students being tested more than the effectiveness of the teacher. Day to day instability is yet another factor. “Fifty to Eighty percent of any improvement or decline in student standardized tests scores can be attributed to a one time, randomly occurring


53

factor”, according to Harvard University’s Thomas Kane and Dartmouth College’s Douglas Staiger in their publication, “Volatility in Test Scores”, (Au, 2010). The random nature of these standardized tests is missing from the national conversation surrounding high stakes testing. Non-random student assignments also give rise to an uneven field. Classes of students from low socio-economic, racially diverse and linguistically segregated districts have a greater likelihood of scoring lower than counterparts from the opposite demographics (Au, 2010). This would seem obvious however these disadvantaged communities are judged by the same ruler as teachers with students not impacted by those same conditions. The NY Times reported (Au, 2010) on a teacher from Los Angeles who chose to work in such a school and who took his life after being identified as performing in the lower portion of effectiveness. He chose to work in that school after many teachers fled from such jobs. Societal and environmental factors. Finally, there are out of school factors such as health care, consistent food availability, and the stress of poverty as reported by David Berliner, from Arizona State University, in “Poverty and Potential” (Au, 2010). In all, enough attention has not been given to the fact that, according the U.S. Department of Education 2010 Statistics report, “More than 90 percent of the variation in student gain scores is due to the variation in student-level factors that are not under control of the teacher.” The dissatisfaction expressed by US public school teachers is widely written about, however, absent from the conversation are these factors which weigh heavily not only on student test scores but also their ability to learn. It would seem that education reform and accountability would need to address this inequity, decreasing hindering job demands, and in doing both, students’ and teachers’ performance would improve.


54

Perceived organizational support. While the out-of-school conditions, the stress of poverty and limited validity and reliability of high stakes test scores plague many public school teachers, some still find joy and great satisfaction in their chosen profession. Job satisfaction is “an emotional response that will result in broad behavioral actions toward working environment” (Kian, Rajah, & Wan Yusoff, 2014). In a 2010 study conducted by Bogler and Nir, “teacher empowerment, through its six sub-factors, had a distinct mediating effect on the relation between perceptions of organizational support (POS) and job satisfaction. Additionally, they concluded that “teachers reported being more satisfied with extrinsic rather than intrinsic matters of teaching, a finding that is in contradiction to most research” (Bogler & Nir, 2010). However, when empowerment was determined to be significant, it impacted the perception of organizational support and the results indicated both intrinsic and extrinsic levels of satisfaction (Bogler & Nir, 2010). For this reason, the development and cultivation of empowerment may in fact lead to improved levels of teacher job satisfaction. Research and Initiatives Grounding this Study’s Premise Richard Ingersoll, Senior Research Specialist at the Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) has nationally recognized studies of the “character of elementary and secondary schools as workplaces, teachers as employees and teaching as a job” ("Richard Ingersoll," 2016), authoring more than 100 pieces of literature on these topics. This study in large part emanates from the following Ingersoll publications, the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, the Education Trust, and the Alliance for Excellence in Education. This study attempts to build on Ingersoll’s recognition of rising attrition rates and the exceedingly high levels of teachers’ dissatisfaction reported in his research by seeking to identify possible avenues for improvement.


55

Further, the work of Arnold Bakker, key researcher on the topic of job-crafting has served to inform this study. Bakker, Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam and Past President of the European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP) conducts research on such topics as the Job DemandsResource Model (JD-R), Flow, and work engagement. He has published more than 400 articles, chapters and books on job-crafting over the last 25 years ("Arnoldbakker.com," 2016). Race to the Top, a recent initiative for current school reform like former initiative NCLB, promotes a national competition intended to highlight and replicate effective education reform strategies in four significant areas: •

Adopting internationally benchmarked standards and assessments that prepare students for success in college and the workplace;

•

Recruiting, developing, rewarding, and retaining effective teachers and principals;

•

Building data systems that measure student success and inform teachers and principals how they can improve their practices; and

•

Turning around our lowest-performing schools (Peterson, 2017).

This reform and it implementation appears to be at least somewhat responsible for the outcomes that gave rise to this study. Alternative sources to career satisfaction. Although the correlation between empowerment and job satisfaction would seem to logically exist, in a study conducted by Kassabgy, Boarie & Schmidt from the University of Hawaii titled, Values, Rewards and Job Satisfaction in ESL/EFL found that, “job and career satisfaction are mostly influenced by rewards rather than what teachers say they think is important (values), (2001, p 213). This serves as evidence that teachers seek different means of achieving satisfaction in their work.


56

Influenced by the works of Ingersoll and Bakker, and practical, non or minimally financial dependent remedies, this researcher set out to explore a path, aligned with positive psychology, to understand contributing factors and potential impactful actions that may reverse the current trend of attrition for 21st century teachers. It is however important to note that other more behavioral and financially driven factors may have equal or even greater impact on this profession. “Both beginning and veteran teachers are more likely to quit when they work in districts with lower wages and when their salaries are low” (Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016, p.6). This is more often the case for a growing number of urban and rural school teachers, where wages are especially low. In general, “teachers on average earn only about 70% of the salaries other college educated workers earn, (2016). This statistic perpetuates the perception that teaching is a lower level profession. In fact, “in a number of states teachers with 10 years-experience made less than unskilled workers” (2016). For these reasons there is little doubt that lower salaries contribute to the current attrition rates and consequent teacher shortage; likewise there is little reason to doubt that the provision of improved salaries would have a positive influence. To compound the problem, fewer college-bound students are choosing to enter the field. An effort to attract and retain future teachers was proposed by Linda Darling-Hammond as president of the Learning Policy Institute and reported by Valerie Strauss recently in the Washington Post, her solutions include: •

service scholarships and forgivable loans to enable teachers to become wellprepared — with entrants paying back the loans by teaching for several years


57

teacher residency programs that provide apprenticeships in high-need districts under the wing of expert teachers while teachers are completing their training, also paid back with years of service

•

“grow-your-own” programs enabling young people and paraprofessionals to get prepared and come back and teach in the communities they have lived in

•

high-quality mentoring for new teachers that helps them survive and succeed in their early years on the job. (Strauss, 2017, para. 18)

A 2016 Learning Policy Institute Report adds developing a national teacher supply market to this list of evidence based options (Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016). Such structural and behavioral interventions may well be the necessary influence that redirects the trajectory of the profession rather than the more humanistic implications that this study explored. However these structural and behavioral interventions were not considered in this study, not-withstanding their worthiness. Critique A mixed methods approach is commonly used in educational studies because numbers are not enough to explain social phenomenon or psychological constructs. Such is the case in this study’s pursuit. “Capturing and explaining the educational complexities was possible because of the quantitative and qualitative research designs used as components of the studies designs”, (Ponce & Pagan-Moldonado, 2014, p. 132). Both the social and cultural context of educational communities relevant to the numerical data quantitative research yields cannot be understood without also engaging in a qualitative pursuit (2014). Further, because humans are neither quantitative nor qualitative entities solely, it stands to reason that examination of human behavior requires both methodologies. “If a researcher really cares about finding something out that is as


58

robust as possible, they should consider ignoring the traditional two-camp research methods resources and behave in research as they would in real life” (Gorard, 2012, p. 12), in other words treating research realistically. For these reasons this researcher chose to use mixed methods for this study. Summary This study examines empowerment and job-crafting as it exists in the hybrid-teacher role referred to as a teacherpreneur, as a means of mitigating burnout and teacher dissatisfaction. Rising attrition rates correlating to the punitive accountability of current reform policy is creating an entropic dynamic eroding teacher career satisfaction. Corporate influence squelches the voice of teachers, usurping their professional decision-making power, compounding that erosion. The impact of this erosion has a pervasive negative effect on students, teachers and the national economy. The consequences of teacher dissatisfaction are high. Lack of stability results in decreased student performance, due in part to the ever-increasing number of novice teachers who do not attain the experience necessary to possess the depth of knowledge that veterans acquire. To add insult to injury, those teachers who persevere and advance to veteran status, carry the burden of perpetually mentoring their ever-green counterparts, depleting their energy and rendering these veterans without passion, enthusiasm and opportunities to experience the workrelated flow that are needed for them to flourish. Finally, replacement costs to fill the annual vacancies for this country are in the billions, a price tag that is significant as teachers make up a substantial portion of the U.S. workforce. So what is it that would reverse this degenerative downward spiral? A look at key elements of professional satisfaction for teachers reveals that autonomy, decision-making power


59

and options for up-ward mobility as targets teachers identify as most important. Empowerment and job-crafting together encompass these elements. Gretchen Spreitzer established the link between empowerment, job satisfaction and employee retention more than 25 years ago. Arnold Bakker tied the concept of job crafting to job fit to reveal the potency that autonomy over one’s social and structural job resources and challenges can have on meaningful work. Daniel Pink extends this rational to include how the injection of autonomy results in increased motivation, engagement and improved job satisfaction. Because work life is a substantial portion of one’s life, achieving career satisfaction has significant implications for the individual teacher and the profession at large. Teacherpreneurism is a conceptual approach that has the potential of harnessing empowerment and autonomy afforded via job-crafting. This new hybrid teacherpreneur role effectively operationalizes empowerment and job-crafting. In doing so, it affords such teachers a greater opportunity to achieve work-related flow by balancing one’s personalized set of job resources with their job demands to increase circumstances that can result in Csikzentmihalyi’s regulatory compatibility or flow state. The flow experience is intrinsic, potent and likely to result in the teacher wanting to replicate it. Chasing that intrinsic sensation of flow-consciousness ties directly to the pursuit of this study, identifying whether teacherpreneurism, a practical, non or minimally financially dependent and positive psychological remedy impacts teacher career satisfaction. To that end this mixed methods study was devised to qualitatively delve into the ways teacherpreneurs describe their roles, and how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their jobs, to gain both a broad and deep understanding of this psychological construct. That qualitative data was then employed in the design of a quantitative investigation


60

examining the extent that teacherpreneurism might impact teacher career satisfaction. This mix methods approach gives rise to a more authentic truth about teacherpreneurism and its relationships to teacher career satisfaction than would be the case if either a qualitative or quantitative approach were solely used.


61

METHODS Introduction The work and lives of teachers are highly complex, personal, and unique for each teacher. In order to truly understand the lives and work of a teacher, we would do well to gain access to a teacher’s personal journal or diary. These day to day accounts of the thinking, work and life of a teacher would reveal important ideas, themes, and areas for further study. Teachers words as seen through their writing could reveal a great deal about the lives and work of any teacher. The more of these journals or first hand-accounts we could review the better and clearer our understanding of these teachers’ work lives would be. The problem with this approach to building knowledge or understanding of the lives and work of teachers is that without a wide-ranging and representative sample of teachers’ perspectives and perceptions we could never make valid generalizations about teachers or teacher attitudes at a collective level. So, in addition to capturing the words or stories of individual teachers, we would need to examine data from a large sample of teachers which would require a different research design. For these reasons, I chose to conduct a mixed method research design to address a set of qualitative and quantitative research questions. This study intends to answer three questions 1.)

In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles?

2.)

In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of

empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs? 3.)

To what extent does teacherpreneurism impact career satisfaction?


62

Studying the relationships between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction can provide insights that can be used to improve teacher career satisfaction, which is at an all-time low (Markow et al. 2013, Ward, 2015, Hipolit, 2017)). This study is based on the hypothesis that opportunities for empowerment and job-crafting will increase of career satisfaction. Specifically, this study examines the relationships between the independent variable, Teacherpreneurism and the dependent variable Teacher Career Satisfaction. Dependent Variables The dependent variable is teacher career satisfaction. This variable is made up of three factors: teacher job satisfaction, work-related flow and one’s intent to stay. Teacher job satisfaction. “Is a kind of subjective well-being,” according to Hart (1994). Further, “it represents a part-whole relationship; that is, the job is part of life and thus is taken into consideration when rating overall life satisfaction” (Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998). Assessing teacher job satisfaction in particular assesses the “overall impression that teachers have about their work” (Ho & Au 2006, p. 175). According to a study published in Cornell University’s Labor Relations Review, “an increase in job satisfaction is directly related to a 6.6 percent increase in productivity per hour” (Edwards, 2015, para. 3, Böckerman & Ilmakunnas, 2012). Increased productivity is a desirable outcome for teachers. For the purpose of this study, teacher job satisfaction was examined. Work related flow. Work related flow speaks to the connection between positive psychology, the study of the quality of life and its role in the work world. Specifically, “work related flow is achieved when challenges and skills for the worker are both high, leading to feelings of great happiness, strength, creativity and satisfaction” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, pgs.


63

158 & 159). Work-related flow is predictive of performance and efficacy. “Flow … has been associated with high levels of performance, confidence, focus, ease, and automaticity (Bakker & Woerkom, 2017, pgs. 48-49). Further, “perceptions of self-efficacy were both predictors and outcomes of flow” (pg. 58). This variable along with teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay will serve as a measure of teacher career satisfaction. Intent to stay. The third factor of teacher career satisfaction employed in this study is an intent to stay. This factor looks at whether participants believe they will remain in their current position. This is examined in two ways: first how often does the participant think about leaving and second what is the likelihood that he or she will leave? As noted in The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intention study (2012), “intrinsic satisfaction, had a stronger influence on intentions to leave in the organization” (Mahdi, Mohdzin, Nor, Sakat, & Naim, 2012, p. 1524), and intrinsic satisfaction is tied to empowerment (Bogler & Nir, 2012) for these reasons it can be assumed that intent to stay will have a correlation with the positive psychological aspects of career satisfaction. Qualitative data were gathered and analyzed first. This served to inform the design of field test survey. Published case studies and blog posts from the Center for Teaching Quality, a teacherpreneur collaboratory, were reviewed and mined to identify the ways in which teacherpreneurs describe their roles, and further, in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs. Data extracted were coded in search of contextual themes. These data added to the clarity of this researcher’s understanding of teacherpreneurs and their roles, and was employed in the design of the questions crafted to conduct a field test of the survey questions that would eventually be used to study the independent variable, teacherprensurism. The field test provided an opportunity to


64

validate survey items gleaned from the qualitative data that emerged from analysis of the blogs and case studies discussed above. Independent variable The independent variable is teacherpreneurism which is comprised of factors relative to empowerment and job-crafting. Job crafting. Job-crafting is defined as, “self-initiated change behaviors that employees engage in with the aim to align their jobs with their own preferences, motives, and passions” (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2011, p. 173). Job-crafting was explored for possible relationships to the dependent variable teacher career satisfaction. Job-crafting is intended to shift the traditional top down imposition of demands and resources associated with one’s job to a bottom up or middle out design. Here the employee does not seek to necessarily create a completely new job but instead to align one’s needs and abilities with the opportunities and demands of their work environment (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2015). “Job-crafting strategies to change job demands and job resources is related to higher work engagement and flourishing” (Demerouti, Bakker, & Gevers, 2015.) This concept runs parallel to that of flow theory regarding the match of skill to challenge to achieve an optimal experience or state of flow. School participant empowerment. The second factor that makes up the independent variable of this study is empowerment. “Teacher empowerment mediates the relationship between perceived organizational supports or resources and job satisfaction…The most influential dimensions of empowerment predicting teacher intrinsic satisfaction are decision making, autonomy, self-efficacy and professional development” (Bogler & Nir, 2012, p. 287). By examining these dimensions of empowerment in relation to teacher job satisfaction, workrelated flow and intent to stay, we can corroborate and expand these findings.


65

The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which teachers who take on empowering, complex and independent roles (teacherpreneurs) have higher degrees of career satisfaction in terms of the quality of their work life, deeper levels of work related flow and intent to stay in their roles as compared to those teachers who play more traditional roles in school. The extent to which a relationship exists between the independent and dependent variable could serve to inform administrators in the field about potential means to improve teacher satisfaction, achieve greater teacher retention that can lead to stability in this workforce and consequently enhance the outcomes of the students they serve. Introduction to Research Design Because neither numbers nor words alone can truly and completely explain a phenomenon, this study used a mixed methods approach to gain a greater depth and breadth of knowledge relating to the relationships between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction, for the purpose of understanding its relationship to teacher career satisfaction. Initially, this study intended to examine the words of self-described teacherpreneurs solely to clarify and understand the nuances, commonalities and differences between this distinctive practice and that of more traditional teachers. The outcome of this examination gave rise to the search for reliable and valid survey instruments to measure this study’s key variables. The composite survey that resulted from taking existing survey instruments was far too lengthy. So it was determined that developing a shortened measure of teacherpreneurism was necessary, which led to writing original questions for the independent variable portion of the final composite measurement tool. A second review of the teacherpreneur case studies and blogs was then conducted in search of key themes. Those themes and the validated items gleaned from the empowerment and job


66

crafting instruments were used to develop a hybrid assessment instrument that was field tested to develop the instrument used in this research. Research Method A four step process was used in the data gathering portion of this research. A review of public blogs and case studies, by a group of self-identified teacherpreneurs, was undertaken initially to gain a well-rounded understanding of teacherpreneurism. Empowerment and job crafting were clearly exemplified in the words and stories of the teachers engaging in this distinctive practice. Next, a review of existing survey instruments to gather data on the independent variable, teacherpreneurism occurred. Paula Short and James Rinehart’s highly reliable and validated School Participation Empowerment Scale (SPES) was determined to be an appropriate tool for measuring empowerment. Permission was sought out and granted for its use. Additionally, Arnold Bakker graciously agreed to allow the use of his Job Crafting Scale (JCS) as this study’s measure of job crafting. The combined number of survey questions from these two tools however, equals 59, far too many, especially when additional questions were needed to examine the dependent variable, teacher career satisfaction. For this reason, generating novel questions based on a qualitative analysis of the blogs and case studies with a respectful eye to Bakker, Short and Rinehart’s works was the next step in the process. The teacherpreneur blogs and case studies were reexamined for themes and from them 28 survey questions were created. Once the empowerment and job-crafting or teacherpreneurism questions were drafted, they were combined with the following permission granted tools chosen to measure teacher career satisfaction: the dependent variable which includes the positive factors of job satisfaction, workrelated flow and the intention to remain in one’s position. The Teacher Satisfaction Scale (TSS),


67

work related flow using the WOrk-related Flow Inventory (WOLF-I) and intent to stay via the Intent to Leave Scale (ILS) as a proxy formed the portion of the survey that would measure the dependent variable of this positive psychological study. Teacher Satisfaction Scale (TSS). Job satisfaction was measured using the Teacher Satisfaction Scale (TSS) because it is highly correlated to the Life Satisfaction Scale as is evidenced in Ho and Au’s study determining its reliability and validity. This scale is negatively correlated with psychological distress and teacher stress. The TSS has as internal-consistency coefficient of .77 (Ho & Au, 2006). It serves to measure the perceived levels of job satisfaction. The scale used a Likert rating of 1-5, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree. Sample questions include: My working conditions as a teacher are excellent and If I could choose my career over, I would change almost nothing. The TSS was tested for validity by checking for convergent validity between this tool and the well-established 14 item Warr’s Job Satisfaction Scale (WJSS) which yielded a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .80 (Ho & Au, 2006). Convergent reliability was also checked between the TSS and the 5 item Brayfield-Rothe Job Satisfaction Scale (BRJSS) yielding a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient score of .88 (Ho & Au, 2006), with the range of Cronbach’s alphas registering from .70 to .93 (Ho & Au, 2006). The TSS is specific to the teacher population and consists of only five questions, because the validity was high when compared to two general job satisfaction scales and the number of questions small, choosing it to measure general teacher job satisfaction was sensible. Work Related Flow (WOLF). Bakker has also done research on work related flow and constructed the Work Related Flow (WOLF-I) inventory, which has three dimensions: absorption, work enjoyment and intrinsic work motivation. Work related flow is defined as “a short-term peak experience characterized by those three dimensions” (Bakker, 2007, p. 400).


68

Reliability coefficients for the initial checks ranged, “between .75 and .86 for absorption, .88 and .96 for work enjoyment, and .63 and .82 for intrinsic work motivation” (Bakker, 2007, p. 409). Test-test reliability was “stable with coefficients of about .75” (Bakker, 2007, p.409). Sample questions from the inventory include, “I get carried away by my work and When I am working on something, I am doing it for myself” (Bakker, 2007, p. 412). This 7 point Likert type rating is used, “1 = never, 2 = almost never, 3 = sometimes, 4 = regularly, 5 = often, 6 = very often, 7 = always” (Bakker, 2007, p.412). For consistency throughout this composite survey the 7 point scale was reduced to a 5 point scale, 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = regularly. Intent to Leave Scale (ILS). Lastly, because intention to leave a position is likely to indicate dissatisfaction with that position, this factor was examined using the two-question Intent to Leave Scale (ILS). The questions are as follows: 1. How often do you think of leaving your present job? (With response options as very often, fairly often, sometimes, occasionally and rarely/never) 2. How likely are you to look for a new job within this next year? (With response options as very likely, likely, not sure, unlikely and very unlikely). Internal consistency for this scale was measured at .76 (Karantzas, Mellor, McCabe, Davison, & Beaton, 2012). At this point the survey was field tested. This field test was presented to a group of 26 participants with a portion being traditional teachers and a portion thought to be teacherpreneurs. The field test used a multi-choice format. Each question had a comment box attached for respondents to note confusions, suggestions for clarification and the possible irrelevance of the question to topic. One open-ended question followed the multiple choice items that allowed for respondents to provide feedback that they believe would improve the survey. This data informed


69

the refinements to the independent variable portion of the final survey tool and served as a face validity check. Rationale Mixed methods research, [such as this], offers a “pragmatic perspective” that is widely used in education (Litchtman, 2011, p. 209). The pre-survey qualitative piece, in the form of examining freely written blog posts, published case studies and comments from the survey, explored language that revealed themes that provided insight to how teacherpreneurs describe their roles, their feelings about career satisfaction, empowerment, and the ability to craft their own jobs. Subsequent to this qualitative inquiry, the quantitative survey offered numeric results that identified the extent to which a relationship exists between the variables under study. Using mixed methods provided findings that, “audiences outside the academic world can [then]… more readily be convinced … need … action if they can see research findings as part of a context rather than as an abstract statistical procedure” (Tashakkori, Teddlie, & Sines, 2012, p. 431. Disadvantages worthy of consideration in this process include the possible distortion of data when assigning descriptive statistics, interpreting conflicting results and attempting to quantify qualitative information which can cause a loss of its flexibility and depth ("Disadvantages of Mixed Method Design," 2012). To minimize the potential for these disadvantages, this study employed the descriptive statistics used in each individual scale and inventory when it was tested for reliability and validity. Research Design This study qualitatively analyzed public teacherpreneur blog posts and published case studies. The data derived from this analysis was used to inform the crafting of the quantitative questions designed to examine the phenomenon of teacherpreneurism, the independent variable of


70

this study. The dependent portion of the survey is composed of three reliable and valid surveys in their original forms. A relationship between the independent and dependent variables was under examination. Job Demand-Resource Theory (JD-R) (Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2015) supports the contention of a correlational relationship between job-crafted hybrid-teaching roles and their impact on job satisfaction and intention to stay. JD-R Theory recognizes that the physical and psychological demands of a job in relation to the resources that mitigate those demands are critical factors in determining job satisfaction. A portion of the originally constructed questions serve to assess the factors that contribute to the physical and psychological job demands, specifically, increasing structural job resources, decreasing hindering job demands, increasing social job resources, and increasing challenging job demands (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2011) served as a lens by which this researcher generated quantitative questions for the teacherpreneurism portion of the survey and the consequent analysis of the responses to those questions. Tims et al determined in their study, Proactive personality and job: The role of jobcrafting and work engagement, that of the four factors that contribute to job crafting only increasing structural job resources, social job resources and challenging job demands were included in this study as they are predictive of job engagement (Bakker, Tims, & Derks, 2012). Because the premise of the study lies in positive psychology, opening the door to hindering job demands was not a factor that was probed. Hindering job demands such as administering standards testing, complex value added measures, and limited funding are not directly within the power of the individual teacher or school based administrators and therefore were extracted as a focus for this research. Flow Theory (Csikszentmihalyi, Harper, 1990) confirms the relationship


71

between demands or challenges and resources or skills as a consequence of job satisfaction and regulatory compatibility, this study attempts to determine how increasing motivating challenges and resources acts to mitigate the consequences of hindering job demands. The administration of the WOrk reLated Flow inventory (I-WOLF) served to confirm or negate that relationship. Finally, because a job that affords regulatory compatibility is more satisfying, determining the variables that lead to such compatibility can address the two factors Ingersoll notes as most detrimental to teacher retention, “the ways schools are organized and the ways the occupation is treated” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, p. 4.). By comparing empowerment (a form occupational treatment) and job-crafting (a form of organizational structuring) as factors of teacherpreneurism to teacher career satisfaction using the Teacher Satisfaction Scale (TSS), work related flow using the WOrk-related Flow Inventory (I-WOLF) and intent to stay via the Intent to Leave Scale (ILS) as a proxy, this study intends to determine if correlational relationships exist. To establish the effect size of those correlational relationships, and the likelihood that teacherpreneurism predicts and explains teacher career satisfaction, a Pearson Correlation Analysis followed by a Linear Regression Analysis was used. Participants An initial review of eight blogs containing 62 posts and 10 published case studies was completed. Twenty-six teachers completed the field test and more than 500 teachers (n = 507) completed the final quantitative survey portion of this study. The most typical respondent was a seasoned, master level elementary school teacher with more than 25 years of experience. Setting This study examined U.S. school teachers from predominately K-12 schools in the traditional public sector, with a smaller portion from charter and private schools. Region, grade


72

level, and subject area are not particularly targeted. However, after analysis, demographic data identified a greater number of respondents teaching in the Eastern Standard time zone and teaching in suburban public schools. Sampling Researchers must also attempt to ensure that the sample is representative of the population under study and not skewed in a particular direction or that participants are not attempting to please or lie to the researcher for ulterior reasons (Cherry, 2016). Voluntary participation and insurance of confidentiality may allay these behaviors ("Reviewing Research," n.d.). Participants in this study were accessed with respect to the aforementioned criteria via email request. Wilson Language Training® (WLT Corporation) distributed this survey to a portion of its national data base which was expected to contain a greater than average number of teachers who perceive themselves as having higher levels of empowerment and job-crafting opportunities, i.e. teacherpreneurs. Teachers that are Wilson Language certified have met the criteria to provide this specialized reading instruction to students that have reading deficits. Such teachers must assess and determine whether a student would benefit from this type of instruction and then determine and provide the appropriate level, intensity, frequency and duration of that instruction. Such decision making affords them a level of autonomy that is atypical for traditional teachers. Therefore, it is the belief of this researcher that this pool contained a greater than average number of teachers who score higher on the teacherpreneur portion of this survey. Because this study intends to examine the impact of teacherpreneurism on career satisfaction, participants who are more likely to identify themselves as part of that pool are necessary. In further support of this contention, a 1993 study conducted by Rinehart and Short


73

titled, Job Satisfaction and Empowerment Among Teacher Leaders, Reading Recovery Teachers and Regular Classroom Teachers, included a pool of “35 Reading Recovery teacher leaders, 141 Reading Recovery teachers, and 71 non-Reading Recovery teachers” to examine teacher job satisfaction and its relationship to empowerment (Rinehart & Short, 1994). While Reading Recovery and the Wilson Reading System are vastly different in their approaches the decision making factors and levels of autonomy afforded to Reading Recovery teacher leaders and the providers of Wilson Reading Instruction are very similar. Rinehart and Short’s research determined using “multivariate analyses … that Reading Recovery teacher leaders perceive a greater sense of empowerment and job satisfaction than do Reading Recovery teachers and regular classroom teachers” (Rinehart & Short, 1994, abstract). This study supported the use of the WLT pool. WLT Corporation is the home of a teacher training program that provides professional development and support in the form of certification to educators world-wide. An invitation to participate went out to 11,000 members of their data base who completed certification over the last several years. In addition, a convenience sample of teachers and tutors, from a database that this researcher owns for the purpose of conducting teacher trainings, and a newly launched social media pool were also targeted. These two groups are predominately made up of traditional teachers who are expected to report having levels of empowerment and job-crafting in a standard bell curve, non-teacherpreneurs. Having participants that identify as more typical offers a greater likelihood that the independent variables will have a range of responses on the teacherpreneurism questions. Because the participant sample will not be solely random, the findings cannot be completely generalizable.


74

Informed Consent An invitation/informed consent to participate in the study was included in an introductory email and sent to potential respondents as part of the sampling process, a copy of this can be found in Appendix C of this dissertation. In addition to the request to participate, the consent serves to inform those in receipt of the study’s purpose, risks, potential benefits, approximate time commitment and security considerations. Data Collection Qualitative Process

The examination of the words and stories of teacherpreneurs was conducted through reading blog posts and case studies for 45 days to illuminate the practice of teacherpreneurism and the role of teacherpreneurs. Eight blogs containing 62 posts and 10 case studies were scrutinized using word repetition analysis, which identified empowerment and job crafting as emergent themes. These themes were examined through the lens of the descriptive statistics from the reliable and validated Job Crafting (JCS) and School Participant Empowerment Scales (SPES), to inform the crafting of questions that measure teacherpreneurism. Quantitative process Questions determined based on the qualitative process noted above and one open-ended question combined with the three permission granted scales were field tested. The final composite survey included 26 originally designed questions related to teacherpreneurism, the 13 item WOrk-related Flow inventory (I-WOLF), the 5 item Teacher Satisfaction Scale (TSS), and the 2 question Intent to Leave Scale (ILS) (as a proxy for determining intent to stay). In addition,


75

the final composite survey included one completely open-ended question and six demographic questions for a total of 54 questions. For the final quantitative survey, invitations/informed consent (see Appendix C) were sent to members of each pool introducing the task and identifying specific criteria for participation, namely maintaining a role in a public school classroom, then identifying the importance of the study, the importance of participating, the time commitment, and finally security assurances. Teachers from this researcher’s database were pre-contacted via email requests, appealing to those in receipt to forward the email requests to colleagues (in a snow ball sampling fashion), thus obtaining participants once removed from the original data base so that participation would not be influenced by a connection with this researcher. The questionnaire was attached to the invitation/informed consent and distributed via an on-line format during a 60-day period in the 2016-2017 school year. If the teacher checked the accept box (question #1 of the survey), they were directed to the survey; if they checked the do not accept box, they were directed to a thank you page. A composite pool of 507 participants completed this survey. The on-line survey service secures data that were imported for statistical analysis. This minimized risk to the participants. Benefits were negligible on a personal scale and results will be shared with participants upon the conclusion of the study if they wish to receive them. Data Integrity Table 1 Study Variable Composite Factors

Independent Variable-

Dependent Variable- Teacher Career

Teacherpreneurism

Satisfaction

Job Crafting Empowerment Ability

Teacher

Work

Intent to

Job

Related

Leave


76

Satisfaction Flow

A.B. Winton Au, Bakker,

David

Permission

Chinese

Erasmus

Mellor,

Granted

University

University

Deakin

Survey

of Hong

Rotterdam- University-

Kong-TSS

WOLF

ILS

N/A

N/A

N/A

Tools

N/A

N/A

Paula Myrik Permission Short,

A.B.

Granted

Bakker,Erasmus

University of

Grounding Houston-

University

Tools

Rotterdam-JCS

SPES

Reliability Coefficient Score

0.94

0.68

0.88

0.75

0.76

5

13

2

Number of Questions

38*

21*

* The final survey was informed by the SPES and JCS, 35 original questions were written that combined to address both empowerment and job crafting. Qualitative tool Teacherpreneur blog posts and case studies were examined to gather qualitative data regarding the aspects of teacherpreneur roles. Specifically,


77

1.) In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles 2.) In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs. The purpose of this data is to provide first person explanations that add depth to the understanding of the role of teacherpreneurs and to aide in the crafting of quantitative survey questions relative to the descriptive statistics from the highly reliable and validated SPES and JCS. Word-based strategies such as word repetitions, categories, and key words in context (KWIC) were the tools used to derive themes from original posts (Ryan & Bernard, n.d.). The SPES’s internal consistency estimates of reliability are .94, and ranged from .81 to .89 for the six factor scales (Short & Rinehart, 1992), making it a credible source for which to ground the qualitative analysis. Empowerment has been under study for decades (Spritzer, 1995; Maeroff, 1998; Nir, 2002; Bogler, 2005; Bogler & Somech, 2005). Many studies have validated the SPES and one Bogler and Nir study re-examined Short & Rinehart’s SPES to determine which subscales indicted higher correlations with intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. The results showed that four of the six subscales had a significant relationship with teacher intrinsic satisfaction and perceived organizational support, decision making, autonomy, self-efficacy, and professional development. The SPES, a solidly reliable and valid instrument, was employed to ground some of this survey’s originally crafted questions in an effort to add to this literature. The JCS consists of four different dimensions, three served as a second lens by which to examine teacherpreneur blogs and case studies: increasing structural job resources and increasing social job resources was combined for a seeking resources reliability value of .68, and increasing challenging job demands has a reliability of .68 (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2011). Arnold Bakker and his colleagues have used and validated the JCS in several recent studies, The Development


78

and validation of the job crafting scales (2011); Job Crafting and its relationships with person-job fit and meaningfulness: A three-wave study (2015); Job crafting and extra-role behavior; The role of work related engagement and flourishing (2015); and, Proactive personality and job performance: The role of Job crafting and work engagement (2012). Bakker also conducted a mixed methods study employing both the JCS and diaries analysis, Productive and Counterproductive Job Crafting: A Daily Diary Study (2015). In all cases the use of the JCS added measurable data to each study. For this reason, using the JCS’s descriptive factors as a means of reliably grounding some of the originally crafted survey questions for this study is prudent. Data Analysis This mixed methods study sought to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data with which to address the research questions, 1.) In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles 2.) In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs. 3.) To what extent does teacherpreneurism impact career satisfaction. Psychological and correlational research often employs surveys to gather a large amount of data relatively quickly, easily, and cheaply (Olejnik & Algina, 2000; Cherry, 2016). While correlational research cannot claim cause, it does provide important insight as it can reveal effect size that leads to further research that may then uncover cause. Limitations to this method include the lack of variety in response type and voice of the participants under study. A comment box was included with each rated question and one open-ended question that asked, “Are there questions that were not included in this survey that you believe should be included to best clarify


79

the issue of career satisfaction and the role of the teacher”. In addition, survey questions are researchers’ best guess at how to mine the data they are seeking (Cherry, 2016). Conducting the qualitative analysis of teacherpreneur blogs and case studies in addition to a field test allowing for comments to each question can mediate that limitation. Qualitative Data Analysis Content Analysis, “a technique of data analysis in which detailed review of text content leads to themes” (Litchtman, 2013, p. 321), was used to examine the phenomenon of teacherpreneurism, by studying the lived experiences of teacherpreneurs through their blogs posts, case studies and survey comments. Hermeneutics phenomenology, in particular, focuses on language analysis or interpretation, as was the case in the examination of these blogs, case studies and survey comments (p.89). According to Litchtman, (p.88) by “consider[ing] the essence of the experiences, we are moving to a deeper level of understanding”. Data collected via blog posts and case studies were analyzed inductively to determine how teacherpreneurs describe their roles, and how they feel about their levels of empowerment and their ability to craft their own jobs. For this study the qualitative data were used to inform the quantitative survey instrument. Responses were reviewed and coded for themes using the following steps adapted from the University of California, Davis’ Department of Psychology protocol ("Content Analysis: Doing a Content Analysis," n.d.). •

Read all posts and list all key words in context (KWIC)

•

Sort words into categories

•

Define each category in operationalized terms or theme, one understandable by others

Quantitative Data Analysis


80

Bi-variate correlational analyses of the relationship between the independent variable, teacherpreneurism and the dependent variable, teacher career satisfaction was examined. Further correlational examinations were conducted to uncover the relationships between teacherpreneurism, and the three factors of the dependent variable- teacher career satisfaction; these are: teacher job satisfaction, work related flow and intent to stay. Use of appropriate measures of central tendency and dispersion were employed to analyze the demographic and descriptive statistics of Likert-like scales. This analysis sought to determine if the relationship between these variables and factors is positive, negative (and if so to what degree) or neutral, expressed in terms of correlational coefficients. Inherent to this type of analysis is the fact that causation cannot be determined. Effect size analysis of comparative correlations for the independent variable to the dependent variable and its three factors will provide a relative measure of impact to compare correlations between each of these sets of variables. To ensure that the results are not the result of chance, the study sought to disprove the null hypothesis with significant P values < 0.05. Storage Quantitative data was gathered and stored using Survey Monkey within that site's secure data storage system that is password protected (https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/policy/security/). Any digital data was downloaded to an external hard drive and along with hard copies of the data reviewed were stored in a locked file cabinet in my home office, for which I have sole access. The qualitative data extracted from publicly available blogs and case studies were available through open access. As with the external hard drive and hard copies of quantitative

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction data, any artifacts from the process of gleaning and coding qualitative from public blogs were secured.

81


82

RESULTS/ANALYSIS Introduction Teacher dissatisfaction and attrition rates are on the rise, and negative student outcomes are one significant consequence. Ameliorating teacher job dissatisfaction to stabilize the attrition and churn in the profession can improve outcomes for students. The purpose of this study is to understand some of the important factors that contribute to teacher career satisfaction. Factors that contribute to dissatisfaction and attrition may be mitigated through the distinctive practice of teacherpreneurism. This chapter presents the results of both qualitative and quantitative research conducted gathered in pursuit of an actionable option to improve teacher career satisfaction. Blogs and case studies were examined to answer the qualitative research questions that were the focus of this study: (1) in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles and (2) in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs? This chapter will also present the results of the quantitative portion of this mixed methods study addressing the research question, “to what extent does teacherpreneurism impact teacher career satisfaction?” The results of this study may inform management decisions in such a way that attrition rates are decreased and stability in the profession becomes more prevalent. In addition, findings may provide insight toward building greater teacher agency, efficacy, and improved student and professional outcomes. Analysis of Data Qualitative Data In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles? To gain a thorough understanding of the role of the teacherpreneur, eight blogs containing 62 posts and 10 published


83

case studies were examined using word repetition and content analysis. These analyses revealed the following three key themes. Teacherpreneurs described themselves as having hybrid leadership roles that combined teaching students while leading in a myriad of ways, ranging from engaging in policy work, acting as a liaison between stakeholders, to mentoring and leading professional development. Theme 1- Hybrid teacher leadership roles. •

“He [Noah Zeichner] is committed first and foremost to his students, but he is also committed to advancing his profession. He has taken on leadership roles while still remaining in the classroom” ( Noah Zeichner- Barnett Berry).

•

“Ali brought her daily work with math students into her policy conversations with Kentucky’s state legislature, national reform groups like Achieve or Student Achievement Partners, or with Noah and their work with Asia Society’s Global Cities Education Network” (Ali Wright- Barnett Berry).

•

“I spend my mornings with 7th graders… I spend my afternoons (and sometimes evenings and weekends) with adults. I connect with other teachers, school and district leaders, policy makers, parents, and community members to support thoughtful implementation of the CCSS and the Colorado Academic Standards, among other teacher initiatives” ( Jessica Cuthbertson- 2/19/14).

•

“When teachers experience conditions that allow them to problem solve, question the status quo, and develop solutions to their own challenges, they create these conditions for the students they serve”. (Tricia Ebner- 1/27/17).

•

“Dave is an English teacher at Cedar Springs High School in Michigan. He has emerged as a thought leader on the Common Core State Standards and avoiding


84

teacher burnout. In addition to his teaching duties, Dave is the author of A NonFreaked Out Guide to Teaching the Common Core and is a highly sought out speaker and professional development facilitator” (Dave Stuart Jr. – Brian Sztabnik). •

“In a teacher powered school,… compliance is not the dominant word of the day, … creative freedom to act on your ideas is everywhere in the culture of the school. Teacher leaders do not accept the reality in which they find themselves. They take power and use it to change their reality. They do not wait for the power to be given to them” (Alysia Krafel- 1/7/17).

Teacherpreneurs described elevated professional engagement and networking that extended well beyond that of typical teachers. Conducting action research, creating and communicating via virtual networks and establishing community partnerships were some examples of that engagement and networking. Theme 2- Elevated professional engagement and networking. •

“Justin created a home libraries project serving his classroom, conducting action research to gauge its impact” (Justin Minkel- Case Study).

•

“Teachers are those who relay and share ideas and best practices via their blogs as part of their professional expectations. Teachers read their aggregators and participate in projects with other teachers around the world” (Cool Cat Teacher11/27/06).

•

“Soon teachers, mobilized through powerful virtual communities like ours, as well as others that will be emulating ours, will bring greater clarity to the complexity of teaching and how and why teacherpreneurism drives the kind of twenty-first-


85

century public education system all students deserve” (Shannon C’de Baca- Barnett Berry). •

“Consider the need for more teachers, who know their students the best, to lead robust school community partnerships” (Barnett Berry).

•

“We are under our own authority and are not renegades. What we are is connectors. Teachers are no longer just content deliverers but are connectors” (Julie Cool Cat Teacher).

A deep level of professional commitment could be heard throughout the teacherpreneur case studies. They view themselves as craftsmen, they inspire others and take part in continuous learning often at the expense of their own personal time. Theme 3- Deep professional commitment. •

“As a teacherpreneur, I am a teacher- craftsman who shapes experiences using all of my tools and knowledge of this art of teaching” (Vicki Davis- 6/10/15)

•

“I try to hold him [Noah Zeichner] an example for myself in applying yourself to what you truly love, and putting your absolute all into it. His passion and intelligence inspire me to do well in everything I do, and I only hope that one day, if I work hard enough, I may be in a position to do as much good and touch as many lives as he has” (Molly Freed- Barnett Berry).

•

“It is about her commitment to teaching as a career and her constant quest to get better at her teaching and find experienced colleagues who can help her do so. And this drive is what makes up much of her teacherpreneurial skill and spirit” ( Jessica Cuthbertson- Barnett Berry).


86

“Pam pointed out that ‘what many see as another assignment, Jessica often sees as an opportunity to learn something that allows her to know her students better, to teach more effectively, and even to become a better person” (Jessica KeiganBarnett Berry).

•

“Like many of my colleagues, she told us, ‘I stole precious time from my own family--- nights, weekends, holidays throughout the school year--- to get everything done, and that was just for what needed to be done for the classroom’… During the school year, Renee’s workdays stretch up to twelve hours long--- and longer”. (Renee Moore- Barnett Berry)

These sample quotes depict professional roles that are hybrid in nature, combining classroom teaching with empowered leadership. Teacherpreneurs exemplified elevated professional engagement and the perpetuation of professional networking. Finally, deep professional commitment examples were also pervasive in these teacherpreneur writings. These three themes were present in 100% of the case studies examined. In what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs? The blog posts and case studies were also examined to gain a particular understanding of how empowerment and the opportunity to craft their own unique professional position make teacherpreneurs feel. Their words pointed to high levels of confidence and both bestowed and self-claimed control and authority. The appreciation of having impact beyond the classroom, fulfilling National Board Certification requirements, satisfying leadership ambitions, and navigating political arenas are some of the examples of the confidence and control these professionals embrace.


87

Theme 1- Empowerment (high levels of confidence, bestowed and self-claimed control and authority) •

“Because of his teacherpreneur role, the breadth of his skill and enthusiasm have expanded so much” (Noah ).

•

“Jessica did not want to feel that she could impact only the few students for whom she was directly responsible or that she was isolated and unable to spread her expertise to her colleagues. And she wasn’t alone in feeling that having access to leadership within and outside of her classroom was the right path for her” (Jessica Cutherbertson)

•

“She began her leadership journey as many teachers do, by taking on additional responsibilities within her building and informally mentoring other media specialists… because she didn’t view her role as one that stopped at the door of the school library” (Julie Hiltz).

•

Julie actively pursued challenges that would strengthen her growing practice as an educators and leader including, National Board Certification, chairing the School Advisory Committee, and participation in the Problem Solving Leadership Team at Lutz” (Julie Hiltz).

•

What drove the expansion of Julie’s leadership was a special kind of ambition: not for what she could individually accomplish, but for how the system of education could improve. She sees her role as helping catalyze changes that are desperately needed- and so, over time, she becomes increasingly willing to take on new challenges, step out of comfort zones, or reconsider her tactics” (Julie Hiltz).

•

“I absolutely believe evolving our profession is a must in the face of our current and worsening teacher shortage as well as the generational divide… Teaching is inherently a


88

purpose driven and dynamic career. If the systems can evolve to refocus on our core purpose: creating safe, vibrant, challenging learning environments for students and can position teachers as agents of change rather than compliance, we will become an attractive profession for young bright minds and we will retain early/mid-career teachers like myself” (Crowley, 2016). •

“She’s motivated by her heartfelt desire that the work achieve its goals- a thriving group of Kentucky teachers working together to professionalize teaching” (Ali Wright).

•

“My teaching of students adds so much gravitas to my policy work…What many see as another assignment, Jessica often sees as an opportunity to learn something that allows her to know her students better, to teach more effectively, and even to become a better person” (Jessica Keigan).

•

Teachers were looking for avenues to share their knowledge and provide input into education beyond their classrooms. At the same time, we felt frustration with decisions made by education leaders from principals to politicians that so often reflected a lack of understanding about teaching and the realities of students’ lives…[the question I now ask is] so what kind of teacher leadership is worthwhile for me” (Ariel Sacks)?

•

“I am not afraid to make my teaching visible; I am not afraid to make my views on teaching heard” (Renee).

•

“For years, I was told that good teachers did not “get involved in politics. The virtuous teacher was the one who just locked herself in the classroom and devoted all of her energies to the challenges of teaching. I soon learned, however, that everything about education in America is political, and there were some very uninformed or under-


89

informed people off somewhere making crucial decisions about what I should, could, or must do with the students for whom I am responsible” (Renee) Theme 2- job crafting. (actively changing their roles, responsibilities, tasks and interactions with others at work to improve their professional impact). •

“I really, really honestly truly believe that part of my role in this life is to shape what education looks like and influence other people. I know I have the ability to see things and how they can be different. One of my strengths is leading teachers, many of whom I have been socialized to work in isolation, to move in the same direction. Again, I’ve been fortunate that these opportunities popped up that I prepared for, so I was able to step through those doors when they were cracked open” (Lori Nazareno).

•

“Shannon’s online teaching is not about finding a quicker and less-expensive way of readying students for standardized testing. It leads to serious learning- and is an example of students and their teacher taking control of time, schooling’s most critical commodity. In addition, in many ways Shannon’s online teaching, charts a path to overcome the eggcrate classroom and, in doing so, make teachers more visible” (Shannon).

•

“Now that I am full-time teaching at Mississippi Delta Community College (MDCC), [including my part-time teaching of high school students], I have a more flexible schedule, but it is every bit as full. This year, in addition to my teaching duties at MDCC, I am also the coordinator of our Quality Enhancement Plan- a student-focused, faculty developed five-year plan that is critical to the school’s reaccreditation” (Renee).

•

“Over the last year, he has used his global mind-set to carve out a new teacherpreneurial role for himself…Soon Noah began to realize that he ‘craved’ the hybrid role he was defining and expanding, and crafted his own message for Educational Horizons


90

Magazine on how teachers can advance their career without leaving their students” (Noah). •

“I can’t even imagine how my professional life would be if I had not been part of the Common Core Teacher Solutions Team…As demands on Ali’s time grow, she’s careful to schedule time with colleagues, family, students, and key partners. This helps her live and work in connected, balanced ways” (Ali).

•

“The greatest impact of Julie’s teacherpreneurial role may be its effects on the students she serves…I would still be in the classroom, or a school, if it had not been for my experiences as a teacherpreneur” (Julie). Actively changing their roles, responsibilities, tasks and interactions with others for their

personal and professional benefit were some of the outcomes afforded to these teacherpreneurs. Recognizing and being prepared as opportunities arose, taking advantage of on-line teaching, and making visible and valuable the hybrid roles they craft led to the demonstration of both personal and professional benefits such uniquely job crafted roles could garner. The themes of empowerment and job-crafting were present throughout the case studies. Teacherpreneurs identified as empowered leaders with uniquely and personally crafted jobs that combined their passion for teaching with a wide-variety of leadership roles. The qualitative analysis of teacherpreneur blogs and case studies revealed the roles, elevated engagement and deep commitment of the teachers who engaged in this distinctive practice. Further, examination of these writings uncovered the feelings that these teachers have about empowerment and their uniquely job crafted positions. Analysis of Quantitative Data


91

Field test. A field test was conducted to evaluate the newly created composite survey’s clarity and to gather suggestions for improving the survey. An open-ended comment section for each question was added to the survey requesting that participants note confusing language, additional unasked questions or topics they believed should be included or omitted. The relationship between the independent and dependent variables were also examined. A total of 31 subjects were invited to complete this survey and 84% (n=26) of the subjects participated in the field test. As a benefit to understanding the following presentation of results a brief description of key terms follows: Correlation- the strength of linkage or co-occurrence between two variables in a single value between -1 and +1. Correlational coefficient (r)- describes the strength of the relationship between the variables. Critical value- The minimum value at which an observed correlation coefficient is statically significant. Effect size-describes the strength of the relationship. Linear Regression- A predictive analysis used to explain the relationship between one continuous dependent variable and one or more independent variables. F Ratio (F)- Used to determine the p value of the overall model. Probability value (p)- Represents the probability that the null hypothesis (no relationship in the dependent variable by the independent variable) is true. R-Squared statistic (R²)- Tells how much variance in the dependent variable is explainable by only the predictor variables.


92

t- Test statistic (t)- used to determine the p value , and to show the direction of the relationship between the predictor and dependent variable. Unstandardized Beta (B)- The slope of the predictor with the dependent variable SE (standard error) or how much the B is expected to vary. Presentation of field test results. The results of the field test indicate a positive correlation between each of the composite factors that make up the dependent variable Teacher Career Satisfaction, namely Teacher Job Satisfaction, Intent to Stay and Work Related Flow. This suggests that the composite variable, teacher career satisfaction, can be determined using these three factors combined. Neither the Pearson Correlation nor the Linear Regression Analyses showed a significant relationship, or level of predictability between the independent variable, teacherpreneurism and the dependent variable teacher career satisfaction or the dependent variable and any of the three factors of the independent variable. This result could be the result of the small field test sample size (n=26). For additional field test analysis see Appendix D.


93

Development of the final survey instrument. The qualitative process informed the creation of teacherpreneurism questions that were combined with, highly reliable and valid measures of job satisfaction, work related flow and intent to stay, to form a composite survey tool. This tool was field tested to ensure clarity and coverage of the topic, then analyzed to determine the likelihood that it would measure the intended variables. Although the field test did not demonstrate a correlation between this study’s independent and dependent variables, it did indicate significant positive relationships between the three factors that combine to measure the dependent variable, teacher career satisfaction. The small sample size may not have been enough to register a relationship between this study’s variables. Deploying it to a larger n would likely confirm or deny a possible relationship. This distribution of the survey moved forward with that result in mind. Distribution of final survey tool. The final version of the survey tool was distributed via email invitation. More than 500 participants completed the survey. The most typical respondent was a seasoned master level elementary school teacher with more than 25 years of experience. Responses indicate that living in the Eastern Standard time zone and teaching in a suburban public school would also describe the typical respondent to this survey. See details chart describing the descriptive statistics in Appendix D. The data collected from the 507 respondents was analyzed initially as a single independent variable, teacher career satisfaction, which is comprised of the teacher job satisfaction, work related flow and intent to stay survey questions and its relationship to the independent variable teacherpreneurism. The following Pearson Correlation Analysis results indicate a significant positive relationship between the two variables. Predictability was further


94

confirmed in the Linear Regression Analysis which indicates that teacherpreneurism was significantly related to teacher career satisfaction. Presentation of Study Survey Results Introduction to Pearson Correlation analysis of study survey. A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction. Effect size was used to evaluate the strength of the relationship, where coefficients between .10 and .29 represent a small effect size, coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a moderate effect size, and coefficients above .50 indicate a large effect size (Cohen, 1988). Results. A significant positive correlation was found between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction (rp = 0.86). Table 7 Pearson Correlation Matrix between Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Career Satisfaction Varia Variable

1

1.Te Teacherpreneurism

-

Teacher Career Satisfaction

2

0.86

-

Note. The critical values are 0.09, 0.11, and 0.15 for significance levels .05, .01, and .001 respectively. Introduction to bivariate linear regression. A linear regression analysis was also conducted to assess whether teacherpreneurism significantly predicted teacher career satisfaction. The 'Enter' variable selection method was chosen for the linear regression model, which includes all of the selected predictors. Results. The results of the linear regression indicated a significant effect of teacherpreneurism on teacher career satisfaction, F(1,506) = 1489.25, p R2 = 0.75.


95

Approximately 75% of the variance in teacher career satisfaction was explained by teacherpreneurism, B = 0.72, t(506) = 38.59. Table 8 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher Career Satisfaction B

SE

β

t

(Inte Intercept)

0.95

0.07

0.00

13.28

Teac Teacherpreneurism

0.72

0.02

0.86

38.59

Variable

p

Note. F(1,506) = 1489.25, p R2 = 0.75 To determine which particular aspects of teacher career satisfaction as defined by this study have a positive relationship with teacherpreneurism further analysis was conducted using teacher job satisfaction, intent to stay and work related flow as separate factors that together make up the composite dependent variable, teacher career satisfaction. Results were similar to that of the field study in that significant positive correlations exists between the three composite factors of teacher career satisfaction, however due to the larger n distinctions between the factor relationships became apparent. The effect size was strongest in the correlation between teacher job satisfaction and work related flow 0.56, a moderate effect size of 0.46 registered for the relationship between teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay and only a small effect size in the correlation of intent to stay and work related flow. Pearson Correlation analysis of effect of teacherpreneurism on three aspects of teacher career satisfaction. A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to evaluate the relationship between teacherpreneurism and each of the elements used to develop the dependent variable teacher career satisfaction, specifically teacher job satisfaction, work related flow and intent to stay. Effect size analysis (Cohen’s d) was used to evaluate the strength of the


96

relationships, where coefficients between .10 and .29 represent a small effect size, coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a moderate effect size, and coefficients above .50 indicate a large effect size (Cohen, 1988). Results. There was a significant positive correlation between teacherpreneurism and teacher job satisfaction (rp = 0.18, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between teacherpreneurism and teacher job satisfaction was 0.18 indicating a small but statistically significant effect size. This indicates that as teacherpreneurism increases, teacher job satisfaction tends to increase with a p value < .001. A significant positive correlation was found between teacherpreneurism and work related flow (rp = 0.33, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between teacherpreneurism and work related flow was 0.33 indicating a moderate effect size. This indicates that as teacherpreneurism increases, work related flow tends to increase with a p value < .001. No significant relationship between teacherpreneurism and intent to stay (rp = 0.03). The correlational coefficient between teacherpreneurism and intent to stay was 0.03 indicating no positive effect size with a p value < .001. Analysis was also conducted to evaluate the relationship between each element of the dependent variable. To a varying significance each element was found to a positive correlation with the other two elements. A significant positive correlation was found between teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay (rp = 0.46, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay was 0.46 indicating a moderate effect size. This indicates that as teacher job satisfaction increases, intent to stay tends to increase with a p value < .001.


97

There was a significant positive correlation between teacher job satisfaction and work related flow (rp = 0.56, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between teacher job satisfaction and work related flow was 0.56 indicating a large effect size. This indicates that as teacher job satisfaction increases, work related flow tends to increase with a p value < .001. There was a significant positive correlation between intent to stay and work related flow (rp = 0.28, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between intent to stay and work related flow was 0.28 indicating a small effect size. This indicates that as intent to stay increases, work related flow tends to increase. Table 9 presents the results of the correlations with a p value < .001. Table 9 Pearson Correlation Matrix among Teacherpreneurism, Teacher Job Satisfaction, Intent to Leave Stay, and Work Related Flow Vari Variable 1. Teacherpreneurism

1

2

3

4

-

2. Teacher Job Satisfaction

0.18

-

3. Intent to Stay

0.03

0.46

-

4. Work Related Flow

0.33

0.56

0.28

-

Note. The critical values are 0.09, 0.11, and 0.15 for significance levels .05, .01, and .001 respectively. To confirm the correlational relationship that was revealed in the field test to the findings in the final study with a greater n, a linear regression of teacherpreneurism and the aspects of teacher career satisfaction was conducted. The final study results confirmed the relationship between the composite factors that form the dependent variable, teacher job satisfaction, intent to stay and work related flow, that were evident in the field test. Similar to the field test the final


98

study survey showed no significant explanation or predictive relationship between teacherpreneurism and intent to stay. The final study survey however did register a significant relationship between teacherpreneurism and teacher job satisfaction and teacherpreneurism and work related flow. A Linear Regression Analysis of the three composite factors of teacher career satisfaction and teacherpreneurism was conducted and the results are presented below. As with the Pearson Correlation the most potent relationship exists between teacherpreneurism and work related flow with teacherpreneurism explaining 11% of the increase in work related flow, while teacherpreneurism explains 3% of the variance in teacher job satisfaction. Linear regression analysis of study survey for teacherpreneurism and the factor teacher job satisfaction. A linear regression analysis was also conducted to assess the extent to which teacherpreneurism might predict teacher job satisfaction. Results. The results of the linear regression analysis indicated that approximately 3% of the variance in teacher job satisfaction was explainable by teacherpreneurism, F(1,506) = 17.16, 2

p < .001, R = 0.03. Teacherpreneurism also significantly predicted teacher job satisfaction, B = 0.29, t(506) = 4.14, p < .001. This indicates that on average, every one unit increase of teacherpreneurism will result in a 0.29 unit change in teacher job satisfaction. Table 10 summarizes the results of the regression analysis. Table 10 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher Job Satisfaction Vari Variable (Intercept)

B

SE

β

t

P

2.89

0.21

0.00

13.93

< .001

0.29

0.07

0.18

4.14

< .001

Teac Teacherpreun


99

ism 2

Note. F(1,506) = 17.16, p < .001, R = 0.03 Linear regression analysis of study survey for teacherpreneurism and the factor intent to stay. A linear regression analysis was also conducted to assess whether teacherpreneurism significantly predicted intent to stay. Results. The results of the linear regression analysis were not significant, F(1,506) = 0.50, 2

p = .482, R = 0.00, indicating teacherpreneurism did not explain a significant proportion of variation in intent to stay. Since the overall model was not significant, the individual predictors were not examined further. Table 11 summarizes the results of the regression analysis. Table 11 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent to Stay Vari Variable

B

SE

β

t

p

(Inte Intercept

3.28

0.29

0.00

11.23

< .001

0.07

0.10

0.03

0.70

.482

Te Teacherprene urism 2

Note. F(1,506) = 0.50, p = .482, R = 0.00 Linear regression analysis of study survey for teacherpreneurism and the factor work related flow. A linear regression analysis was conducted to assess whether teacherpreneurism significantly predicted work related flow. Results. The results of the linear regression model were found to be significant, F(1,506) 2

= 59.98, p < .001, R = 0.11, indicating that approximately 11% of the variance in work related flow was explained by teacherpreneurism. Teacherpreneurism significantly predicted work


100

related flow, B = 0.36, t(506) = 7.74, p < .001. This indicates that on average, every one unit increase of teacherpreneurism will result in a 0.36 unit change in work related flow. Table 12 summarizes the results of the regression model. Table 12 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Work Related Flow B

SE

β

t

p

Intercept

2.62

0.14

0.00

19.34

< .001

Teacherpreneurism

0.36

0.05

0.33

7.74

< .001

Var Variable (Int

2

Note. F(1,506) = 59.98, p < .001, R = 0.11 Interpretation of Key Findings Qualitative findings In response to the research question: in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles, several themes were evident in the case studies and blogs that were examined. Themes including hybrid leadership roles, elevated professional engagement and networking, and deep levels of commitment were significantly present. The same case studies and blogs were reexamined in response to the research question: in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs. Teacherpreneurs identified high levels of confidence as well as bestowed and self-claimed control and authority as outcomes of the empowerment they feel. Further with reference to how teacherpreneurs feel about their ability to craft their own jobs, teacherpreneurs describe themselves as actively changing their roles, responsibilities, tasks and interactions with others at work to feel more professionally impactful. Quantitative findings


101

The quantitative data that were gathered indicate a significant positive relationship between the teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction (0.86). The composite factors that together made up, the dependent variable teacher career satisfaction were explained and predicted by teacherpreneurism in varying degrees. Most evident was the effect that teacherpreneurism was found to have on teacher job satisfaction (0.29). The effect of teacherpreneurism on work related flow at (0.36) was also significantly related to teacherpreneurism. The portion of the composite variable of teacher career satisfaction that accounted for intent to stay, was not however, found to be significantly impacted by teacherpreneurism. Limitations of the Study and Analysis of Data Limitations are an inevitable part of the research process. This study is no different; the following enumerates those identified limitations. First, with respect to the participants, the respondent demographics indicate clearly that the sample used in this study does not reflect the general population. Wilson Language Corporation graciously sent this survey to a large portion of its Wilson Level 1 certified teacher data base. Repsondents from the northeast were disproportionately represented. This data base is consequently skewed to this particular demographic. Therefore, extrapolating these findings to those underrepresented is a limitation. Gathering incidences of work related flow could have been accomplished in real time using the experience sampling method as was employed by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi originally. It is noted, however, that the permission granted use of the WOLF Inventory by Arnold Bakker has been proven to have shown to be valid for the measurement of the flow construct. Analysis of the survey question comments indicated questions relative to the increasing demands were not included. This omission was intentional as the focus on the increasing


102

structural and social job resources and challenges were specifically targeted as they reside in the realm of positive psychology. Including questions that gathered data regarding reducing hindering job demands could shed further light on the relationship between teacherpreneurism, especially with regard to, empowerment, job crafting, and teacher career satisfaction. An additional limitation may be that the data were not filtered for specific aspects within each composite variable or even further within each individual question, as would be the case using factor analysis. Had the field test been larger and a factor analysis conducted on the results, questions could have been eliminated based on low loading. This would have reduced the number of questions and potentially more clearly identified these predicted relationships. The final survey data set is large enough to potentially conduct such a factor analysis at this point. Finally, studies that examine correlational relationships are not able to imply causality and therefore based on this study it cannot be claimed that engagement in teacherpreneurism will lead to greater teacher career satisfaction.


103

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION Introduction The purpose of this study was to explore the impact, that teacherpreneurism may have on teacher career satisfaction, in response to wide spread teacher dissatisfaction, rising levels of attrition and consequent negative outcomes for both students and teachers. Since, “about 90 percent of the annual nationwide demand for teachers is created because teachers leave the profession” (Strauss, 2017, para 7). “If we could cut U.S. rates of [teacher] attrition in half… with some field-specific adjustments, we could virtually end our nation’s recurring teacher shortage crisis” (Linda Darling-Hammond, 2017, para 10). The results of this study will be discussed this chapter in relation to the theoretical and subjective literature and implications for school leadership and future research will be offered. Guiding this research were the qualitative questions: in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles and in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and ability to craft their own jobs. To offer a means of quantifying the relationship between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction and to measure the degree to which teacherpreneurism may predict or explain teacher career satisfaction, this study sought answer the question, to what extent does teacherpreneurism impact teacher career satisfaction. This study found that a significant relationship exists between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction (0.86) and that teacherpreneurism predicted teacher career satisfaction indicating that approximately 75% of the variance in teacher career satisfaction is explainable by teacherpreneurism. The relationships between teacherpreneurism and work related flow (0.36) and job satisfaction (0.29), two of the three factors that combine to form the dependent variable teacher career satisfaction, were most predictive.


104

These results confirm this study’s hypothesis, that opportunities for and engagement in empowerment and job crafting can contribute to teacher career satisfaction. It appears that teachers who feel empowered and through job-crafting create a positive job-fit, experience high levels of career satisfaction, an employment quality that will likely contribute to a desire to remain in their chosen career. Extending the stay of quality teachers for the purpose of stabilizing the profession and improving outcomes for students is a worthy goal. Further because work or one’s career is central to a professional life improving the quality of that portion would in turn improve the overall quality of one’s life. According to Csikszentmihalyi, “it is true that if one finds flow in work, and in relations with other people, one is well on the way toward improving the quality of life as a whole”, (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 p.144). The use of a mixed methods approach to examine teacherpreneurism resulted in both qualitative and quantitative findings. The power of the words and description found in the teacherpreneur blogs and case studies afforded an authentic articulation of teacherpreneurism. The numerical analysis provided a measure of its relationship to teacher career satisfaction. The sample size of the study, n=507 added to the veracity of its findings. Synthesis of Qualitative Findings Through their case studies, teacherpreneurs describe hybrid leadership roles, elevated professional engagement and networking, as well as a deep professional commitment as key elements of their professional practice. When describing how they felt about their levels of empowerment, teacherpreneurs reported high levels of confidence, control and authority as common themes. Actively changing their roles, responsibilities, tasks and interactions with others at work to improve their professional impact were themes that reflected how teacherpreneurs feel about job crafting.


105

These findings created a picture of a teacherpreneur, or more accurately several pictures. They speak to the concept of holacratic organizational structures where decision making is distributed throughout the system (Huitt & Monetti, 2017) (Rees, 2018). Echoes of Daniel Pinks’ R-Directed thinking (Pink, 2012), align with the creative nature of the job crafting that is reflected. Their words are supported by Tony Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills (Wagner 2014) with reference to, critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, assessing and analyzing information and curiosity and imagination. Teacherpreneurs’ own words describe their professional version of personalized learning, as Hatti put it, tailoring learning, or in this case teaching and leading, for each teacher’s strengths, needs and interests affording them voices and choice (Hattie, 2009). In the words of teacherpreneur Ariel Sacks, Policies are out of sync with teachers just like teaching in too many classrooms is out of sync with the needs of students. No wonder teachers leave teaching and students drop out of school. By not allowing teachers of proven expertise to have a voice in policy, we are pushing ambitious teacher-leaders out of teaching, (Berry & Barnett, 2011, p.160). In Teaching 2030:What We Must Do for Our Students and Our Public Schools…Now and in the Future, Emily Vickery, one of the contributing authors envisions, “the world’s best teachers will learn of the other expert teachers through their own networking. Just as students will have choices, so will teachers. They will have a range of options” (Berry & Barnett, 2011, p.147). The quantitative data supported these qualitative findings. The practice of teacherpreneurism may give rise to and incubate a new kind of teacher leader. These


106

teacherpreneurs could serve as luminaries, harbingers of what a 21st century professional educator can be. Teaching while also leading the profession from the inside out is a truly authentic and pragmatic place for teachers to be engaged, and for teacher agency to reside. This intrapreneurial endeavor is a win-win-win: schools, students and teachers all benefit from the empowered teacher voice. Who better to be at the table, whether it is to lead projects, to design curriculum, author policy or connect the school community to the community at large than the cogs in the wheels turning day-in and day-out putting those projects, curricula and policy reforms into practice. Situated in the Larger Professional Context Teachers, not unlike other professionals, are individuals with untapped gifts and talents but they are leaving their profession at rising rates. Ingersoll’s research show that teachers leave the profession at approximately 11% more often than lawyers and nurses and more than twice as often as engineers. (Kan, 2014). Doctors, lawyers, and engineers often hold dual or multiple roles. Doctors can maintain a private practice, work in a teaching hospital teaching, and lead residencies; they can conduct research and serve on various Boards of Directors. Some lawyers practice in courtrooms; others hold positions in industry or government agencies. Some lawyers are professors and mentors, some writing briefs and collaborating on research efforts. In addition, some also offer their expert services to organizations and charities. Engineers develop and refine projects and products in their work places, and in many companies, these same engineers are afforded time to engage in novel endeavors based on what interests them. They develop small businesses and join in partnerships that innovate and create, propelling industry, civilization and the economy forward. In each case, the opportunities for dual or multiple roles can serve to enhance the other. It is the opportunity to hold such positions that can ignite or


107

replenish the passion that drives and propels these professionals to contribute in more than one arena and widen their circle of impact. This professional capital can also be, should the professional desire, an opportunity to gain new inspiration in one arena that can spill over into the other. These educational leaders can develop or refine an area of expertise in one arena that can be applied to the other arena with a greater degree of proficiency, building a depth and breadth of knowledge that can elevate that professional and the profession in general. According to Richard Ingersoll, “One of the big issues [teacher leave] is the issue of voice. How much say do teachers have in the key [school] decisions?” (Frahm, 2014, para. 37). Why not afford teachers the opportunity to unleash their talents, when coupled with their experience many are able and eager to expand their scope, put to use their talents and in doing so are capable of elevating the profession inspiring them to extend their stay? Why does every teacher need to clock in at the same time and have virtually the same schedule? Imagine a school that has several half-time veteran teachers, or teachers that job share in favor of taking on professional leadership roles. Teacherpreneurs are professional educators, passionate about what they do and their passions are fueled by dipping into two wells, one that services students through direct teaching and another that leads initiatives that can serve broader aspects of the profession. This paradigm is exactly what was described in the case studies and blog posts. That paradigm is exactly what fuels the passion of these hybrid avant-garde educators because, teaching and learning does not only take place within the walls of a classroom, it happens at the DOE, the town meetings, the local farmers market, and when collaborating with another classroom across the state, the country or even the globe as is described in the teacherpreneurs case studies and blogs.


108

Synthesis of Quantitative Findings The participant sample that contributed to the quantitative findings was made up of a disproportionate number of Wilson Reading teacher leaders. These educators have extended their professional training, elevating their particular area of interest to attain a greater depth of knowledge, thus setting them apart from their non-certified peers in such a way that they are often afforded opportunities that empower them and allow them to craft their own positions relative to their particular passion. They were therefore believed to have many of the characteristics that were revealed in the qualitative findings of this study. Csikszentmihalyi might say that Wilson Reading teacher leaders or teacherpreneurs, like other teacher leaders “confront above average challenges using above average skills” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 158). They often have unique decision making input and power regarding student needs and services as a consequence of their level of expertise in the area of dyslexia. This study’s quantitative findings suggest a link between the empowerment and job crafting qualities of teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction. The higher the levels of teacherpreneurism, or empowerment and ability to craft one’s own job, the greater the likelihood that one will experience career satisfaction. It is possible that the responsibilities associated with empowered leadership roles and the ability to craft one’s job can translate into a more fulfilling career experience and a desire to extend that experience longer, benefitting the profession, school systems, the students in them and the neighborhood and communities where they live and work. Because teacher dissatisfaction is an often stated reason for leaving the profession targeting measures that could improve career satisfaction could provide a positive influence on rising attrition rates. Bringing stability to the field can have a beneficial impact on student performance which is suffering due to weak and limited student connectedness to teachers, the


109

instability of the programming they receive and the novice nature of a growing number of teachers in the system (Croasmun, Ingersoll & Rossi, 1995). Further veteran teachers feel burnout and stress from the constant need to mentor the ever green staff each year (Griffith, Steptoe & Cropley, 1999). Finally, the cost of teacher turnover is significant, more than $2 billion a year (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014) (Carroll & Foster, 2010). An expense that could be used in far more beneficial and impactful ways. 13% of the American workforce is made up of teachers, the cost of their dissatisfaction and frustration at work must have far reaching implications. Relation Between Each Factor of the Dependent Variable and the Independent Variable. The relationships between each of the three composite factors that combine to form teacher career satisfaction and teacherpreneurism were examined first using a Pearson Correlation. Work-related flow had a significant relationship to teacherpreneurism, teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay. Most potent was the correlation between teacher job satisfaction and workrelated flow with a large effect size (0.56). It is not a surprise that teachers who report experiencing more frequent episodes of flow also reported high levels of job satisfaction. What may be of some surprise however is that more frequent episodes of flow do more than just benefit the employee. According to Csikzenmihalyi, “Any job could be changed so as to make it more enjoyable by following the prescription of the flow model. …whether work is enjoyable or not ranks quite low among the concerns of [management] those who have the power to influence the nature of a given job. Management has to care for productivity [high -stakes test scores in terms of education]…In the short run these priorities might well conflict with low-producing conditions… [however] if workers really enjoy their jobs they would not only benefit


110

personally, but more efficiently and reach all the other goals that take precedence [including those of management], (1990, p.154). This study contends that management should consider and may benefit from improving the opportunities for their staff to engage in episodes of flow, a positive impact can extend beyond the personal level and thus improve teacher performance and student outcomes, the ultimate goal of school management. Work-related flow and teacherpreneurism. The correlation between work-related flow and teacherpreneurism proved to have a moderate effect size of 0.33. A linear regression analysis determined that approximately 11% of the variance in work related flow is explainable by teacherpreneurism. This result aligns with the conditions of flow, that being, a high level of skill matching an equally high level of challenge, leading to a state of flow consciousness or self-actualization (Oppland, 2017). The condition of flow consciousness appears to coincide with teacher job satisfaction and consequently, teacher career satisfaction. This suggests that when work-related flow is achieved, teachers tend to be more satisfied with their job and in turn their overall career. The role of a teacherpreneur is more likely to encompass the elements necessary to achieve a flow state, that being increased challenge leading to or resulting from increased skill development in an effort to grow professionally. When opportunities for this dynamic are not present than the flow state is less likely to occur and instead boredom and anxiety reign, conditions to be avoided as they contribute to teacher dissatisfaction. Intent to stay, teacherpreneurism, work related flow and job satisfaction. When the relationship between teacherpreneurism and intent to stay was analyzed using linear regression, teacherprenurism did not significantly explain or predict intent to stay. The Pearson correlation analysis indicates that a moderate correlation does exist between intent to stay and the two


111

composite factors, work related flow (0.28 small effect size) and teacher job satisfaction (0.46 moderate effect size) that combine to form the dependent variable teacher career satisfaction. This suggests that teachers may indeed not be satisfied in their job and thus may intend to leave that job but not the profession or career. This may further suggest that teachers who have experienced work-related flow while teaching, but who feel unfulfilled or dissatisfied with their jobs, will seek another position in the field in search of further opportunities to again achieve that optimal experience. Implications for Future Research Because work is a major facet of one’s life and thereby has a significant impact on the quality of one’s life (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014), the examination of general teacher job satisfaction and work related flow in relation to overall teacher career satisfaction is worthy of further study and could have a significant impact on the evolving role of the teacher. Determining, enhancing and replicating what it is that brings fulfillment and enjoyment to the career of teachers is likely to elongate the time they spend as contributing members of that profession. Securing expert professional educators that are afforded opportunities to be imaginative, creative and inspired professionals improve the outcomes for those educators and consequently their students. Professional educators make up a sizeable portion of the US workforce therefore studying factors that are instrumental in maximizing their impact and longevity can have a significant impact culturally, socially and economically. Work related flow, “is a relatively new construct and only a limited number of studies have investigated its relationship with job resources” (Mäkikangas, Bakker, Aunola, & Demerouti, 2010, p 797), a key factor in relationship to job demands. This study contributes to that body of knowledge through its examination of work-related flow as an outcome of good job


112

fit in relation to job resources and job demands as a specific factor of career satisfaction. Further research on job fit and work related flow could uncover its impact on the teaching profession specifically and its consequential effects on student outcomes. We know less about why teachers chose to stay than why they leave, (Phillips, 2015). As a consequent void in the research, it would seem beneficial to study why some teachers stay. Grounding inquiry into the portion of the glass that is half full rather than the reason for it being half empty is a paradigm shift. Future research that focuses not on what is wrong with the profession, but instead shift the view to what is or can be right with it (Sandlea, 2012) can be beneficial to the field of education and the domain of positive psychology. “Perceived organizational supports (POS) have not been studied intensively in the field of education” (Bogler & Nir, 2012, p. 291). Empowerment leads to perceived organizational supports and teacherpreneurs identify as feeling empowered, a condition that contributes to intrinsic job satisfaction (2012). Increasing teacher empowerment can in turn increase perceived organizational supports, resulting in improved intrinsic job satisfaction. The value of such intrinsic rewards may help in offsetting the lack of extrinsic rewards that are often not available in public school systems. Continued study of teacherpreneurism and its relationship to perceived organizational supports can provide alternatives that lead to teacher career satisfaction that have little or no impact on school funding. Recognizing job-crafting as a vehicle in developing new hybrid roles can empower public educators with reference to perceived organizational supports. Because job-crafting is initiated by the teacher, not their supervisor, it is therefore tied to the concept of ownership and the theoretical construct of control. That ownership, or the manifestation of one’s authority, can be the catalyst for an elevated sense of empowerment. For these reasons, it seems worthy to study


113

job-crafting as it pertains to teacher roles, its application to perceived organizational supports, and educator empowerment, for the purpose of providing options to increase career satisfaction and thereby retain the best and brightest teachers for the betterment of the profession and outcomes for the students it serves. Additional research questions for future consideration include reference to teacher agency, personalized teaching and leading, and transformational leadership. What are the implications of teacherpreneurism on teacher agency, the capacity to act within a given structure, rooted in experience, oriented to the future through goal setting and acted on in the present (Priestley, 2015)? Teacher agency is the number one driver for teachers in response to student performance according to the Center for Secondary School Redesign. What is the relationship between teacherpreneurism and personalized teaching, and are the outcomes for teachers similar to those of students engaged in personalized learning? There appears to be a parallel between personalized learning and personalized teaching, both seek a best fit scenario. Recent research indicates personalized learning has benefits for student performance, a RAND study, “found that the longer students worked in a personalized learning environment, the higher their gains were in reading and math” (Pane, Steiner, Baird, & Hamilton, 2015). Best fit teacher roles may also yield positive results, further examination could determine if that is so. Empowerment has been found to be a mediating factor between transformational leadership and job satisfaction in the nursing profession, (Choi, Goh, Adam, & Tan, 2016). How transformational leadership, empowerment and job satisfaction relate to the teaching profession may be another worthwhile pursuit. The primary significance of this study was to examine teacherpreneurism, as a field specific adjustment, as called for by Diane Ravitch in her review of teacher attrition rates. It is


114

time for a new version of what a public school teacher can engage in and accomplish. It is time for teachers to craft their own roles. A shift in decision-making power, upward mobility without the requirement of complete removal from the classroom, and earned status and respect that is not simply tied to a committee or extracurricular activity, can be crafted. The promotion and recognition of self-efficacy and autonomy as well as having an impact on the school community may translate into intrinsic capital and job resources which can offset the ever-increasing demands placed on teachers. This study explored and its findings suggest that career satisfaction is propagated, through empowerment and job-crafting, as determined by increased incidences of work-related flow and general teacher job satisfaction. Implications for Leadership and Practice Conditions such as providing teachers a voice, the ability to impact the school community, and decision making power can be formulated and nurtured by forward thinking administrators and school districts regardless of their budgetary constraints (Phillips, 2015), and therefore are worthy of sincere consideration in their endeavor to retain good teachers, reduce replacement costs, and foster a higher level of stability in their staff to benefit the profession and ultimately student achievement. Ingersoll states that, “this would not cost money to fix. This is an issue of management” (Phillips, 2015, para. 10). Results from this study can serve to disrupt convention and disenthrall the traditional view of the teacher role while informing management decisions in such a way that attrition rates may be decreased and stability more prevalent. Some of teacher career satisfaction may reside in aspects of empowerment and jobcrafting, particularly job fit, however other factors, such as salary, work conditions, effective teacher preparation and on-boarding may in fact, have an effect size related to career satisfaction that exceeds any this study has registered with the variables it considered. Therefore, the findings


115

of this study must be considered in relation to other possible reasons and conditions. While this study acknowledges that factors outside of its purview may be influencing the outcomes, it serves to start the investigation by exploring a specific set of variables. Future study may consider the results of this investigation to further advance the body of knowledge on teacher career satisfaction and its impact on teacher attrition. Based on the outcomes of this research public school administrators, who most often control the organizational structure of their schools, should consider affording and encouraging teachers with aspirations to lead, opportunities to assess their strengths and take on those roles. Deploying the Job Crafting™ Exercise is suggested. This tool has “been tested in a field quasiexperiment at a Fortune 500 technology company… this workshop significantly increased employees’ happiness and effectiveness six weeks later, as rated by the employees’ peers and managers (controlling for levels of happiness and effectiveness prior to the workshop)”, ("Job Crafting™ Exercise," 2018). As public education engages in reformation to best meet the needs of their ever changing student body, the voices of the professionals who put those changes into practice should be actively, purposely and respectfully sought out and engaged. Although willing and supportive administrators should cultivate a culture for teacher leadership and an avenue for teacher voice to be heard, teachers themselves, who are so inclined, must harness their passion for the profession and step into this distinctive practice. Such teachers may have to create platforms, and forge entry points and pathways for themselves and their aspiring colleagues to follow. The benefits of such endeavors can “inform reform”. The results can improve outcomes and expedite change, because it is change from within, propelled by the educational catalysts that have skin in the


116

game, have first-hand knowledge and experience and whose professional futures and the students they serve depend on it. In response to the qualitative question, in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe their roles, the examination of teacherpreneur blogs and case studies reveled, •

hybrid leadership that embraces,

•

elevated engagement and,

•

deep commitment as pervasive themes.

Teacherpreneurs described feeling, •

high levels of confidence and,

•

administratively bestowed as well as self-claimed control and authority

when describing empowerment. •

Actively changing their roles, responsibilities, tasks and interactions with others at work to improve their professional impact,

was how teacherpreneurs described their feelings about crafting their own unique positions. These data reflect this study’s findings in response to the question, in what ways do teacherpreneurs describe how they feel about their levels of empowerment and their ability to craft their own jobs. This study hypothesized that affording empowerment and job-crafting opportunities to better align teacher resources with their demands, would result in teachers achieving a better job fit and thus experience career satisfaction more frequently. Because most K-12 school teachers are, by virtue of their employer, public servants and thus a part of a profession that does not have the same financial rewards as other professions, the provision of non-monetary rewards is both reasonable and necessary. Should the empowerment and job crafting opportunities that combine


117

to form teacherpreneurism afford that kind of reward than, as a consequence, attrition rates, most especially of veteran teachers, may be reduced, thereby contributing to the stability of the profession, which can in turn positively affect student achievement, school climate and an American legacy institution, the public school system.


118

References 2014 North Carolina Teacher Working Conditions Survey: Research Brief. (2014, Spring). Retrieved June 17, 2016, from http://www.ncteachingconditions.org/results Abel, N. (2016, February 25). What is Personalized Learning. Retrieved March 8, 2018, from https://www.inacol.org/news/what-is-personalized-learning/ The A&DC Thought Leadership Series Enhancing Employee Productivity: Go with the flow. (2008, May). Retrieved March 8, 2018, from https://www.y2cp.com/ressources/publications/articles/tests/.../enhancing_employee.pd... Adhoot, R. (2015, March 2). Starting the conversation on teacherpreneurship [Web log post]. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://smartblogs.com/education/2015/03/02/startingthe-conversation-on-teacherpreneurship/ Akintunde, S. O. (2013). Intrapreneurship Development as a Human Resources Management Function. INTRAPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT AS A HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT FUNCTION, 1(12), 1-8. Retrieved July 9, 2016, from www.singaporeanjbem.com/pdfs/SG_VOL_1_(12)/3. Alliance for Excellent Education. (2014, July 17). Teacher Attrition Costs United States Up to $2.2 Billion Annually, Says New Alliance Report [Press release]. Retrieved August 19, 2015, from http://all4ed.org/press/teacher-attrition-costs-united-states-up-to-2-2-billionannually-says-new-alliance-report/ Aragon, S. (2016). Teacher Shortages What We Know. Teacher Shortages: What We Know, 0112. Retrieved December 27, 2017, from http://www.ecs.org/ec-content/uploads/TeacherShortages-What-We-Know.pdf


119

Arnoldbakker.com. (2016). Retrieved October 3, 2016, from http://www.arnoldbakker.com/news.php?id=43 Arsaga, A. (2011, June 24). What Parents Need to Know About "Flow". Retrieved November 20, 2016, from http://www.parentcorticalmass.com/2011/06/what-is-flow.html Au, W., & Tempel, M. B. (2012). Pencils down: Rethinking high-stakes testing and accountability in public schools. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools. Au, W. (2010, Winter). Neither Fair Nor Accurate • Research-Based Reasons Why High-Stakes Tests Should Not Be Used to Evaluate Teachers. Retrieved October 1, 2016, from http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/25_02/25_02_au.shtml Bakker, A. (2007, December 3). The Work-Related Flow Inventory: Construction and initial validation of the WOLF. Retrieved October 9, 2016, from file:///C:/Users/Cheri/Downloads/article_arnold_bakker_165.pdf Bakker, A. (2011, July 20). Work engagement, job satisfaction, and productivity: They're a virtuous cycle. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110720142459.htm Bakker, A. B., & Woerkom, M. V. (2017, September 12). Flow at Work: A Self-Determination Perspective. Retrieved March 13, 2018, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41542-017-0003-3 Bakker, A. B., Tims, M., & Derks, D. (2012, September 11). Proactive personality and job performance: The role of job crafting and work engagement. Retrieved April 1, 2016, from http://hum.sagepub.com/content/65/10/1359 Barkan, J. (2011, Winter). Got Dough? How Billionaires Rule Our Schools. Retrieved October 8, 2016, from https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/got-dough-how-billionaires-rule-o


120

Barrett, X. F., Cody, A., Martinez, J. S., Burris, C., Koonlaba, A., Ed. S., McKelvy, T., . . . Meeks, J. L., Jr. (2016). Teachers Talk Back: Educators on the Impact of Teacher Evaluation (pp. 1-25, Rep.). TheNewworkfor Public Education. Baugh, W. H., & Stone, J. A. (1982, May). Mobility and wage equilibration in the educator labor market. Economics of Education Review. Retrieved July 23, 2016, from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/4836466_Mobility_and_Wage_Equilibrium_in_t he_Educator_Labor_Market Böckerman, P., & Ilmakunnas, P. (2012). The Job Satisfaction-Productivity Nexus: A Study Using Matched Survey and Register Data. Retrieved March 13, 2018, from https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/ilrreview/vol65/iss2/3/ Belsky, G. (2012, August 30). Top Reasons Why Americans Stay At Their Jobs (And What It Means For The Presidential Campaign) | TIME.com. Retrieved September 11, 2016, from http://business.time.com/2012/08/31/top-reasons-why-americans-stay-at-their-jobs-andwhat-it-means-for-the-presidential-campaign/ Berliner, D. C., & Glass, G. V. (2014). 50 myths & lies that threaten America's public schools: The real crisis in education. New York: Teachers College Press. Berry, B., & Barnett, J. (2011). Teaching 2030: What we must do for our students and our public schools: Now and in the future. New York: Teachers College Press. Berry, B. (2010, October 6). The Coming Age of the Teacherpreneur - Education Week. Retrieved August 19, 2015, from http://www.edweek.org/tsb/articles/2010/10/12/01teacherpreneur.h04.html


121

Berry, B. (2013, February 21). This year's MetLife survey: Good news for teacherpreneurs. Retrieved April 6, 2018, from https://www.teachingquality.org/this-years-metlife-surveygood-news-for-teacherpreneurs/ Berry, B. (2015, October 15). Teacherpreneurs: Changing education from the inside out [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/blogs/barnett-berry/teacherpreneurs-changingeducation-inside-out Berry, B., Alesha, D., & Alan, W. (2010, June). Teacher Leadership: Leading the Way to Effective Teaching and Learning. Retrieved January 31, 2018, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED509719 Berry, B., Byrd, A., & Wieder, A. (2013). Teacherpreneurs Innovative Teachers Who Lead But Don't Leave. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Berry, B., Daughtrey, A., & Wieder, A. (2010, January). Teacher Leadership: Leading the Way to Effective Teaching and Learning. Retrieved June 23, 2016, from http://www.teachingquality.org/content/teacher-leadership-leading-way-effectiveteaching-and-learning Berry, B. (n.d.). 3 Shifts to drive deeper learning [Pamphlet]. CTQ. Berry, B., Smylie, M., & Fuller, E. (2008). Understanding Teacher Agency. Teacher Agency : An Ecological Approach, 1-48. doi:10.5040/9781474219426.0005 Bogler, R., & Nir, A. E. (2012). Journal of Educational Administration. The Importance of Teachers' Perceived Organizational Support to Job Satisfaction: What's Empowerment Got to Do with It?, 50(3), 287-306. doi:10.1108/09578231211223310


122

Burns, J. (2014, December 2). Green & Write. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from http://edwp.educ.msu.edu/green-and-write/2014/secretary-duncan-unveils-accountabilityplan-for-teacher-preparation-programs/ Carroll, T. G., Ph. D., & Foster, E. (2010). Who Will Teach? Experience Matters. Washington DC: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. Center for Teaching Quality. (2016, January 28). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://education-reimagined.org/resources/center-teaching-quality/ Chappell, K. (2015, May 13). Experts worry retirement among baby boomers will lead to teacher shortage. Retrieved December 27, 2017, from http://www.wndu.com/home/headlines/Experts-worry-retirement-among-baby-boomerswill-lead-to-teacher-shortage-303576851.html Cherry, K. (2016, May 11). How Do Correlational Studies Work? Retrieved September 5, 2016, from https://www.verywell.com/correlational-research-2795774 Choi, S. L., Goh, C. F., Adam, M. B., & Tan, O. K. (2016, December 1). Retrieved April 24, 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5131441/ The Condition of Education 1994: America's Teachers ten Year After "A Nation at Risk". (n.d.). AMERICA’S TEACHERS TEN YEARS AFTER “A NATION AT RISK”. Retrieved August 26, 2016, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs95/95766.pdf Content analysis: Doing a content analysis. (n.d.). Retrieved September 4, 2016, from http://psc.dss.ucdavis.edu/sommerb/sommerdemo/content/doing.htm Cowdery, J. E., Rd. D. (n.d.). Empowering Students through Fostering Empowered Teachers [Scholary paper]. Muskingum College, New Concord, Ohio.


123

Croasum, J., Hampton, D., & Herrmann, S. (1999, February 25). Teacher Attrition: Is Time Running Out? Retrieved August 23, 2015, from http://horizon.unc.edu/projects/issues/papers/Hampton.asp Crowley, B. (2016, September 15). Why I left a profession that I love [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/blogs/briannacrowley/why-i-left-profession-i-love Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Choice Reviews Online, 28(01). doi:10.5860/choice.28-0597 Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014, June 20). Flow, the secret to happiness : Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi | TED Talk | Reckon Talk. Retrieved August 12, 2015, from http://www.reckontalk.com/flow-the-secret-to-happiness-mihaly-csikszentmihalyi-tedtalk/ CTQ. (2014, August 18). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/case-study-alison-crowley-wright-ctqteacherpreneur CTQ. (2014, October 01). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/case-study-jessica-cuthbertson-ctqteacherpreneur CTQ. (2014, October 1). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/case-study-noah-zeichner-ctq-teacherpreneur


124

CTQ. (2015, April 22). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/justinminkel CTQ. (2015, March 03). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/case-study-julie-hiltz-ctq-teacherpreneur CTQ. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.teachingquality.org/impact CTQ. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2016, from http://www.teachingquality.org/teacherpreneurs Cuthbertson, J., & Wright, A. (2016, May 26). Path to innovation: Two teacherpreneurs reflect on the journey. Retrieved January 27, 2018, from http://www.smartbrief.com/original/2015/06/path-innovation-two-teacherpreneursreflect-journey Cuthbertson, J. (2014, February 19). So You Want to be a Teacherpreneur [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2014/02/19/ctqcuthbertson.html Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Recruiting and Retaining Teachers: Turning Around the Race to the Bottom in High-Need Schools. Journal of Curriculum and Instruction JoCI, 4(1). doi:10.3776/joci.2010.v4n1p16-32 Davis, V. (2006, November 27). The Classroom is Flat: Teacherpreneurs and the Flat Classroom Project Kickoff [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from http://coolcatteacher.blogspot.com/2006/11/classroom-is-flat-teacherpreneurs-and.html Davis, V. (2015, December 14). 2015: The Good, the Bad... and the Potential [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/blogs/lorinazareno/beyond-compliance-creating-schools-our-students-need


125

Davis, V. (2015, June 10). Teacherpreneurs: We're Here to Inspire [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/era-of-teacherpreneur-heatherwolpert-gawron Davis, V. (2015, June 10). Teacherpreneurs: We're here to inspire [Web log post]. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/teacherpreneurs-here-to-inspirevicki-davis Defining Job Satisfaction - Boundless Open Textbook. (2016, May 26). Retrieved November 19, 2016, from https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-managementtextbook/organizational-behavior-5/drivers-of-behavior-44/defining-job-satisfaction-2317247/ Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Gevers, J. M. (2015, September 6). Job crafting and extra-role behavior: The role of work engagement and flourishing. Retrieved January 15, 2016, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001879115000937 Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Halbesleben, J. R. (2015). Productive and Counterproductive Job Crafting: A Daily Diary Study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(4), 457-469. Demirkasimoglu, N. (2011, January 26). Defining "Teacher Professionalism" from different perspectives. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042810025498 Denby, D. (2012, November 11). Public Defender. Retrieved June 6, 2016, from http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/11/19/public-defender Dewey, J. (1897). John Dewey My Pedagogic Creed. School Journal, 54, 77-80. Retrieved June 8, 2016, from http://dewey.pragmatism.org/creed.htm


126

Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2012). Make your job a calling: How the psychology of vocation can change your life at work. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press. Disadvantages of Mixed Method Design. (2012, March 07). Retrieved November 20, 2016, from https://lon03.wordpress.com/2012/03/07/disadvantages-of-mixed-method-design/ Dr. W. Edwards Deming: The Father of the Quality Evolution. (n.d.). Retrieved July 28, 2016, from http://dewsberry.com/content/es/content/deming/14points.html Duncan, A., & Cunningham, P. (2010). Built for Teachers How the Blueprint for Reform Empowers Educators (pp. 1-24) (USA, US Department of Education, Office of Communications and Outreach). Washington DC: ED Pubs, Education Publications Center, U.S. Department of Education. The Educational Blues. (2007, December 4). Retrieved October 22, 2016, from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-educational-blues/ Edwards, S. (2015, October 29). Examining the Relationship Between Workplace Satisfaction and Productivity. Retrieved March 13, 2018, from https://www.inc.com/samueledwards/examining-the-relationship-between-workplace-satisfaction-andproductivity.html Elmore, R. F. (2011). I used to think-- and now I think--: Twenty leading educators reflect on the work of school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Facts about the Teaching Profession for A National Conversation about Teaching. (2011). Retrieved July 7, 2016. Feistritzer, C. E. (2011). PROFILE OF TEACHERS IN THE U.S. 2011 (pp. 1-86, Rep.). Washington DC: NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION INFORMATION.


127

Ferlazzo, L. (2014, August 4). A Look at Teaching 2030 [Web log review]. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2013/08/04/what-is-a-teacherpreneur/ Fetzer Institute | Research | Measures. (n.d.). Retrieved January 14, 2014, from http://www.loveandforgive.org/research/measures Flow. (2016, September 10). Retrieved October 9, 2016, from http://www.pursuit-ofhappiness.org/science-of-happiness/getting-in-the-flow/ Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. (1990). Choice Reviews Online, 28(01). doi:10.5860/choice.28-0597 Flynn, T. (n.d.). Personality Tests. Retrieved January 14, 2016, from http://similarminds.com/ Frahm, R. A. (2014, June 19). Education's Revolving Door. Retrieved April 24, 2018, from https://ctmirror.org/2014/06/19/teacher-retention-in-connecticut-educations-mostpressing-issue/ Francis, A. (n.d.). Quality of Work Life (QWL). Retrieved September 18, 2016, from http://www.mbaknol.com/human-resource-management/quality-of-work-life-qwl/ Frassinelli, L. (2012, February 22). Equity-based Educational Reform in Finland. Retrieved November 20, 2016, from https://equitytransport.wordpress.com/2012/02/22/equitybased-educational-reform-in-finland/ Glass, J. (2011, August 21). What Motivates Teachers? Retrieved November 2, 2015, from https://educationelements.wordpress.com/2011/08/21/what-motivates-teachers/ Goldring, R., Taie, S., & Riddles, M. (2014). Teacher Attrition and Mobility: Results From the 2012–13 Teacher Follow-up Survey (pp. 1-5, Rep. No. NCES 2014-077). Washington DC: US Department of Education.


128

Gorard, S. (2012, March). Mixed Methods in Educational Research Report from the March Seminar 2012. Retrieved March 18, 2018, from http://www.bing.com/cr?IG=0B146E90EF474198B2A4638DB47A2031&CID=20380D8 B411864622930063D40B765F0&rd=1&h=PSaApdLcdQfHwBUQ1wRASbE7e0rkHg6F 8F0_QLgJEEg&v=1&r=http%3a%2f%2fwww.uv.uio.no%2fils%2fpersoner%2fvit%2fki rstik%2fpublikasjoner-pdf-filer%2fklette.-mixed-methods.pdf&p=DevEx,5066.1 Gray, P., Ph. D. (2008, August 20). A Brief History of Education. Retrieved June 5, 2016, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-learn/200808/brief-history-education Greene, P. (2013, October 30). Let's Talk About Teacher Retention, Not Tenure. Retrieved June 1, 2016, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/peter-greene/lets-talk-about-teacherr_b_6079712.html Griffith, T. (2014, November 01). Help Your Employees Find Flow. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://hbr.org/2014/04/help-your-employees-find-flow Guin, K. (2004, August 16). ERIC - Chronic Teacher Turnover in Urban Elementary Schools, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 2004-Aug-16. Retrieved October 8, 2016, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ853508 Hagopian, J. (2014). More than a score: The new uprising against high-stakes testing. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books. Hamilton, L. S., Stecher, B., & Yuan, K. (2008, December). Standards-Based Reform in the United States: History, Research, and Future Directions. Retrieved September 28, 2016, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235204541_StandardsBased_Reform_in_the_United_States_History_Research_and_Future_Directions


129

Hanushek, E. A. (2011, Summer). Valuing Teachers: How Much is a Good Teacher Worth? Retrieved June 11, 2016, from http://hanushek.stanford.edu/publications/valuingteachers-how-much-good-teacher-worth The Happy Planet Index [Video file]. (2010, August 30). Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/nic_marks Hart, P. M. (1994). Teacher quality of work life: Integrating work experiences, psychological distress and morale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67(2), 109-132. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.1994.tb00555.x Hattie, J. (2003). Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence? S.l.: University of Auckland. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analysis Relating to Achievement. New York, NY: Routledge. Hess, F. M. (2015, November 18). How professional educators can make policy work for their profession - AEI. Retrieved May 27, 2016, from https://www.aei.org/publication/howprofessional-educators-can-make-policy-work-for-their-profession/ Hipolit, M. (2017, January 24). 'Overwhelmed and overburdened:' Teacher says morale at alltime low. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from http://wtvr.com/2017/01/23/overwhelmedand-overburdened-teacher-says-morale-at-all-time-low/ Ho, C., & Au, W. (2006, February 01). Teaching Satisfaction Scale. Retrieved September 23, 2016, from http://epm.sagepub.com/content/66/1/172.abstract Hole, G. (n.d.). Eight Things You Need to Know About Interpreting Correlations. Retrieved January 25, 2018, from https://www.scribd.com/document/254900732/Eight-ThingsYou-Need-to-Know-About-Interpreting-Correlations


130

How Job Satisfaction Influences Behavior - Boundless Open Textbook. (2016, May 26). Retrieved November 1, 2016, from https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-managementtextbook/organizational-behavior-5/drivers-of-behavior-44/how-job-satisfactioninfluences-behavior-232-5809/ How to escape educations death valley [Video file]. (2013, May). Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/sir_ken_robinson How we read each others minds [Video file]. (2009, September). Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/rebecca_saxe Huitt, W. G., & Monetti, D. M. (2017). Openness and the Transformation of Education and Schooling. London, UK: Ubiquity Press. Iasevoli, B. (2017, June 12). Teachers Go Public With Their Resignation Letters. Retrieved January 13, 2018, from http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/teacherbeat/2017/04/why_do_teachers_quit_their_res.ht ml Imig, S., Ph.D., Ndoye, A., Ph.D., & Parker, M., Ph.D. (n.d.). Teacher Empowerment, School Leadership, and Student Performance in North Carolina's Charter Schools. Retrieved June 12, 2016, from http://www.academia.edu/649783/Teacher_Empowerment_School_Leadership_and_Stud ent_Performance_in_North_Carolinas_Charter_Schools Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & Stuckey, D. (2014). Seven Trends: The Transformation of the Teaching Force (pp. 1-31, Rep. No. RR-80). Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education.


131

Intellectus Statistics™ (Version On-Line) [Computer software]. (2017). Retrieved December 31, 2017, from http://www.intellectusstatistics.com/faqs/intellectus-statistics-faq/ Ism. (n.d.). Retrieved January 8, 2017, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ism Jackson, S. A. (2010). Flow Scales - Mind Garden. Retrieved January 14, 2016, from http://www.mindgarden.com/100-flow-scales Jackson, S. A. (2010). Flow Scales - Mind Garden. Retrieved January 14, 2016, from http://www.mindgarden.com/100-flow-scales Jackson, S. A., Martin, A. J., & Eklund, R. C. (2008). Long and Short Measures of Flow: The Construct Validity of the FSS-2, DFS-2, and New Brief Counterparts. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30(5), 561-587. doi:10.1123/jsep.30.5.561 Jacob, A., Vidyarthi, E., & Carroll, K. (2012). The Irreplaceables: Understanding the Real Retention Crisis in America's Urban Schools (pp. 1-40, Rep.). Brooklyn, NY: TNTP reimagine teaching. Job Crafting™ Exercise. (2018). Retrieved April 1, 2018, from http://positiveorgs.bus.umich.edu/cpo-tools/job-crafting-exercise/ Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., Durham, C. C., & Kluger, A. N. (1998). Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1), 17-34. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.1.17 Jumani, N. B., & Malik, S. (2017, April 23). Promoting Teachers' Leadership Through Autonomy and Accountability. Retrieved February 4, 2018, from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-4151-8_2?no-access=true K-12 Teachers Rate the Ability to Affect Students, Lifelong Learning Opportunities and the Variety That Exists in the Field as Top Reasons to Join the Profession, Finds University


132

of Phoenix Survey. (2015, May 4). Retrieved June 6, 2016, from http://www.phoenix.edu/news/releases/2015/05/top-reasons-to-join-the-educationprofession.html Kan, L. (2014, July 14). How Does Teacher Attrition Compare to Other Professions? Retrieved April 24, 2018, from http://educationnext.org/teacher-attrition-compare-professions/ Karantzas, G. C., PhD*, Mellor, D., PhD, McCabe, M. P., PhD, Davison, T. E., PhD, & Beaton, P. (2012). Intention to Quit Among Care Staff Working in the Aged Care Sector. Intention to Quit Among Care Staff Working in the Aged Care Sector, 52(4), 506-516. doi:10.1093/geront/gnr161 Karsenti, T., & Collin, S. (2013, March 3). Why are New Teachers Leaving the Profession? Results of a Canada-Wide Survey. Retrieved May 29, 2016, from http://www.academia.edu/5317542/Why_are_New_Teachers_Leaving_the_Profession_R esults_of_a_Canada-Wide_Survey Kassabgy, O., Boraie, D., & Schmidt, R. (2001). Values, rewards, and job satisfaction in ESL/EFL. Retrieved October 1, 2016, from http://www.academia.edu/747503/Values_rewards_and_job_satisfaction_in_ESL_EFL Kell, E. (2016, April 24). Workload is the tip of the iceberg when it comes to low morale in teaching. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/teachernetwork/2016/apr/24/workload-low-morale-teaching Keller, J., & Bless, H. (2007). Flow and Regulatory Compatibility: An Experimental Approach to the Flow Model of Intrinsic Motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 196-209. doi:10.1177/0146167207310026


133

Kian, T. S., Rajah, S., & Wan Yusoff, W. F. (2014). Job Satisfaction and Motivation: What are the Difference Among these two? JOB SATISFACTION AND MOTIVATION: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCE AMONG THESE TWO?, 3(2), 94-102. Retrieved October 1, 2016, from www.ejbss.com/recent.aspx Kowal, J., & Fortier, M. S. (1999). Motivational Determinants of Flow: Contributions From SelfDetermination Theory. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3), 355-368. doi:10.1080/00224549909598391 Laitsch, D. (2004, September 14). The Effects of Chronic Teacher Turnover on School Climate and Organization. Retrieved May 23, 2016, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/researchbrief/v2n19/toc.aspx Levy, L. (2014, July 24). Rise of the Teacherpreneur. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.edudemic.com/why-we-need-edupreneurs/ Lichtman, M. (2006). Qualitative research in education: A user's guide. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Lichtman, M. (2011). Understanding and evaluating qualitative educational research. Los Angeles: SAGE. Loeb, S., Ronfeldt, M., & Wyckoff, J. (2012, October 23). How Teacher Turnover Harms Student Achievement. Retrieved March 3, 2016, from http://ecs.force.com/studies/rstudypg?id=a0r70000003qSXGAA2 Loeppke, R., M.D., Christian, J., M.D., Gochfield, M., M.D., Himmelstein, J., M.D., Kessler, R., Ph. D., Reed, P., M.D., . . . Sokas, R., M.D. (2009). Healthy Workforce/Healthy Economy: The Role of Health, Productivity, and Disability Management in Addressing


134

the Nationʼs Health Care Crisis. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 51(1), 114-119. doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e318195dad2 Mahdi, A. F., Mohdzin, M. Z., Nor, M. R., Sakat, A. A., & Naim, A. S. (2012). The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intention. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(9), 1518-1526. doi:10.3844/ajassp.2012.1518.1526 Manktelow, J., Jackson, K., Edwards, S., Eyre, E., Cook, L., & Khan, B. (n.d.). The JD-R Model: Analyzing and Improving Employee Well-Being. Retrieved January 27, 2017, from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/job-demands-resources-model.htm Markow, D., Ph. D., Marcia, L., & Lee, H. (2013). The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher: Challenges for School Leadershi (pp. 1-132, Rep.). MetLife. Marsh, S. (2015, January 27). Five top reasons people become teachers – and why they quit. Retrieved September 30, 2015, from http://www.theguardian.com/teachernetwork/2015/jan/27/five-top-reasons-teachers-join-and-quit Marsh, S. (2015, January 27). Five top reasons people become teachers- and why they quit. Retrieved August 20, 2015, from http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fteachernetwork%2F2015%2Fjan%2F27%2Ffive-top-reasons-teachers-join-and-quit Martin Seligman. (n.d.). Retrieved December 27, 2017, from http://becomeahappinessactivist.com/says-who/ McClelland, D. C., & Burnham, D. H. (2003). Power Is The Great Motivator. Harvard Business Review, 1-11. Retrieved June 23, 2016, from www.hbr.org. Metlife Foundation Afterschool Alert Issue Brief. (2007, July). Retrieved July 9, 2016, from www.afterschoolalliance.org


135

Meyer, L. (2013, July 29). Teacher Turnover Negatively Impacts Student Achievement in Math and English -- THE Journal. Retrieved October 8, 2016, from https://thejournal.com/articles/2013/07/29/teacher-turnover-negatively-impacts-studentachievement-in-math-and-english.aspx Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi- Flow the Secret to Happiness [Video file]. (2004, February). Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/mihaly_csikszentmihalyi Mitra, D., Ph.D. (2011). Pennsylvania’s Best Investment: The Social and Economic Benefits of Public Education (p. 7, Rep.). PA: Education Law Center. Moos, R. H., & Trickett, E. (n.d.). Classroom Environment Scale - Mind Garden. Retrieved October 12, 2015, from http://www.mindgarden.com/81-classroom-environment-scale The Nation. (1983). Washington, D.C.: National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere. A Nation At Risk:. (1983, April). Retrieved August 11, 2016, from http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html A Nation At Risk? (2013). Policy Points. Retrieved August 26, 2016, from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/publications/policypoints/policypoints-anation-at-risk.pdf Nazareno, L. (2017, January 6). Beyond compliance: Creating schools our students need [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/content/blogs/lori-nazareno/beyond-compliancecreating-schools-our-students-need Nilsen, E. (2016, September 4). Local districts don't feel the pinch. Sunday Monitor, pp. 1-6.


136

North, T. (2015, October 22). Identify the Right Level of Challenge – and Excel. Retrieved November 20, 2016, from https://www.corpmagazine.com/human-resources/identifyright-level-challenge-excel/ Norton, J. (2010, October 30). Are You a Teacherpreneur? [Web log post]. Retrieved August 15, 2015, from http://www.teachingquality.org/content/blogs/johnnorton/are-youteacherpreneur O'Brien, A. (2015, July 5). Five Ways to Increase Teacher Agency in Professional Development. Retrieved April 24, 2018, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/five-ways-increaseteacher-agency-professional-development-anne-obrien O'Brien, A. (2016, July 5). Five Ways to Increase Teacher Agency in Professional Development. Retrieved February 4, 2018, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/five-ways-increaseteacher-agency-professional-development-anne-obrien Olejnik, S., & Algina, J. (2000). Measures of Effect Size for Comparative Studies: Applications, Interpretations, and Limitations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(3), 241-286. doi:10.1006/ceps.2000.1040 Oppland, M. (2017, March 13). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: All About Flow & Positive Psychology (+PDF). Retrieved April 1, 2018, from https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/mihaly-csikszentmihalyi-father-of-flow/ Orphal, D. (2011, April 10). Learning 2030. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://learning2030-orphal.blogspot.com/2011/04/my-tedx-talk.html Orphal, D. (2011, April 3). Re: What the Heck is a Teacherpreneur? [Web log comment]. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://learning2030orphal.blogspot.com/2011/04/what-heck-is-teacherpreneur_3867.html


137

Orphal, D. (2014, August 24). Burned out teachers, too, deserve day in court. Retrieved November 3, 2015, from http://edsource.org/2014/burned-out-teachers-too-deserve-dayin-court/66545 Orphal, D. (2015, May 28). TEDxSFED - David Orphal. Retrieved November 3, 2015, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5LXFVpp3wQ0 Pane, J. F., Steiner, E. D., Baird, M. D., & Hamilton, L. S. (2015, November 10). Promising Evidence on Personalized Learning. Retrieved April 24, 2018, from https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1365.html Patrick, S., Kennedy, K., & Powell, A. (2013). Mean What You Say: Defining and Integrating Personalized, Blended and Competency Education (pp. 1-37, Rep.). New York, NY: Carnegie. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation. (2013). Retrieved January 25, 2018, from https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-statisticalguide.php Perie, M., Baker, D. P., & Whitener, S. (1997). Job Satisfaction Among America's Teachers: Effects of Workplace Conditions, Background Characteristics, and Teacher Compensation (pp. 1-134, Rep. No. NCES 97-471). Washington DC: US Department of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service) Peterson, C., Park, N., & Sweeney, P. J. (2008). Group Well-Being: Morale from a Positive Psychology Perspective. Applied Psychology, 57(S1), 19-36. doi:10.1111/j.14640597.2008.00352.x Peterson, P. E. (2017, January 18). The End of the Bush-Obama Regulatory Approach to School Reform: Choice and competition remain the country's best hope. Retrieved January 7,


138

2018, from http://educationnext.org/end-of-bush-obama-regulatory-approach-schoolreform-choice-competition/ Petrilli, M. J. (2013, August 30). All or Nothing on Teacher Accountability - Education Next. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from http://educationnext.org/all-or-nothing-on-teacheraccountability/ Phillips, O. (2015, March 30). Revolving Door Of Teachers Costs Schools Billions Every Year. Retrieved May 23, 2016, from http://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2015/03/30/395322012/the-hidden-costs-of-teacherturnover Pierce, J. L., O'Driscoll, M. P., & Coghlan, A. (2004). Work Environment Structure and Psychological Ownership: The Mediating Effects of Control. Work Environment Structure and Psychological Ownership: The Mediating Effects of Control, 144(5), 507530. Retrieved August 19, 2015, from http://all4ed.org/press/teacher-attrition-costsunited-states-up-to-2-2-billion-annually-says-new-alliance-report/ Pink, D. H. (2012). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York: Riverhead Books. Pink, D. H. (2012). A whole new mind: Why right-brainers will rule the future. New York: Riverhead Books. Pinto, M. (Writer). (1992). Only a Teacher [Television series episode]. In PBS Online. Arlington, VA: WGBH. Plug into your hard wired happiness [Video file]. (2010, March 6). Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/srikumar_rao


139

Ponce, O. A., & Pagan-Moldonado, N. (2014, August 3). Mixed Methods Research in Education: Capturing the Complexity of the Profession. Retrieved March 18, 2018, from http://www.bing.com/cr?IG=24CB359A7A084DCD99F678E0499C6D7B&CID=348364 91F6586A132CE56F27F7FE6B4D&rd=1&h=3v5zbtRVSoHcRV5Q1p0XZzc_2w_6qyP FECVg_tRmVrs&v=1&r=http%3a%2f%2fwww.suagm.edu%2fumet%2fijee%2fpdf%2f 1_1%2fponce_pagan_maldonado_ijee_1_1_111-135.pdf&p=DevEx,5066.1 Prather, L. (2015, October 31). Can I Be an Effective Teacher and an Effective Leader? [Web log post]. Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.teachingquality.org/content/blogs/liz-prather/can-i-be-effective-teacher-andeffective-leader Preneur. (2016, November 11). Retrieved January 8, 2017, from https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preneur Priestley, M. (2015, September 3). Teacher agency: What is it and why does it matter? Retrieved April 24, 2018, from https://www.bera.ac.uk/blog/teacher-agency-what-is-it-and-whydoes-it-matter Race to the Top Fact Sheet. (2009, December). Retrieved January 7, 2018, from https://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/factsheet.html Ravitch, D. (2010). The death and life of the great American school system: How testing and choice are undermining education. New York, NY: Basic Books. Ravitch, D. (2012). The Teacher Accountability Debate. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from https://www.bankstreet.edu/occasional-paper-series/27/part-i/teacher-accountabilitydebate/


140

Ravitch, D. (2013). Reign of error: The hoax of the privatization movement and the danger to America's public schools. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Ravitch, D. (2014, June 18). Public Education: Who Are the Corporate Reformers? | BillMoyers.com. Retrieved October 22, 2016, from http://billmoyers.com/2014/03/28/public-education-who-are-the-corporate-reformers/ Ravitch, D. (2015, April 2). Richard Ingersoll: Teacher Churn Costs Schools More Than $2 Billion Yearly [Web log post]. Retrieved June 11, 2016, from https://dianeravitch.net/2015/04/02/richard-ingersoll-teacher-churn-costs-schools-morethan-2-billion-yearly/ Raymer, C. (2015, January 7). Engagement Without Empowerment? [Web log post]. Retrieved October 9, 2016, from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/engagement-withoutempowerment-chris-raymer Rees, L., Dr. (2018). Can Holacracy Work in Education? Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.sycol.com/can-holacracy-work-education/ Remijan, K. (2016, May 26). Keeping Mid-Career Teachers with Hybrid and Part-Time Positions. Retrieved December 29, 2017, from http://www.ascd.org/ascdexpress/vol11/1118-remijan.aspx Reviewing Research. (n.d.). Retrieved November 20, 2016, from http://www.rit.edu/research/hsro/reviewing_research Rice, J. K. (2003). Teacher Quality: Understanding the Effectiveness of Teacher Attributes. Retrieved September 28, 2016, from http://www.epi.org/publication/books_teacher_quality_execsum_intro/ Richard Ingersoll. (2016). Retrieved October 3, 2016, from http://www.cpre.org/richard-ingersoll


141

Riggs, L. (2013, October 18). Why Do Teachers Quit? And why do they stay? Retrieved February 20, 2016, from http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/why-doteachers-quit/280699/ Rinehart, J. S., & Short, P. M. (1994, June 22). Job Satisfaction and Empowerment among Teacher Leaders, Reading Recovery Teachers and Regular Classroom Teachers. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G116138707/job-satisfaction-and-empowerment-among-teacher-leaders Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (n.d.). Techniques to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data. Retrieved September 19, 2016, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/Readings/ryanbernard_techniques_to_identify_themes_in.htm Sandlea, N. (Director). (2012, October 10). What is Positive Psychology? [Video file]. Retrieved December 27, 2017, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qJvS8v0TTI Sass, D. A., Seal, A. K., & Martin, N. K. (2011). Journal of Educational Administration. Predicting Teacher Retention Using Stress and Support Variables, 49(2), 200-215. doi:10.1108/095782831111116734 Sawchuk, S. (2016, August 23). 'Churn' Among Teachers Seen to Affect Learning. Retrieved December 27, 2017, from https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2016/08/24/churn-amongteachers-seen-to-affect-learning.html Scaling up teacher-led projects: Justin Minkel [Web log post]. (2014, November 23). Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.teachingquality.org/justinminkel Schaffer, O. (2015, February). Crafting Fun User Experiences - White Paper. Retrieved September 21, 2015, from http://humanfactors.com/whitepapers/crafting_fun_ux.asp


142

Search Results for teachers+on+special+assignments. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.edsurge.com/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&searchquery=teachers%2Bon%2Bspecial%2Bassignments Shaprira-Lishchinsky, O. (2012). Journal of Educational Administration. Teachers' Withdrawal Behaviors: Integrating Theory and Findings, 50(3), 307-326. doi:10.1108/09578231211223329 Short, P. M., & Rinehart, J. S. (1992). School Participant Empowerment Scale: Assessment of Level of Empowerment within the School Environment. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 951-960. doi:10.1177/0013164492052004018 Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological, Empowerment In The Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement And Validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465. doi:10.2307/256865 Stetton, M., Ph. D. (2015, September 30). How To Enjoy Studying: Flow. Retrieved November 20, 2016, from http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/how-to-enjoy-studying-flow/ Strategy List: 35 Dimensions of Critical Thought. (n.d.). Retrieved October 6, 2016, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/strategy-list-35-dimensions-of-criticalthought/466#s9 Strauss, V. (2017, September 18). Analysis | Where have all the teachers gone? Retrieved January 13, 2018, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answersheet/wp/2017/09/18/where-have-all-the-teachers-gone/?utm_term=.6dc24402436b Strauss, V. (2017, September 18). Analysis | Where have all the teachers gone? Retrieved January 17, 2018, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answersheet/wp/2017/09/18/where-have-all-the-teachers-gone/?utm_term=.a2a0d656c97b


143

Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. (2016, September 15). A Coming Crisis in Teaching? Teacher Supply, Demand, and Shortages in the U.S.Brief. Retrieved January 15, 2018, from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/coming-crisis-teaching Sztabnik, B. (2015, August 12). A New Pathway: Teacherpreneurs [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://sharemylesson.com/blog/new-pathway-teacherpreneurs T. (n.d.). A Nation at Risk (USA, US Department of Education, Secretary of Education). Retrieved August 26, 2016, from https://www2.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/risk.html Tashakkori, A., Teddlie, C., & Sines, M. C. (2012). Utilizing Mixed Methods in Psychological Research. Handbook of Psychology, Second Edition, 2. doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop202015 Tatlow, D. K. (2014, September 14). Q. and A.: Yong Zhao on Education and Authoritarianism in China [Web log post]. Retrieved August 26, 2016, from http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/09/14/q-and-a-yong-zhao-on-education-andauthoritarianism-in-china/?_r=0 Teacher quality and student achievement: Research review. (2005, November). Retrieved May 23, 2016, from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/MainMenu/Staffingstudents/Teacher-quality-and-student-achievement-At-a-glance/Teacherquality-and-student-achievement-Research-review.html Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2011). Development and Validation of the Job Crafting Scale, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2012-Feb. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 173186. Retrieved January 15, 2016, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ949608


144

Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2014). Job crafting and job performance: A longitudinal study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(6), 914-928. doi:10.1080/1359432x.2014.969245 Tims, M., Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2015, November 12). Job crafting and its relationship with person-job fit and meaningfulness: A three-wave study. Retrieved January 15, 2016, from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arnold_Bakker/publication/284786623_Job_craftin g_and_its_relationships_with_personjob_fit_and_meaningfulness_A_threewave_study/links/565ea3d808aefe619b272b5c.pdf?inViewer=0&pdfJsDownload=0&ori gin=publication_detail Tims, M., Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2015, November 12). Recent Journal of Vocational Behavior Articles. Retrieved February 24, 2016, from http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-vocational-behavior/recent-articles/ Tucker, M. S. (2011). Surpassing Shanghai: An agenda for American education built on the world's leading systems. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Tucker, P. D., & Stronge, J. H. (2004). Membership. Retrieved January 26, 2016, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104136/chapters/The-Power-of-an-EffectiveTeacher-and-Why-We-Should-Assess-It.aspx Uncertified Teachers and Teacher Vacancies by State. (2018). Retrieved March 26, 2018, from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/uncertified-teachers-and-teacher-vacancies-state#_edn5 USA, US Department of Education, Office of the Deputy Secretary. (2003). No child left behind: A toolkit for teachers (p. 5). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Education.


145

USA, US Department of Education, Secretary of Education. (2008, April). A Nation Accountable Twenty-five Years After a Nation at Risk. Retrieved August 21, 2016, from http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/accountable/accountable.pdf Use data to build better schools [Video file]. (2013, February). Retrieved November 02, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/andreas_schleicker Van Maele, D., & Van Houtte, M. (2015). Journal of Educational Administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 53(1), 93-115. Viadero, D. (2018, January 24). Teacher Recruitment and Retention: It's Complicated. Retrieved January 25, 2018, from https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2018/01/24/teachingshortages-many-answers-for-a-complex.html Vollmer, J. R. (2010). Schools cannot do it alone: Building public support for America's public schools (First ed.). Fairfield, IA: Enlightenment Press. Wadhwa, D. S., Verghese, M., Kowar, M. K., Sharma, S., & Wadhwa, D. S. (2011). IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT ON JOB SATISFACTION AND EMPLOYEE RETENTION – A STUDY ON TECHNICAL INSTITUTES OF CHHATTISGARH. © PRJ Publication, Http://www.prjpublication.com/IJHRMRD.asp IJHRMRD, 1(2), 01-09. Retrieved October 9, 2016, from http://www.prjpublication.com/IJHRMRD.asp Wagner, T. (2014). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools don't teach the new survival skills our children need--and what we can do about it. New York: Basic Books. Walter, L. (2011, April 19). Empower Your Employees and Gain Increased Productivity, Morale. Retrieved October 9, 2016, from http://ehstoday.com/safety/news/empoweremployees-gain-increased-productivity-morale-0419


146

Ward, S. C. (2015, April 7). Crisis in American education as teacher morale hits an all-time low. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from http://theconversation.com/crisis-in-american-educationas-teacher-morale-hits-an-all-time-low-39226 Watson, A. (2017, March 11). 5 ways to empower teachers to build a positive, innovative school culture. Retrieved March 16, 2018, from https://thecornerstoneforteachers.com/5-waysto-empower-teachers-to-build-a-positive-innovative-school-culture/ What is Linear Regression? (2017). Retrieved January 25, 2018, from http://www.statisticssolutions.com/what-is-linear-regression/ What Is Teacher Efficacy and How Leaders Can Improve It. (2018, January 03). Retrieved March 16, 2018, from https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/curriculum-teachingstrategies/improve-teacher-efficacy/ What it takes to be a great leader [Video file]. (2014, February). Retrieved November 2, 2015, from http://www.ted.com/speakers/roselinde_torres Wigmore, I. (2015, May). What is employee churn? - Definition from WhatIs.com. Retrieved November 29, 2016, from http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/employee-churn Wolpert-Gawron, H. (2015, May 27). The Era of the Teacherpreneur [Web log post]. Retrieved December 18, 2017, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/era-of-teacherpreneur-heatherwolpert-gawron Wolpert-Gawron, H. (2015, May 27). The Era of the Teacherpreneur [Web log post]. Retrieved September 30, 2015, from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/era-of-teacherpreneur-heatherwolpert-gawron Zakaras, A. (2013). A Liberal Pluralism: Isaiah Berlin and John Stuart Mill. The Review of Politics, 75(01), 69-96. doi:10.1017/s0034670512001325

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction Zhao, Y. (2009). Catching up or leading the way: American education in the age of globalization. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

147


148

Appendix A Examples of Teacherpreneurs- taken from the Center for Teacher Quality (CTQ) web site:

Noah Zeichner, I am a National Board-certified social studies teacher at Chief Sealth International School in Seattle, Washington. I work in a hybrid role, spending part of his day supporting international education in Seattle Public Schools. Ariel Sacks, is an 8th & 9th grade E/LA teacher. I've been teaching middle school English Language Arts in NYC public schools for 11 years. I'm all about implementing constructivist, developmentally meaningful curriculum and methods in classrooms with diverse learners. I'm the author of Whole Novels for the Whole Class: A Student Centered Approach, recently published through Jossey Bass: http://bit.ly/WholeNovels. I believe that we can only teach students to be critical thinkers if we, their teachers, are engaged in critical thinking and dialogue about our practices and their impact on students. After several years in the classroom, I realized that the field of teaching was not well set up to support critical thinking and collaboration among teachers. That's when I got involved with CTQ, where I've been able to take steps to envision and create the teaching profession we want and need. I was a co-author of Teaching 2030, where I helped to develop the concept of the teacherpreneur. I write regularly about teaching and education policy on my CTQ blog, On the Shoulders of Giants. Dave Orphal, just joined the Social Studies team at Northwood High in Pittsboro, North Carolina. He spent his last 7 years, teaching in Oakland, CA and the ten years prior to that teaching at a continuation school in Eureka, CA. He has traveled to Japan and Finland to talk with teachers about the future of education. Dave has served on numerous local, state-wide, and


149

national think-tanks on education policy. He writes about policy and his own classroom practice at "After the Bell" on the Center for Teaching Quality's Collabatory. Trisha Ebner, I teach gifted and talented middle school students in an ELA-based program in northeast Ohio. I am also a member of Ohio's PARCC Educator Leader Cadre, National Board Certified in early adolescent ELA, and a Core Advocate. I am very interested in leading from the classroom.

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction Appendix B Quantitative Measurement Tools and Permissions for Use School Participant Empowerment Scale (SPES) School Participant Empowerment Scale Please rate the following statements in terms of how well they describe how you feel. Rate each statement on the following scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree 1. I am given the responsibility to monitor programs. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I function in a professional environment. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I believe that I have earned respect. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I believe that I am helping kids become independent learners. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I have control over daily schedules. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I believe that I have the ability to get things done. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I make decisions about the implementation of new programs in the school. 1 2 3 4 5 8. I am treated as a professional. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I believe that I am very effective. 1 2 3 4 5 10. I believe that I am empowering students. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I am able to teach as I choose. 1 2 3 4 5 12. I participate in staff development. 1 2 3 4 5 13. I make decisions about the selection of other teachers for my school. 1 2 3 4 5

150

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction 14. I have the opportunity for professional growth. 1 2 3 4 5 15. I have the respect of my colleagues. 1 2 3 4 5 16. I feel that I am involved in an important program for children. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I have the freedom to make decisions on what is taught. 1 2 3 4 5 18. I believe that I am having an impact. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I am involved in school budget decisions. 1 2 3 4 5 20. I work at a school where kids come first. 1 2 3 4 5 21. I have the support of my colleagues. 1 2 3 4 5 22. I see students learn. 1 2 3 4 5 23. I make decisions about curriculum. 1 2 3 4 5 24. I am a decision maker. 1 2 3 4 5 25. I am given the opportunity to teach other teachers. 1 2 3 4 5 26. I am given the opportunity to continue learning. 1 2 3 4 5 27. I have a strong knowledge base in the areas in which I teach. 1 2 3 4 5 28. I believe that I have the opportunity to grow by working daily with students. 1 2 3 4 5 29. I perceive that I have the opportunity to influence others. 1 2 3 4 5 30. I can determine my own schedule. 1 2 3 4 5 31. I have the opportunity to collaborate with other teachers in my school. 1 2 3 4 5 32. I perceive that I am making a difference. 1 2 3 4 5 33. Principals, other teachers, and school personnel solicit my advice. 1 2 3 4 5 34. I believe that I am good at what I do. 1 2 3 4 5 35. I can plan my own schedule. 1 2 3 4 5 36. I perceive that I have an impact on other teachers and students. 1 2 3 4 5

151


152

37. My advice is solicited by others. 1 2 3 4 5 38. I have the opportunity to teach other teachers about innovative ideas. 1 2 3 4 5 Copyright 1992, Paula M. Short and James S. Rinehart. Reprinted with permission. University of Houston Houston, TX 77204-5023 [email protected] Cheri: You have permission to use the SPES in your dissertation research. Please note it is copyrighted and that must be acknowledged in all publications and presentations resulting from your study. I have attached the scale which is to be used as presented. Please provide me with a summary of your study results. Best wishes and let me know if I can help further. Paula

Wording and categories for the job crafting scale using a 4-point rating

Increasing structural job resources 1 I try to develop my capabilities 2 I try to develop myself professionally 3 I try to learn new things at work 4 I make sure that I use my capacities to the fullest 5 I decide on my own how I do things Decreasing hindering job demands 6 I make sure that my work is mentally less intense 7 I try to ensure that my work is emotionally less intense


153

8 I manage my work so that I try to minimize contact with people whose problems affect me emotionally 9 I organize my work so as to minimize contact with people whose expectations are unrealistic 10 I try to ensure that I do not have to make many difficult decisions at work 11 I organize my work in such a way to make sure that I do not have to concentrate for too long a period at once Increasing social job resources 12 I ask my supervisor to coach me 13 I ask whether my supervisor is satisfied with my work 14 I look to my supervisor for inspiration 15 I ask others for feedback on my job performance 16 I ask colleagues for advice Increasing challenging job demands 17 When an interesting project comes along, I offer myself proactively as project co-worker 18 If there are new developments, I am one of the first to learn about them and try them out 19 When there is not much to do at work, I see it as a chance to start new projects 20 I regularly take on extra tasks even though I do not receive extra salary for them 21 I try to make my work more challenging by examining the underlying relationships between aspects of my job

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction From: A.B. Bakker [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: Thursday, February 04, 2016 3:42 AM To: 'Cheri L.McManus' Subject: RE: Contact form for Arnold Bakker

Dear Cheri, You have my permission to use the JCS, good luck! Kind regards, Vriendelijke groet, Arnold Latest papers on strengths use and job crafting: http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/8m2ctQaRiHdwIaNKX4pk/full http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/6CgarbEBuhBMeunUjT7f/full

Prof. Dr. Arnold B. Bakker Center of Excellence for Positive Organizational Psychology Erasmus University Rotterdam Past President EAWOP

Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale Ho & Au (2006)

The Teacher Satisfaction Scale is used to measure overall satisfaction with one’s career

154

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction as a teacher. Please answer all of the following questions using this guide: 1= strongly disagree, 2= somewhat disagree, 3= neither disagree/agree, 4= somewhat agree, and 5= strongly agree. 1. In most ways, being a teacher is close to my ideal. 1 2 3 4 5 2. My working conditions as a teacher are excellent. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I am satisfied with being a teacher. 1 2 3 4 5 4. So far I have gotten the important things I want 1 2 3 4 5 from being a teacher. 5. If I could choose my career over, I would change 1 2 3 4 5 almost nothing.

Mcmanus, Cheri Re: Permission to use the Teacher Satisfaction Survey (TSS) Mon 9/26/2016 7:27 AM Thank you so much! Cheri

winton au Sun 9/25/2016 10:28 PM Yes, please go ahead. All the best in your research! REPLY REPLY ALL FORWARD CONTINUE EDITING DISCARD Mcmanus, Cheri

155


156

Sat 9/24/2016 6:51 PM Sent Items To: [email protected]; ... Hello Dr. Au,

I am a doctoral student at New England College in Henniker NH, USA conducting research on teacher empowerment, job crafting and teacher satisfaction. I wish to use the TSS to gather data and I am requesting permission for this use.

Thank you for your consideration, Cheri McManus

Intent to Leave Scale


157

Cheri

Thanks for your email. No problem in using the ILS scale. The one used in our studies are at the end of the attached article. They originally were used by Tate and Whatley and their paper is listed in the references.

I see from your email that you are in New Hampshire. I was there until Wednesday in a place called Lyme visiting my daughter who lives there with her husband who is at Dartmouth.

Good luck with your study. It sounds interesting. Best wishes David

David Mellor Professor of Psychology Associate Dean (International) Faculty of Health Deakin University Email: [email protected] Telephone: +61 3 92443742

School Participant Empowerment Scale (Copyright 1992 Paula M. Short and James S. Rinehart)


158

Please rate the following statements in terms of how well they describe how you feel. Rate each statement on the following scale:

1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree

1) I am given the responsibility to monitor programs. 2) I function in a professional environment. 3) I believe that I have earned respect.

12345

12345

12345

4) I believe that I am helping kids become independent learners. 5) I have control over daily schedules.

12345

12345

6) I believe that I have the ability to get things done.

12345

7) I make decisions about the implementation of new programs in the school. 1 2 3 4 5 8) I am treated as a professional.

12345

9) I believe that I am very effective.

12345

10) I believe that I am empowering students. 11) I am able to teach as I choose.

12345

12345

12) I participate in staff development.

12345

13) I make decisions about the selection of other teachers for my school. 1 2 3 4 5 14) I have the opportunity for professional growth. 15) I have the respect of my colleagues.

12345

12345

16) I feel that I am involved in an important program for children. 17) I have the freedom to make decisions on what is taught. 18) I believe that I am having an impact.

12345

12345

12345

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction 19) I am involved in school budget decisions.

12345

20) I work at a school where kids come first.

12345

21) I have the support of my colleagues. 22) I see students learn.

12345

12345

23) I make decisions about curriculum. 24) I am a decision maker.

159

12345

12345

25) I am given the opportunity to teach other teachers. 26) I am given the opportunity to continue learning.

12345 12345

27) I have a strong knowledge base in the areas in which I teach.

12345

28) I believe that I have the opportunity to grow by working daily with students. 1 2 3 4 5 29) I perceive that I have the opportunity to influence others. 30) I can determine my own schedule.

12345

12345

31) I have the opportunity to collaborate with other teachers in my school. 1 2 3 4 5 32) I perceive that I am making a difference.

12345

33) Principals, other teachers, and school personnel solicit my advice. 1 2 3 4 5 34) I believe that I am good at what I do. 35) I can plan my own schedule.

12345

12345

36) I perceive that I have an impact on other teachers and students. 37) My advice is solicited by others.

12345

12345

38) I have the opportunity to teach other teachers about innovative ideas. 1 2 3 4 5

Subscale Items Decision making 1, 7, 13, 19, 25, 30, 33, 35, 37, 38


160

Professional Growth 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, 31 Status 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, 34 Self Efficacy 4, 10, 16, 22, 28, 32 Autonomy 5, 11, 17, 23 Impact 6, 12, 18, 24, 29, 36

Calculate the mean for each subscale by totaling circled responses for items in a subscale and divide by the number of items in the subscale.

Paula Myrick Short, Ph.D. Theresa M. Monaco Chair Senior Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs, UH System Senior Vice President and Provost, UH Director, NSF Center for ADVANCING UH Faculty Success 203 Ezekiel W.Cullen

University of Houston Houston, TX 77204-5023 [email protected] Cheri:

You have permission to use the SPES in your dissertation research. Please note it is copyrighted and that must be acknowledged in all publications and presentations


161

resulting from your study. I have attached the scale which is to be used as presented. Please provide me with a summary of your study results.

Best wishes and let me know if I can help further.

Paula

Work Related Flow Inventory The following statements refer to the way in which you experienced your work during the last two weeks. Please indicate how often you experienced each of the statements. (1 = never, 2 = almost never, 3 = sometimes, 4 = regularly, 5 = often, 6 = very often, 7 = always). Absorption 1. When I am working, I think about nothing else 2. I get carried away by my work 3. When I am working, I forget everything else around me 4. I am totally immersed in my work Work Enjoyment 5. My work gives me a good feeling 6. I do my work with a lot of enjoyment 7. I feel happy during my work 8. I feel cheerful when I am working


162

Intrinsic Work Motivation

9. I would still do this work, even if I received less pay 10. I find that I also want to work in my free time 11. I work because I enjoy it 12. When I am working on something, I am doing it for myself 13. I get my motivation from the work itself, and not from the reward for it From: Cheri L. McManus [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: 04 February 2016 2:35 AM To: Arnold Bakker Subject: Contact form for Arnold Bakker

www.arnoldbakker.com www.profarnoldbakker.com

You have my permission, best Arnold Bakker

Verstuurd vanaf mijn iPhone

Op 9 okt. 2016 om 20:42 heeft Cheri het volgende geschreven: Hello Dr. Bakker, As I finalize my dissertation proposal I am seeking permission to use your WOrk-reLated Flow inventory (WOLF) in my study. I will be exploring the impact of School Participant


163

Empowerment (using the School Participant Empowerment Scale) and Job Crafting (using the Job Crafting Scale, which you have granted me permission to use) on Teacher Job Satisfaction, as measured by Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale and either the Dispositional Flow State Scale or your WOLF and the Intent to Leave Scale. Thank you for your consideration, Cheri McManus New England College Henniker, NH

Appendix C INFORMED CONSENT

Title of Research Project:

Teacher Career Satisfaction

Principal Investigator:

Cheri McManus

Sponsor:

School of Education/New England College

Introduction:

You are invited to participate in a research study examining elements of teacher career satisfaction because you are a teacher.


164

This study is being conducted by Cheri McManus, a doctoral candidate at New England College in the Department of Education for the purpose of a dissertation inquiry. Purpose of the Study:

The purpose of this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge

regarding teacher career satisfaction. This knowledge can be utilized by human resource departments to potentially redesign public educator teaching positions and roles to better engage teachers and increase the likelihood of their retention. Participant Inclusion:

Public school teachers will encompass the majority of the subjects for this study however invitations will also be extended to some teachers teaching in alternate settings, such as private and charter schools.

Number of Participants:

At least 60 participants will be the target number for this study

Study Procedures:

There will be a brief demographic survey at the followed by a multiple choice survey. The questions will cover topics relative to teacherpreneurism and career satisfaction. The questionnaire will take

about 20 minutes to complete. Risks:

There are no known risks if you decide to participate in this research study.

Benefits:

The information collected may not benefit you directly, but the information learned in this study should provide general benefits

Costs:

There are no costs for participating in this study, other than your time.

Compensation:

There is no compensation for participating in this study.

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction Right to Withdraw:

165

You may discontinue your participation in this study at any time without penalty or prejudice. Previously collected data from you will be destroyed.

Confidentiality:

The survey is anonymous. You will not write your name on the survey. Should you agree to participate an identification number and password will be emailed to you to access the questionnaire and ensure your anonymity. The survey tool collector will not be granted permission by this researcher to access your IP address. No one will be able to identify you or your answers, and no one will know whether or not you participated in the study. It should be noted however that absolute anonymity cannot be guaranteed over the internet. Individuals from New England College’s Institutional Review Board may inspect these records. Should the data be published, no individual information will be disclosed.

Contact Information:

You may contact Cheri McManus, the investigator in charge of this study, at (603)746-2174 or via email at [email protected], for more information about this study. If you have questions about your rights as a participant in a research study you should contact Dr. William Preble, Education Professor, at [email protected].

Statement of Consent:

You have been given and have read or have had read to you a summary of this research study. Should you have any further questions about the research, you may contact the person conducting the study at the address and telephone number given below. Your participation is voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw at any time without penalty or prejudice.


166

You agree to participate in this study and you understand that you will receive a signed copy of this form.

This form is valid only if New England College, Institutional Review Board, approval is shown below.

__________________________________ Subject

_______________________ Date

______________________________________ Name of Subject Printed

____________________________________ ___________________________ Signature of Principal Investigator

Date

______________________________________ _________________________ Name of Principal Investigator Printed

Name of Principal Investigator: Cheri McManus Address: 67 Galloping Hill Rd, Hopkinton, NH 03229 Telephone Number: 603-746-2174 Email: [email protected]

Date

Signature of


167

Appendix D Introduction to Pearson Correlation Bivariate Analysis of field test data. A Pearson Correlation Analysis was conducted between teacherpreneurism and teacher career satisfaction, the composite of teacher job satisfaction, work related flow, and intent to stay. Cohen's d standard was used to evaluate the strength of the relationship, where coefficients between .10 and .29 represent a small effect size, coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a moderate effect size, and coefficients above .50 indicate a large effect size (Cohen, 1988).


168

Results. There were no significant correlations between any pairs of variables. Table 1 presents the results of the correlation. Table 2 Pearson Correlation Matrix between Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Career Satisfaction Variable 1. Te Teacherpreneurism 2. Te Teacher Career Satisfaction

1

2

0.14

-

Note. The critical values are 0.41, 0.53, and 0.64 for significance levels .05, .01, and .001 respectively. Introduction to Pearson Correlation Analysis of field test for composite variables. A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted among teacherpreneurism, teacher job satisfaction, work related flow, and intent to stay. Cohen's d standard was used to evaluate the strength of the relationships, where coefficients between .10 and .29 represent a small effect size, coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a moderate effect size, and coefficients above .50 indicate a large effect size (Cohen, 1988). Results. There was a significant positive correlation between teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay (rp = 0.79, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between teacher job satisfaction and intent to stay was 0.79 indicating a large effect size. This indicates that as teacher job satisfaction increases, intent to stay tends to increase. There was a significant positive correlation between teacher job satisfaction and work related flow (rp = 0.83, p < .001). The correlation coefficient between teacher job satisfaction and work related flow was 0.83, indicating a large effect size. This indicates that as teacher job satisfaction increases, work related flow tends to increase. There was a significant positive correlation between intent to stay and work related


169

flow (rp = 0.58, p = .002). The correlation coefficient between intent to stay and work related flow was 0.58 indicating a large effect size. This indicates that as intent to stay increases, work related flow tends to increase. Table 1 presents the results of the correlations. Table 3 Pearson Correlation Matrix among Teacherpreneurism, Teacher Job Satisfaction, Intent to Stay, and Work Related Flow Vari

Variable 1.Teacherpreneurism

1

2

3

4

-

2. Teacher Job -0.14

-

-0.11

0.79

-

-0.01

0.83

0.58

Satisfaction

3. Int 3. Intent to Stay

4.Work Related Flow -

Note. The critical values are 0.39, 0.50, and 0.61 for significance levels .05, .01, and .001 respectively. Introduction to linear regression analysis of field test for teacherpreneurism and job satisfaction. A linear regression analysis was conducted to assess whether teacherpreneurism significantly predicted teacher job satisfaction. The 'Enter' variable selection method was chosen for the linear regression model, which includes all of the selected predictors.


170

Results. The results of the linear regression model were not significant, F(1,24) = 0.51, p = .482, R2 = 0.02, indicating teacherpreneurism did not explain a significant proportion of variation in teacher job satisfaction. Since the overall model was not significant, the individual predictors were not examined further. Table 4 summarizes the results of the regression model. Table 4 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher Job Satisfaction Var

Variable

B

SE

β

95% CI

t

p

[1.96, (Intercept)

3.84

0.91

0.00

4.23

-0.14

-0.71

5.71] Teacherpreneuris

[-1.10, -0.28

0.40

m

.482

0.54]

Note. Results: F(1,24) = 0.51, p = .482, R2 = 0.02 Unstandardized Regression Equation: Teacher Job Satisfaction = 3.84 - 0.28*Teacherpreneurism Introduction to linear regression analysis of field test for teacherpreneurism and intent to stay. A linear regression analysis was conducted to assess whether teacherpreneurism significantly predicted intent to stay. The 'Enter' variable selection method was chosen for the linear regression model, which includes all of the selected predictors. Results. The results of the linear regression model were not significant, F(1,24) = 0.31, p = .583, R2 = 0.01, indicating teacherpreneuriem did not explain a significant proportion of variation in intent to stay. Since the overall model was not significant, the individual predictors were not examined further. Table 5 summarizes the results of the regression model. Table 5 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent to Stay

Teacherpreneurism: Impact on Teachers’ Career Satisfaction Variable

B

SE

171 β

95% CI

t

p

[1.52, (Intercept)

3.80

1.11

0.00

3.43

.002

-0.11

-0.56

.583

6.09] [-1.27, Teacherpreneurism

-0.27

0.48 0.73]

Note. Results: F(1,24) = 0.31, p = .583, R2 = 0.01 Unstandardized Regression Equation: Intent to Stay = 3.80 -0.27*Teacherpreneurism Introduction to linear regression of field test for teacherpreneurism and work related flow. A linear regression analysis was conducted to assess whether teacherpreneurism significantly predicted work related flow. The 'Enter' variable selection method was chosen for the linear regression model, which includes all of the selected predictors. Results. The results of the linear regression model were not significant, F(1,24) = 0.00, p = .973, R2 = 0.00, indicating teacherpreneurism did not explain a significant proportion of variation in work related flow. Since the overall model was not significant, the individual predictors were not examined further. Table 6 summarizes the results of the regression model. Table 6 Results for Linear Regression with Teacherpreneurism predicting Work Related Flow Vari Variable

B

(Intercept)

3.47

Teachepreneuri

-0.01

SE 0.85

β

95% CI [1.71, 5.23]

t

0.00

4.07

-0.01

-0.03

p

Tea [-0.78, 0.37 0.76] sm

.973


172

Note. Results: F(1,24) = 0.00, p = .973, R2 = 0.00 Unstandardized Regression Equation: Work Related Flow = 3.47 - 0.01*Teacherpreneurism Assumptions from Quantitative Analysis Pearson Correlation Bivariate Analysis of Field Test Assumptions. A Pearson correlation requires that the relationship between each pair of variables is linear (Conover & Iman, 1981). This assumption is violated if there is curvature among the points on the scatterplot between any pair of variables. Figure 1 presents the scatterplot of the correlation.

Figure 3. Scatterplot between TeacherPreneurism and TeacherCareerSatisfaction. Pearson Correlation of Teacherpreneurism and 3 composite factors that make up Teacher Career Satisfaction for Field Test Assumptions. A Pearson correlation requires that the relationship between each pair of variables is linear (Conover & Iman, 1981). This assumption is violated if there is


173

curvature among the points on the scatterplot between any pair of variables. Figure 1 presents the scatterplot matrix of the correlations.

Figure 4. Scatterplot matrix among Teacherpreneurism, Teacher_Job_Satisfaction, Intent_to_Leave_Inverted, and Work_Related_Flow. Linear Regression Analysis of Field Test for Teacherpreneurism and Intent to Leave Inverted Assumptions. Prior to conducting the linear regression, the assumptions of normality of residuals, homoscedasticity (equal variance) of residuals, and the lack of outliers were examined. A Q-Q scatterplot was used to assess normality, homoscedasticity was assessed with a residuals scatterplot, and outliers were evaluated using a Studentized residuals plot. Normality. Normality was evaluated using a Shapiro-Wilk test and a Q-Q scatterplot. The results of the Shapiro-Wilk test were not significant, W = 0.92, p = .057, indicating the assumption of normality was met. The normality assumption was also assessed visually with a Q-Q scatterplot.


174

The Q-Q scatterplot compares the distribution of the residuals (the differences between observed and predicted values) with a normal distribution (a theoretical distribution which follows a bell curve). The Q-Q scatterplot for normality is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 5. Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted Homoscedasticity. Homoscedasticity was evaluated for each model by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 4 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


175

Figure 6. Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted Outliers. To identify influential points, Studentized residuals were calculated and the absolute values were plotted against the observation numbers. An observation with a Studentized residual greater than three in absolute value has significant influence on the results of the model. Figure 5 presents a Studentized residuals plot of the observations. Observation numbers are specified next to each point with a Studentized residual greater than three.


176

Figure 7. Studentized residuals plot for outlier detection. Linear Regression Analysis of Field Test for Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Job Satisfaction Assumptions. Prior to conducting the linear regression, the assumptions of normality of residuals, homoscedasticity (equal variance) of residuals, and the lack of outliers were examined. A Q-Q scatterplot was used to assess normality, homoscedasticity was assessed with a residuals scatterplot, and outliers were evaluated using a Studentized residuals plot. Normality. Normality was evaluated using a Shapiro-Wilk test and a Q-Q scatterplot. The results of the Shapiro-Wilk test were significant, W = 0.92, p = .042, indicating the assumption of normality was violated. The normality assumption was also assessed visually with a Q-Q scatterplot. The Q-Q scatterplot compares the distribution of the residuals (the differences between observed and predicted values) with a normal distribution (a theoretical distribution which follows a bell curve). The Q-Q scatterplot for normality is presented in Figure 6.


177

Figure 8 Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction Homoscedasticity. Homoscedasticity was evaluated for each model by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 7 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


178

Figure 9. Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction Outliers. To identify influential points, Studentized residuals were calculated and the absolute values were plotted against the observation numbers. An observation with a Studentized residual greater than three in absolute value has significant influence on the results of the model. Figure 8 presents a Studentized residuals plot of the observations. Observation numbers are specified next to each point with a Studentized residual greater than three.


179

Figure 10. Studentized residuals plot for outlier detection. Linear Regression Analysis for Field Test of Teacherpreneurism and Work Related Flow Assumptions. Prior to conducting the linear regression, the assumptions of normality of residuals, homoscedasticity (equal variance) of residuals, and the lack of outliers were examined. A Q-Q scatterplot was used to assess normality, homoscedasticity was assessed with a residuals scatterplot, and outliers were evaluated using a Studentized residuals plot. Normality. Normality was evaluated using a Shapiro-Wilk test and a Q-Q scatterplot. The results of the Shapiro-Wilk test were significant, W = 0.77, p < .001, indicating the assumption of normality was violated. The normality assumption was also assessed visually with a Q-Q scatterplot. The Q-Q scatterplot compares the distribution of the residuals (the differences between observed and predicted values) with a normal distribution (a theoretical distribution which follows a bell curve). The Q-Q scatterplot for normality is presented in Figure 9.


180

Figure11. Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow Homoscedasticity. Homoscedasticity was evaluated for each model by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 10 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


181

Figure 12. Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow Outliers. To identify influential points, Studentized residuals were calculated and the absolute values were plotted against the observation numbers. An observation with a Studentized residual greater than three in absolute value has significant influence on the results of the model. Figure 11 presents a Studentized residuals plot of the observations. Observation numbers are specified next to each point with a Studentized residual greater than three.


182

Figure 13. Studentized residuals plot for outlier detection. Pearson Correlation Analysis of Study Survey Assumptions. A Pearson correlation requires that the relationship between each pair of variables is linear (Conover & Iman, 1981). This assumption is violated if there is curvature among the points on the scatterplot between any pair of variables. Figure 1 presents the scatterplot of the correlation.


183

Figure 14. Scatterplot between Teacherpreneurism and Teacher_Career_Satisfaction. Linear Regression Analysis of Survey Study for Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Career Satisfaction Assumptions. Prior to the conducting the linear regression, the assumption of normality and homoscedasticity were tested. Normality. The assumption of normality was assessed by plotting the quantiles of the model residuals against the quantiles of a Chi-square distribution, also called a Q-Q scatterplot (DeCarlo, 1997). For the assumption of normality to be met, the data points must follow a relatively straight line. Data points that are far from the diagonal suggest that normality should not be assumed. Figure 3 presents a Q-Q scatterplot of the model residuals.


184

Figure 15. Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Career_Satisfaction Homoscedasticity. The assumption of homoscedasticity was assessed by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 4 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


185

Figure 16. Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Career_Satisfaction Pearson Correlation Analysis of Survey Study for 3 composite factors of the independent variable and the single dependent variable Assumptions. A Pearson correlation requires that the relationship between each pair of variables is linear (Conover & Iman, 1981). This assumption is violated if there is curvature among the points on the scatterplot between any pair of variables. Figure 3 presents the scatterplot matrix of the correlations.


186

Figure 17. Scatterplot matrix among TeacherPreneurism, Teacher_Job_Satisfaction, Intent_to_Leave_Inverted, and Work_Related_Flow. Linear Analysis of Study Survey for Teacherpreneurism and Teacher Job Satisfaction Assumptions. Prior to the conducting the linear regression, the assumption of normality and homoscedasticity were tested. Normality. The assumption of normality was assessed by plotting the quantiles of the model residuals against the quantiles of a Chi-square distribution, also called a Q-Q scatterplot (DeCarlo, 1997). For the assumption of normality to be met, the data points must follow a relatively straight line. Data points that are far from the diagonal suggest that normality should


187

not be assumed. Figure 3 presents a Q-Q scatterplot of the model residuals.

Figure 18. Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction Homoscedasticity. The assumption of homoscedasticity was assessed by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 4 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


188

Figure 19. Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Teacher_Job_Satisfaction Linear Regression of Study Survey for Teacherpreneurism and Intent to Leave Inverted Assumptions. Prior to the conducting the linear regression, the assumption of normality and homoscedasticity were tested. Normality. The assumption of normality was assessed by plotting the quantiles of the model residuals against the quantiles of a Chi-square distribution, also called a Q-Q scatterplot (DeCarlo, 1997). For the assumption of normality to be met, the data points must follow a relatively straight line. Data points that are far from the diagonal suggest that normality should not be assumed. Figure 5 presents a Q-Q scatterplot of the model residuals.


189

Figure 20. Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted Homoscedasticity. The assumption of homoscedasticity was assessed by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 6 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


190

Figure 21. Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Intent_to_Leave_Inverted Linear Regression of Study Survey for Teacherpreneurism and Work Related Flow Assumptions. Prior to the conducting the linear regression, the assumption of normality and homoscedasticity were tested. Normality. The assumption of normality was assessed by plotting the quantiles of the model residuals against the quantiles of a Chi-square distribution, also called a Q-Q scatterplot (DeCarlo, 1997). For the assumption of normality to be met, the data points must follow a relatively straight line. Data points that are far from the diagonal suggest that normality should not be assumed. Figure 7 presents a Q-Q scatterplot of the model residuals.


191

Figure 22. Q-Q scatterplot for normality for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow Homoscedasticity. The assumption of homoscedasticity was assessed by plotting the model residuals against the predicted model values (Osborne & Walters, 2002). The assumption is met if the points appear randomly distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. Figure 8 presents a scatterplot of predicted values and model residuals.


Figure 23: Residuals scatterplot for homoscedasticity for Teacherpreneurism predicting Work_Related_Flow

192