TEACHERS' INSTRUCTIONAL VARIABLES IN

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tive (Werner & Rink, 1989). Descriptions of students' learning in physical education have tended to concentrate upon two concerns, one being what students areĀ ...
Perceptnal andMotor SkilLr, 1993,76, 1015-1024. O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1993

TEACHERS' INSTRUCTIONAL VARIABLES IN VOLLEYBALL A N D STUDENTS' IMPROVEMENT I N MOTOR SKILL 'I'

J. LEN GUSTHART AND I. W. KELLY University of Saskatchewan Summary.-The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between teacher-related process variables as defined by the Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale and students' learning of three volleyball skills. Teachers of nine classes and 222 students were the subjects. Students were pretested and posttested on the forearm pass, underhand serve, and overhand pass. Aggregate motor scores (summed residuals) were established. Between the testing periods the students received eight lessons in the skills from their regular physical education teachers. All instruction was videotaped and later analyzed. Instructional process was based upon teachers' performance on the scale. Relationships were found between teachers' performance and students' learning for the residual serve, residual forearm pass, and summed residual scores.

Recent research in teaching effectiveness in physical education has tended to focus upon questions related to what teachers d o during instruction or what students d o (Siedentop, 1771). Much of this research has been descriptive (Werner & Rink, 1989). Descriptions of students' learning in physical education have tended to concentrate upon two concerns, one being what students are doing or learning and the second being how much time students in physical education allocate to various events (Metzler, 1987). Productive descriptions of teaching with variables believed related to effectiveness of teaching have developed. Research on teachng has frequently focused on behaviours in the development of instructional content or on organizing and managing the learning environment (Rink, 1785). Fewer studies have attempted to integrate the questions of what students are doing and learning in physical education with teachers' behaviour during instruction (Gusthart & Sprigings, 1789; Silverman, 1790; Silverman, Tyson, & Morford, 1988). Careful investigation of instruction, including outcomes (or products) of instruction, may provide a more complete portrayal of instructional effectiveness in physical education. The primary aim of such instruction must be to contribute to students' psychomotor learning. An array of variables may be associated with learning (Bain, 1990) so effective instruction in physical education is both dynamic and complex. A variety of events and conditions are present simultaneously. To understand the dynamic nature of instruction it is important to make multidimensional assessments.

'This study was supported by grants from the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Fund :nd Research Initiative Grant, College of Physical Education, University of Saskatchewan. Address correspondence to J. Len Gusthart, College of Physical Education, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N OWO.

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A trend in the study of generic instruction in a variety of subject areas has been the process-product model (Shulman, 1986). Researchers have examined the relationships between various instructional behaviours (process variables) and students' achievement (products). The focus has been to estimate the effects of teachers' actions on students' learning. The approach is based on the assumption that differences in students' learning may be attributed to differences among teachers in how instructional steps are organized and presented. Studies in physical education with this approach have been restricted. Silverman (1988) initially developed a model for investigating certain selected presage and context variables with achievement in physical education. This introductory study identified positive relationships on characteristics of teachers (i.e., hours of playing volleyball and self-rating on rules/ strategies) with students' achievement. The study also identified relations between certain contextual variables (i.e., class size and gender) and achievement. I n further work Silverman (1990) noted appropriate trials on a psychornotor skill, certain styles of instruction, and class organization were positively related to students' achievement in physical education. Buck (1991) in a similar study of learning and achievement identified factors such as outside class participation and beginning skill level as variables related to achievement. Silverman, Tyson, and Krampitz (in press) showed that various process variables are interrelated and that no single variable should be considered in isolation from other factors. The researchers suggest that prescriptions for effective instruction in psychomotor skills be based on the complex nature of the task, not on a single dimension. The current study is a part of a multidimensional investigation of the correlates of students' motor sIull learning in physical education. A large data base of students' motor scores on volleyball skills (underhand serve, overhand pass, and forearm pass), instructors' characteristics, instructors' behaviour, and measures of context variables has been assembled for an extensive study of interrelationships. Preliminary analyses have focused on context and presage variables (Gusthart & Kelly, 1991; Gusthart, Kelly, & Tennant, 1991). This study, however, focuses on the instructional behaviour of the teachers in relation to eighth-grade students' learning of volleyball skills. The purposes were to (a) assess whether a large number of students' learned over an eight-lesson volleyball unit and (b) estimate the correlation between teachers' total scores on the Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale and measures of students' learning. - -

Variables The student-related variables were the volleyball motor skills of underhand serve, forearm pass, and overhand pass, and over-all aggregate motor

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score (summed residual score). The three separate skills reflect critical abilities which are developed and refined in the eighth-grade physical education program. These skills are required by the District Physical Education curriculum (Saskatoon Board of Education, 1988). These skills have also recently been the focus in similar studies (Buck, 1991; Gusthart & Gales-Sorge, 1990; Graham, 1987; Rink, Werner, Hohn, Ward, & Timmerman, 1986; Silverrnan, 1988, 1990; Silverman, et al., in press). A correlation analysis was conducted between the above student-related variables and teachers' total scores on the Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale. The total score was chosen as an independent variable rather than scores on the various subscales as they show high intercorrelations. The zero-order correlations between the six subscales of the Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale varied between - 0.375 to 0.927, and nine of the correlations in the matrix exceeded 0.525. If such subscales were used as independent variables in a multiple regression analysis, the resultant multicollinearity may make it difficult to separate out the effects of the variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989) and would produce unstable regression coefficients. Subjects Nine teachers from different schools and their intact classes of eighth grade students (N = 222) were the subjects. There were 110 boys and 112 girls. All schools were middle-class suburban and from the same school district in western Canada. The teachers were selected by the Research and Development Division of the local school board after consultation with the physical education consultant. The school district has established strict guidelines regarding research in the system, and these were met throughout the study. A requirement of the school system was that teachers be allowed to withdraw from any study. The project was explained to the teachers and their consent was obtained. Of 10 teachers originally nominated, nine agreed to participate in the study. One male teacher was uncomfortable with the project and withdrew at the beginning. It was made clear that the remaining teachers (8 men and 1 woman) could withdraw as the project developed, but none did. The teachers had from one to 27 years of teaching experience and ranged in age from 27 to 48 years. The physical education curriculum for the school jurisdiction was prescriptive and supervised by a physical education consultant in the central office. All teachers in the system are provided unit and lesson outlines, but individual teachers were free to follow or to modify the plan as the situation required. Students' Psychornotor Skill Testing Students were pretested and posttested on each of three volleyball s k d s . All three tests had previously been used in research with the eighth grade and were deemed valid and reliable (Gusthart & Kelly, 1991; Tennant,

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1989). An important consideration in the initial development of the motor skill test was that it measured skdl performance in conditions similar to those of game situations. Both the overhand and forearm passes required a specifically constructed apparatus designed to simulate elevated target areas experienced by volleyball participants. For the serve the actual court with target areas similar to those used in previous studies was utilized. A technical report with further detail on this instrument is avadable from the authors. An entire class period was required to administer the complete test. Students were transported to the university where the testing was conducted by a team of intervarsity volleyball players who were trained in test administration. Scheduling difficulties required that one school be tested in their home building, but this was in a facility similar to the university test station and university equipment was used.

Instruction Instruction in the three volleyball skills of the serve, forearm pass, and overhand pass took place during the regularly scheduled physical education periods and at the normal time in the yearly program. Classes received instruction in physical education either four or three times per week. Eight lessons were standard in the jurisdiction for the volleyball unit at Grade 8. Teachers were asked to follow their regular class format and to teach in a style consistent with past practice. They were also asked to teach specifically the three skills but were not directed in time allocation. All lessons were videotaped. Each teacher wore a cordless microphone to facilitate the videotaped recording. The videotaping was conducted by trained audiovisual technicians. A single camera was placed either on a stage or in a corner of the individual school gymnasium. The technicians were instructed to include all of the teachers' and the students' activity. A separate videomonitor was used to ensure that each lesson was taped and that no technical problems were evident. All 72 lessons were recorded.

Process Data The instrument used in analyzing the teachers' instructional behaviours was the Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale, developed by Rink and Werner (1989). The purpose of the scale is to describe qualitative aspects of teachers' behaviours and has been used in previous research (Werner & Rink, 1989; Gusthart & Sprigings, 1989). Fig. 1 indicates the categories included. The instrument has four sections on type of task, task presentation, students' response appropriate to task focus, and specific congruent feedback. The first section describes the nature of the movement task in terms of informing, refining, extending, and applying (Rink, 1985). The second portion relates to task presentation and focuses upon delivery of information by the teacher to students. There are five categories identified:

INSTRUCTIONAL VARIABLES I N VOLLEYBALL TASKPRESENTATION 1.

Clarity Teacher's verbal explanation/directions communicated a clear idea of what to do and how to do it. This judgement is confirmed on the basis of student movement responses to the presentation, and is relative to the situation. Students proceeded to work in a focused way on what the teacher Yes : asked them to do. Students exhibited confusion, questions, off-task behaviour, or lack of No: intent to deal with the specifics of the task.

2.

Demonstration Visual information modelling desired performance executed by teacher, smdent(s), and/or visual aids. Full model of the desired movement. Yes: Incomplete model of task performance exhibiting only part of the dePartial: sired movement. No attempt to model the movement task. No:

3.

Appropriate Number of Cues The degree to which the teacher presented sufficient information useful to the performance about the movement task without overloading the learner. Appropriate: Three or fewer new learning cues related to the performance of the movement task. Inappropriate: More than three new learning cues related to the performance of the movement, or none given when needed. None Given:

4.

No attempt at providing learning cues was given.

Accuracy of Cues The degree to which the information presented was technically correct and reflected accurate mechanical principles. AU information presented was correct. Accurate: O n e or more incidences of incorrect information. Inaccurate: None Given:

5.

No cues given.

Qualitative Cues Provided Verbal information provided to the learner on the process or mechanics of movement. Yes: Teacher's explanation or direction included at least one aspect of the process of performance. Teacher's explanation or direction included no information on the No: process of performance. Students' Responses

6.

Appropriate to the Focus The degree to which student responses reflected an intent to perform the task as stated by the teacher.

FIG. 1. Categories of the Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale (continued next page)

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All

One-No more than two students viewed on the screen exhibited inappropriate responses.

Partial

Two-Three or more students viewed on the screen exhibited inappropriate behaviour.

None

Three-No

students exhibited appropriate behaviour.

Specific Congruent Feedback The degree ro which teacher feedback during activity was congruent (matched) with the focus of the task. Yes: More than two incidences were evident of reacher feedback being congruent with the task. Partial: O n e or two incidences of congruent feedback were evident. No congruent feedback was given. No: FIG.1. (Cont'd) Categories of the Qualitarive Measures of Teacher Performance Scale

clarity (where a clear explanation of what and how to d o something is provided), demonstration (modehng desired performance by the teacher, students, or other aids), appropriateness of the number of cues (whether the teacher presents sufficient information useful in ~erformanceof the task), accuracy of cues (whether information was technically correct), quahtative cues (information ~ r o v i d e don the process or mechanics of movement). The third section of the instrument describes the extent to which students' responses reflect an intent to perform the task as stated by the teacher. The fourth portion of the instrument is devoted to the extent to which teachers' feedback during the activity was congruent with the focus of the task. Data for Parts Two through Four were recorded as frequency of occurrence and converted to percentage of total tasks in a lesson. Responses in the categories are summed and averaged to a total score. The descriptive data on task presentation for Part One of the scale were recorded but not reported in the current study because the information was qualitative and not related to the current question. Data collection.-Prior to lesson analysis the coders reviewed the instrument procedures and practice-coded on several videotaped lessons which were not part of the study. The ~rocedurecontinued until interobserver reliability for all categories of the instrument was found to be .94. Interobserver agreement (IOA) was estimated by percent of agreement (IOA = agreements/ [agreements + disagreements]) for quantifiable data. After training, two observers coded all of the tapes. During actual data collection, nine of the classes were randomly selected, and interobserver agreement checks were conducted. Each of the investigations indicated a .92 percent of agreement or higher. Data Analysis Achievement data.-To

assess whether learning had occurred, a depen-

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dent t test was calculated on raw mean pretest and posttest scores for the serve, forearm pass, and overhand pass. The student was considered the appropriate unit of analysis for achievement. Using the residual method reported by Silverman (1988), a residual score was also calculated for each student on all three of the motor skills for subsequent regression analyses. Residual scores were selected to account for variability of pretest scores. To estimate performance for the unit the residual scores for each of the skills were totalled for each student. The summed residual score and individual residual scores on the three skills were used for subsequent correlation analysis. Process data.-The videotapes were coded in random order. Scores from the Quahtative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale were converted to percentages. Scores on process variables were calculated for all lessons and averaged for each of the teachers to obtain descriptions of each teachers' instructional behaviour. The over-all score on the scale was then used as the subsequent unit of analysis. Relationship of process and achievement data.-A standard correlational analysis was conducted with the student-related variables of residual serve, residual forearm pass, residual overhand pass, summed residual scores, and the total scores for the teachers.

RESULTS

Achievement Data O n all three s k d s students made statistically significant gains on raw scores from pretest to posttest. Change was evident for the serve (t,,, = 4.84, p < .001), forearm pass (t,,, = 2.27, p = .01), and the overhand pass (t,,, = 5.74, p < ,001). The w2 values for the three tests were 0.09 for the serve, 0.01 for the forearm pass, and 0.11 for the overhand pass. This shows that learning occurred. However, these effect sizes, as measured by w 2 , would conventionally be considered small for the forearm pass and medium for the serve and overhand pass (Keppel, 1982, p. 72). For the serve the mean pretest score was 7.6 (SD = 2.3) and the mean posttest score was 8.9 (SD = 2.3). For the forearm pass test the mean pretest score was 1.4 (SD = 0.5) and the mean posttest score was 1.8 (SD = 0.6). The mean score on the pretest overhand pass was 5.2 ( S D = 1.0) and posttest score of 5.7 (SD = 0.8). These changes from pretest to posttest indicate that learning occurred for the 222 students.

Correlation With Achievement Table 1 displays the correlation matrix of the individual students' achievement variables with teachers' total performance scores. O n three of the four measures of volleyball outcome learning, the students' scores were related to teachers' performance on the scale. The teachers' total scores were positively related to students' learning for the serve, forearm pass, and summed residual score.

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TABLE I CORRELATION MATRIX FORACHIEVEMENT VARIABLES A N D T E A C ~ I ETOTAL R S ' SCORE (9 TEACHERS, 222 STUDENTS) Measure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1

2

3

4

0.162* 0.142" 0.026 0.195*

0.122 0.039 0.801

0.189 0.467

0.519t

5

Teachers' Total Score Residual Serve Residual Forearm Pass Residual Overhand Pass Summed Residual

DISCUSSION For a study of instructional effectiveness to have meaning some type of learning must be evident. The data of this study indicate that psychomotor learning inferred from change in performance scores did occur. The fact that teachers were able to improve students' performance in all three volleyball skills over a relatively short period of time is important. While the studknts' learning was not as substantial as in the original Silverman (1988) study, an additional skdl (overhand pass) was taught. Silverman reported students' improvement in two of the three skills (serve and forearm pass) of a volleyball unit of similar length. I t may well be that an increased number of lessons are required to fachtate similar learning of all three skills. The dominant purpose of this study was to examine whether teachers' total scores on the performance scale were related to students' achievement. In previous studies Gusthart and Kelly (1991; Gusthart, et a/., 1991) were unable to establish a positive relationship for teachers' motor skill, technical knowledge, and what teachers d o when giving instruction with students' achievement. However, when the students' residual serve, residual forearm pass, and summed residual scores were related to teachers' performance on the scale, significant positive associations were found. The teachers' total scores were indeed related to skillful volleyball performance by the students. More specifically, teachers' total higher scores were associated with better volleyball performance on the serve, forearm pass, and summed residual scores. Scores for the overhand pass fell short of significance but change was in the expected direction. This may be attributed to the difficulty of this skill for the eighth-grade students. I t may be that the overhand pass is the most difficult of the three skills to learn. I n addition, the relationships between teachers' total scores and students' volleyball performance were not strong. There may be several reasons why a stronger relationship might not have been observed. The study was conducted with novice volleyball students over a short eight-lesson unit which is standard in the local school jurisdiction. In addition, not all lessons were concentrated in time. In some in-

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stances the unit was completed in two weeks and in others the unit was spread over a three-week period. Where instruction is more concentrated, perhaps more learning might be expected. Support for this possibility is found in Silverman's (1988) study where instruction took place during seven successive school days. I t would also be interesting to repeat the study with older and more skillful students over a longer time. The use of a summed residual score as a composite indicator of students' performance over the unit was a unique aspect of the analysis. Such a combined assessment appears to give a reasonable estimate of students' psychomotor performance. The summed residual score should be used in other investigations. REFERENCES

B m , L. (1990) The impact and implication of research in teaching and teacher education in physical education. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Boston, MA. BUCK,M. (1991) An analysis of learning trials and their relationship to achievement in volleyball. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 10, 134-140. COHEN,J . (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. (2nd ed.) Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. GRAHAM, K. (1987) A description of academic work and student performance during a middle school volleyball unit. lournof of Teaching in Physical Education, 7, 2 2 - 3 7 . GUSTHART,J. L., & GALES-SORGE, H. (1990) Instructor behaviour and student achievement. In R. Telema & L. Laakso (Eds.), Physical education and life-long activity. Jyvaskyla, Finland: Jyvaskyla Press. Pp. 317-327. GUSTHART,J. L., & KELLY,I. W. (1991) Teachers' motor skills in volleyball and students' learning. Perceptual and Moror Skills, 72, 795-801. GUSTHART, J. L., KELLY, I. W., & TENNANT, M. (1991) Relationship of teachers' technical knowledge skill and students' learning on a volleyball unit. Perceptual and Motor Skilk, 73, 349-350. GUSTHART, J. L., & SPRIGINGS, E. (1989) Student learning as a measure of teacher effectiveness in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 298-311. KEPPEL,G. (1982) Design and analysis: a researcher> handbook. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. METZLER,M. (1989) A review of research on time in sport pedagogy. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 87-103. RINK,J. (1985) Teaching physical education for learning. St. Louis, MO: Mosby. RINK,J., & WERNER,I? (1989) Qualitative Measures of Teacher Performance Scale. In P. Darst, D. Zakrajsek, & P. Mancine (Eds.), Analyzing physical and sport inshuction. (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pp. 269-276. RINK,J., WERNER, P., HOHN,R., WARD,D., & TIMMERMAN, H. (1986) Differential effects of three teachers over a unit of instruction. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 47, 132-138. SASKATOON BOARDOF EDUCATION. (1988) Physical Education Resource Manual Grade 7 & 8. Saskatoon Public School Board, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. SHULMAN, L. S. (1986) Paradtgms and research in the study of teaching: a contem orary perspective. In M. C. Witrrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching. ( 3 J e d . ) New York: Macmillan. Pp. 3-39. SIEDENTOP, D. (1991) Developing teaching skilk in physical education. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. SILVERMAN, S. (1988) Relationship of selected presage and context variables to achievement. Reseorl h Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59, 35-40.

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S. (1990) Linear and curvilinear relationships between student practice and achieveSILVERMAN, ment in physical education. Teaching 6 Teacher Education, 6 , 305-314. SLLVERMAN, S., TYSON,L., & KRAMPITZ,J. (in press) Teacher feedback and achievement in physical education. Teaching and Teacher Education. SLLVERMAN, S., TYSON,L. A , , & MORFORD,M. (1988) Relationship of organization, time and student achievement in physical education. Teaching fi Teacher Education, 4 , 247-257. TABACHNICK, B., & FIDELL,L. (1989) Using multivariate statistics. (2nd ed.) New York: Harper a! Row. TENNANT, M. (1989) Develo menr of a volleyball skills test. (Unpublished manuscript, Univer. of Saskatchewan, ~oU&e of Physical Education) \WERNER, P., & RINK,J. (1989) Case studies of teacher effectiveness in second grade physical education. Journal o/ Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 280-297. Accepted March 12, 1993.