teaching history, culture and evolution of human

ITPI JOURNAL 4 : 3 (2007) 67 - 72

I T P I JOURNAL www.itpi.org.in

TEACHING HISTORY, CULTURE AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS MAHENDRA SETHI

School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi

ABSTRACT In last few centuries cities have transformed abruptly and attempts to reconcile with changing times have been very much mechanical and insensitive to the pattern of human evolution. Thus, the technology driven modern approach to planning has failed as it is unable to correlate to the dynamics of the city and its people. Therefore, it is essential to make planning process more interactive and understanding - in accordance to the behavioral attitudes of the society and its evolutionary trends, these trends are codified as cultural patterns in the history of human settlements. They are rational and time tested but none the less subtle and intuitive. Author therefore suggests to acquaint the upcoming breed of planners to the subjects of culture, settlements and evolution through active and participatory learning.

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INTRODUCTION

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THE CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Teaching is an important aspect of professional molding but subjects and methods of teaching have become even important issue in present world as reflected by active debates, study courses and syllabus of various institutions. But before going into an in-depth analysis, it would be pertinent to put the above statement in perspective. One can do it by a simple crossinterrogation of why is the issue being raised as critical? This paper examines the issue of teaching history, culture and evolution of human settlements. Present cities have grown manifold to their medieval counterparts. Man is lost within his settlements. ‘He has lost his balance with himself and with Society, but he is not yet completely aware of this’ (Doxiadis, 1968). A review of urban agglomerations especially post-independence does not give a pleasant picture. Though falling infrastructure as in sanitation, transportation, public facilities and the dwindling greens are a result of partial implementation of plans, there exist grave consequences in the socio-cultural realm on account of poor understanding of the phenomenon of the city. Unlike the former, depleting urban fabric and spoilt social conditions are evident and difficult to augment. Apart from sleeping and working, the remaining third of time is no longer spent for socialization or recreation but in commuting within the settlement.

Residents are classified as numbers just like streets and sectors of a city. As neighbors are we aware of people living in our locality? The alarming number of senior citizen murders indicates the failure of planning at the cluster. ‘It is indeed the inability to belong, the failure to identify the character of a place and to recognize it as specifically and essentially one’s own, that gives rise to rootlessness and to the host of personal worries and social unrest....physical presence of the past is certainly only one of the elements to be understood and used in the creation of the new, but it is ignored, misunderstood or perverted at our peril’ (Biddle, 1980). It is essential to recognize that our settlements are non-conducive for good living as in the past. ‘The natural ability which man acquired in the past, of understanding the evolution of his settlement, of adjusting himself to it and developing it in a way that preserved its existing balance or else creating a new one, has now been lost.’ (Chatterjee, 1997) On the contrary, healthy environment and social well being were the very goals of modern town planning on the basis of which most of our cities are laid. To decipher this paradox, one needs to understand the approach to planning in the historical past. 3

MODERN APPROACH TO PLANNING

The roots of modern planning are traceable to 19th century Europe and America. In the seventeen hundreds, England and France saw the onslaught of industrial revolution over medieval

Mahendra Sethi / ITPI Journal 4 : 3 (2007) 67 - 72

towns like Paris, London, Manchester and Liverpool. There were subtle attempts to deal with the problem, but ultimately Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City became the most accepted of all. Though the proposal was a concept, its diagram was treated as a prototype. The phenomenon years later came to be known as the Garden City or the Town Planning Movement. Urban planning at that time was highly influenced by architects who were pursuing a universal agenda under the CIAM.

The issue was thus equally relevant in the structural or functional failure of modern settlements’ (Menon, 1989). 3.1

The Indian Scenario

Independent India saw Planning as a tool to development, a reactionary means to break-free from the colonial shackles. ‘Development’ implied a linear path, directed towards a goal, or a series of goals separated by stages. It implied the fixing of priorities between long-run and short-run goals and conscious choice between alternate paths (Menon, 1997) But just as the legislature, judiciary, railways and the administrative structure at large were inspired by the British systems, was not town planning also a legacy of the Colonial times?

The modern plans are characterized by sharp distinction of land uses resulting in the loss of social interactions. For instance, the division of downtown and suburbia has led to greater dependency on travel and home-workplace distance. Systems are centralized / unified like Regulations, Business district, distribution and collection of services etc. There also exists rigid social segregation- resulting in disintegration of community ties. There is disregard for the informal sector- slums, urban villages, trade, etc. The design is chiefly for the ‘motorcar’ and there prevails anthropo-techno-centric planning with complete disrespect to laws of nature as seen in razing of land, grid-iron roads, filling of water bodies, transportation of water from hinterland, indiscriminate cutting of trees, etc. The implementation is top to bottom with no feedback or public participation. All emphasis rests on the ‘Plan’ which is the generator of three dimensional form and space.

India being a rich blend of cultures, transforming society and essentially a recently independent but a poor nation had various components in the urban realm to be dealt with. The realization of the circumstances was important before putting pencil to task. As Menon points, ‘The parameters of our built environment are circumscribed by the fact that our cities consist of three distinct entities: the historic town, the newly planned and unplanned developments, and the ‘spontaneous’ informal growth of the urban poor, both within and at the periphery of the cities. These entities are organically related, but the urban planner is mainly concerned with master planning new development and strait-jacketing the remainder in conformity with a ‘vision of an orderly city’ (Bandini, 2000).

The CIAM led modern approach was similar to its predecessor- the Garden City Movement. Did it understand the context and the cause before attempting solutions? In many cases, it started afresh as New Towns- reflection of the modern ideals. The expression of the ‘Modern’ in the visual and perceptual arena was totally blank, monotonous and abstract- like their art- world counterparts. Naturally, for many architects, it set in motion the study of form. The same thought set transgressed in the arena of town planning. As Doxiadis remarks, ‘We have a multitude of specialists each trying to resolve the existing problem separately. The town-planner is very often no more than a designer of two-dimensional plans with a few three-dimensional conceptions….... the traffic engineers act as a surgeon, cutting open but not healing the city.

Thus we see how an opportunity was lost by merely wrong observations made at that point of time. But the inertia continues. The way town planners conceive cities in India; is largely derived from British town planning experience- the belief that they are universal and modern. There is no history of ingenuous town planning thought to break the colonial influence on the way town planners conceive urban problems. ‘Under the circumstance, town planners have no image of the city other than that derived from cultural, social and economic experiences different form theirs. There is a need to conceive the city in indigenous terms, which would incorporate the culturally plural, socially evolving and economically constrained characteristics of Indian society’ (Sanyal, 2001). 68


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But then what should be the strategy for the transfer of knowledge- one dictated of CIAM or that is absorbed by the students and practitioners by direct interaction with surroundings? It is vital to ponder on Christopher Alexander’s ideas, which was able to break the fetters of the times, ‘In a society, which emphasizes teaching children and students and adults become passive and unable to think or act on their own initiative. Creative, active individuals can only grow up in a society which emphasis learning instead of teaching’ (Meller, 1990). The teaching should thus be practical, observation and experiment based. As observed in many colleges worldwide including SPA, New Delhi, the above practices have been welcomed and are coming to the forefront.

RELEVANCE OF APPROACH

‘There should be an attempt to resolve the awkward relationship between history and the city that the Modern Movement has left unresolved’ (Branch, 1975). At this junction, we should acknowledge its historical contribution- an instant solution to the war-torn west. But then should we blindly omit the need and theory of planning? Perhaps not, as its failure basically lies in the concepts, process and techniques that defined its practice ‘The Concept of planning as an essential human activity-indeed an institution involving design and organization of society and space based on visions and reason has been documented in the scholarly annals of history, philosophy, cultural and political theories’ (Myers and Banerjee, 2005). Rather we should now base the theory on the premise of rationale and context in the process of planning than pre-conceived notions of certain protagonists as in the past. As noted by M.C. Branch, ‘Process cannot be considered apart from purpose and substance of the endeavor it represents. Process is, therefore, an integral part of continuing discussion on the nature and scope of planning’ (Alexander et al, 1997). If a project aims at public success, the process should be socially enlightened and culturally rooted, which is possible through the study of evolution or trends. On the contrary, the process involved in Modern Planning profession was linear, nonperceptual and non-participatory.

None the less, the process should focus on capacity building, developing observation and analytical skills. It should go hand in hand with the industry and the social groups. As Meshram points, ‘Students, therefore need to be made familiar with working of these agencies and are also required to be exposed to slums, shopping center, residential areas, industrial areas, etc; so as to appreciate and understand the problems of these areas, these areas being laboratories of planners for testing efficacy of new practices and technologies’(Linton, 1936). It seems, everywhere the basic purpose of any study is to enable their inhabitants feel happy and secure. This turns us back to statements like ‘protagoras’, which said that ‘Man is the measure of all things’. But the most influential contribution in this regard has been by Doxiadis who coined ‘Ekistics’ as the study of human settlements.

In most professions, it is the practice that defines professional competencies, ethos and scope. This is same for all major professions- engineering, law, medicine and it is never the other way round (Meshram, 2004). The same is true with Planning, the practice being the closest to society and its transformations it should be the guiding force for the process of learning. As seen in most of the Planning institutes worldwide, there are strong links between the professional community and the academicians. In most of the cases, faculty members are active professionals or consultants in the field. Thus there exists a symbiotic relationship, where each contributes the other. While the academicians raise issues with a pinch of salt, investing time and research; it is the practicing professionals who actually face these market driven dilemmas.

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HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

As Aristotle said, ‘we shall not obtain the best insight into things until we actually see them growing from the beginning’. History offers the planner some gifts which are very essential. But what should planners need to acknowledge- what men are or the utopia of what they ought to be? May be this is the reality of existence. Similarly settlements are not static as they appear to be on paper, but transforming just as aspirations, needs and space of the inhabitants. They exist not only in space but also in time. 69


discern these behavioral patterns of epoch, as how and why a societal unit reacts to various environmental phenomena. We instinctively expect the history of a town to be the biography of its people, a collective personality, which has ‘expressed’ itself overtime in the built environment.

It is interesting to recall that almost a century ago, as the profession of City Planning was taking root, Camillo Sitte initiated town planning based on his study and analysis of old towns. At a time when Ebenezer Howard was working with his utopian Garden Cities Movement, Geddes looked at problems of existing cities. Geddes wanted to provide a link between social reform and the urban environment not only in small towns, but also in large cities. Thus, when the 1909 Town and Country Planning Act was passed, it required to survey before undertaking any planning. Thus Geddes published a general survey method despite his opinion that each city and its culture are unique.

This expression is an outcome of various cultural manifestations. The culture shapes the material, spiritual and technological components in the society. As Lewis Mumford explains, ‘City design is thus the culminating point of a socially adequate process of materialization…the translation of ideas into common habits and customs, of personal choices and designs into urban structures, is one of the prime functions of the city’ (Mumford, 1963). Thus, city planning is a process and not an end in itself.

Geddes’ Cities in Evolution, an essay on the growth of cities, emphasized preservation of historical traditions, involvement of the people in their own betterment and the rediscovery of past traditions of city building (Meller, 1990). Geddes’ Diagnostic Survey and Conservative Surgery had interactive and sociological approach in contrast to practiced norms of leaving ‘Heritage Zones’ in master plans or Haussman’s open surgery. He was also concerned about introduction of foreign concepts of habitations and lifestyles being imposed on the natives as in India.

It is interesting to acknowledge the interdependence of culture and evolution. Evolution is the process of change, with the development of social thought and attitudes overtime. Though the origins are individual, the effects have snowball effect that is pervasive. But culture itself is a reflection of child and adult rearing practices and therefore it further ticks the evolution cycle. This gives an insight that planning should not be static in nature but dynamic and willing to accept ‘change’ as the locus, which is fundamental to the evolution of humankind.

Culture is the most significant feature of any society- the base from which the distinctiveness of a group emerges. It is subtle but its presence is very powerful being “the sum total of behavior patterns, attitudes and values, shared and transmitted by members of a given society” (Simms, 2000). It is also a system by which one can organize one’s experiences to make sense out of them. It can also be seen in a way in which a group addresses problems of their environment. Overtime, these ways of solving problems get systemized, relayed from one generation to another with suitable modifications when necessary. Culture becomes habitual, part of life for its members.

But there is a word of caution, it is essential to analyze the past than direct imitation of ancient models and symbolic representations. Nor does it imply to preserve it as museum or artifact. ‘It is only by conforming our past (and not containing within enclaves of conservation areas) and establishing a positive and dynamic dialogue with our historic cities that the Indian Planner can redeem the promise of his profession to improve the quality of life of his fellow citizens’ (Kaban, 1980). All it prompts is an inquiry of the traditional human settlements and their evolution. An analytical approach is required to negotiate the past gracefully, and not to compromise as had been prevalent in the Modern Era.

According to the Constitution of India, under Fundamental Duties, states: “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture” Whereas culture is pervasive, transcendental and forms the very foundation of individual and social behavior, history is a documented record of the past. By studying the past, the historian attempts to

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CULTURAL PATTERNS IN EVOLUTION OF SETTLEMENTS

As Charles Correa once said, ‘we need past to give meanings to the present and the future’. The past 70


knew would deteriorate in time. Thus, practicing frequently we revive the memory and the notion of place, its simple- uses it or looses it.

is not as open book as it seems, but it is ready for interpretations, co-relations and debate. Dialectic of change in the human environment has always shown a strong element of continuity throughout history (Bandini, 2000). We could identify the universal principles of planning and the timeless language of our urban patterns, which could be applied to contemporary and future situations. The Patterns are as perceptual, functional and socio-economic.

Doxiadis’ Concept of Dynapolis or a city that grows dynamically has been the closest attempt in study of human settlements. Historically, the city was small and within a walking distance, physically contained through natural features and manmade walls; basically static in character. But with the industrialization the core exploded to population, industries, slums and railways. Doxiadis tried to find a pattern in a city and what it would be through the concept of time through Ecumenopolis (the Continuous-Universal City).

‘Three factors effecting emotional experience are: serial vision that is unfolding of the town’s scenery as one move through. Place- the physical relationship of the human body to the environment (concerned with notions like near/ far, enclosure, openness. Content-found in material aspects of the town fabric and perceived through color, texture, scale, character, etc;’ (Border et al, 2001). The Place or the realization of it being there is closely related to the generation of the notion of identity. Settlements throughout the history have been considered a unit of a higher cosmic order- the seat of the universe, through which King descends on the earth. They carry a strong sense of attraction and association for human being and this special status makes it unique, distinctive in its Identity. This relationship is both emotional and rational and is revived continuously by different generations.

Apart from perceptual indicators and the element of time, Human Civilization that prospered all over the world were influenced by indicators like religion, politics and economic. This is evident through strong symbolic representations in various civilizations and their agglomerations like Athens, Peking, Jaipur, Macchu Pichu, Florence, etc; through the strategic location of the institutions in the urban fabric. Most of them occupied the status of a functional generator of the town if not a visual focus. Most civilizations exhibit a socio-cultural divide- a stratified social structure. It uses to vary from caste, race, clan or occupation. The components were thus physically separated by broad zoning as seen in Cairo, Peking, Shahjanabad and Fatehpur Sikri. But the land use within residential zones being quite flexible, the Indus Valley Civilization reveals no such bias as constant unit size reflects the homogenous mercantile society. Finally, administration or governance has also been a vital feature of the bygone-era settlements. Most civilizations were either feudal kinships or offered limited democracy to its people, that too the privileged and the powerful. The governance was essentially justified by unethical means to govern the society and administration as exposed in the texts of Confucius, Kautilya and Aristotle.

Border et al. examine, ‘Memory is one of the key ingredients in the creation of Place, although it is important to acknowledge that memory is subject to political as well as psychic operations. It can be regarded as an antidote to selective and tendentious histories; memory can also be structured and guided. While structured ones encourage specialized study of patterns as in academics, but we also need to acknowledge the guided memories - narratives, visual arts folk songs, time honored skills that are being constantly being lost. Infact, the act of creating buildings and towns has been collective and participative. Hence it is not only the product or the city that is rooted in culture, but also the skills of the people that created it in the first place. One cannot isolate the two. There is also a need to understand that the true heritage of our county is in the traditional skills of artisans and craftsmen and less in the objects they created which they

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CONCLUSIONS

In brief, the study of ancient civilizations, human settlements; their culture and evolution reveals the following pattern. The list is not exhaustive but indicative. 71


•

• • • • • • • • • •

Settlements grow as direct response to natural resources / features as forestry, irrigation, fishing, mining, etc; and at times are prone to the vulnerability at the same time;

evolutionary trends. As we have seen, these trends are codified as cultural patterns in the history of human settlements. They are rational and time tested but none the less subtle and intuitive. It becomes imperative to decode this language with careful skills and constant practice that should start in early days. Thus we should acquaint the upcoming breed of planners to the subjects of culture, settlements and evolution through active and participatory learning.

They are surrounded by systems of defense like walls, riverfronts, hillside, etc;

The built environment is in harmony with the exogenic factors (natural forces); They are anthropocentric and follow a hierarchy in human scale- court, street, city square;

REFERENCES Alexander, C. et al (1997) A Pattern Language, Oxford University Press, NY , P100

The agglomerations develop around certain foci (functional) as in Agora (economy based), Palace (political) or Temple (spiritual);

Bandini, M. (2000) Approaches to Urban Form, Urban Landscapes-international Perspectives (Ed. Whitehead and Larkham), Routledge, London, p134

Most settlements bear social stratification based on occupation, clan, caste, etc; portrayed though zoning, clustering and plot size;

Biddle, M. (1980) ‘The Experience of the Past: Archeology and History in Conservation and Development’, in Renata Holod (Ed.) Conservation as Cultural Survival, Philadelphia: Proceedings of Seminar II- the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, p9

The settlements are a result of collective process of the community;

Border, K. et al (2001) The Unknown City, Contesting Architecture and Social Space, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p64

Historic Cities follow an organic pattern in built form and growth;

Branch, M.C. (1975) Urban Planning Theory, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Pennsylvania, p7

They foster the notion of sustenance / survival be it in the worship of natural phenomenon, supernatural power, cult or the king;

Chatterjee, P. (1997) Planning for Planning (The Nation State) The Nation and Its Fragments, Colonial and Post-colonial Histories, Oxford University Press, Delhi, p200

The settlements have broad zoning with mix landuse; and

Doxiadis, C.A. (1968) Ekistics- The Study of Human Settlements, Oxford University Press, NY. p210

Kaban, D. (1980) Conservation of Historical Environment for Cultural Survival- In Conservation as Cultural Survival. Renata Holod (Ed). Philadelphia: Proceedings of Seminar II- the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, p4

They exhibit a balance between individual and community ambitions with latter being paramount. The urban form of settlements like Siena, Ur and Mohenjo daro and Harappa are witness to this phenomenon.

Linton, R, (1936) The Study of Man, Appleton Century Crafts, New York.

Menon, A.G.K. (1989) Conservation in India-A search for direction, Architecture +Design, Nov-Dec, p23-24

Thus we see that, cities have transformed abruptly in the last few centuries. Attempts to reconcile with changing times have been very much mechanical and insensitive to the patterns of human evolution. The technology driven modern approach to planning has failed in this regard, as it is unable to correlate to the dynamics of the city and its people. Infact, it is the process that has proved futile than the efforts. The practice has been pre-occupied with the notion of plan than planning; which needs a radical change. Utopian diagrams and ideals fed to learning minds have been the main culprit. As any vocational profession, practices lead the process of learning. Thus, it is essential to make planning process more interactive and understanding- in accordance to the behavioral attitudes of the society and its

Menon, A.G.K. (1997) Imagining the Indian City, Economic and Political Weekly, p32-36 Meller (1990) Patrick Geddes: Social Evolutionist and City Planner. Routledge, New York, 173

Meshram, D.S. (2004) Planning Profession and Education: Challenges Ahead, ITPI Journal, Vol. 1. No1, Myers, M. and Banerjee, T. (2005) Towards Greater Heights for Planning-Reconciling the difference between Profession, Practice and Academic Field, Journal of American Planning Association, Vol. 71, No 2, p124.

Mumford, L. (1963) The City in History, Secker andWarburg Publications, London, p113

Sanyal, B. (Ed.) (2001) The Kolkota Paradox; Comparative Planning Cultures, Routledge, London, p125 Simms, A. (2000), The Early Origins and Morphological Inheritance of European Towns, Urban Landscapesinternational Perspectives (Ed. Whitehead and Larkham), Routledge, London, p40 72