Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program ...

Zambia Journal of Teacher Professional Growth (ZJTPG) Vol.2 Number 2, December 2015 pp.101 – 115

Special Distribution This paper was originally presented at: The Conference of International Council of Education for Teaching (ICET), held in Tokushima, Japan on 18-22 June 2015

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of In-service Teacher Education Program in Zambia Benson BANDA1, John Chileshe2, Kazuyoshi Nakai3, Yoshie Hama4 1 Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education, Lusaka, Zambia [email protected] 2,3,4 Japan International Cooperation Agency, Zambia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract Zambia has benefited substantially from official development assistance (ODA) since independence in 1964. In the field of teacher education at the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education (MESVTEE), it has received ODA from different cooperating partners. This paper discusses the dual process of changes on the cooperating partner – Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) - towards technical cooperation on one hand and the recipient ODA country – Zambia - focusing on functionality of the project approach in an in-country teacher profession development program. It also discusses salient insights of transition over a period of time and what emerges from such dynamics. The project in Zambia shows prospects of being a model of continuing professional development (CPD) in developing countries showing the balance of effective ODA dynamics. This Zambian experience presents a novel view of how both the project and program can work side by side to enhance quality education. 1. Introduction Since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, education has been considered as a basic right of all people and as a co-requisite for a peaceful, healthy and stable world. Among the benefits of education are the development of an individual’s total personality as well as social, economic, cultural prosperity and international mutual understanding and tolerance, therefore being an effective tool to poverty reduction in countries worldwide (IFIC, 2002). International trends show that Education for All (EFA) Goals (1990) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 2000) have had a major impact on the direction towards ownership and sustainability of education activities for both donors and recipient countries. Among the players in the ODA for developing countries, Zambia in particular, is 101

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

Japan. Arising from the desire to effectively contribute to the EFA Goals and MDGs, Japan realigned itself by developing among others the ODA Charter (1992), Fifth Midterm Target of ODA (1993), Mid-term Policy on ODA (1999), Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD, 1993, 1998, 2003, 2008, 2013), Initiative for African Development (1996) and Committee for International Cooperation in Education (2000). Among the recommendations of the Japan Aid Study Committee on development and education was to understand the educational development of recipient countries considering the balance between basic education, vocational education and higher education. This was to be followed by step-by-step assistance to the most needed areas (IFIC, 2002). In the area of education quality, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) perspective is at four levels of input, process, output and outcomes. Concerns observed in the area of education management among others are lack of capacity in education. These capabilities are necessary if people have to get themselves out of the trap of poverty and hunger, yet poverty and hunger at the same time undermine people's capabilities (UNDP, 2003). From the Zambian perspective, according to GRZ (2006), the Zambia Vision 2030 reflects the collective understanding, aspirations and determination of the Zambian people to be a prosperous middle-income nation by 2030. The document sets out the goals and targets to be achieved in the various spheres of socio-economic life over the next generation. The Vision 2030 is founded on seven key basic principles: (i) sustainable development; (ii) upholding democratic principles; (iii) respect for human rights; (iv) fostering family values; (v) a positive attitude to work; (vi) peaceful coexistence; and (vii) upholding good traditional values. To this effect, education is valued as one pillar to be used to attain the prosperous middleincome status. Accordingly, medium term plans have been developed and currently the Revised Sixth National Development Plan, 2013-2016 (R-SNDP) is being used. In order to attain the MDGs and EFA goals, Zambia committed itself to making basic education compulsory, free and available to all. The R-SNDP period is therefore, an opportune time to scale up the interventions to meet the global aspirations in education and skills development. Among the key players in the effort to attain EFA goals and MDGs as well as the prosperous middle-income status in Zambia is the role played by the teacher. Being mindful that Zambia has received ODA in teacher education from different cooperating partners, this paper discusses the dual process of changes on the cooperating partner (Japan) towards technical cooperation on one hand and the recipient ODA country (Zambia) focusing on functionality of the project approach in an in-country teacher professional development program. It further discusses salient insights of transition over a period of time and what emerges from such dynamics. Further, this paper is supported by concerns raised by Yoshida (2009) that in the context of providing aid through projects, 102

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

Japan needs to step up efforts to present an evidence-based validation amongst the aid community as to how such complementarity works effectively. 2. Global Debate on Aid and Effectiveness in the Education Sector According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), international development cooperation surged in the early 1960s amidst post-war optimism and enthusiasm. It has since continued to evolve and is recognised as one of the key factors in advancing global development. However, success has not always been evident: lack of co-ordination, overly ambitious targets, unrealistic time and budget constraints and political self-interest have too often prevented aid from being as effective as desired. The need to attain EFA goals and MDGs necessitated the debates on aid effectiveness on the international scene. There have been periodic meetings to improve the delivery of aid, marked by four notable events: the High Level Fora on Aid Effectiveness in Rome, Paris, Accra and Busan in 2003, 2005, 2008 and 2011 respectively. The First High Level Forum (Rome, 2003) marked the first occasion at which the principles for aid effectiveness were outlined in a concrete declaration namely: that development assistance is delivered based on the priorities and timing of the countries receiving it. That good practice be encouraged and monitored, backed by analytical work to help strengthen the leadership that recipient countries can take in determining their own development path. OECD (2003) advocated for expanding or mainstreaming country-led efforts (whether begun in particular sectors, thematic areas, or individual projects) to streamline donor procedures and practices, including enhancing demand-driven technical cooperation. The Second High Level Forum (Paris, 2005) marked the first time that donors and recipients both agreed to commitments and to hold each other accountable to aid Ownership, Alignment, Harmonisation, Results, and Mutual accountability. At the Third High Level Forum (Accra, 2008), the need to deepen implementation towards the goals set in Paris (2005) was identified, along with a set of priority areas for improvement. The focus was ownership, donor alignment, in-country harmonisation, managing for development results and mutual accountability. At the Fourth High Level Forum (Busan, 2011) five principles were agreed: promotion of local ownership, alignment of development programmes around a country’s development strategy, harmonisation of practices to reduce transaction costs, avoidance of fragmented efforts and the development of results frameworks. The World Bank (2011) indicates that in the current decade budget allocations for education have been at an all-time high in the developing world. However, despite these huge funding gains, progress toward development targets has been uneven. Such observed disconnect between spending and outcomes partly reflects the failure of human development spending to reach poor people. 3. Historical Perspective of Education in Zambia At independence in 1964, there were only 109 Africans with university degrees in Zambia, while only 1,200 Africans had secondary certificates (Todorff, 1974). One of the 103

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

challenges of the country after achieving political independence was to secure human resource by heavy investment in education, which necessitated the construction and rehabilitation of educational infrastructure and training of the required teachers. The education sector went through three main education policy reforms; Education Reform (1977), Focus on Learning (1992) and Educating our Future (1996). The first in 1977 focussed on reforming the content of the curriculum by removing the colonial aspects and promoting the philosophy of Humanism based on promotion of the individual’s dignity (MOE, 1977). The second reforms in 1992 were aimed at identifying strategies for developing education in the country. The third and current national education policy, Educating Our Future addresses the entire education system, paying particular attention to democratisation, decentralisation, curriculum relevance and diversification, efficient and cost-effective management, capacity building and cost sharing. In the policy, the Government recognises the basic right of every Zambian to education, hence emphasis is placed on key factors of educational provision, such as access, quality and equity at all delivery points in the system. Provision of adequate public resources for education is prioritised, while recognising the need for partnerships with various non-government institutions and foreign donors. Contrary to expectations, the quality of education in Zambia had been compromised by factors such as economic decline and rapid growth in population. This was due to reduced government expenditure on education, especially in the 1980s during the Structural Adjustment Programme when the government withdrew many social sector subsidies. The infrastructure dilapidated and there was a shortage of teaching resource materials which would have helped enhance the quality of education. The teachers’ poor salaries that served as a source of demotivation and demoralisation further worsened the situation during this period. 4. Education Aid Issues in Zambia In the education sector and in particular teacher education, different players have provided ODA in Zambia, both bilateral and multilateral. Among the players in the teacher education sub-sector linked to professional development are USAID, DFID, JICA and VVOB. This type of ODA was provided in form of technical assistance as projects. On the other hand as noted by UNDP (2003) Sector-Wide Approaches (SWAps) have also been used in Zambia as promising tools for financing and managing development initiatives in education. This is driven by the understanding that compared to projects; SWAps provide a more holistic aid platform. However, both projects and SWAps are important for enhancing educational attainment. On the other hand, UNDP (2005) observed that while all donors stressed the virtues of “country ownership,” and giving recipients more control over how aid is spent, most of them linked aid to stringent conditions. Country ownership is seen as a requirement for efficient use of aid, while conditionality is seen as a mechanism for leveraging policy change. However, country ownership and conditionality often acted in opposite directions, creating dynamics in the aid equation where ownership ended up suffering. Within the 104

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

education sector, Zambia has experienced its share of challenges in the area of aid and donor coordination against its own country programs. As noted by UNDP, by 2004 Zambia had at least 20 donors supporting education hence, it ended up advocating for support to be channelled through pooled funds in the overall education budget. On the other hand, some funds are allocated as funds designated for purposes specified by donors, while others are allocated for specific projects. Senior ministry officials continue to cite the length and frequency of reporting as a problem. While the new joint missions are reducing transaction costs for donors, for developing countries the missions still occupy senor staff for two to three weeks at a time, diverting energy from effective management (UNDP, 2005). For example in 2003 Zambia hosted 120 donor missions, excluding those of the World Bank and the IMF. Of these, just 12 – and none involving European Union or the United Nations - were joint missions. Although it is an agreed fact that aid is most effective when it is channelled through country budgets and expenditure frameworks, this approach is undermined by donors by directing aid towards individual projects - an approach that reduces efficiency, increases transaction costs and erodes capacity. The fear here as stated by UNDP is the belief that working through projects can circumvent failures in national governance systems. Ironically, project aid has a track record of intensifying problems in all these areas. Lessons can be learnt from strong opponents of this; for instance in countries such as Botswana, Tanzania and Uganda where all technical assistance (bilateral aid) programmes are designed to ensure that local staff are trained, resulting in greater skills transfer than more traditional arrangements. For major aid recipient countries, the government of Japan prepares Country Assistance Programs with the aim of efficient and effective implementation of ODA with integrity and coherence. In the case of Zambia, the Country Assistance Program was initially developed in 2002. It is widely viewed in Japan that the project-type assistance is effective in addressing specific development issues, producing results on the ground and having visibility of Japan’s cooperation (Yoshida, 2009). 5. Historical Development of Japan Technical Cooperation Japan’s history in ODA stretches over a period of 50 years. According to JICA (2008), Japan was reintegrated into the international community through the conclusion of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951. Arising from this, in October 1954 Japan’s governmentbased technical cooperation programs began when Japan joined the Colombo Plan of 1950 which aimed at promoting economic and social development in the countries of South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific region. Aid was implemented through bilateral arrangements between member countries. Later, the target area for cooperation expanded beyond the initial scope of the Colombo Plan to the Middle East and Africa (fiscal 1957), Latin American (fiscal 1958), and then to other developing regions. In 1974, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) was established and in October 2003, it became an independent administrative institution. According to the 2008 JICA Report, Japan ODA support is considered on three levels namely bilateral grants, bilateral government loans, and contribution to international 105

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

organisations. The types of technical cooperation include acceptance of technical training participants, dispatch of technical cooperation experts, provision of equipment, technical cooperation projects, development studies, dispatch of Japan Overseas Co-operation Volunteers and disaster relief, among others. 6. Approach of JICA ODA to Capacity Development in Developing Countries Currently, there is a growing trend in the field of international aid to encourage more effective utilization of finite development resources to meet the increasingly diversified, complicated and globalised needs of developing countries (IFIC, 2002). Japan has an impressive history as a leading international donor. The philosophy behind Japanese development cooperation is rooted in the country’s own history of rapid economic development after the Second World War. From the late 1940s Japan’s national policy focused on domestic economic growth and recovery and peaceful international engagement. These historical roots and development experiences are reflected in Japan’s current policies for international development cooperation. Its revised Official Development Assistance Charter (GoJ, 2003) explains that the “basic policies” of all Japan’s official development assistance (ODA) include supporting the “self-help efforts” of developing countries and the use of Japan’s experience and expertise. To this effect, strategies such as Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and Sector Programs have been utilised for ODA. However, being a member of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), Japan’s ODA is faced with economic stagnation hence effective and efficient available cooperation activities become imperative in this case. In an attempt to attain effective use of these limited resources, JICA adopted among others the promotion of country-specific and issue-specific approaches. As stated in the OECD (2010), Japan endorsed the 2008 OECD Declaration on Policy Coherence for Development. In acknowledging the challenges faced by JICA, IFIC (2002) stated that logical drafting of JICA country programs based on systematic understanding of issues was crucial for efficient and effective implementation and evaluation. The approach taken by JICA in administering bilateral technical cooperation ODA has been mostly through projects. The driving force for this has been the belief Japan holds as researched by International Development Centre (IDC, 2003) which agrees with the observation made by UNDP that a major problem of the traditional approach to capacity development was that it was based on an assumption that developing countries lacked important skills and abilities, and that outsiders could fill these gaps with quick injections of know-how. However, JICA’s approach has been based on its experience. In the process of modernization, Japan did not replace existing capability with that produced elsewhere, but instead modified Western knowledge and systems to fit Japanese society. The gap-filling approach was rejected by the new technical cooperation paradigm proposed by UNDP (2002). With this new paradigm, it is considered that knowledge cannot be simply transferred from donor to recipient countries, but that the recipients should willingly acquire this knowledge. It is also required that donor programs have a deeper understanding of local knowledge and practice, because the most useful knowledge for 106

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

development would exist locally, possibly in a tacit form (IDC, 2003). To this effect, OECD (2010) states that Japan has a strong preference for bilateral aid. Japan uses three main channels or “schemes” for its bilateral development assistance namely: loans, grants and technical cooperation. JICA has frequently used the Project Design Matrix (PDM) approach taken in formulating technical cooperation projects with any country. In doing so the PDMs are as much as possible aligned with country-specific development objectives. Capacity development is central to Japan’s development cooperation philosophy which advocates for supporting partner countries’ efforts to become self-reliant. In approaching technical cooperation Japan uses experts not as a way of filling the gap but enhancing capacities of the local recipient countries. However, OECD (2010) noted that in practice – like many other DAC members – Japan still has some way to go to address broader and systemic capacity-related challenges comprehensively. In an attempt to assist in the development of quality of education, Japan has used one of its strong standpoints, which is Science and Mathematics cooperation in developing countries IFIC (2002). Comprehensive assistance addressed included: teacher training; developing of teaching methods and course materials; training for evaluators; and review of syllabus/curriculum. These are evidenced in the technical cooperation projects in Philippines in 1994, Kenya and Indonesia in 1998, Ghana in 1999, Cambodia in 2000 and Zambia in 2005, among others. Although there is stability in Japan’s philosophy and approach to development cooperation there have also been significant changes. These changes have been driven by “gaiatsu” (external pressures), but more notably by “naiatsu” (internal pressures), many of which relate to the economic downturn in Japan which began in the 1990s (Lancaster, 2010). JICA now not only manages most technical cooperation, but also most grants and loans, making it the biggest bilateral aid agency in the world. However, Japan has not been active enough in keeping up with the changing aid modality such as a sector-wide approach, using a pooling of funds or ear-marked budget support, or general budget support, although there are some cases where JICA’s technical cooperation is fully incorporated into the framework of sector-wide approach, as found in Bangladesh, Niger, Uganda, and Zambia (Yoshida, 2009). 7. JICA SMASTE School Based CPD through Lesson Study in Zambia The JICA SMASTE1 School Based Continuing Professional Development (CPD) through Lesson Study project in Zambia started in 2005 in the period when JICA favoured implementing comprehensive, crosscutting aid on a country-specific basis, with a view toward carrying out effective and efficient aid. It is during this period that the implementation structure was gradually developed to promote a country-by-country approach (JICA, 2008). During the same period, within Zambia, the Educating Our Future policy was being implemented with ownership and sustained in-service training (INSET) benefiting many teachers as priorities in teacher education. At the same time,

1

SMASTE = Strengthening of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 107

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

JICA started to develop a project cycle management (PCM) method for the planning, operation, and management of projects, using the methods of other aid organizations as a reference. These processes were happening simultaneously both in Japan and Zambia. The concept of capacity building attached importance on the overall development of abilities in organizations and society rather than the transfer of technology to individuals hence creating a direction for technical cooperation. Considering how well this concept was interpreted in subsequent projects becomes imperative in this case, to ascertain the effects of such approaches of conducting ODA. This is supported by JICA (2008) that a different scale to that used in Japan is needed for measuring the effects of assistance; as well as taking into account the partner country’s self-help efforts; it is important to share the perspective of the partner country in order to consider the results that the partner desires most. The approach taken by JICA on the Zambian SMASTE project differed with that proposed by the UNDP’s new model in the way knowledge should effectively be acquired. The elements of Japanese process-oriented approaches on how to acquire knowledge included; 1. Identification of local needs by both expatriate experts and their counterparts; 2. Interaction of foreign and local knowledge; 3. Use of expatriate experts to identify and mobilize local knowledge; 4. Learning by doing approach; 5. Long-term commitment with institutional back up support by donor sides; 6. Promoting mutual respect between experts and their counterparts; 7. Non-commercial technical cooperation to mobilize knowledge in public sectors (IDC, 2003). On the other hand, the SMASTE technical cooperation project in Zambia was operating because of the TICAD frame, in which Japan emphasized the importance of African ownership in development and of partnership with the international community. 7.1 SPRINT System in Zambia Educating Our Future (1996), presents strategic approaches for in-service teacher education as: programs which are demand driven, responding to identified needs; programs which focus on school needs and are based in schools or resource centres; cost-effective programs which enable large numbers of teachers to have opportunities for learning; and programs which include not only studies on subject content but also methodologies, and use of materials or way of management in classrooms. Based on strategic approaches stipulated in the policy document, ‘School Program of In-service for the Term (SPRINT)’ was inaugurated by the Ministry of Education as a framework for lifelong learning of teachers both in basic and high schools in 2000. However, not all the schools have implemented stable and effective meetings for teachers (Banda, 2007; Ishihara, 2010). Both Hambokoma et. al (2002) and Banda (2007) recognise availability of the SPRINT system and weaknesses in its implementation. Weaknesses such as being donor driven, upgrading of schools, inadequate and unskilled teachers, lack of ownership and teachers being forced to attend were highlighted. This necessitated the Government to authorize the School-Based Continuing Professional Development (SBCPD) activities as a way of 108

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

developing a guide on how a sustainable CPD could be managed through a system known as SPRINT (Ministry of Education, 1996). 7.2 Rationale for SMASTE SBCPD As stated by Ishihara (2010), the objective of the SMASTE School Based CPD project was to improve teaching and learning in the classroom. The focus was to align the project with the CPD policy advocating for sustainable INSET, helping it make INSET cost-effective. At the same time, it was to make INSET benefit more teachers because it was initiated and implemented locally. It also favoured this approach because Lesson Study promotes team spirit among teachers. 7.3 Synopsis of the SMASTE SBCPD Tables 1 and 2 show the framework of implementation and inputs from Japan and Zambia respectively. Table 1: Framework of Implementation Starting year 2005

Project Title SMASTE Schoolbased Continuing Professional Development Project, Phase 1

Focus of the Project Implementation of teacher training (Introduction of Lesson Study)

Target Area Central Province

Target Levels Upper Basic and High Schools

Target Subjects Science and Maths

2007

SMASTE Schoolbased Continuing Professional Development Project, Phase 2

Implementation of Central, school based training Copperbelt and NorthWestern Provinces

1.Central (Basic and High 1. All Schools) Subjects 2.Copperbelt and North- 2.Science and Western Provinces Maths (Upper Basic and High Schools)

2011

Phase 3 ‒ STEPS Project

Roll out of the project

Primary and Secondary Schools countrywide

Whole country

Maths and Science

Source: Developed by authors based on project reports Figure 1 shows that no new structures were created; the project used the existing framework hence reducing costs; at the same time budget planning was within the programs of MOE. The framework is designed mainly to sustain CPD from national to school level with Teacher Group Meetings (TGM) at the core. 8. Discussion The SMASTE School Based CPD project shows prospects of being a model of CPD in developing countries, presenting a balance of effective ODA dynamics. Among the lessons learnt, JICA acknowledges that although the project supporter considers this intervention as a project, in their evaluation report acknowledged that they had learnt to conduct a 109

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

project within a program framework in Zambia. At the same time, flexibility of implementation from both sides is observed as both groups focused on the evolving practice and identified interventions during implementation instead of sticking to rigid PDM agreements. This approach allowed for divergent experiences and ownership by Zambians. Table 2: Project Inputs ‒ Japan and Zambia Starting year

Project Inputs Project Title

Inputs From JICA

2005

SMASTE School-based Continuing Professional Development Project, Phase 1

1. Long-term expert: One (1) Technical Advisor 2. Training for education managers/teachers overseas (Japan: 5, Kenya: 83) 3. Budget for local activities: 4.6 million Yen 4. Equipment and materials: 4.5 million Yen

2007

SMASTE School-based Continuing Professional Development Project, Phase 2

1. Experts

2011

(Mid-term Project Evaluation Data by 2013)

 Two long-term experts on Lesson Study and INSET Management and Coordination and Monitoring  Four short-term experts from Kenya SMASE 2. Training for education managers/teachers overseas: total 41 persons (Japan: 11, Kenya: 17, Malaysia: 6, Technical Exchange Program with Uganda: 7) 3. . Equipment and materials: 4.5 million Yen 4. Budget for local activities 16 million Yen (23%)

Phase 3 ‒ STEPS 1. Experts Project  Four long-term experts on Lesson Study and INSET Management and Coordination and Monitoring  Two short-term experts from Kenya SMASE 2. Training for education managers/teachers overseas: total 135 persons (Japan: 56, Kenya: 7, Malaysia: 72) 3. . Equipment and materials: 2 million ZMW Budget for local Activities 1,967,300 ZMW Total 3,967,300 ZMW10% input Source: Developed by authors based on project reports

110

Inputs from Zambia 1. Counterpart personnel: 14 2. Budget in total: approximately 19 million Yen

1.Counterpart personnel: 115 - National level: 7 - Provincial level: 33 (3 provinces) - District level: 69 (23 districts) - College of Education: 6 2.Budget for local activities 54.3 million Yen (77%) proportion by levels: National 7%, Province 8% District, Zone and School 85% 1. Counterpart personnel: 115 - National level: 31 - Provincial level: 70 (10 provinces) - District level: not defined - College of Education: 6 2. Budget for local activities 34,418,000 ZMW (615,901,053 Yen) 90% input

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

Figure 1: Phase I Project - Program Implementation Structure (SMASTE School-based CPD Project Phase II)

SMASTE School-based CPD Project Phase I

Joint Technical Committee (JTC) Ministry of Education Province District Basic/High School

Ministry of Education

Output 3：SBCPD Guideline produced. Provincial Education Office

•Counterpart Training in Japan （5） •Technical Exchange Program •in the Philippines（3） •Third Country Training in Kenya（83）

One JICA Expert

District Education Office（6）

Participation (200~250): ・Facilitator Science Teacher (73) ・Head teachers of schools ・District & Zone officers

Stakeholder Workshop Facilitators’ Workshop

Lesson Study Approach

3 times/yr

SPRINT-CPD TGM

TGM

TGM

Monitoring reports

Output 2：Monitoring system established

Basic/High Schools （Grade 8-12）

Output 1：Lesson Study activities organized regularly

Source: Ishihara, 2010

i. Characteristics of the School Based CPD through Lesson Study approach since 2005 Lesson Study was introduced in 2005 to functionalise SPRINT and is imbedded in the MOE policy framework and budgets. It uses a combination of top-down approaches such as Stakeholders Workshops (SHW), Facilitators Workshops (FW) and bottom-up approaches in which topics or what teachers would like to learn comes from the grassroots needs. It is school based and implemented through Teacher Group Meetings (TGM) during the term. It also strengthens the role of the resource centres as it uses its structures to deliver INSET. Further, it is cluster based since it operates within the structure of Zone resource centres. ii. Policy shift in FNDP and SNPD Zambia’s Fifth National Development Plan, 2006-2010 (FNDP) mentioned the need to address issues of teacher professional growth; however, there was no clear political commitment. Through the Phase I and Phase II SMASTE project experiences by various stakeholders, the levels of awareness and need to invest in teacher professional growth was increased. To that effect when time came to design the Sixth National Development Plan, 2011-2015 (SNDP), the policy was streamlined. This now strengthens the way teacher 111

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

development activities are conducted and carries with it political will and financial resource allocation within the country. iii. Ownership One form of ownership is in the policy shift between the FNDP to SNPD because of involvement of ministry management on program design and implementation hence prioritising it in the SNDP. During SMASTE project implementation, within country interactions at various levels and various technical exchange of Zambian personnel increased the level of understanding of the need for teacher professional growth. In addition, the Zambian personnel developed a master plan for CPD, which goes up to the year 2023. Responsibility and ownership of players in teacher professional growth has increased. From the activities and actions, there was little visibility of technical staff in the projects as seen in Table 2. This placed the Zambian team in the forefront to spearhead the implementation of the program. There is not much consideration that this was a project; the focus of the stakeholders has been on improving teaching practices. This improvement shows a shift on the findings by Banda (2007) who noted that before Phase I, even though INSET trainings targeted teachers, they had little connection with CPD for teachers, as they were recipe type in design with limited access of teachers to join in-service training. As indicated earlier, most CPD in the past had been either centralized or long term. This made it difficult for many teachers to participate. Nonetheless, most head teachers would not allow many teachers to leave the school at the same time because this would disrupt classes. Ownership was lacking on both the part of the teachers and the administrators. The design did not allow free interaction among the players in education. Even though the activities were meant as INSET for teachers, the available data shows that they were focussed more on external knowledge acquisition than internal development of a teacher. This development in the Zambian case agrees with World Bank (2011) that improving the likelihood of more countries attaining the MDGs depended not just on more resources but also, and quite critically, on improving the quality of service provision through better policies and stronger institutions. Table 2 indicates that Zambians took a greater share of total budget in all the phases of the project period. The Zambian Government’s allocation constituted over 80% of the project requirements. This shows more ownership compared to other similar JICA projects where the contribution by the recipient country is on the lower side. iv. Sustainability Most projects in the African context have suffered from a continuity gap after the project period. Zambia has had such challenges before. However, given the current global economic environment, citizens in developed and developing countries alike are demanding more value for their money. This requires closer attention to the causal chain 112

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

linking spending to outcomes and actions to isolate and strengthen the weak links in this chain (World Bank 2011). In the Zambian case, the structures to support implementation are available and there are early signs of sustainability although not yet perfect. According to Baba and Nakai (2010), actors in school based CPD projects are trying out things their own way, which means implementing the idea to find how best to develop their teachers. In addition, the impact of the project, based on pupil performance, shows that results in the pilot provinces had improved by 2010 (MOE 2010). This project therefore takes into account the concerns raised by World Bank (2011) that mostly the outcomes have been disappointing, partly because the spending focus has been narrowly trained on input provision, ignoring other parts of the causal chain that links public spending to better outcomes. Inputs continue to be important, but alone they are not sufficient for attaining the goals in many developing countries. One striking feature about the Zambian approach is that after the end of Phase 2 of the SMASTE project in February 2011, the grass root continued conducting their activities as usual with no technical experts in Zambia. This showed early signs of sustainability being enhanced in an ODA recipient country. Phase 3, i.e. the STEPS project, commenced in November 2011 and will end in December 2015. In evaluating the School Based CPD (SBCPD) through Lesson Study, MOE-Zambia and JICA (2010) observed that utilization of the existing [SPRINT] system was effective when introducing a new approach. The evaluation also noted that Lesson Study was successfully introduced to schools and had taken root. Since Lesson Study was introduced by using the existing system of In-service Training (SPRINT) as its vehicle, it eased the tension among teachers and school administrators against a new approach. Utilizing an existing mechanism to introduce new ideas or approaches helps disseminate new ideas or approaches faster and at much lower cost while avoiding unnecessary uneasiness or opposition. In order for Lesson Study to take root in schools, both strong commitments by education administration and teachers’ motivation are necessary. In addition, as indicated earlier, using an existing system also strengthens the prospects for sustainability of the new approach. v. Challenges The major challenges identified on the international front are that too much effort has been devoted to increasing inputs, and not enough to ensuring that institutions provide services efficiently and responsively - and that consumers have the ability and incentive to use services efficiently and hold service providers accountable for quality (World Bank 2011). In the Zambian case, the challenge would be to sustain the changes, as change is a gradual process. Challenges are on two levels: one at system level and others at implementation levels. The two need to be balanced in the process of implementation. Countries that have used school based CPD acknowledge that it requires practical wisdom (Baba and Nakai, 2010) and that it is a long-term approach which calls for patience. This therefore tends to 113

Technical Cooperation Project in Education in an In-country Program: A Case of Teacher Education Program in Zambia

be in conflict with both the provider of ODA and recipients as they both are in constant and urgent demand for visible returns on the investments. This is so because for quality facilitation and coordination to take place, there is need for sustained attitude change. At the same time, in the countries receiving ODA there are competing approaches with the sector wide as well as other multilateral and bilateral approaches. To this effect more capacity is required to be developed at Ministry of Education level to act as a strong filter of all activities before they are offloaded to the implementation level. All these require patience and long term planning which at times are against the project approach. 9. Conclusion The project in a program approach agrees with IDC (2003) that, from this experience, many Japanese involved in technical cooperation share the idea that knowledge cannot be simply transferred by the donors, but should be actively acquired by the recipients. They also believe that foreign knowledge should be applied based on the local specifics in order to be internalized by the society of the recipient countries. Therefore, JICA’s approach recognizes the importance of the local values and knowledge, and thus is not based on an assumption that it is possible to replace existing capabilities in partner countries with knowledge and systems produced in Japan. These are evident in the policy shift, ownership and sustainability of the program. The role of knowledge has been frequently emphasized as an important agenda for development. Phase 1 of the SMASTE project was designed with less Zambians involved but Phases 2 and 3 were collaboratively designed. The IDC (2003) report points out that knowledge and skills cannot be simply transferred from developed to developing countries, but should be willingly acquired by the recipients. Furthermore, due to the recent development of information and communication technology (ICT), partner countries have wide access to external knowledge useful for development. Partner countries can also purchase a variety of knowledge from the market, using financial resources in the pooled technical cooperation funds, which are supplied by donors. The new motto is: “Scan globally, reinvent locally” (IDC, 2003). Learning from both the Zambian and Japanese experience of importing, absorbing and internalizing Western knowledge as part of its modernizing process, knowledge acquisition is a difficult and time-consuming process in which knowledge cannot be simply transferred by the donors. Tacit knowledge in particular cannot be acquired from the internet since the acquisition of tacit knowledge requires direct contact. Therefore, the acquisition of such kinds of knowledge can be facilitated by external support that emphasizes the process of acquiring new knowledge (IDC, 2003). The Zambian experience provides a novel view of how both the project and program approaches can be combined in the enhancement of the quality education.

114

Benson Banda, John Chileshe, Kazuyoshi Nakai, Yoshie Hama

References Banda, B. (2007). Current Status and Challenges of In-service Training of Teachers in Zambia− Based on the Experience of Introducing Lesson Study to the Schools −. NUE , 2, 89-96 GRZ (2006) Republic of Zambia Vision 2030: A prosperous Middle-income Nation by 2030, Lusaka, Zambia IDC (2003) Capacity Development and JICA’s Activities- Cooperation for Promoting Knowledge Acquisition IC Net Limited Japan IFIC (2002). Approaches for Systematic Planning of Development Projects. Japan International Cooperation Agency. Ishihara, S. (2010) Case Study 2 Teacher Education- School/Cluster based INSET/CPD (Zambia - Africa). IDEC, Hiroshima University, Japan JICA. (2008) JICA Annual Report 2008 Ministry of Education. (1996). Educating Our Future- National Policy on Education. Lusaka: Institutional Suppliers Limited. Ministry of Education (2010). Impact assessment of Lesson Study in Central Province OECD (2010) DAC Peer Review of Japan UNDP (2002). Capacity for Development; New solutions to old problems. United Nations Development Programme. UNDP (2003) ZAMBIA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 Eradication of Extreme Poverty and Hunger in Zambia: An Agenda for Enhancing the Achievement of the Millennium, Development Goals. Lusaka, Zambia. UNDP (2005). Human Development Report 2005- International Cooperation at a crossroads: Aid, Trade and Security in an Unequal World. New York USA World Bank (2011) Global Monitoring Report 2011: Improving the Odds of Achieving the MDGs -Heterogeneity, Gaps and Challenges. 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433. Yoshida, K. (2009) Japan’s International Cooperation for Educational Development: Review of Prospects for Scaling up Japan’s Aid to Education in UNESCO (2010) Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010-Reaching the marginalized

115