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Tectonic evolution of Cretaceous extensional basins in Zhejiang Province, eastern South China: structural and geochronological constraints a
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Jianhua Li , Zhili Ma , Yueqiao Zhang , Shuwen Dong , Yong Li , Miao’an Lu & Jingqiang Tan
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Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
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Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, China
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GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany Published online: 26 Aug 2014.
Click for updates To cite this article: Jianhua Li, Zhili Ma, Yueqiao Zhang, Shuwen Dong, Yong Li, Miao’an Lu & Jingqiang Tan (2014) Tectonic evolution of Cretaceous extensional basins in Zhejiang Province, eastern South China: structural and geochronological constraints, International Geology Review, 56:13, 1602-1629, DOI: 10.1080/00206814.2014.951978 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.951978
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International Geology Review, 2014 Vol. 56, No. 13, 1602–1629, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.951978
Tectonic evolution of Cretaceous extensional basins in Zhejiang Province, eastern South China: structural and geochronological constraints Jianhua Lia, Zhili Maa, Yueqiao Zhanga*, Shuwen Donga, Yong Lia, Miao’an Lub and Jingqiang Tanc a
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China; bInstitute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, China; cGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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(Received 22 March 2014; accepted 3 August 2014) Widespread Cretaceous volcanic basins are common in eastern South China and are crucial to understanding how the Circum-Pacific and Tethyan plate boundaries evolved and interacted with one another in controlling the tectonic evolution of South China. Lithostratigraphic units in these basins are grouped, in ascending order, into the Early Cretaceous volcanic suite (K1V), the Yongkang Group (K1-2), and the Jinqu Group (K2). SHRIMP U-Pb zircon geochronological results indicate that (1) the Early Cretaceous volcanic suite (K1V) erupted at 136–129 Ma, (2) the Yongkang Group (K1-2) was deposited from 129 Ma to 91 Ma, and (3) the deposition of the Jinqu Group (K2) post-dated 91 Ma. Structural analyses of fault-slip data from these rock units delineate a four-stage tectonic evolution of the basins during Cretaceous to Palaeogene time. The first stage (Early to middle Cretaceous time, 136–91 Ma) was dominated by NW–SE extension, as manifested by voluminous volcanism, initial opening of NE-trending basins, and deposition of the Yongkang Group. This extension was followed during Late Cretaceous time by NW–SE compression that inverted previous rift basins. During the third stage in Late Cretaceous time, possibly since 78.5 Ma, the tectonic stress changed to N–S extension, which led to basin opening and deposition of the Jinqu Group along E-trending faults. This extension probably lasted until early Palaeogene time and was terminated by the latest NE–SW compressional deformation that caused basin inversion again. Geodynamically, the NW–SE-oriented stress fields were associated with plate kinematics along the Circum-Pacific plate boundary, and the extension–compression alternation is interpreted as resulting from variations of the subducted slab dynamics. A drastic change in the tectonic stress field from NW–SE to N–S implies that the Pacific subduction-dominated back-arc extension and shortening were completed in the Late Cretaceous, and simultaneously, that Neo-Tethyan subduction became dominant and exerted a new force on South China. The ongoing Neo-Tethyan subduction might provide plausible geodynamic interpretations for the Late Cretaceous N–S extension-dominated basin rifting, and the subsequent Cenozoic India–Asia collision might explain the early Palaeogene NE–SW compression-dominated basin inversion. Keywords: South China; Cretaceous basin; tectonic stress field; magmatism; Palaeo-Pacific plate
1. Introduction Two of the most tectonically active domains of the Earth’s lithosphere border the South China Block along its eastern and western margins: the Pacific subduction zone and the Tethyan subduction/collision zone (e.g. McKenzie 1972; Molnar and Tapponnier 1975) (Figure 1A). The spatial and temporal interactions of these two orogenic systems induced widespread intracontinental deformation within the South China Block during the Mesozoic period (e.g. Ren et al. 2002). In particular, the Cretaceous period shows large-scale taphrogeny and magmatism (e.g. Wu 2006), generating the huge ‘South China Extensional Basin and Igneous Province’ (Zhou et al. 2006; Shu et al. 2009) (Figure 1B), as spectacular as the Basin and Range province in the western USA (Wernicke 1981; Eaton 1982). Despite extensive studies, controversies regarding the Cretaceous tectono-magmatic evolution of South China remain, reflected in various geodynamic scenarios proposed to explain their origins and associations with deep subducted slab dynamics. Gilder et al. (1996) first invoked *Corresponding author. Email:
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left-lateral strike-slip faulting concomitant with rifting to explain the formation and development of South China Cretaceous basins and magmatism; however, this model failed to account for the temporal-spatial progression of the magmatism. Alternatively, the NE-striking distribution of magmatic rocks and their southeastward younging trend led many authors to link the origin of Cretaceous magmatism with the northwestward subduction of the PalaeoPacific plate (e.g. John et al. 1990; Xu et al. 1999). Zhou and Li (2000) noticed the decreasing width of magmatic arc from Middle Jurassic (Aalenian) to Early Cretaceous (Albian) time and further proposed that the dip angle of the subducted oceanic slab increased progressively during the Aalenian–Albian time interval. However, Li (2000) argued that the width of magmatic arc (~1300 km) is far greater than that normally observed in subduction zones (300–400 km) and proposed that Cretaceous magmas were generated in response to decompression melting accompanying lithospheric extension rather than subduction. Contrasting with this subduction-
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Figure 1. (A) Sketch map showing the location of South China. (B) Simplified geological map illustrating the tectonic subdivision of South China and the distributions of Cretaceous basins and magmatic rocks.
unrelated model, Li and Li (2007) presented a flat-slab subduction model to account for the broad (~1300 kmwide) Mesozoic intracontinental deformation and magmatism within South China. Expanding on this view, these authors recently interpreted the 190–90 Ma magmatism as resulting from slab foundering and delamination of the subducted flat slab (Li et al. 2012b). Due to the lack of powerful structural constraints, these geodynamic interpretations have many limitations when applied to all of South China, especially for explaining Cretaceous transpressional structures as documented by more and more studies (e.g. Tong and Tobisch 1996; Wang and Lu 2000; Li et al. 2012a, 2014a). Additionally, these interpretations attributed all of the Cretaceous deformation and magmatism of South China to subduction dynamics of the Palaeo-Pacific plate and paid little attention to the far-field effect stemming from the Neo-Tethyan oceanic plate subduction. However, Neo-Tethys subduction must have been important because this caused widespread back-arc extensional deformation within South China (Ren et al. 2002), and moreover, the subsequent
Cenozoic India–Asia collision led to eastward extrusion of South China (Tapponnier et al. 1986; Zhang et al. 2003). Therefore, it is necessary to reassess these hypotheses for the development of more persuasive interpretations capable of explaining most of the geological observations. Widespread Cretaceous extension-related volcanic basins are found in the Zhejiang Province in eastern South China (Figure 1B), and these contain abundant information about the Cretaceous tectonic evolution of South China. The geologic record preserved in these basins is useful for understanding how the Palaeo-Pacific and Neo-Tethyan oceanic plate subduction systems interacted and contributed to the Cretaceous architecture of South China (Shu et al. 2009; Li et al. 2014a). Previous studies have focused on stratigraphic comparisons of these basins by integrating the vertebrate fossils and 40Ar–39Ar geochronology of volcanic layers (e.g. Zhang 1997; Fang et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2010; Jiang et al. 2011) and using zircon U-Pb and Lu-Hf isotope analyses of volcanic rocks to discuss geodynamic origins of the volcanism (Liu et al. 2012, 2014). However, little attention has been paid to the structural geology of the basins,
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thus creating many uncertainties in reconstructing their original geological framework and structural evolution. In this study, results of detailed structural analyses and U-Pb zircon geochronology conducted in these basins are presented, which aid the establishment of a multiphased tectonic model comprising alternating compressional and extensional episodes. These results are discussed in the regional tectonic context and are interpreted as resulting from interacting slab dynamics along the Palaeo-Pacific and Tethyan subduction/collision domains.
2. Tectonic setting and structural framework of eastern South China 2.1. Tectonic setting The South China Block is separated from the North China Craton by the Qinling–Dabie orogen (Li et al. 2013a), and it is bounded to the west by the Songpan–Ganzi Block and Tibetan Plateau and to the east by the Philippine Sea Plate (Figure 1A). The block itself can be divided into the Yangtze Block in the northwest and the Cathaysia Block in the southeast (Figure 1B). Continental crusts of these two blocks underwent different growth and reworking during the Archaean to Neoproterozoic period, generating distinctive Precambrian basements (e.g. Zhao et al. 2002; Zhao and Cawood 2012; Sun et al. 2013a, 2013b). Yangtze Block basement consists of high-grade metamorphosed tonalite, trondhjemite, granodiorite gneisses (TTG) and amphibolites of Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic ages (Liu et al. 2008; Jiao et al. 2009), with the oldest (>3.2 Ga) rocks exposed in the Kongling Complex (Figure 1B) (Qiu et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2006; Cawood et al. 2013). Cathaysian Block basement consists of gneiss, amphibolite, migmatite, and meta-volcanic rocks of Palaeoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic age (Yu et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2010), with the oldest (>2.0 Ga) rocks exposed in the Badu Complex of the east Cathaysia Block (Figure 1B) (Yu et al., 2010a, 2012b). It is generally considered that the collision of the Yangtze Block and the Cathaysia Block occurred along the Shaoxing–Jiangshan suture during the early Neoproterozoic time (~1.0–0.9 Ga), associated with the amalgamation of the supercontinent Rodinia (Charvet et al. 1996; Zhao and Cawood 1999; Li et al. 2002; Zhao et al. 2011a). An extensional regime accompanying the break-up of Rodinia created the Nanhua Rift and caused extensive ~830–740 Ma mafic magmatism (e.g. Wang and Li 2003; Gao et al. 2011; Zhao et al. 2011a; Su et al. 2014a, 2014b). Then South China experienced ~400 Ma of tectonic stability until an early Palaeozoic intracontinental orogeny (e.g. Shu et al. 2008), as expressed by 460–440 Ma amphibolite facies metamorphism, ductile shearing, crustal melting, and a Devonian regional unconformity (e.g. Li et al. 2010), followed by intrusion of post-orogenic (440–420 Ma) I- and A-type granitic intrusions (Faure et al. 2009; Charvet et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2010).
J. Li et al. Intense overprinting of Palaeozoic and older rocks occurred during the Triassic in response to collision and suturing between the Indochina Block and South China, giving rise to a widespread Late Triassic unconformity, syn-orogenic (250–230 Ma) greenschist facies metamorphism, ductile shearing, ESE-trending folding and thrusting (Wang et al. 2005, 2007a; Zhang et al. 2008; Shu et al. 2008; Zhang and Cai 2009), and post-orogenic (230–200 Ma) granitic magmatism and metamorphic core complex formation (Faure et al. 1996; Qiu et al. 2004; Li et al. 2014b). Triassic structures were intensively overprinted by a Jurassic– Cretaceous tectono-thermal event associated with PalaeoPacific plate subduction (Zhou et al. 2006). The early phase of Middle–Late Jurassic compression induced pronounced crustal shortening and thickening, giving rise to regional-scale NE-trending folds, overthrust nappes, and crustal anatexis (e.g. Yang and Yu 1994; Ding et al. 2007; Xu et al. 2010). Following this contraction, extension occurred during Cretaceous time, accompanied by extensive magmatism and crustal subsidence, thus generating abundant igneous rocks, extensional basins, and dome structures (Figure 1B) (e.g. Gilder et al. 1991; Zhou et al. 2006; Li et al. 2013b). Cretaceous extensional basins and magmatic rocks cover >250,000 km2 (Zhou et al. 2006), representing two of the most striking features in South China. Most basins trend NE–NNE, parallel to the Pacific margin (Figure 1B); their origin is generally associated with rollback or steeply dipping subduction of the Palaeo-Pacific plate (e.g. Northrup et al. 1995; Zhou and Li 2000). A few basins in the coastal area, especially in Zhejiang Province, trend W– NW (Figure 1B); these generally truncate the NE–NNE ones, indicating that they are younger (Li et al. 2014a). However, their origin remains enigmatic and will be addressed in this article. Coeval magmatism from 145 Ma to 86 Ma produced a NE-trending magmatic arc, with the locus progressively migrating towards the coast (e.g. Li 2000; Zhou et al. 2006; Wong et al. 2011; Guo et al. 2012). Cretaceous granitic intrusions are scattered throughout South China (Figure 1B); these consist of diorite, granodiorite, monzogranite, and gneissic granites and show geochemical characteristics of I-, S- or A-type granites (e.g. Wang et al. 2007b; Wong et al. 2009). Cretaceous volcanic rocks are restricted to the region east of the Ganjiang fault zone (Figure 1B); they consist of rhyolite, dacite, basalt, and tuff and show geochemical characteristics of high-K calc-alkaline or alkaline volcanic rocks (e.g. Geng et al. 2006; Liu et al. 2009; Zeng et al. 2010). 2.2. Structural framework of eastern South China Eastern South China has widespread Cretaceous volcanic basins (e.g. Shu et al. 2009). Compared to those inland basins, the basins near the coast contain much higher abundance of lavas and other volcanic rocks along with sediments
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Simplified structural map delineating distributions of volcanic basins in eastern South China and sample localities.
(Li et al. 2014a). The Zhenghe–Dapu fault zone (Figure 1) is an important trans-lithospheric structure separating the inland early Palaeozoic fold-thrust-belt from the coastal Mesozoic magmatic belt (Shu et al. 2009). Two map-scale sets of normal faults accommodated basin formation. One set trends NE and resulted from Cretaceous rifting along the Zhenghe–Dapu fault zone; these faults controlled basin opening and sedimentation during Early to middle Cretaceous time and formed NE-trending basins (Figure 2). The other set trends W–NW, possibly resulting from reactivation of older basement fault systems. This set is younger because it truncates the NE-trending set. These faults controlled Late Cretaceous formation of W- and NW-trending basins and subsidence (Figure 2). Given that basin formation and evolution were controlled by their boundary fault systems, three types of basin (I, II, and III) are classified based on their boundary faults. I-type basins strike NE–SW parallel to the Zhenghe–Dapu fault zone and represent the most remarkable structures in the region, as expressed by the Lishui and Yongkang Basins
(Figure 2). II-type basins strike E to ENE, probably resulting from reactivation of the Gan–Hang Rift belt (Jiang et al. 2011), and are exemplified by the Jinqu Basin (Figure 2). III-type basins consist of two discrete grabens trending NE and WNW, such as the Shengzhou and Tiantai Basins (Figure 2). These basins have been the focus of numerous sedimentological and stratigraphic studies (Ma 1994, 1997; Cai and Yu 2001; Luo et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2012). However, these studies are always limited to a single basin or stratigraphic unit, and the inferred stratigraphic sequence is rarely applied to other basins. Moreover, uncertainties associated with early geochronological studies have obscured our ability to reconstruct and correlate the stratigraphic frameworks of these basins. 3. Lithostratigraphy Four Cretaceous volcanic basins were chosen for stratigraphic analysis, i.e. the Yongkang (basin-type I), Jinqu (basin-type II), Shengzhou (basin-type III), and Tiantai
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Figure 3. Representative stratigraphic columns complied from updated literature showing the petrology, thickness, and geochronology of major rock series in the Yongkang (A), Shengzhou (B), Tiantai (C), and Jinqu (D) Basins. The blue arrows point to the positions of rock samples from this and previous studies.
(basin-type III) (Figure 2). Their stratigraphic columns are shown in Figure 3. Age assignments, lithologies, and thicknesses of the lithostratigraphic units were compiled from not only our new geochronological data but also from previous studies of surface structures, fossils, and relevant geological maps and literature (e.g. Li et al. 1989; ZBGRM 1989; Ma 1994; Luo and Yu 2004; Cui et al. 2010), all with regional scope. Rock series therein are grouped into three stratigraphic successions, which are characterized by two volcano-sedimentary rock series on top of older Cretaceous volcanics (K1V) (Figure 3). The former two stratigraphic successions, named the Yongkang Group (K1-2) and the Jinqu Group (K2), both consist of fluvial-lacustrine fan sedimentary units and interbedded tuff-rhyolite volcanics (Figure 3). The Early Cretaceous volcanic suite (K1V) consists predominantly of grey ignimbrite and purple rhyolite, in certain cases with vesicular structure preserved. It has the broadest distribution in the study area and commonly forms topographic highs that provided volcanic fragments for basin sediments. This rock series was cut by normal faults that dominated basin opening and sediment infilling (Figure 3), implying that volcanism predated some extension.
The Yongkang Group (K1-2) comprises upper and lower volcano-sedimentary sequences (Figure 3), corresponding to a combination of the Guantou, Chaochuan, and Fangyan Formations in Chinese literature (e.g. Ma 1994, 1997; Yu et al. 1995; Luo and Yu 2004). This group consists of red sandstones, mudstones, conglomerates, and black shales with interbedded tuffs, rhyolites, and minor basalts (Figure 4A, e.g. Luo and Yu 2004). Its upper part is composed of a thick conglomerate sequence named ‘the Fangyan Conglomerate’ (Figure 3), composed of moderately to poorly sorted, rounded volcanic pebbles (Figure 4B). The Fangyan Conglomerate is an important traceable layer used for stratigraphic comparison between basins. The Jinqu Group (K2) is equivalent to a combination of the Jinhua and Quxian Formations in Chinese literature (Zu et al. 2004) and was mostly deposited in the Jinqu Basin (Figure 2). It is composed of red sandstones and conglomerates with few interbedded basalts. Fossils of dinosaur eggs (Dictyoolithus) and plants (Pseudofrenelopsis cf. papillosa) constrain its depositional age to the Late Cretaceous (Yu et al. 2010b, 2012a). Along the southern margin of the Jinqu Basin (site Zj134), we observed this group to overlie the tilted Yongkang Group with an angular unconformity of >30° (Figure 5). This unconformity attests to a significant
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Figure 4. Field views (A) and (B) showing the red bed and Fangyan Conglomerate in the middle and upper part of the Yongkang Group, respectively.
Figure 5. Field view showing an angular unconformity between the steeply dipping Tiantai Group below and the gently dipping Jinqu Group above (taken at site Zj134); this unconformity provides stratigraphic evidence for tectonic inversion of the Jinqu Basin during the early Late Cretaceous.
tectonic inversion occurring after the deposition of the Yongkang Group.
4. Geochronology In order to constrain the eruption and deposition ages of the Early Cretaceous volcanic suite (K1V) and the Yongkang Group (K1-2), eight rock samples were collected and analysed by SHRIMP U-Pb zircon geochronology. Sample locations are shown in Figure 2.
4.1. Analytical procedures Zircons for U-Pb dating were separated using conventional magnetic and heavy liquid separation methods; they were mounted in epoxy resin with standard
Temora zircon (417 Ma) and polished to expose the internal sections and then gold coated. All zircons were documented with photomicrographs and cathodoluminescence (CL) images to reveal their internal structures. CL images were taken at the Electron Microprobe Group of the Beijing SHRIMP Centre, and zircon in situ U-Th-Pb isotope analyses were carried out on the SHRIMP-II at the Beijing SHRIMP Centre, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS). Instrumental conditions and data acquisition have been described by Williams (1998). The standard zircon TEM (417 Ma) was used for element fractionation correction, and the standard zircon sample SL 13 (572 Ma) was measured to calibrate U, Th, and Pb concentrations. All data were analysed using the Isoplot program (Ludwig 1991).
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Figure 6. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images and SHRIMP U-Pb zircon dating results for volcanic rock samples beneath and within the basins. MSWD, mean square of weighted deviates.
4.2. Analytical results Representative U-Pb dating results of zircons from the volcanic rocks within and beneath basin sediments are illustrated in Figure 6 and listed in Table 1. Uncertainties on individual analyses are reported at the 1σ level; mean ages for pooled 206Pb/238U ages are quoted at the 95% confidence level.
4.2.1. Interbedded volcanic layers within the Yongkang Group (K1-2) Sample Zj47-1 is an interbedded light-coloured tuff collected from the lower part of the Yongkang Group in the southern Yongkang Basin (Figure 3A). Its zircons are euhedral, transparent, and 100–200 μm with aspect ratios 3.2 Ga continental crust in the Yangtze craton of south China and its implications for Archean crustal evolution and Phanerozoic tectonics: Geology, v. 28, p. 11–14. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000) 0282.0.CO;2 Ratschbacher, L., Hacker, B.R., Webb, L.E., McWilliams, M., Ireland, T., Dong, S.W., Calvert, A., Chateigner, D., and Wenk, H.R., 2000, Exhumation of the ultrahigh-pressure continental crust in east central China: Cretaceous and Cenozoic unroofing and the Tanlu fault: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 105, p. 13303–13338. doi:10.1029/2000JB900040 Ren, J., Tamaki, K., Lim, S., and Junxia, Z., 2002, Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic rifting and its dynamic setting in eastern China and adjacent areas: Tectonophysics, v. 344, p. 175–205. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00271-2 Sharp, W.D., and Clague, D.A., 2006, 50-Ma initiation of Hawaiian-emperor bend records major change in Pacific Plate motion: Science, v. 313, p. 1281–1284. doi:10.1126/ science.1128489 Shi, W., Dong, S.W., Ratschbacher, L., Tian, M., Li, J.H., and Wu, G.L., 2013, Meso-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Dangyang Basin, north-central Yangtze craton, central China: International Geology Review, v. 55, no. 3, p. 382– 396. doi:10.1080/00206814.2012.715732 Shinn, Y.J., Chough, S.K., and Hwang, I.G., 2010, Structural development and tectonic evolution of Gunsan Basin (Cretaceous–Tertiary) in the central Yellow Sea: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 27, p. 500–514. doi:10.1016/j. marpetgeo.2009.11.001
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