Tectonic evolution, superimposed orogeny, and

Gondwana Research 50 (2017) 216–266

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Gondwana Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gr

GR Focus Review

Tectonic evolution, superimposed orogeny, and composite metallogenic system in China Jun Deng ⁎, Qingfei Wang, Gongjian Li State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

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Article history: Received 23 December 2016 Received in revised form 10 February 2017 Accepted 12 February 2017 Available online 15 February 2017 Handling Editor: M. Santosh Keywords: Composite ore system Superimposed orogeny Continental collision Adakite Supercontinents China tectonics

a b s t r a c t Continental China is a mosaic of numerous tectonic blocks, which amalgamated from Neoarchean to Cenozoic broadly coeval with the cycles of global supercontinents such as Kenorland, Columbia, Rodinia, Gondwana, and Pangaea. By reviewing the long-lasting geological evolution in the different tectonic blocks, it reveals that more than two episodes of tectonic events, including accretionary and collisional orogeny, and dismantling, as well as mantle plume, occurred successively or simultaneously within a single tectonic belt. This is called superimposed orogeny in this study. Examples of the dominant types of superimposed orogeny in China include: (1) Cenozoic continental collision superimposed on Paleo- to Mesozoic accretionary orogeny in the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts; (2) Reactivation of Paleozoic accretionary orogen in later Mesozoic oceanic subduction in the eastern part of Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun and Central Asian orogenic belts; (3) Mesozoic oceanic subduction under the paleo-suture in the South China Block; (4) Mesozoic demantling along the Paleo- and Neoproterozoic, and Paleozoic sutures in the eastern part of North China Craton; and (5) mantle plume rising through metasomatized lithospheric mantle or stagnant oceanic slab in the Emeishan large igneous province. A comprehensive review of the spatial-temporal distribution of ore deposits and their salient features shows that the superimposed orogeny has exerted significant control on metallogeny in China. The giant porphyry and skarnore deposits, as well as orogenic gold deposits were preferentially formed along previous tectonic suture, craton margin, and arc during later orogenesis due to the remobilization of previously enriched metals. Superimposed orogeny has reworked the lithospheric structure with concomitant granitoid-associated metallogeny. The mixing of magmas from juvenile lower crust, ancient lower crust, and middle crust, which tends to induce the different mineralization of Cu–Au, Mo, and Pb–Zn–W–Sn deposits respectively, was considered to generate a wide variety of combinations of metal species. The superimposed orogeny caused the overlapping of diverse genetic types of deposit formed in different tectonic periods in the same tectono-metallogenic belt. The stratiform ore deposit, including BIF, VMS, SEDEX, or sedimentary sulfide layers, formed from Neoarchean to Paleozoic, were modified by later mineralization, resulting in the enrichment of the various metal species and enhancement of ore resources. This study brings up the concept of composite metallogenic system to summarize the regional metallogeny driven by superimposed orogeny. The composite metallogenic system was dominantly characterized by the multi-episodic and diverse mineralization concomitant with one or more features, including mineralization evolved from the previous metal enrichment, later overlapping or modification on previous ore belt, and diversifying of metal species derived from reworked lithosphere. © 2017 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crustal architecture of China . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Tectonic units and their evolutionary outline 2.2. Main sutures and arcs . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1. Paleoproterozoic subduction system 2.2.2. Neoproterozoic subduction system

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⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Deng).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.02.005 1342-937X/© 2017 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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2.2.3. Early Paleozoic subduction and collisional system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4. Carboniferous subduction and collisional system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5. Permian to Triassic subduction and collisional system . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6. Jurassic to Cretaceous subduction system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.7. Cenozoic subduction system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Cenozoic continental collision, demantling and mantle plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. Mantle plume and demantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1. Mantle plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2. Demantling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Multi-stage metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Tianshan–Altay orogenic belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1. Early Paleozoic metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2. Early Carboniferous metallogenesis related to arc construction . . . . . . . . 3.1.3. Late Carboniferous metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction . . . . . . . 3.1.4. Triassic metallogenesis in post-collision setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.5. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Northeast China blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. Paleozoic metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2. Triassic metallogenesis related to the closure of Central Asian Orogenic Belt . . . 3.2.3. Jurassic to Cretaceous metallogenesis related to double-side oceanic subduction 3.2.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. North China Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1. Precambrian metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2. Early-Paleozoic to Jurassic metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3. Early Cretaceous metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1. Early-Paleozoic metallogenesis related to Proto-Tethyan orogenesis . . . . . . 3.4.2. Late-Paleozoic metallogenesis related to Paleo-Tethyan orogenesis . . . . . . . 3.4.3. Middle Triassic to Late Cretaceous metallogenesis related to intraplate extension 3.4.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5. Tibetan plateau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1. Jurassic metallogenesis related to accretionary collision . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2. Paleocene to Eocene metallogenesis related to continental collision . . . . . . 3.5.3. Miocene metallogenesis related to continental collision . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6. Sanjiang orogenic belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1. Metallogenesis related to Proto-Tethyan evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2. Metallogenesis related to Paleo-Tethyan evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3. Metallogenesis related Meso- and Neo-Tethyan evolution . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.4. Oligocene metallogenesis related to lithospheric mantle removal . . . . . . . 3.6.5. Eocene metallogenesis related to crustal shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.6. Neogene metallogenesis related to crust extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.7. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7. South China Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1. Precambrian metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2. Paleozoic metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3. Metallogenesis related to Emeishan LIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.4. Triassic Au metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.5. Jurassic metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.6. Cretaceous metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.7. Cenozoic metallogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.8. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Superimposed orogeny in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Types of superimposed orogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Example of superimposed orogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Triggers for superimposed orogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Control of superimposed orogeny on composite metallogenic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Space–time location of newborn ore deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Source of ore-forming granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Overlapping or modification of ore deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4. Composite metallogenic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1. Introduction Continental China is located at the junction of the Central Asian orogenic belt, Tethyan orogenic belt and the Pacific oceanic subduction zone (Ren et al., 2013; Zheng et al., 2013) (Fig. 1a). China is a collage of cratons and fragmental continental blocks and arcs, welded by multiple ophiolitic mélange. Numerous studies have addressed the crustal architecture and tectonic evolution of the North China Craton and South China Block in the Archean to Paleoproterozoic (e.g., Santosh et al., 2013, 2016; Zhai and Santosh, 2011), Neoproterozoic (Li et al., 2002a, 2009b; Zhou et al., 2006a; Zhao, 2015), Paleozoic (e.g., Wang et al., 2010a) and Mesozoic (Sun et al., 2007; Li and Li, 2007; Li et al., 2012a; Wang et al., 2013a) domains. Extensive researches have been carried out on the composition and evolution of orogenic belts, such as the Jiangnan belt in South China Block (Zhu et al., 2012c; Li et al., 2012a), the Central Asian orogenic belt (Han et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2015b), the QinlingQilian-Kunlun belt (Sun et al., 2003; Wu and Zheng, 2013; Dong and Santosh, 2016; Song et al., 2013), the Tibetan region (Chung et al., 2005; Burchfiel and Chen, 2012; Zhu et al., 2013), and the Sanjiang belt (Deng et al., 2014a,b; Wang et al., 2014a). These studies have characterized the magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic records, suggesting that the formation and assembly of the cratonic and microcontinental blocks were broadly coeval with the global supercontinental cycles including Kenorland, Columbia, Rodinia Pangaea and Eurasia (e.g., Rogers and Santosh, 2003; Collins and Pisarevsky, 2005; Mitchell et al., 2012; Cocks and Torsvik, 2013; Nance et al., 2014). A systematic analysis of the metallogenesis in the context of tectonic evolution was first attempted by Zhai and Deng (1996). Subsequently, the specific genetic types, metal species, tectonic units, and geological processes were investigated by many workers. For example, the distribution and geodynamic settings of skarn Au deposits were studied by Chen et al. (2007), the Au ore deposits were reviewed by the Zhou et al. (2002a), Goldfarb et al. (2014) and Deng and Wang (2016), the ore system in the South China Block by Zaw et al. (2007) and Hu and Zhou (2012), Mesozoic metallogeny in eastern China by Mao et al. (2011a, 2013, 2014a,b), the metallogeny in the Sanjiang Tethyan metallogenesis by Hou et al. (2007) and Deng et al. (2014a,b), metallogeny of the North China Craton associated with secular changes in the evolving Earth by Zhai and Santosh (2013), metallogenic evolution in Tibet by Hou et al. (2014) and that in Sanjiang by Deng et al. (2013, 2014a, b), Proterozoic Fe–Cu metallogeny of the southwestern Yangtze Craton by Zhou et al. (2014), among others. The geodynamic mechanism for the intracontinental porphyry ore deposit (Sun et al., 2013b), Cretaceous ore deposit developed in Jiaodong (Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Deng et al., 2015b; Groves and Santosh, 2016), epithermal ore deposit in the South China Block (Hu and Zhou, 2012), magmatic ore deposit (Li et al., 2015d), the VMS ore deposit (Li et al., 2015a) have also been synthesized. In spite of the various studies, the relationship between tectonics and metallogeny in China has remained enigmatic. In this paper, we present a comprehensive overview of the spatial and temporal distribution of the sutures, arcs and important tectono-magmatic events with a view to evaluate the link with over 500 different genetic types of ore deposits. Our review shows that the oceanic subduction and block accretion continued from the Neoproterozoic Rodinia to the Mesozoic Pangaea and to Cenozoic Indian-Eurasian collision. During this protracted evolution of the tectonic mosaic of China, some of the tectonic belts witnessed multiple episodes of orogeny, and other types of mantle-crust interaction, termed superimposed orogeny herein. Based on our new perspective, we

proposed that the superimposed orogeny is fundamental to produce large-scale ore cluster and to generate composite ore system consisting of a large spectrum of mineral deposits with different genetic types and metallogenic times. 2. Crustal architecture of China 2.1. Tectonic units and their evolutionary outline The major tectonic units in China comprise cratons such as the North China, Tarim, and Yangtze, and several orogenic belts consisting of small blocks and arcs flanking the cratons, including the Central Asian, Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun, Tibet, and Sanjiang orogenic belts (Fig. 1; Zheng et al., 2013). The cratonization of the North China Craton was accomplished at the end of Neoarchean through the amalgamation of micro-blocks resulting in granulite facies metamorphism and granitic magmatism (Zhao et al., 2001; Santosh, 2010; Zhai and Santosh, 2011, 2013; Santosh et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2016e) (Fig. 2). In the northern part of Yangtze Craton, the Kongling Complex contains igneous and metamorphic rocks as old as 3.3 Ga (Zhang and Zheng, 2007; Gao et al., 2011), but crystalline basement complexes are not exposed in the other parts of the craton. Zheng et al. (2006) suggested a wide distribution of Archean rocks in the unexposed basement of the Yangtze Craton based on U–Pb and Hf isotopic data from zircon xenocrysts in Paleozoic lamproites. The cratons and orogenic belts experienced multiple tectonic events associated with the assembly and break-up of the global supercontinents, like Columbia (~1.8 to ~1.5 Ga), Rodinia (~1.25 Ga to ~750 Ma) and Pangaea (~250 Ma) (Nance et al., 2014), as well as the continental collision between India and Eurasia (b55 Ma) (e.g., Najman et al., 2010; Decelles et al., 2014) (Fig. 3). The cratons and the fragmented blocks assembled as the Central Asian Ocean and Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed during the formation of Pangaea, constructing the incipient mainland China before the end of Triassic (Wilhem et al., 2012). As a response to the following break-up of Pangaea, the fragmented blocks dispersed from East Gondwana and were accreted to China from the southwest (e.g., Cocks and Torsvik, 2013). Before the arrival of Indian continent, the tectonic framework in China was considerably modified through oceanic subduction of the Meso- and Neo-Tethyan Ocean, Mongol– Okhotsk Ocean (Cogné et al., 2005; Tomurtogoo et al., 2005; Donskaya et al., 2013; Ouyang et al., 2013), and Paleo-Pacific Ocean from the southwest, north, and east-southeast respectively until lateCretaceous (Zheng et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2015b; Wilde, 2015; Deng et al., 2016a) (Fig. 4). Subsequently, the collision of Indian continent with the Eurasian continent resulted in the uplift of Tibetan Plateau, shearing and rotating in surrounding crust, as well as removal of lithospheric mantle (Royden et al., 2008; Chung et al., 2005; Yin, 2010). 2.2. Main sutures and arcs 2.2.1. Paleoproterozoic subduction system In the North China Craton, three major Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts weld four Archean continental blocks (Santosh et al., 2013, 2015). The Yinshan and Ordos blocks amalgamated along the Khondalite Belt (also known as Inner Mongolia suture, [1] in Figs. 1, 2) to form the Western Block at ~ 1.95 Ga, which then collided with the Eastern Block along the NS-trending Trans-North China Orogen ([2] in Fig. 1) at ~ 1.85 to 1.80 Ga (Fig. 1; Zhao et al., 2001). The Khondalite Belt is dominated by Paleoproterozoic graphite–garnet–sillimanite gneiss, garnet quartzite, felsic paragneiss, calc-silicate rock and marble. The Trans-North China Orogen is composed of late Archean to Paleoproterozoic granitoid gneisses, greenschist facies mafic rocks,

Fig. 1. (a) Location of China in the triangular region of the Paleo-Asian, Tethyan, and western Pacific domains (modified after Ren et al., 2013; Zheng et al., 2013). The base map is based on the Google Earth website. (b) Generalized tectonic framework of China showing major craton, continental fragments (blocks), sutures, orogenic belts and arc belt, modified after Zhao et al. (2001) and Zheng et al. (2013).


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Fig. 2. Precambrian and Mesozoic geology of North China Craton and South China Block. Revised after Zhao and Cawood (2012) and Charles et al. (2013).

amphibolites, high-pressure granulites and retrograded eclogites (Zhao et al., 2001). The third Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt, Jiao-Liao-Ji belt ([3]), is located in the Eastern Block, dividing Longgang and Nangrim blocks. It was suggested that the basement of this belt was composed of Neoarchean TTG gneisses, supracrustal rocks (i.e., metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks), and granitoid rocks (Li and Zhao, 2007; Jahn et al., 2008). Available metamorphic age data suggest that the collision between the Longgang Block and the Rangrim Block occurred at ~1.95 Ga to 1.85 Ga (e.g., Tam et al., 2011).

2.2.2. Neoproterozoic subduction system Two Neoproterozoic orogenic belts were situated along the northwestern and southeastern sides of Yangtze Craton (Fig. 2) (Zhou et al., 2006a; Zhao, 2015). The southeastern side of the Yangtze Craton is known as the Jiangnan orogen ([4]). Proterozoic strata in this domain include the 930–890 Ma Shuangxiwu arc volcanic rocks and the Sibao Group. The Sibao Group and its equivalents, the Fanjingshan, Lengjiaxi, and Shuangqiaoshan Groups, were traditionally thought to be Mesoproterozoic but were recently established as Neoproterozoic


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Fig. 3. Supercontinent reconstruction for Columbia (a), Rodinia (b1, b2) and Pangea (c) and the present construction of eastern Eurasian continent (d) with formation of associated ore deposits (modified after Zhao et al., 2004; Li et al., 2008; Cawood et al., 2013; Metcalfe, 2013).

sequences (830–815 Ma) deposited in back-arc basins (Wang et al., 2013b). Subsequently, amalgamation between the Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia Block occurred along the Jiangnan Orogen as evidenced by the ~ 824 Ma ophiolitic complex in southern Anhui Province (Zhang et al., 2012a) and by a regional scale unconformity, above which the ~ 800–730 Ma Banxi Group and its equivalents were deposited. These younger strata are suggested to be products of large-scale rifting (Zhao et al., 2011a). The Hannan-Panxi arc ([5]) extends along the western and northern margins of the Yangtze Craton, and is exposed in the late Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic metamorphosed strata and Neoproterozoic plutonic complexes. Neoproterozoic plutons complexes consist of voluminous granitic and minor maficultramafic rocks. Zhou et al., 2006a and Zhao and Zhou (2007) proposed that the arc-like geochemistry of these plutons indicates formation at an active continental margin and that they define the Hannan-Panxi arc. Neoproterozoic magmatism induced by oceanic subduction has also been reported in the Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt (Fig. 2). The Neoproterozoic Kuanping suture ([6]) is marked by wide distribution of ophiolitic mélange between the Luonan–Luanchuan and the Shangzhou–Nanzhao faults. The ophiolite suite with metamorphism of greenschist-facies show protolith formation ages of ca. 1.45–0.95 Ga (Dong et al., 2014). The North Qinling terrane within the orogenic belt

is considered to be a relic of the Grenvillian orogeny and has been correlated to the formation of Rodinia based on the extensive magmatism and typical amphibolite-facies metamorphism at ~ 1.0 Ga (Yu et al., 2015). The Neoproterozoic magmatic rocks in the South Qinling belt formed before ca. 833 Ma and might represent the amalgamation of the Rodinia supercontinent in an arc-related subduction environment (Zhang et al., 2016; Dong and Santosh, 2016). 2.2.3. Early Paleozoic subduction and collisional system All the NE China blocks are separated from one another by Early Paleozoic sutures, such as the Xinlin–Xiguitu suture ([7]) between Erguna and Xing'an blocks, the Xilinhot–Heihe suture ([8]) between Xing'an and Songliao blocks, the Mudanjiang suture ([9]) between Songliao and Jiamusi blocks (Fig. 1; Zhao et al., 2014a; Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Zhou et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2014d). Between the NE China blocks and the North China Craton is the Ondor Sum–Yanji suture ([10]). These sutures are marked by mélange, high pressure rocks, strongly deformed rocks, with intermittent volcanic rocks and plutons along them (Xu et al., 2015b). The Xinlin–Xiguitu suture resulted from northwestward accretion of the Xing'an beneath the Erguna during the Cambrian, which was followed by the formation of the Xilinhot– Heihe suture in the northwestern margins of the Songliao Block in the Silurian and the contemporaneous Ondor Sum–Yanji suture associated

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Fig. 4. Paleographic evolution of China mainland showing the process of superimposed orogeny in Phanerozoic. Revised from Metcalfe (2002, 2013), Cocks and Torsvik (2013) and Deng et al. (2013, 2015a).


with Ordovician Bainaimiao arc on the northern margin of North China Craton (Xiao et al., 2003). The Mudanjiang suture was formed by westward accretion of the Jiamusi Block beneath the eastern margin of the Songliao Block during Middle Devonian (Xu et al., 2015b). Early Paleozoic magmatic event can be observed from the Xilinhot–Heihe, Ondor Sum–Yanji and Mudanjiang sutures, which contains age peaks of 475–427 Ma, 450–404 Ma and 451–432, respectively (Jian et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2015b). The early-Paleozoic subduction systems also existed in the eastern segment of Central Asian orogenic belt in China, also termed as the Tianshan-Altay region (Fig. 5). It was proposed that the Early Paleozoic tectonic framework and evolution of Tianshan-Altay is best characterized by juvenile accretion and amalgamation of arcs separated by intervening oceans and early-Paleozoic arc (Xiao and Santosh, 2014). The main ocean was considered to be the Paleo-Tianshan (Terskey) Ocean between the Kazakhstan–Yili Block and the Central Tianshan Block, which had opened at least during the Cambrian as recorded by the Hongliuhe and Dalubayi ophiolite mélanges (e.g., Zhang and Guo, 2008). The Paleo-Tianshan Ocean probably closed along the Nekolaev Line–North Narati Suture ([11]) during Silurian (e.g., Charvet et al., 2007). Almost after the closure of Paleo-Tianshan Ocean, the South Tianshan oceanic crust initiated northwards subduction (Ge et al., 2012). Detrital zircon U–Pb dating of sediments from the accretionary mélange from South Tianshan orogenic belt yielding ages of 410– 445 Ma, interpreted as the sediments derived from the arc in Kazakhstan Block induced by the subduction of South Tianshan oceanic crust (Xia et al., 2014). The Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt, also termed the Central Orogenic Belt in China, represents the northernmost orogenic collage within the Tethyan domain (Fig. 1). Several Gondwana-derived blocks,

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including the Qaidam, Central Qilian and North Qinling blocks are separated from each other by the early-Paleozoic sutures (Song et al., 2013). The West Kunlun orogenic belt ([12]) located in the western segment of Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun is surrounded by the Tarim Craton and Tibet Plateau to the north and south, and to the west by the Pamir Plateau. It was offset from East Kunlun orogenic belt and Songpan–Garzê accretionary complex by the Altun strike-slip fault to the east. The Oytag–Kudi–Qimanyute suture in West Kunlun orogenic belt ([12]) is considered as the early-Paleozoic suture derived from the ProtoTethys Ocean (Zhang et al., 2015b). The Mazha–Kangxiwa–A'nyemaqen suture in West Kunlun was suggested to witness two cycles: the ProtoTethys Ocean (or Mazha–Kangxiwa Ocean) and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (or Mazha–Kangxiwa–Subashi–Ocean) (Zhang et al., 2015b). The Qilian–Qaidam region consists of the North Qilian orogenic belt ([13]), Qilian Block, North Qaidam belt ([14]), and Qaidam Block (Fig. 1). Initiation of the oceanic subduction in the Qilian Ocean probably occurred at ~ 520 Ma and the Qilian Ocean was closed at the end of the Ordovician (~ 445 Ma) forming the North Qilian orogenic belt ([13]) (Song et al., 2013). The North Qaidam belt ([14]) underwent accretionary orogeny in the Early Paleozoic and in the Late Paleozoic to Triassic. The belt is dominantly composed of Ordovician island arc volcanic rocks and back-arc basin volcanic-sedimentary rocks (Shi et al., 2004), Early Paleozoic ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphic rocks (Yang et al., 2002), and Early Paleozoic and Permian to Triassic granitoids. It was proposed that the North Qaidam oceanic basin subducted during Early Ordovician, and the collisional orogeny occurred during Late Ordovician to Middle Devonian (Song et al., 2013). The East Kunlun orogenic belt ([15]) is bounded by the Qaidam basin to the north and the NE-trending Altun strike-slip fault to the west. There is a growing consensus that the East Kunlun witnessed a complex tectonic history

Fig. 5. Schematic geological map of the Tianshan–Altay (modified after Xiao et al., 2014) illustrating the tectonic units and the space–time information of important ore deposits. The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A.

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of seafloor spreading, subduction, and terrane amalgamation in Early Paleozoic, as recorded by Qimantagh continental arc, northwestern margin of the East Kunlun (Li et al., 2013a). The Early Paleozoic Shangdan suture ([16]), an important tectonic entity within the Qinling orogenic belt, marks the boundary between the North Qinling Orogen and South Qinling Block (Dong et al., 2011a). The suture incorporates early Cambrian to early Silurian ophiolites, volcanic arc assemblages and subduction-accretion complexes, indicating that its evolution involved the creation and consumption of an early Paleozoic ocean basin. At the beginning of Cambrian, the extension of the Shangdan Ocean initiated. The northward subduction of the Shangdan oceanic crust induced the spreading of Erlangping back-arc basin (Zhang et al., 2000), which separated the North Qinling continental arc from the North China Craton. The Erlangping oceanic crust then started to subduct southward beneath North Qinling Orogen before ca. 508 Ma, and it closed before ~430 Ma (Dong et al., 2011a). The ~ 540–450 Ma magmatic rocks are ubiquitous in the East Gondwana marginal blocks including Lhasa, Himalaya, South Qiangtang, and Sibumasu, and they were suggested to form due to the ProtoTethyan oceanic subduction beneath Gondwana and the subsequent collisional accretion of outboard Asian microcontinents (e.g., Decelles et al., 2004; Cawood and Buchan, 2007; Zhu et al., 2012a; Li et al., 2015b, 2016). The Early Paleozoic sutures in the Tibet–Sanjiang Tethyan region comprise the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu and Changning–Menglian ([17]), which kept the relicts of 467–438 Ma Proto-Tethyan Ocean crust (Li et al., 2008; Zhai et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2013c). Several early Paleozoic high- and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks were discovered in the Gondwana-derived continental blocks or arc terranes (Fig. 1) (Zheng et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2014b), including Tarim (436–429 Ma, Zong et al., 2012), North Qaidam (443–423 Ma; e.g., Song et al., 2006; Yu et al., 2013), the North Qinling orogenic belt (ca. 511–480 Ma and ca. 440–424 Ma, e.g., Cheng et al., 2011, 2012; Zhang et al., 2011a) and Sibumasu (ca. 410 Ma). The high- and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic ages cluster into two periods: 510– 480 Ma and 460–410 Ma with a peak at 440 Ma. The two clusters are considered to represent two episodes of block collision along the Gondwana margin (Zhang et al., 2014b). 2.2.4. Carboniferous subduction and collisional system The Carboniferous subduction systems are mainly distributed in the Tianshan–Altay region. The U–Pb ages of the zircon domains containing omphacite and phengite inclusions and Sm–Nd and rutile U–Pb ages of eclogite samples, Ar–Ar dating of blueschist, youngest Early Carboniferous radiolarian and conodonts fossils from ophiolite, and the oldest stitching granitic plutons in the collisional zone have collectively constrained the Late Carboniferous collision between the Tarim Craton and the Kazakhstan–Yili Block along the South Tianshan suture (De Jong et al., 2009). This event was nearly coeval with the collision between the Kazakhstan–Yili and Junggar blocks along the North Tianshan suture ([19]) at 325 to 316 Ma (Han et al., 2010) and between the Altai and Kazakhstan blocks along the Erqis suture ([20]) at 321 to 307 Ma (Chen et al., 2010a and Han et al., 2010). These events are younger than the amalgamations of the accretionary complexes and terranes in East and West Junggar before Late Carboniferous (Han et al., 2010) and the collision in the eastern segment of the South Tianshan Orogen ([18]) (Charvet et al., 2007, 2011; Zhang and Guo, 2008). Prior to the ocean closure and continental collision, Carboniferous arc magmatism was prevalent in the East Junggar, West Junggar, and Central Tianshan (Xiao et al., 2014). In general, the Tianshan-Altay region was in a postcollisional setting during Permian, characterized by widespread occurrence of A- and I-type granitoids (Su et al., 2008; Dong et al., 2011b), low pressure and high temperature metamorphic rocks (Li and Zhang, 2004), and continental deposits in all tectonic domains. Another Carboniferous continental collision occurred in Dabie Mountain ([21]) in the eastern Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt. The SHRIMP U-Pb dating and laser ablation ICP-MS trace element

analyses of zircon from the western Dabie Mountains provide indistinguishable eclogite facies metamorphic ages around 310 Ma (Fig. 1) (Sun et al., 2002), considered to represent the collision between the North and South China Blocks during Carboniferous producing local eclogite facies metamorphism. 2.2.5. Permian to Triassic subduction and collisional system The NE China microcontinental blocks was affected by the Mongol– Okhotsk suture (Fig. 1) to the north and the Solonker suture ([22]) to the south in Permo-Triassic (Fig. 1). The Mongol–Okhotsk suture stretches along the southeastern boundary of the Siberian Craton over 3000 km, extending from the present-day Udsky gulf of the Okhotsk Sea to the Khangay mountain range in Central Mongolia (Chen et al., 2011). It was proposed that the Mongol–Okhotsk oceanic plate subducted southward beneath the Mongolia–Northeast China blocks in the Late Permian to about 225 Ma (Tang et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2013a; Wu et al., 2011a). The Solonker suture ([22]) separates the Cathaysian flora province with tropical Permian floras in the south from the Angaran flora province with cool, temperate species in the north. This suture marks the final suture of the eastern segment of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Zhang et al., 2010a; Wu et al., 2000; Ge et al., 2007). The final closure of this suture was diachronous during Late Permian to Early Triassic (Wu et al., 2011a; Han et al., 2012a,b). The Paleo-Tethyan sutures in the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts are characterized by several sub-parallel ophiolite complexes, composed of peridotites, gabbros, MORB-type basalts, and radiolarian cherts, juxtaposed with the subduction zone assemblage of UHP metamorphic rocks, arc magmatic rocks, and post-subduction S-type pluton. Based on the ages of the mafic rocks and cherts within the suture and those of arc magmatic rocks and metamorphic belt along block margins, the main Paleo-Tethyan ocean and its branches in the southwestern China were considered to have opened almost simultaneously in middle-Devonian and have closed in latest Permian to Triassic (Fig. 4; Metcalfe, 2011, 2013; Deng et al., 2014a). It has been proposed that two pairs of Paleo-Tethyan sutures, the LongmuTso–Shuanghu and Changning–Menglian ([17]) and Jinshajiang and Ailaoshan ([23]) are developed with comparable magmatic and sedimentary records (Deng et al., 2014a). The pair of Longmu Tso–Shuanghu and Changning– Menglian suture formed as the Paleo-Tethyan main ocean closed at ~230 Ma (Pullen et al., 2008; Zhai et al., 2011). And the other pair was resulted from the closure of the branch ocean of Paleo-Tethys at ~ 250 Ma (Zi et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013c). Westward subduction of Garzê–Litang oceanic plate, inducing the formation of Garzê–Litang suture ([24]) and the Yidun arc ([25]) (Xu et al., 2016). This arc is composed of Triassic arc volcanic rocks and plutons emplaced from 230 Ma to 204 Ma (Li et al., 2011a; Leng et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2016a). In the Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun belt, after the closure of the Shangdan ocean, the Mianlue Ocean was opened in Middle Devonian, separating the South Qinling Block from the South China Block (Dong et al., 2011c). The closure of Mianlue ocean started first in the Dabie region and migrated westward (Chen et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2006) from the Early Permian and to Middle-Late Triassic, causing the formation of Mianlue suture ([26]). After the closure of the Mianlue Ocean, the tectonic setting was transformed from oceanic subduction to intercontinental collision along the Mianlue suture in Late Triassic (Fig. 4). Calcic to calc-alkaline Permian–Triassic magmatic rocks are widespread in the East Kunlun ([15]) formed during the subduction-related orogenic period and the subsequent syn- to post-collision stage (Yin and Harrison, 2000; Li et al., 2015a). The Sulu-Dabie high- to ultrahigh-pressure (HP-UHP) metamorphic belt ([21]) formed during the Triassic collision between the North China Craton and Yangtze Craton (Li et al., 2000, 2011b; Liu et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2009b; Zheng et al., 2009; Deng et al., 2014c). The main metamorphic rocks in this belt include garnet peridotite, garnet pyroxenite, eclogite, schist, quartzite, marble, and various gneisses (Ratschbacher et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2009b; Zheng et al., 2009). Zircon


U-Pb dating of paragneiss, orthogneiss, andeclogite from the Sulu belt indicate that the UHP peak metamorphic event took place at ~ 240220 Ma (Fig. 1), and then overprinted by amphibolite-facies retrograde metamorphic at ~220–210 Ma (Liu et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2006b). Biotite and muscovite Ar-Ar thermochronology of mylonitic gneiss from Sulu belt suggest that the UHP metamorphic rocks started to exhume at ~ 220–200 Ma (Li et al., 2003; Webb et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2006b). Zircon U-Pb dating of coesite-bearing marble, garnet-bearing gneiss and amphibolite from the Dabie belt also identify similar age groups to those of the Sulu belt, including the prograde quartz eclogite-facies metamorphism at ~ 250–240 Ma, UHP peak metamorphic event at ~ 230–240 Ma and amphibolite-facies metamorphism at ~ 220– 210 Ma (Liu et al., 2006, 2007; Xu et al., 2009b; Li et al., 2012e). 2.2.6. Jurassic to Cretaceous subduction system The Jurassic to Cenozoic subduction systems are developed both along southwestern and eastern margins of China. Along the southwestern margin, the Bangong–Nujiang suture ([27]) formed by the closure of the Bangong–Nujiang ocean (Meso-Tethys), leading to the collision between Lhasa and West Qiangtang during Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Yin and Harrison, 2000; Zhu et al., 2013). Southward oceanic subduction of the Bangong–Nujiang Ocean from the Permian to the Early Cretaceous gave rise to extensive calc-alkaline magmatism on the northern margin of the Lhasa terrane (Zhang et al., 2012b). The westward flat subduction of the Paleo-Pacific oceanic crust resulted in extensive late-Mesozoic magmatism dominantly along the eastern margin of China, named East Coast Arc ([28]) in this paper (Fig. 1). The magmatism extends from NE China blocks, North China Craton, Kunlun-Qinling orogenic belt ([15], [26]), to South China Block, constructing a continental arc overlapping the previous Paleoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic, early-Paleozoic, and Triassic orogenic belts ([28]) (Fig. 1). For instance, the Mesozoic magmatism in Cathaysia Block lasted from Jurassic to Cretaceous (Zhou et al., 2006b). The Mesozoic magmatism associated with metallogeny is preferentially located within the Shi–Hang zone ([29]). These granites in the Shi–Hang zone are characterized by significantly higher Sm (N8 ppm) and Nd (N45 ppm) with relatively higher εNd(t) values (− 2 to − 8) and younger TCDM ages (b 1.5 Ga) (Chen and Jahn, 1998). The grabens in the Shi–Hang zone filled with clastic sedimentary rocks that are interlayered by volcanic rocks are thought to have been deposited in a tectonic environment of back arc, intra-arc or a transition from continental arc (180–160 Ma) to intra-arc (160–140 Ma) associated with subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate (Li et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2006b; Zhao et al., 2012; Ding et al., 2015). It was also observed that the younging magmatic activity migrated nearly 800 km southeast towards the coastal regions from the inland between 180 and 80 Ma. This is inferred to relate to the increase of slab-dip angle of the PaleoPacific oceanic plate subduction beneath southeastern China (Zhou and Li, 2000). 2.2.7. Cenozoic subduction system The Yarlung–Tsangpo suture ([30]) marks the collision of the Indian plate with the Asian plate at ca. 55 Ma as the Neo-Tethys shut down (Royden et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2013). The subduction of the NeoTethyan oceanic crust has given rise to the Tengchong arc ([31]) (Xu et al., 2012). 2.3. Cenozoic continental collision, demantling and mantle plume The most conspicuous continental collision is the one that preceded in the Tibet plateau (Yin and Harrison, 2000) and Sanjiang orogenic belt (Deng et al., 2014b) starting from ca. 55 Ma ago after the closure of the Neo-Tethyan Ocean along the Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo suture ([30]) (Fig. 4). During 55–50 Ma, the arrival of the Indian continent at the trench marked the closure of the Neo-Tethyan Ocean and the initiation of collision (Najman et al., 2010). The Indian continent gradually

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indented into the Asian continent ca. 2000 km northwards (e.g., Yin and Harrison, 2000). During this process, the Tibet plateau formed due to the faster rate of convergence between India and Eurasia continents compared to that of shortening in the Himalaya (Doglioni et al., 2007). The rollback of the subducted Neo-Tethyan oceanic slab caused the magmatism with ages from 55 to 45 Ma in the Gangdese arc belt in southern Tibet (Chung et al., 2005, 2009). At about 45 Ma, the convergence rate suddenly dropped, indicating the transition from “soft collision” to “hard collision”. Coeval with this transition, the Neo-Tethyan oceanic slab was considered to have detached from the India continental lithosphere based on the Himalayan metamorphic record (e.g., Decelles et al., 2002; Kohn and Parkinson, 2002). In southern Tibet, especially the Gangdese belt, (ultra-) potassic and adakitic magmas with emplacement ages ranging from 25 to 10 Ma are present in the Lhasa Block and were interpreted to be related to the removal of the lower part of the lithospheric mantle via convective thinning mechanism (Platt and England, 1994; Williams et al., 2001). The removal of the lithospheric mantle has facilitated northward underthrusting of the Indian mantle lithosphere starting from ca. 25 Ma (Chung et al., 2005). Underthrusting of the Indian lithosphere beneath southern Tibet might have shut down the heat from the asthenosphere and eventually terminated the lithospheric removal-induced magmatism at ca. 13–10 Ma (Chung et al., 2005). In the northern Tibet, starting from the hard collision, the (ultra)potassic magmatic rocks were emplaced from Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene along earlier Jinshajiang suture (Figs. 12, 14). A series of near NS-striking normal fault systems mark the east–west extension (Coleman and Hodges, 1995; Blisniuk et al., 2001). These parallel faults resulted in the development of a series of grabens or rifts, which constrain the localization of potassic felsic intrusions associated with Cu mineralization. 40Ar/39Ar dating of the NS-trending ultrapotassic dykes indicates that the initial east–west extension to form normal faults probably took place at approximately 18 Ma. Thrusts within this area propagated southwards, formed the Main Central Thrust (MCT; 23–12 Ma) and the later Main Boundary Thrust (MBT; 11 Ma to present, Pearson and Decelles, 2005). Both the MBT and MCT cut the Himalayan crust and displaced Himalayan basement material on top of the Indian Plate. The subduction of Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust yielded the Tengchong arc at ca. 50 Ma in the Sanjiang orogenic belt (Xu et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2014a). Then the belt marks the Indian–Eurasian continental oblique collisional zone. The accommodating zones for the deformation include the Ailaoshan–Red River, Chongshan, and Gaoligongshan shear zones. Shearing along the three zones was almost contemporaneously initiated at ca. 32 Ma (Fig. 4). Data from the post-shearing granitic dykes indicate that the ductile deformation terminated at ca. 20–17 Ma in the Ailaoshan–Red River and Chongshan shear zones, and it continued to ca. 14 Ma in the Gaoligongshan shear zone (Wang et al., 2000a; Akciz et al., 2008). The large-scale Cenozoic geological processes have largely reshaped the lithospheric structure in the Sanjiang region. 2.4. Mantle plume and demantling 2.4.1. Mantle plume The Emeishan LIP ([33]) covering an area of at least 250,000 km2 in SW China and in NW Vietnam produced numerous economic deposits (Figs. 1 and 16). The Emeishan LIP consists of a succession of predominantly tholeiites, with minor picritic and rhyolitic lava flows. In addition to lava flows, mafic-ultramafic layered complexes, dykes and sills, syenite and other alkaline intrusions, are part of the Emeishan LIP (Xu et al., 2001; Xiao et al., 2004a,b). Zircon SHRIMP U–Pb dating of the Emeishan LIP mafic and ultramafic intrusions yielded ages ranging from 259 ± 3 Ma to 262 ± 3 Ma, and the volcanism is inferred to have taken place over a similar short interval of 257–263 (He et al., 2007; Shellnutt et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2010b).

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2.4.2. Demantling Observations suggest that the North China Craton was tectonically reactivated since the Mesozoic after prolonged stabilization (Zhu et al., 2011a). Peridotite xenoliths from Middle Ordovician kimberlites confirm that the North China Craton had a thick (ca. 200 km), ancient, refractory lithosphere root in the early Paleozoic (Fan et al., 2000). In contrast, mantle xenoliths sampled by Meso-Cenozoic kimberlites and Cenozoic basalts reveal thin (80–120 km), hot, and fertile lithosphere beneath the eastern half of the North China Craton (Basu et al., 1991; Fan et al., 2000). Early Cretaceous intracontinental rift basins are well developed over the Eastern Block mostly containing voluminous bimodal volcanic rocks (Ren et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2012b). In addition, a number of metamorphic core complexes formed in the early Cretaceous constrained by the Ar–Ar dating of the kinematic micas (142.81 ± 1.43 Ma to 127.73 ± 1.34 Ma) are spatially related to the igneous rocks and rift basins (Fig. 2; Davis et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2015a). It was considered that a significant loss or destruction of the ancient lithosphere beneath the Craton occurred in Cretaceous (Yang et al., 2008; Li et al., 2012a). Xu et al. (2009a) suggested that the initiation of the North China Craton lithosphere thinning would not be later than the Carboniferous and Triassic, respectively in the northern and eastern margins, and the southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian oceanic crust and the northward subduction of the Yangtze Plate as well as the consequent collision triggered the activity along the northern and southern margins of the North China Craton. The thinning of the North China Craton peaked in the late Jurassic to Cretaceous and continued even to the early Cenozoic, during a protracted period of N 100 Ma (Xu et al., 2009a). 3. Multi-stage metallogenesis In this paper, 500 major ore deposits were evaluated that belong to different genetic types including BIF, VMS, IOCG, REE, orogenic gold, porphyry, skarn, Carlin-like, etc., along with precise geochronological data (Fig. 18; Supplementary File A). The results show that the mosaic structure of China bears two most conspicuous features of metallogeny: (1) each tectonic belt witnessed multi-stage mineralization of diverse genetic types; (2) each type of mineralization has distinct affiliation to specific tectonic setting. 3.1. Tianshan–Altay orogenic belt The Tianshan–Altay belt consists of Early Paleozoic and Late Paleozoic orogenic belts and the Japan-type arc systems (Altai, Central Tianshan) and Mariana-type arc systems (West Junggar, and East Junggar) (Fig. 5) (Xiao et al., 2014; Xiao and Santosh, 2014). The Chinese Altai was considered to be an Early Paleozoic juvenile magmatic arc developed on a Neoproterozoic continental margin on the ancient Tuva–Mongolian Block (e.g., Sun et al., 2008a; Long et al., 2010; He et al., 2015). The subduction of oceanic crust underneath the Tarim plate began in the Early Silurian (Xia et al., 2014). The closure of different Paleo-Asian ocean branches, including South Tianshan, North Tianshan, occurred at Late Carboniferous (Chen et al., 2010a and Han et al., 2010). The metallogenic period includes Early Paleozoic metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction, Early Carboniferous metallogenesis related to arc construction, Late Carboniferous metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction, and Triassic metallogenesis in post-collision setting. 3.1.1. Early Paleozoic metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction The porphyry Cu deposits occur in a number of metallogenic belts including the Late Silurian to Early Devonian Cu–Mo metallogenic belt in the Qiongheba area, the Late Devonian Kalaxiange'er Cu metallogenic belt, and the Mengxi porphyry Cu deposit (No. 22), located in the eastern Junggar (Qu et al., 2009). The diorite porphyries and feldspar porphyries are ore-forming porphyry in the Mengxi Cu–Mo deposit. The Re–Os dating of molybdenite from the ore-forming porphyry shows

that the Mengxi Cu–Mo deposit formed at about 411 ± 3.2 Ma (Qu et al., 2009). 3.1.2. Early Carboniferous metallogenesis related to arc construction Voluminous Cu–Au–Mo deposits formed in this period are located along the North Tianshan orogenic belt. The porphyry in the Lamasu Cu-Mo deposit has LA-ICP-MS U–Pb zircon age of 366 ± 3 Ma (Tang et al., 2010). The Lamasu porphyries are geochemically similar to adakites, e.g., with high Al2O3 (14.54–19.75 wt%) and Sr (308–641 ppm) and low Y (7.84–16.9 ppm) contents. They have variable initial ratios of 87Sr/86Sr (0.7072–0.7076) and 206Pb/204Pb (18.139–18.450), and negative εNd(t) (− 5.6 to − 0.8) and positive εHf(t) (+1.4 to +10.6) values. In light of these geochemical features, it is deduced that the Lamasu adakitic magmas were generated through partial melting of southward subducted Junggar oceanic crust (Tang et al., 2010). The Axi epithermal Au deposit (No. 28) is a low-sulfidation type epithermal Au deposit hosted in Paleozoic subaerial volcanic rocks in the western Tianshan orogenic belt. Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulfur and noble gas isotopes indicate that the ore fluids of the Axi Au deposit consisted predominantly of circulating meteoric water. Volcanic host rocks of Dahalajunshan Formation in Axi Au deposit shows SHRIMP zircon U–Pb age of 363.2 ± 5.7 Ma (Zhai et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2014b). The Tulasu basin is an important epithermal Au ore cluster, which formed in an island-arc setting during late Paleozoic by the southward subduction of the North Tianshan oceanic crust beneath the Yili plate (Xiao et al., 2014). Some sulfide-mineralized microgranular enclaves of monzonite porphyry were found in andesites of the Tawuerbieke Au district, Tulasu basin. Zircon grains from a monzonite porphyry enclave a weighted 206Pb/238U age of 356.2 ± 4.3 Ma, which is effectively coincident with the 360.5 ± 3.4 Ma of an andesite sample within analytical error (Zhao et al., 2014c). Both andesite and its coeval enclaves share arc-like geochemical signature. Detailed petrology, geochronology and geochemical studies suggest that these enclaves were captured from an underlying body during the eruption of island-arc magma. This implies the occurrence of a porphyry-epithermal Cu–Au metallogenic system in the Tulasu basin of western Tianshan, and in the Tawuerbieke district (Zhao et al., 2014c). 3.1.3. Late Carboniferous metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction The Late Carboniferous metallogenesis is represented by the Baogutu porphyry Cu metallogenic belt and Tuwu–Yandong in eastern Tianshan which were formed in an oceanic subduction setting (Shen et al., 2013a). The post-orogenic metallogenesis in Permian to Triassic are exemplified by the orogenic, magmatic and skarn ore deposits. The orogenic ore deposit was represented by the Sawayaerdun, and the magmatic type mainly includes Poyi, Kalatongke and Huangshanxi. The Baogutu porphyry Cu belt formed at 312.4 Ma (No. 11) lies in the Darbut transitional island arc of western Junggar. The volcanic rocks in the Darbut volcanic belt contain both tholeiitic and a calc-alkaline assemblage, and were erupted in a transitional island arc setting from back-arc basin to island arc. Geochemical data indicate that the orebearing porphyries have a predominantly intermediate composition with a transitional character from tholeiite to calc-alkaline (Fig. 6a, b), and are enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSE) with a clear negative Nb anomaly. The rocks also exhibit high initial εNd(t) (+2.7 to +6.3) ratios and low initial 87Sr/86Sr values (0.70359–0.70397) (Fig. 6d). Many samples are chemically similar to adakites. These data are consistent with a transitional island arc from immature arc to mature arc and suggest that the ore-bearing porphyry system was derived from the partial melting of multiple sources including oceanic crust and a subduction-modified mantle wedge (Shen et al., 2009). Tuwu (No. 41) is the largest porphyry type ore deposit in the eastern Tianshan. SHRIMP zircon U–Pb dating indicates that the magmatic activity and associated Cu mineralization occurred ca. 332 Ma (Wang


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Fig. 6. Geochemical indices for the ore-forming granitoids in the Central Asian orogenic belt in China. (a) plot of (K2O + Na2O) vs. SiO2; (b) plot of K2O vs. SiO2; (c) plot of A/NK vs. A/CNK. The I–S divided line is from White and Chappell (1977); (d) plot of εNd(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (e) plot of εHf(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (f) plot of Sr/Y vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (g) tectonic evolution responsible for the felsic magma-related deposits (from Han et al., 2011; Wilhem et al., 2012; Xiao and Santosh, 2014). Geochemical data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File B.

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et al., 2015a). The tonalitic rocks are calc-alkaline granites with A/CNK values ranging from 1.16 to 1.58, are enriched in K, Rb, Sr, and Ba; and markedly depleted in Nb, Ta, Ti, and Th. They show geochemical affinities similar to adakites. In situ Hf isotopic analyses of zircons yielded positive initial εHf(t) values ranging from 6.9 to 17.2. The δ34S values of the ore sulfides range from −3.0‰ to +1.7‰, reflecting a deep sulfur source. The formation of the Tuwu, and other porphyry systems in the region, have been correlated to a calc-alkaline island arc setting (Han et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2015a). The Kanggur Au deposit (No. 38) located in the Eastern Tianshan is hosted in the Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks of the Aqishan Formation and mainly consists of andesite, dacite and pyroclastic rocks with SHRIMP zircon U–Pb age of ca. 339 Ma. The fluid δ18O and δD values vary from −9.1‰ to +3.8‰ and −66.0‰ to −33.9‰, respectively, indicating that the ore-forming fluids were mixtures of metamorphic and meteoric waters. The 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb values of 10 sulphide samples range from 18.166 to 18.880, 15.553 to 15.635 and 38.050 to 38.813, respectively, showing similarities to orogenic Pb. These values are consistent with those of the andesite from the Kanggur area and suggest that the Kanggur Au deposit is an orogenic-type deposit formed in Eastern Tianshan orogenic belt during the Permian postcollisional tectonics (Wang et al., 2015a). The Sarekoubou orogenic Au deposit (No. 5) located at the southern margin of the Chinese Altai occurs in metamorphic acid volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of Devonian Kangbutiebao Formation and are fault-controlled (Xu et al., 2008). Fluid inclusions in quartz associated with the mineralization yield an Ar–Ar isochron age of 320.4 ± 6 Ma (Ding et al., 2004). Several large syngenetic volcanogenic Fe ore deposits including the Chagangnuoer Fe–Cu (No. 34), the Zhibo Fe (No. 36) and the Beizhan Fe (No. 37) deposits occur in the Awulale Fe–Cu metallogenic belt which is located in the southeastern corner of the Yili Block. Granite dikes which crosscut the Fe ore body gave LA–ICP–MS U–Pb zircon ages as old as 320.3 ± 2.5 Ma. The ca. 320 Ma granite dike has lowpotassium and weakly peraluminous composition and is characterized by LILE and LREE enrichment and a distinct depletion of Nb, Ta, Ti, and HREE. These features suggest a submarine, syngenetic volcanogenic mineralization of ca. 320 Ma. The Zhibo and other submarine volcanogenic Fe ore deposits formed in a continental arc-setting related to subduction tectonics (Zhang et al., 2012c). 3.1.4. Triassic metallogenesis in post-collision setting The post-orogenic Sawayaerdun Au deposit (No. 1) is hosted by carbonaceous metasediments and is considered to be the largest Muruntau-type Au deposit in the South Tianshan orogenic belt, which also include the many famous orogenic Au deposits, like Wangfeng and Awanda. It is located in the Paleozoic passive-continental marginal sedimentary belt of the South Tianshan orogenic belt. Based on fossil records (Hapsiphyllide Grabau), Liu et al. (2007) concluded that the host rocks were deposited in the late Carboniferous. A whole rock Sm–Nd isochron age of 294 ± 19 Ma was also reported. A series of NEstriking parallel second-order faults and shear zones host most of auriferous quartz veins in this region. Hydrothermal fluids of the Sawayaerdun deposit are CO2-rich and probably evolved through multiple stages. The Poyi Ni–Cu sulfide deposit (No. 43) associated with an ultramafic intrusion emplaced at 278 Ma is characterized by nearly flat REE patterns, negative Nb anomalies, arc-like Th/Yb and Nb/Yb ratios, positive εNd(t) values (4.7–6.6) and low initial87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7037–0.7066). The arc-like trace element ratios coupled with positive εNd values for the Poyi ultramafic rocks indicate the involvement of a subduction-modified lithospheric mantle or a granitic melt derived from a juvenile arc crust (Xia et al., 2013). The Permian Kalatongke Ni– Cu deposits (No. 16) in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt are hosted by three small mafic intrusions comprising mainly norite and diorite with SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age of 287 ± 5 Ma (Han et al., 2004). Positive εNd values (+4 to +10) and marked negative Nb anomalies for both

intrusive and extrusive rocks can be explained by the mixing of magma derived from depleted mantle with 6–18% of a partial melt derived from the lower part of a juvenile arc crust with a composition similar to coeval A-type granites in the region, plus minor contamination with the upper continental crust. It was speculated that a slab window was created due to slab break-off during a transition from oceanic subduction to arc-arc or arc-continent collision in the region in the Early Permian (Li et al., 2012b). The Permian Huangshanxi (No. 44) maficultramafic intrusion hosts one of the largest magmatic sulfide deposits in the Eastern Tianshan which is located in the southern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The Huangshanxi sulfide ore-bearing intrusion in NW China shows arc-like geochemical signatures. The parental magma is a derivative of melt generated from subduction-modified mantle. The Cihai Fe deposits (No. 50) are hosted in an early phase of diabase and skarn. Early diabase was emplaced at ~286 Ma, whereas the postore diabase dikes formed at ~275 Ma. Amphibole from massive magnetite ore yielded 40Ar–39Ar plateau age of ~282 Ma, which is interpreted as the ore-forming age of the Cihai deposit (Zheng et al., 2015a). 3.1.5. Source of ore-forming granitoids The Carboniferous (ca. 330–310 Ma) granitoids in the Baogutu (No. 11) and Tuwu (No. 41) Cu-dominant porphyry deposits in the Junggar block (Fig. 5), formed in the oceanic setting, are mostly of diorite to granodiorite. And these rocks show calc-alkaline and metaluminous features (Fig. 6), and they are characterized by high εHf(t) values clustering on depleted mantle evolution line (Shen et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2015a; Cao et al., 2016). This suggests that these Cu-carrying magmas were sourced from the melting of depleted mantle or subducting oceanic crust. The ca. 360 Ma Lamasu deposit (No. 27) in the western Tianshan formed in the continent arc environment has complex Cu–Mo–Zn association (Tang et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2010c). The ore-forming granitic porphyries mostly belong to calcalkaline to high-K calc-alkaline and peraluminous type, and they possess zircon εHf(t) values varying from 0 to 10 with TCDM ages from 1.3 Ga to 0.7 Ga, indicating the involvement of ancient crustal material in the mantle- or juvenile crust-derived melt (Fig. 6). Similar to the case in the NE China blocks, we consider that the input of ancient crust material has brought in crust-affinity metals, like Mo and Zn, than the mantle-derived or oceanic crust melt, which was responsible for Cu enrichment. 3.2. Northeast China blocks The Northeast China blocks were once part of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt which was superimposed by the continental arcs produced in Late Triassic–Early Cretaceous in response to the oceanic subduction of Paleo-Pacific and Mongol–Okhotsk (Fig. 7) (Xiao et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2015b; Ouyang et al., 2013). 3.2.1. Paleozoic metallogenesis related to oceanic subduction The Paleozoic metallogenesis is represented mainly by porphyry Cu ore deposits related to the amalgamation of the blocks in NE China (like Duobaoshan) and the later closure of Solonker ocean (like Chehugou) (Fig. 7). The large-scale Duobaoshan porphyry Cu–Mo–(Au) deposit (No. 62) is located in the Xing'an Block. Six molybdenite samples yield a Re–Os isochron age of 475.9 ± 7.9 Ma (2σ), consistent with the age of the related granodiorite porphyry (Figs. 6 and 7), which was dated as 477.2 ± 4 Ma by zircon U–Pb analysis. It was suggested that the Duobaoshan granodiorite porphyry and related Cu–Mo deposit formed in the continental arc (Zeng et al., 2014). The rhenium content of molybdenite varies from 290.9 to 728.2 ppm, with an average of 634.8 ppm. The high rhenium content in molybdenite of the Duobaoshan deposit suggests that the ore-forming materials may be mainly of mantle source.


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Fig. 7. Geological map of the Northeast China blocks (Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Xu et al., 2015b) illustrating the tectonic units and the space–time information of important ore deposits. The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A.

The Chehugou porphyry Mo–Cu deposit (95) is located in the southern margin of Central Asian orogenic belt (Fig. 7). The Rb–Sr isotope system in massive, nonfractured hydrothermal chalcopyrite grains containing spatially isolated inclusions of K-mica, K-feldspar, and quartz yielded a Rb–Sr isochron age of 256 ± 7 Ma, reflecting the crystallization time chalcopyrite from the Mo–Cu mineralizing fluids. Fragments of a second chalcopyrite sample that had experienced deformation yielded a clearly younger Rb–Sr isochron age of 207 ± 15 Ma (2σ). The Mo–Cu–hosting granitoids range in composition from granodiorite to granite with high Sr/Y ratios (Fig. 6f). Initial εNd values of ca. −21 to −23 with corresponding Nd crustal model age of 1.9 to 2.7 Ga indicate melting of the predominantly Archean North China Craton, and a subordinate juvenile mantle-derived component. Lithospheric delamination and underplating of hot mantle-derived material may have facilitated crustal melting in a late orogenic to post-collision (Wan et al., 2009). 3.2.2. Triassic metallogenesis related to the closure of Central Asian Orogenic Belt This type of metallogenesis is represented by the Hongqiling magmatic ore deposit (Fig. 7). The ~216 Ma Hongqiling magmatic Ni ore deposit (No. 80), located in the southern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, is the second largest Ni producer after Jinchuan in China. Whole-rock data show light rare earth element (REE) enrichment, negative Nb–Ta anomalies, and positive εNd (t = 216 Ma) values from 3 to 5. This was explained by mixing of a mantle-derived magma

with a granitic melt formed by magma underplating in the crust, which formed in the post-orogenic setting (Wei et al., 2013). 3.2.3. Jurassic to Cretaceous metallogenesis related to double-side oceanic subduction Earlier studies linked the Yanshanian volcanism in the Great Xing'an Range with ages peaking at 163–160 Ma, 147–140 Ma, 125–120 and 116–113 Ma (Fig. 7) to the west-to-east migrating delamination processes and associated magmatic underplating (e.g., Wang et al., 2006a). However, after one decade, four distinct stages of ore formation were identified at 190–165 Ma, 155–145 Ma, 140–120 Ma, and 115–100 Ma. These episodes were interpreted to relate to the doublesided subduction of Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean and Paleo-Pacific Ocean both following closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. The Early–Mid Jurassic (190–165 Ma) events along the eastern Asian continental margin are related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean, whereas those in the Erguna Block were associated with the subduction of the Mongol– Okhotsk Ocean. In the Wunugetushan porphyry Cu–Mo deposit on the southeastern margin of the Mongol–Okhotsk orogenic belt, molybdenite Re–Os age and SIMS zircon U–Pb dating of the host monzogranitic porphyry indicate that the ore-formation and host porphyry formed at 180.5 ± 2.0 Ma and 180.4 ± 1.4 Ma respectively. The porphyry shows high Sr/Y ratio. In situ Hf isotopic analyses of zircons from the host monzogranitic porphyry yield εHf(t) values dominantly ranging from 0.5 to 8.2 (Wang et al., 2012a). The geochemical data for the

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Wunugetushan granitoids imply that the primary magmas of the monzogranitic porphyry could have originated by partial melting of a thickened lower crust, with input of mantle components. The Luming porphyry Mo deposit, located in the Lesser Xing'an Range, formed at ~ 180 Ma based on the LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of the orerelated monzogranite (Hu et al., 2014). The monzogranites from the Luming, belonging to high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, are enriched in Rb, Th, U, Pb and light rare earth elements (LREEs), and are depleted in Nb and Ta. They show positive εHf(t) values of 1.0–4.0 with twostage Hf model ages of 868–1033 Ma. Whole-rock Sr and Nd isotopes show restricted ranges, with (87Sr/86Sr)i between 0.706346 and 0.707384 and εNd(t) between −3.5 and −1.8 (Hu et al., 2014). In the Lesser Xing'an Range, the Xingshan porphyry Mo deposit is associated with granodioritic porphyry and monzogranite, which have zircon U–Pb ages of 171.7 ± 2.2 Ma and 170.9 ± 4.6 Ma, respectively (Zhou et al., 2013). Positive εHf(t) values from 6 to 12 and young TCDM between 400 Ma and 800 Ma suggest juvenile crustal source for the Xingshan metal-carrying magma. From 155 to 120 Ma, large-scale continental extension occurred in NE China and surrounding regions. However, the Late Jurassic magmatism and mineralization events in these areas evolved in a post-orogenic extensional environment of the Mongol– Okhotsk oceanic subduction system. The early stage of the Early Cretaceous events occurred under the combined effects of the closure of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean and the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean. The Chalukou porphyry Mo deposit (2.46 Mt with grade of 0.087% Mo), located in the northern Great Xing'an Range, is the largest Mo deposit discovered in China so far. The Chalukou ore-forming porphyries intruded during 147–148 Ma and have high-silica, alkali-rich, metaluminous to slightly peraluminous compositions. They are enriched in large ion lithophile elements and depleted in high-field strength elements. Intrusive rocks have relative low initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.705413–0.707889) and εNd(t) values (− 1.28 to + 0.92), positive εHf(t) values (+ 2.4 to + 10.1). These geochemical and isotopic data are interpreted to demonstrate that the ore-forming porphyries formed by partial melting of the juvenile lower crust (Li et al., 2014). The Haisugou Mo mineralization mainly occurs as quartz-molybdenite veins within the granite, which was emplaced into rocks of the Early Permian Qingfengshan Formation (Fig. 7). Zircon LA–ICP–MS U–Pb dating of the granite yields a crystallization age of 137.6 ± 0.9 Ma, suggesting emplacement during the peak time of Mo mineralization in eastern China, broadly constrained as ca. 150–130 Ma. Whole-rock geochemical data suggest that the granite belongs to the high-K calc-alkaline series (Fig. 6b), and is characterized by relatively high LREE, low HREE, depletion of Ti, Ba, and Nb, and a moderate negative Eu anomaly. The zircon εHf(t) and whole-rock εNd(t) values for the intrusion range from +4.5 to +10.0 and +0.2 to +1.6 (Fig. 6d, e), respectively, indicating that the magma originated from the juvenile lower crust source, with some ancient continental crust. The widespread extension ceased during the late phase of Early Cretaceous (115–100 Ma), following the rapid tectonic changes resulted from the Paleo-Pacific Oceanic plate reconfiguration (Ouyang et al., 2013). The Tuanjiegou gold deposit is abreccia-hosted epithermal gold deposit in the Jiamusi block (Sun et al., 2013c). The emplacement of the granodiorite and granite porphyries occurred at 107.0 ± 1.2 Ma and 103–102 Ma, respectively, with metallogenesis at 102–100 Ma, in light of the U-Pb dating on zircons separated from intrusive rocks and ores. The porphyries are basically high-K calc-alkaline with significant Nb-Ta depletion and zircon εHf(t) from +5 to +9. 3.2.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids In the Central Asian Orogenic belt (summarized in Supplementary File B), the granitoids in the ~480 Ma Duobaoshan Cu deposit (No. 62) in the Xing'an Block (Fig. 7), formed in a post-collisional setting, are characterized by high Al2O3 and Sr contents, low Yb and Y contents with Sr/Y ratios of ~40 to 60, and high εHf(t) close to the mantle evolution line at ~0.5 Ga (Wu et al., 2015). This suggests their derivation from

a thickened juvenile crust evolved from depleted mantle-derived material with possible minor input of continental rocks (Fig. 6). Most ca. 200–100 Ma granitoids in Xing'an associated with Mo (Cu) deposits have zircon εHf(t) values between the hafnium isotopic evolution lines of 0.4 Ga and 1.5 Ga, and their Sr/Y ratios change from 100 to 0.1. This implies that the late-Mesozoic post-orogenic extension after Paleo-Asian and Mongol–Okhotsk oceans closure has thinned the crust and caused the melting of both juvenile and ancient crusts to generate metal carrying magmas (Fig. 6). The earlier to later phase of granites show transition from low- and medium-K calc-alkaline series to high-K calc-alkaline and shoshonitic series, and the associated metal species changed from Cu-dominant to Mo-dominant. The additional alkali is deduced to be provided by the ancient crust involved in later crust melting. The neighboring Songliao block possesses two major magmatic–metallogenic events, i.e., the ca. 270–240 Ma granitic rocks and related Chehugou Mo deposit (No. 95) as a result of the PaleoAsian Ocean subduction and the ca. 170–110 Ma granites and associated Mo–Cu–Pb–Zn deposits responsible to the Paleo-Pacific Ocean subduction (Figs. 6 and 7). The Chehugou metallogenic granites possess Sr/Y ratios of 100 to 200, and εHf(t) values of − 7 to 0 with TCDM ages of 1.7 Ga to 1.3 Ga, suggesting the magma source was a thickened ancient lower crust. The ca. 170–110 Ma metallogenic granites show lower Sr/Y ratios of 100 to 0.1, and higher εHf(t) values of 0 to 14 with TCDM ages of 1.4 Ga to 0.4 Ga, indicating the parental magma was melted from thinned ancient crust with mixture with mantle melt or slightly earlier juvenile crust melt. The later episode of granites show more metaluminous feature, in contrast to the earlier episode that mostly displays peraluminous affinity. It is thus concluded that the ancient lower crust has contributed Mo into the parental magma, and the involvement of mantle or juvenile crust melt induced complex metal associations and lowered A/CNK values. 3.3. North China Craton The North China Craton formed through block amalgamation in Neoarchean and Neoproterozoic (Zhao et al., 2001), followed by marginal orogeny, including arc construction in Early Paleozoic (Xiao et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2012b, 2016b; Liu et al., 2013) and continental collision in Triassic (Xu et al., 2009b; Zheng et al., 2009), and extensive demantling in late-Cretaceous (Zhu et al., 2011a). The metallogeny in this craton started from Precambrian and reached the climax in late Cretaceous with the formation of the Jiaodong-type gold deposits and porphyry Mo deposits (Fig. 8). 3.3.1. Precambrian metallogenesis The ore deposits in this period include the BIF, VMS and carbonatiterelated REE, as well as magmatic Cu–Ni ore deposit ranging from Archean, late-Paleoproterozoic, to Neo-Proterozoic (Fig. 8). From regional geology, lithologic association, and geochemical features of the associated meta-volcanics and orthogneisses, previous studies suggested that the high-grade type of BIF formed initially in arcs, which were intruded by voluminous tonalities and granodiorites, and later converted by deformation and high-grade metamorphism into orthogneisses. The greenstone type of BIFs likely formed in environment similar to rifts or back-arc basins and arcs. Recent research reveals that the Precambrian ore deposits were party subjected to secondary remobilization. In some cases, like Hongtoushan, BIF layers normally overlie at the upper sections of the volcanics and VMS Cu–Zn deposits and are also distally precipitated (Zhu et al., 2015b). These features suggest that the VMS hydrothermal systems and BIF have a genetic relationship linked to submarine hydrothermal system. The Sijiaying BIF (No. 32) occurs in the eastern part of North China Craton (Fig. 8). SIMS zircon U–Pb dating on zircons from metaigneous rocks shows ages of 2543–2535 Ma, representing the time of the Sijiaying BIF (Cui et al., 2014). The meta-igneous rocks are enriched in LILE and LREE and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSE)


Nb, Ta and Ti, have geochemical signatures that are similar to those of arc volcanic rocks. It has been suggested that the Sijiaying BIF formed in a back-arc or arc basin setting in Neoarchean. The Hongtoushan volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit (No. 46) is the largest

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Archean Cu–Zn deposit in China, located in the greenstone belt on the northern margin of the North China Craton. The Cu–Zn mineralization was stratigraphically controlled by the interbeds (~100 m in thickness) of mafic-felsic volcanic sets and overlain by banded Fe layers. Two main

Fig. 8. Schematic geological map of the North China Craton illustrating the tectonic units and the space–time information of important ore deposits (modified after Zhang et al., 2014a). The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A. ALS = Alashan Block, JN = Jining Block, OR = Ordos Block, QH = Qianhuai Block, XCH = Xuchang or Fuping Block, XH = Xuhuai, and JL = Jiaoliao Block. After Zhai and Santosh (2011).

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Fig. 8 (continued).

formation stages were identified for the Qingyuan Cu–Zn deposits; one was exhalative-hydrothermal sedimentation occurred at 2571 ± 6 Ma based on the magmatic zircons in the VMS-hosting mafic volcanic rocks and another was further Cu–Zn enriched by later hydrothermal processes. A modern mantle-like δ18O zircon value of 5.5 ± 0.1‰ for this volcanism was well preserved in the inherited core domains of ore samples. The mafic volcanics were most likely sourced from partial melting of juvenile crust, e.g., TTG granites. The second large-scale metamorphic or hydrothermal event is documented by the recrystallized zircons in sulfide ores constrained by the hydrothermal zircon U–Pb ages of ca. 2508 ± 4 Ma (Zhu et al., 2015b). The Huogeqi Cu–Pb–Zn–Fe deposit (No. 4) is located in the western segment of the northern margin of the North China Craton (Fig. 8). The deposit is hosted by upper greenschist-lower amphibolite facies rocks of the Langshan Group formed at 1750 Ma (Li et al., 2007a). It was considered that Fe was precipitated coevally with the deposition of the host rocks (i.e., a syngenetic origin), whereas Cu, Pb and Zn were precipitated in hydrothermal systems postdating formation of the host rocks, at the brittle-ductile transition zone (i.e., an epigenetic origin). The syngenetically formed Fe orebodies and Fe formations in the Huogeqi deposit were favorable sites for epigenetic Cu precipitation. The H2S-rich Cu fluids would have reacted with Fe in the host rocks when flowing through Fe orebodies and iron-formations. Such a reaction would have led to a reduction in ɑH2S of the ore-forming fluids and consequently Cu precipitation (Zhong et al., 2012). The Bayan Obo Fe–REE–Nb deposit (No. 11) is the world's largest rare earth element (REE) resource and with an increasing focus on critical metal resources as REE deposits have become the focus of global interest (Fan et al., 2015). The deposit is hosted in the Paleoproterozoic Bayan Obo Group, and is mainly concentrated in the H8 dolomite marble. The host dolomite has been proposed to be both of sedimentary origin and an igneous carbonatite. H9 slate formed at 1505 ± 12 Ma and the H8 dolomite was deposited during the Mesoproterozoic (Lai et al., 2015). Precise U–Pb ages and Sm–Nd isochron and model ages (Fan et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2011a,b) suggest that the carbonatites formed from mantle magmas at ~ 1.32–1.23 Ga. The REE metallogenesis was possibly controlled by late Mesoproterozoic rifting and associated mantle upwelling. Zhang et al. (2012d) and Zhao et al. (2003a) correlated the Mesoproterozoic rifting with the break-up of the Columbia

supercontinent. The ore was remobilized, with associated reequilibration of Th–Pb isotope systematics during deformation at ~450 Ma. A further stage of alkaline hydrothermal fluid was responsible for Nb mineralization at this stage (e.g., Smith et al., 2015). It was also proposed that the subduction of Paleo-Asian oceanic crust released high-Si fluids, which leached Fe and Mg from the mantle wedge through serpentinisation and hydrothermal alteration. These fluids then reacted with a carbonatite pluton, leaching REE, Nb and Th out of the carbonatite (Ling et al., 2013). The Tongkuangyu porphyry copper deposit (No. 6) is located in the Zhongtiaoshan region, southern margin of the North China Craton. More than 2.8 million tons of Cu (Average Cu grade: 0.68%) is hosted in the quartz-monzonite porphyry emplaced at ca. 2180 Ma (Liu et al., 2016) quartz-monzonite porphyry and the surrounding Tongkuangyu Formation of the Paleoproterozoic Jiangxian Group. The main ore stage is characterized by veinlets and disseminated chalcopyrite and minor molybdenite, pyrite, magnetite and hematite (Jiang et al., 2014). Zircons from the porphyries have εHf(t) values of − 4.9 to 2.5 with two-stage depleted mantle model ages of ∼2.8 Ga, which point to a magma source resembles the newly-discovered 2.7 Ga TTGs and diorite in this region (Liu et al., 2016). It was thus inferred that the parental magma was partly sourced from juvenile crust formed at 2.7 Ga. The Jinchuan deposit (No. 2) contains N500 million metric tons of sulfide ores with grades of 1.1 wt% Ni and 0.7 wt% Cu, and is the largest single magmatic Ni–Cu sulfide ore deposit in the world (Li and Ripley, 2011; Zhang et al., 2013). Mineralization occurs predominantly as disseminated to net-textured sulfides within the intrusions, and is composed almost entirely of peridotites. Li et al. (2005) reported a U–Pb SHRIMP zircon age of 827 ± 8 Ma for the Jinchuan intrusion. Zhang et al. (2010b) reported a precise ID–TIMS zircon U–Pb age of 831.8 ± 0.6 Ma from thermally annealed and chemically etched zircon grains from the intrusion. Geochemical studies (e.g., I and Ripley, 2011) indicate that the Jinchuan intrusion is the product of rift-related (or mantle plume according to some workers) basaltic magmatism in a continental setting, temporally coinciding with the early stage of Rodinia breakup. 3.3.2. Early-Paleozoic to Jurassic metallogenesis This episode of metallogenesis is mainly reflected in the northern margin of North China Craton, where Devonian alkaline pluton-related


Au deposit, Triassic black shale-hosted and vein Au ore deposits, and Jurassic cryptoexplosive breccia-bearing Au and porphyry-skarn-type Mo ore deposits occur (Fig. 8). These are interpreted to be resulted from the closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean in late-Paleozoic to the earliestTriassic and the subduction of Paleo-Pacific oceanic crust started from Jurassic. The Dongping Au deposit (No. 15) is located at the northern margin of the North China Craton; it is the largest alkaline pluton-related Au deposit in China (Fig. 8). The ore deposit is hosted in the 400–386 Ma (LA–ICP–MS and SHRIMP zircon U–Pb method) Shuiquangou syenite intrusion, which cuts Archean metamorphic rocks. Hydrothermal zircons from the high grade ores in the first stage were distinguished from magmatic zircons based on internal textures on CL images and rare earth element patterns. These zircons have been dated at 389 ± 1.0 to 385 ± 5.7 Ma, whereas those from the second stage low-grade auriferous quartz vein were dated at ~140 Ma (LA–ICP–MS and SIM U–Pb methods) (Bao et al., 2014). The Jinchangyu Au deposit (No. 31) is located close to the northeastern margin of the North China Craton (Fig. 8). The orebodies are controlled by structures in the amphibolite units of the Archaean Zunhua Group. Seven molybdenite samples from Jinchangyu yield Re–Os model ages of ca. 233 to 219 Ma with a weighted mean age of 225 ± 4 Ma and an isochron age of 223 ± 5 Ma. This indicates that at least some of the Au associated with molybdenite is Late Triassic in age. This mineralization, formed after the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, is correlated to post-orogenic stage. The Haoyaoerhudong Au deposit (No. 7) in the northern margin of the North China Craton has a reserve of about 148 tons of Au with lower grade (Fig. 8). Gold mineralization is characterized by pyrite and pyrrhotite films and thin veins on the schistosity plane of the Proterozoic black shales. Well-defined biotite Ar–Ar plateau age and inverse isochron age show that the deposit formed at ca. 270 Ma. Hydrogen and oxygen isotopic data show that the ore-forming fluid was derived from a magmatic source and mixed with meteoric water. Sulfur and carbon isotope data indicate that most of the sulfur and carbon came from the black shale strata. The black shales rich in gold, sulfur, and organic matter, which were deposited in the Proterozoic continental margin rifts, were the source for Au mineralization. Later tectono-magmatism and subsequent hydrothermal events remobilized Au and drove the ore-forming fluids to dilational fracture zones (Wang et al., 2014b). The Guilaizhuang deposit (No. 72) shows unique Au–Te mineralization feature different from other Au deposits in Jiaodong. The mineralization occurs in the cryptoexplosive breccias associated with the syenite. The altered syenite shows zircon U–Pb ages of 179–180 Ma, and the fluorite-calcite mineral pair yield a consistent Sm–Nd isochron age of 181 Ma. The Guilaizhuang deposit marks an important alkaline rock-related gold-forming event in a post-collisional setting following the collision between the North China Craton and Yangtze Craton (Xu et al., 2015d). The Jiguanshan porphyry Mo deposit, northern margin of the North China Craton, formed at 156.0 ± 1.3 Ma according to the zircon 206Pb/238U age for the dissemination-mineralized granite porphyry. The zircon εHf(t) values are from −5.6 to +0.2. 3.3.3. Early Cretaceous metallogenesis The widespread and world-class Early Cretaceous gold mineralization in the Jiaodong and Xiaoqinling regions are temporarily coincident with pervasive bimodal magmatism, widespread fault-basin formation, and development of metamorphic core complexes of the eastern North China Craton (Fig. 8). The Jiaodong Peninsula along the southeastern margin of the North China Craton is the most important Au producing province in China, with explored Au reserve of 2000 t (Wang et al., 2010b,c; Deng et al., 2008, 2010a, 2011; Li et al., 2007b; Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Groves and Santosh, 2015, 2016; Yang et al., 2016d). The Au deposits in this region were generally classified as the Linglong-, Jiaojia-, and

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Pengjiakuang-type (Deng et al., 2009, 2015b,d; Tan et al., 2012). The Jiaojia-type deposits consist of disseminated-and stockwork-style ores located within wide alteration zones along several regional-scale NNE-trending transpressional faults. The Linglong-type is characterized by massive auriferous quartz veins occurring in second-or third-order faults of the NNE-trending faults. The Pengjiakuang, developed at the intersection of the NNE-trending faults and the NE-trending detachment faults, contain pyrite-quartz veins and disseminated pyrite-sericitequartz ores (Guo et al., 2013; Tan et al., 2012; Yang and Wu, 2009; Zhang et al., 2003a). Despite the different modes of occurrence and ore textures in the three types of deposits, they are comparable in the gold-only enrichment and predominant fault-control (Guo et al., 2013; Tan et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2003a). The Au deposits in Jiaodong should is considered unique and termed as Jiaodong-type in recent literature. The geodynamic engine of the Jiaodong-type Au deposit is considered to be oceanic subduction coupled with lithospheric thinning (Zhu et al., 2015a; Li et al., 2012a,b) with structural control in the shallow crust. It has also been suggested that the trigger for magmatism and metallogeny could also be the change of drifting of the Paleo-Pacific plate (Sun et al., 2007). The Anjiayingzi Au deposit (No. 28) is hosted by the Jiguanzi quartz monzonite in the footwall of the Kalaqin Metamorphic Core Complex (MCC) formed at 135–121 Ma in the northern part of North China Craton. The Jiguanzi quartz monzonite intruded the footwall of the Kalaqin MCC at ca. 133 ± 1 Ma. Gold veins in the Anjiayingzi Au deposit are hosted by the monzonite and controlled by the faults, which was considered to concomitant structure of MCC (Fu et al., 2014). The Qianhe Au deposit (No. 79) in the Xiong'ershan area is located along the Archean-Paleoproterozoic southern margin of North China Craton (Fig. 8b). Samples of molybdenite coexisting with Au-bearing pyrite have Re–Os model ages of 134–135 Ma, whereas ore-related hydrothermal sericite separates yield 40Ar–39Ar plateau ages between 127 and 124 Ma. The Re–Os and 40Ar–39Arages are remarkably consistent with zircon U–Pb ages (134.5 ± 1.5 and 127.2 ± 1.4 Ma; 1σ) of the biotite monzogranite from the intrusive complex and granitic dikes in and close to the Qianhe Au mine, indicating a close temporal and thus possibly genetic relationship between Au mineralization and granitic magmatism in the area (Tang et al., 2013). The Trans-North China Orogen, a Paleoproterozoic suture that amalgamates the Western and Eastern Blocks of the North China Craton (Yang and Santosh, 2015), witnessed extensive skarn Fe or Mo ore deposits during early-Cretaceous. The zircon U–Pb data from the Mapeng intrusive stock related to Mo mineralization and related porphyry dikes show ages in the range of 124 to 129 Ma (Li et al., 2015b). The mineralogy and geochemistry of the dykes and Mapeng intrusive stock indicate the rocks to be high-K calc-alkaline, and I-type, with adakitic features similar to those of the adjacent Mapeng batholith. The source magma for these rocks was derived from a mixture of reworked ancient continent crust and juvenile mantle materials. The ore-forming fluids associated with the Au mineralization at the Linglong and Canzhuang Au deposits in Jiaodong have higher content of fluids of mantle origin with mantle helium ranging from 1.24% to 18.02% with an average of 6.73%. In contrast, the ore-forming fluids related to the Fe ore deposits of the Beiminghe and Fushan in the central North China Craton contain less mantle contribution with mantle helium ranging from 0.12% to 4.96% with an average of 1.29%. The results suggest the lithosphere of the eastern North China Craton was subjected to more extensive thinning and destruction as compared with that in the central part (Shen et al., 2013b). The geochemical compositions with the Mo-carrying granitoid in the ore deposits, including Jinduicheng, Mujicun, Yuchiling, Shijiawan, and Donggou, show the metallogenic granitoid are high-K calcalkaline to shoshonitic (Fig. 9). In the Mujicun porphyry Cu–Mo deposit located in the Trans-North China orogen, the Re–Os ages for ore molybdenite and zircon U-Pb ages for ore host porphyry suggest the magmatism and mineralization occurred from ~ 143 Ma to ~ 138 Ma

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Fig. 9. Geochemical indices for the ore-forming granitoids in the North China Craton. (a) plot of (K2O + Na2O) vs. SiO2; (b) plot of K2O vs. SiO2; (c) plot of A/NK vs. A/CNK. The I–S divided line is from White and Chappell (1977); (d) plot of εNd(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (e) plot of εHf(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (f) plot of Sr/Y vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (g) tectonic evolution responsible for the felsic magma-related deposits (from Xu et al., 2015a; Donskaya et al., 2013; Ouyang et al., 2013). Geochemical data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File C.


(Dong et al., 2013). Zircon grains of the ore-forming intrusions show highly negative εHf(t) values ranging from − 18 to − 26 and − 20 to − 35 and significantly old model ages ranging of 2.3 to 3.5 Ga. For other Mo deposits formed in late Cretaceous, like Jinduicheng, Yuchiling, Shijiawan, and Donggou, the co-magmatic zircons in the ore-forming intrusions displays highly negative εHf(t) values. 3.3.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids The Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous granitic rocks in the northern margin of the North China Craton (Fig. 8) show varied geochemical features and metal species (summarized in Supplementary File C). The ca. 160 Ma granitic porphyries in the Jiguanshan Mo deposit have zircon εHf(t) values concentrating from − 5.6 to + 0.2 with TCDM ages of 1.45 Ga to 1.25 Ga (Wu et al., 2014). In combination with the peraluminous affinity, their parental magmas are best to interpret as a derivation from Mesoproterozoic crustal basement. The ca. 140 Ma Mujicun Cu–Mo-metallogenic diorite porphyries yield εHf(t) values varying between − 26 and − 19 with TCDM ages of 2.85 Ga to 2.40 Ga (Dong et al., 2013). Their old TCDM ages, peraluminous to metaluminous affinity, and the associated Cu-dominant mineralization, suggesting the crustal source were most likely composed of mafic juvenile crust originated from mantle, since the period of 2.85 Ga to 2.40 Ga was an important stage for crust growth via oceanic subduction in the craton. The zircon εHf(t) values in the peraluminous granitoids associated with Mo mineralization from the southern margin of the North China Craton are clustered around the evolution line of 2.0 Ga with a few plots scattered around 3.0–4.0 Ga (Fig. 9) (summarized in Supplementary File C). These rocks could be interpreted to derive from the Paleoproterozoic crustal basement. The peak of 2.0 Ga was another time for the crustal growth via oceanic subduction in North China Craton (Zhao, 2001). 3.4. Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt The Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt experienced a series of subduction-accretion events related to the Proto-Tethys in Early Paleozoic, to the Paleo-Tethys in Triassic, and an intraplate extension in Cretaceous (Pan et al., 2012; Mattern and Schneider, 2000; Pullen et al., 2008; Li et al., 2015c; Metcalfe, 2013). The metallogenesis was synchronized to the orogenesis, displaying episodic evolution from early-Paleozoic to late-Cretaceous (Fig. 10). 3.4.1. Early-Paleozoic metallogenesis related to Proto-Tethyan orogenesis The early-Paleozoic metallogenesis includes the skarn W–Pb–Zn and magmatic Cu–Ni mainly distributed in the continental arc in East Kunlun and the VMS base metal ore deposit in the North Qaidam orogenic belt (Fig. 10). The Ordovician island arc volcanic rocks and back-arc basin volcanicsedimentary rocks in the Qaidam orogenic belt host the Qinglongtan (No. 22) and Luliangshan (No. 23) VMS-type Cu–(Au) deposits (Zhang et al., 2005a), and the Xitieshan (No. 25) Sedex Pb–Zn (Au) deposits (Zhang et al., 2005b) (Fig. 10). Zircon U–Pb ages of 514.2 ± 8.5 Ma from the volcanic rocks of the Qinglongtan deposit (Shi et al., 2004) and 486 ± 13 Ma from the volcanic rocks of the Xitieshan deposit (Zhao et al., 2003b) have been reported. The Tuolugou (No. 37) SEDEX cobalt- (gold) deposit is located in the central part of the East Kunlun orogenic belt. Re–Os dating on seven pyrite samples yield an isochron age of 429 ± 29 Ma (Feng et al., 2009). The W–Sn mineralization in the Baiganhu field in the East Kunlun (Qimantage) early Paleozoic arc is spatially associated with monzogranite that yielded a 238U–206Pb zircon age of 430.5 ± 1.2 Ma. Cassiterite yielded a 206Pb/207Pb–238 U/207Pb isochron age of 427 ± 13 Ma, which confirms a close relationship of the early Silurian intrusion and the W–Sn mineralization (Gao et al., 2014). In the Xiaoliugou W-Mo deposit, zircon U-Pb age for the mineralization-related monzogranite is 454 ± 2.0 Ma (Zhao et al., 2014d). The monzogranite for the Baiganhu

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and Xiaoliugou are both peraluminous granite and belongs to the high-K calc-alkaline series. They have similar εHf(t) ranging from −8 to +5. The Xiarihamu (No. 29) magmatic Ni–Cu sulfide deposit is in the East Kunlun Paleozoic arc. An on-going drilling campaign reveals ~ 100 million tons of sulfide mineralization with the average grade of 0.8 wt% Ni and 0.1 wt% Cu for the deposit. This makes the Xiarihamu deposit one of the 20 largest magmatic Ni–Cu sulfide deposits in the world and the largest ever found in arc settings. The deposit is hosted in a small ultramafic body intruding older gabbroic and metamorphic rocks. New zircon U–Pb isotope age data reveal that the ultramafic body (411.6 ± 2.4 Ma) is ~ 20 Ma younger than the host gabbroic intrusion (431.3 ± 2.1 Ma) (Li et al., 2015d). The ultramafic body is composed predominantly of lherzolite and olivine websterite, with minor dunite, websterite and orthopyroxenite. The Xiarihamu ultramafic rocks show light REE enrichments and pronounced negative Nb anomalies, plus significant Ca-depletion in olivine. Estimated parental magma for the Xiarihamu lherzolites contains 52.4 wt% SiO2 and 9.8 wt% MgO, which are within the ranges of boninites worldwide, supporting the interpretation that the Xiarihamu sulfide ore-bearing ultramafic intrusion was the product of subduction-related boninitic magmatism. The εHf(t) values of zircon crystals from the Xiarihamu ultramafic rocks vary from 1 to 5, indicating minor crustal contamination of the parent magma (Li et al., 2015d). 3.4.2. Late-Paleozoic metallogenesis related to Paleo-Tethyan orogenesis Widespread late-Paleozoic metallogenesis related to the PaleoTethyan orogenesis occurred in the Triassic and is represented by the porphyry-skarn Cu–Pb–Zn ore deposits in the East Kunlun and West Kunlun orogenic belt, those in the North Qaidam orogenic belt, the Carlin-like and orogenic Au deposit in West Qinling, and the vein-type and porphyry Mo in the East Qinling–Dabie. Carboniferous SEDEX and VMS Cu–Pb–Zn ore deposit formed in the West Kunlun and West Qinling. The Wulonggou (No. 31) orogenic Au deposit, with an age of 236.5 ± 0.5 Ma from sericite Ar–Ar dating, is located in the East Kunlun orogenic belt (Fig. 10). The geodynamic setting of this deposit is related to post-collisional extension (Ding et al., 2014). The Dachang (No. 38) orogenic Au deposit, formed at 218.6 ± 3.3 Ma (sericite Ar–Ar age), is located in the late-Triassic Songpan–Garzê Fold Belt, NE Tibetan Plateau (Ding et al., 2013). In West Qinling, the quartz from the Baguamiao (No. 56) orogenic Au deposit yielded Ar–Ar ages of 232.58 ± 1.59 Ma (plateau age) and 222.14 ± 3.45 Ma (isochron age) (Feng et al., 2003). Sericite in the altered wall rock, synchronous to Au mineralization, was dated by Ar–Ar at 232.7 ± 6.9 Ma in the Jinlongshan (No. 76) (Zhao et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2012b). Based on the muscovite and biotite Ar–Ar ages, Zeng et al. (2012) calculated a weighted mean age of 216.4 ± 0.7 Ma for the hydrothermal event in the Liba (No. 53) Carlin-like Au deposit. The Dashui (No. 45) Au deposit is a structurally controlled, Carlin-like Au deposit hosted by recrystallised limestone in the West Qinling. The igneous dyke sample from the hanging wall has the same U–Pb zircon age as the footwall, at ca. 213 Ma. (U–Th)/He thermochronology on dykes in the hanging wall and footwall of the Dashui Fault yields identical (U–Th)/He zircon ages of ca. 210 Ma but distinct (U–Th)/He apatite ages of ca. 136 and 211 Ma, respectively. Therefore, the hanging wall and footwall are interpreted as having distinct post-mineralization exhumation histories. These relationships place a maximum limit on the age of mineralization as the granodiorite is locally mineralized. The Dashui Fault provides a minimum age on the development of the Dashui Au deposit as it cuts the mineralized zone (Zeng et al., 2013). The Jiadanggen (No. 43) porphyry Cu–(Mo) deposit is a newly discovered one, and located in the East Kunlun metallogenic belt. LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dating of the granodiorite porphyry yields 227 ± 1 Ma, and the molybdenite Re–Os isochron age is 227.2 ± 1.9 Ma. The granodiorite porphyry is high-K calc-alkaline and

236 J. Deng et al. / Gondwana Research 50 (2017) 216–266 Fig. 10. Geological map of the Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt illustrating the tectonic units and the space–time information of important ore deposits (modified after Chen et al., 2004). The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A.


peraluminous with arc-like trace element distribution and its genesis is correlated with subduction of the Mianlue oceanic plate (Li et al., 2015e). LA–ICP–MS U–Pb dating of zircons from the ore-forming plagiogranite in Shuangqing (No. 35) Fe–Pb–Zn–Cu ore deposit in the East Kunlun metallogenic belt has yielded ages of 227.2 ± 1.0 and 226.54 ± 0.97 Ma. Molybdenites separated from ore-bearing quartzveins yielded a Re–Os isochron age of 226.5 ± 5.1 Ma. These age data confirm that both intrusion and related skarn mineralization formed at ~ 227 Ma. The Re contents of molybdenite, zircon εHf(t) and 176 Hf/177Hf values show ranges of 3.31 to 6.58 ppm, −8.6 to −0.0, and 0.282403 to 0.28263850, respectively. The Shuangqing Fe–Pb–Zn–Cu mineralization is related to the partial melting of thickened crustal materials in a post-collisional setting (Xia et al., 2015). The EW-trending East Qinling–Dabie orogenic belt, located between the North China and Yangtze Cratons, is probably the most important repository of Mo resources in the world (Mao et al., 2011a). The belt also hosts numerous lode Au and Ag–Pb–Zn deposits (Mao et al., 2002). Recent work has identified three pulses of granitoid magmatism and Mo mineralization (Mao et al., 2008). Vein-type Mo deposits dated at 233–221 Ma occupy detachment fractures; most are hosted by Mesoproterozoic volcanic rocks of the Xiong'er Group. The molybdenite from the Zhifang (No. 84) Mo deposit yield a weighted mean Re–Os age of 243.8 ± 2.8 Ma (2σ), suggesting that the Zhifang deposit is an orogenic-type mineral system. The molybdenite from the Zhifang Mo deposit shows low rhenium contents (3.98 to 29.85 ppm), suggesting a crust-derived origin. The Sr–Nd–Pb isotope systems of the sulfides suggest that the initial ore-forming fluids were sourced from the basement of North China Craton (Deng et al., 2016b). In the West Kunlun, the Paleozoic SEDEX ore deposits were developed (Fig. 10). The ages of the Rb–Sr isochron of sphalerite in the Tamu (No. 2) deposit (337 Ma) and the Re–Os isochron of chalcopyrite in the Abalieke (No. 3) deposit (331 Ma) are similar to those of the orebearing strata, suggesting syndepositional sedimentary sequences. The syndepositional mineralization occurred during the Devonian and early Carboniferous eras. The ore-bearing strata were located in a late Paleozoic subsiding basin at the south-west margin of the Tarim platform. 3.4.3. Middle Triassic to Late Cretaceous metallogenesis related to intraplate extension The Saishitang Cu deposit is located on the eastern part of the East Kunlun. Molybdenite separated from ore-bearing quartz veins yields a Re–Os isochron age of 223.4 ± 1.5 Ma (Wang et al., 2016a). The Hutouya skarn Pb-Zn (Cu) ore deposit formed at 224.3 ± 0.6 (Li et al., 2015g). The metallogenic intrusive rocks for the Saishitang and Hutouya are calc-alkaline series, and they have variable εHf(t) values (−3 to 5). The late-Cretaceous metallogenesis are mainly distributed in the East Qinling and Dabie segment of the Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt. In the East Qinling, at the southern margin of the North China Craton, porphyry and/or skarn Mo or Mo–W deposits related to I-type and transitional I- and S-type granites are dated at 148–138 Ma. In contrast, porphyry Mo deposits related to S-type and some transitional S- and I-type granite show ages ranging from 131 to 112 Ma (Mao et al., 2011b). The Qian'echong (No. 89) Mo deposit is a giant porphyry deposit in the Dabie of eastern China. Molybdenum (Mo) mineralization mainly occurs as numerous veinlets in altered schists, with the development of potassic, phyllic, argillic, and propylitic alteration assemblages. Molybdenite samples from the ores yield Re–Os isotope ages of 123.31 ± 1.02 to 128.49 ± 1.40 Ma, which are consistent with the U–Pb ages for the igneous rocks. The Qian'echong granite porphyry stock and dikes have high contents of SiO2, K2O and Al2O3, and low contents of TiO2, MgO and CaO, and show peraluminous high-K calcalkaline to shoshonite affinity (Fig. 11), with obvious LREE enrichment and negative Eu anomaly. The rocks have a high initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.70729 to 0.71788 and highly negative εNd(t) values of − 16.2 to − 26.1, with TDM2 (Nd) ages of 2.24 to 3.03 Ga. Their (206Pb/204Pb)t,

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(207Pb/204Pb)t, and (208Pb/204Pb)t values range from 16.017 to 16.701, 15.252 to 15.368, and 37.095 to 37.578, respectively. The Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic signature indicates that the granitic intrusions of the Qian'echong deposit were mainly melts with components of both the northern Dabie complex and the Taihua and Xiong'er Groups that are part of the Precambrian basement of the North China Craton. The melts were generated during the tectonic extrusion of the Dabie and their emplacement into the basement of the North China Craton as a result of previous Triassic orogenesis (Mi et al., 2015). The Miaoya (No. 87) REE deposit associated with carbonatitesyenite complexes, with zircon U–Pb age of 147.1 ± 0.5 Ma is located in the Qinling orogenic belt (Xu et al., 2015c). Li et al. (2012f) reported sericite 40Ar/ 39 Ar plateau age of 129.5 ± 1.5 Ma for the Wenyu deposit. Li et al. (2002b) also obtained a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 132.6 ± 2.7 Ma for sericite separates from ore. Thus, the Au mineralization in the Xiaoqinling terrane is generally considered to be Early Cretaceous. 3.4.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids In the East Kunlun of Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt (Fig. 10) (summarized in Supplementary File D), the zircon εHf(t) values for the granitoids related to the Cu–Mo, Fe–Cu and Pb–Zn–Cu polymetallic deposits formed from 240 Ma to 210 Ma are comparable to those in the Fe–polymetallic and W–Sn deposits generated from 430 Ma to 390 Ma, falling between the hafnium isotopic evolution lines between 1.9 Ga and 1.0 Ga (Fig. 11). The Cu–Mo metallogenic granites, exemplified by those in the Saishitang deposit, are metaluminous, calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline, with moderate Sr/Y ratios (~ 30–20), which suggests the parental magma was dominantly derived from the juvenile lower crust formed at ~1.0 Ga with minor involvement of ancient crustal components. The ca. 1.0 Ga juvenile crust in the East Kunlun probably formed via mafic magma underplating caused by oceanic subduction as the East Kunlun was located on the northern margin of Yangtze block before its detachment in Phanerozoic (Zhou et al., 2002b; Dong et al., 2008). The Fe–Cu and Pb–Zn–Cu metallogenic granites are dominantly of metaluminous to peraluminous and high-K calc-alkaline composition, with low Sr/Y ratios of ~20–0; and the W–Sn deposits related granites are mostly of peraluminous, high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic in nature, with low Sr/Y ratios of ~15–0.1 was explained that the parental magmas for the Fe–Cu and Pb–Zn–Cu ore deposits were mixtures between voluminous middle crust-derived magmas and minor juvenile lower crust-derived melts, and that for the W–Sn deposits were mainly middle crust-derived. The ca. 450 Ma ore-forming granitoids in the Xiaoliugou W–Sn deposit (No. 23) in the Qilian block (Fig. 10) show zircon εHf(t) values between the evolution lines of 1.8 to 1.1 Ga and low Sr/Y ratios of 3 to 0, similar to those in the East Kunlun. Most of the rocks are peraluminous and high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, consistent with magma derivation from middle crust. Co-magmatic zircons from the ca. 130 Ma ore-forming granites in the Qian'echong Mo deposit (No. 64) in the Qinling (Fig. 10) show more negative εHf(t) values, generally below the hafnium isotopic evolution line of 1.9 Ga. These granites are metaluminous to peraluminous and high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, and with higher Sr/Y of 45 to 20, suggesting that the source magma was derived from much older lower crust (Fig. 11). 3.5. Tibetan plateau The accretion and collision related to the Tethyan oceanic consumption resulted in the formation of porphyry ore deposits in the Lhasa Block (Hou et al., 2015a,b) and Western Qiangtang, as well as the formation of the Luobusha ophiolitic chromitite in the suture (Bai et al., 2000; Fig. 12). 3.5.1. Jurassic metallogenesis related to accretionary collision Geochronological and geochemical features of the Jurassic orebearing porphyries in the Xiongcun district (No. 33) indicate that the

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Fig. 11. Geochemical indices for the ore-forming granitoid in the Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt. (a) plot of (K2O + Na2O) vs. SiO2; (b) plot of K2O vs. SiO2; (c) plot of A/NK vs. A/CNK. The I–S divided line is from White and Chappell (1977); (d) plot of εNd(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (e) plot of εHf(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (f) plot of Sr/Y vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (g) tectonic evolution responsible for the felsic magma-related deposits (from Dong et al., 2011a; Wu and Zheng, 2013). Geochemical data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File D.


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Fig. 12. Geological map of the Tibet orogenic belt illustrating the tectonic units and the space–time information of important ore deposits. The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A. Abbreviation: AKMS, Anyimaqin-Kunlun-Muztagh suture; JS: Jinshajiang suture; BNS, Bangong–Nujiang suture; ITS, Indus-Tsangpo suture; SBS, Shan boundary suture.

porphyry Cu–Au mineralization formed in an island arc setting, related to the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic plate. Two orebodies are hosted by two porphyries that were emplaced into the Early Jurassic volcano-sedimentary rock sequences of the Xiongcun Formation. According to the molybdenite Re–Os dating, the No. II deposit formed at ca. 172.6 ± 2.1 Ma, and the No. I deposit is at ca. 161.5 ± 2.7 Ma, consistent with the emplacement times of their host plutons. Jurassic ore-bearing porphyries in the Xiongcun district show high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic affinity and have εNd(t) and εHf(t) near the DM evolution line (Fig. 13). Geochronological and geochemical features of the Jurassic ore-bearing porphyries in the Xiongcun district indicate that the porphyry Cu–Au mineralization formed in an island arc setting, which is related to the northward subduction of the NeoTethys oceanic plate (Lang et al., 2014). The Bangonghu porphyry Cu belt is located in central Tibet, and contains the Bolong (No. 40) and Galale (No. 39) Cu–Au deposits (Fig. 12). The Bangonghu porphyry Cu belt is hosted by a Mesozoic continental

arc that lies along the southern margin of the Western Qiangtang Block, and is related to the subduction of Bangonghu–Nujiang oceanic crust (Li et al., 2013b; Qu and Xin, 2006). The mineralization-related porphyritic intrusions in this area are high-K calc-alkaline quartz diorites and granodiorites (Fig. 13) that were intruded into Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanic rocks (Li et al., 2011c). These intrusions formed from magmas generated by mixing between felsic melts derived from the lower crust and evolved H2O-rich mafic melts derived from a metasomatized region of the mantle wedge (Li et al., 2013b). The intrusions were emplaced during the mid-Cretaceous 121–106 Ma (Li et al., 2011a), and host mineralization formed at 118–115 Ma (Li et al., 2011c). The Luobusha ophiolitic chromitite is located in the Indus–Yarlung Zangbo suture, which consists mainly of harzburgite, with lesser amounts of dunite, cumulate mafic rocks, pillow lava, and ophiolitic mélange (Bai et al., 2000). Numerous bodies of podiform chromitite are hosted in the mantle-derived rocks, with an aggregate of

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Fig. 13. Geochemical indices for the ore-forming granitoids in Tibetan orogenic belt. (a) plot of (K2O + Na2O) vs. SiO2; (b) plot of K2O vs. SiO2; (c) plot of A/NK vs. A/CNK. The I–S divided line is from White and Chappell (1977); (d) plot of εNd(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (e) plot of εHf(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (f) plot of Sr/Y vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (g) tectonic evolution responsible for the felsic magma-related deposits (from Zhu et al., 2013; Chung et al., 2005; Yin and Harrison, 2000). Geochemical data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File E.


about 5 million tons of ore. Robinson et al. (2004) concluded that ophiolite has a Cretaceous age (126 Ma) on the basis of a SHRIMP zircon data. 3.5.2. Paleocene to Eocene metallogenesis related to continental collision During the initiation of continental collision, the skarn Fe systems, skarn/breccia Pb–Zn–Ag systems, and porphyry/skarn Mo–Cu–W systems and orogenic Au deposit formed at ca. 65–50 Ma (Zheng et al., 2015b). For instance, the Hahaigang (No. 12) W–Mo polymetallic skarn deposit is located in the central-eastern part of Gangdese belt in Lhasa terrane, Tibet (Fig. 12). The deposit hosts 46 million tons of WO3 ores, 12 million tons of Mo ores, and 1.31 million tons of combined Cu–Pb–Zn ores, at an average grade of 0.20% WO3, 0.07% Mo, 0.026% Cu, 0.49% Pb, and 3.1% Zn. The molybdenite Re–Os age of 63.2 ± 3.2 Ma indicates that the W–Mo mineralization might have occurred during the main India–Eurasia collision that was initiated around 65 Ma. Ore-forming granites from Fe deposits display 87Sr/86Sr(i) = 0.7054–0.7074 and εNd(t) = − 4.7 to + 1.3, whereas rocks from the Yaguila (No. 17) Pb–Zn–Ag deposit have 87Sr/86Sr(i) = 0.7266–0.7281 and εNd(t) = −13.5 to −13.3 (Fig. 13). In situ Lu–Hf isotopic analyses of zircons from Fe deposits show that εHf(t) values range from − 7.3 to +6.6 (Fig. 13), with TCDM of 712 to 1589 Ma, and Yaguila Pb–Zn–Ag deposit has εHf(t) values from − 13.9 to − 1.3 with TCDM of 1216 to 2016 Ma (Fig. 13). The ore-forming porphyry in Sharang has enriched initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.705797–0.706788), εNd(t) values (− 3.37 ~ − 4.59) (Zhao et al., 2011b) and zircon εHf(t) from − 5 to 5 (Zhao et al., 2014e). The Jiru (No. 28) porphyry Cu deposit in the Gangdese belt is hosted by monzogranite and monzogranite porphyry with SHRIMP U–Pb ages of 48.6 ± 0.8 Ma and 16.0 ± 0.4 Ma, respectively. Re–Os ages of molybdenite from the monzogranite and monzogranite porphyry are 44.9 ± 2.6 Ma and 15.2 ± 0.4 Ma, coeval to the host rocks, respectively. These geochronological data indicate that there are two mineralization events occurred at the Jiru deposit. The Eocene monzogranite is characterized by high SiO2 (63.0–71.4%) and K2O (3.7–5.9%) (Fig. 13), enrichment in LILEs, depletion in Nb, Ta, and Ti, moderate negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.55–0.94), and relatively low Sr/Y (14–39) and (La/Yb) n (9–20) ratios. It also has young εNd(t) values (− 0.43 to − 0.25), low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7044–0.7048), and young depleted-mantle model ages of 742–821 Ma. These geochemical features suggest that the Jiru monzogranite was most likely derived from the hydrated asthenospheric mantle wedge with involvement of subducted sediments related to the Neo-Tethyan oceanic slab breakoff (Yang et al., 2016c). The negative Eu anomalies and low Sr/Y ratios (generally b 20) of the least fractionated samples of the Early Eocene granitoids indicate that water content of the primitive collision-related magma was b 4 wt%, but increased to over 4 wt% with fractional crystallization, as evidenced by very weak negative Eu anomalies and relatively high Sr/Y ratios (~40) for some samples with SiO2 contents of ~67 wt%. Upper crustal differentiation, which would increase water content of residual magma, is thought to be a key factor in the formation of the collisionstage Cu mineralization at Jiru. The presence of Eocene porphyry Cu–Mo mineralization indicates that sulfide precipitation at the base of the orogenic lower crust during the first-stage arc magmatism is not needed in the formation of the post-collisional porphyry Cu deposit at Jiru (Yang et al., 2016c). The Mayum (No. 38) orogenic Au deposit with estimated resources of N80 tons Au is hosted by Neoproterozoic-Cambrian schists, and controlled by nearly parallel E–W trending bedding fracture zones in the northern margin of Himalaya. The Au orebodies are composed of auriferous quartz veins and altered rocks. 40Ar/39Ar age dating on the sericite from the alteration associated with the auriferous quartz veins in the Mayum Au deposit gives a plateau-like age of 59.34 ± 0.62 Ma, later than the onset of the Indo-Asian collision (Fig. 12). It is believed the Au mineralization was related to the Indo-Asian collision, and formed during the early stage of orogenesis (Jiang et al., 2009).

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3.5.3. Miocene metallogenesis related to continental collision More than fifty post-collisional adakite-like intrusions have been recognized in a narrow and 1500 km long EW-trending belt along the southern part of the Lhasa terrane (Fig. 12). These adakite-like rocks range from strongly porphyritic to more equigranular textured intrusions. Available dating constrains the duration of the adakite-like magmatism as ca. 16 ± 2 Ma. A series of Miocene porphyry deposits, including the Bangpu (No. 13), Qulong (No. 10), Jiama (No. 11), Tinggong (No. 25), and Chongjiang (No. 26) deposits formed as a result of this episode of magmatism. The Bangpu deposit in the Gangdese porphyry Cu belt is a large but poorly studied Mo-rich (~0.089 wt%), and Cu-poor (~0.32 wt%) porphyry deposit that formed in a post-collisional tectonic setting (Fig. 12). The deposit was formed at the same time (~ 15.32 Ma) as other deposits within the belt (12–18 Ma). Porphyry Mo–(Cu) mineralization in the deposit is generally associated with a mid-Miocene porphyritic monzogranite rock, whereas skarn Pb–Zn mineralization, with a Rb–Sr isochron age of 13.9 ± 0.9 Ma for co-precipitated pyrite and sphalerite, is hosted by lower Permian limestone-clastic sequences. An ancient lower crustal source for ore-forming porphyritic monzogranite explains why the Bangpu deposit is Mo-rich and Cu-poor rather than the Cu–Mo association in other porphyry deposits in the belt because Mo is dominantly from the ancient crust. The 3He/4He and 40Ar/36Ar ratios of fluid inclusions exhibit a range of 0.12209–0.36370 Ra and 275.6–346.1, respectively. He–Ar isotopic compositions suggest dominantly crust-derived fluid with minor amount of meteoric water in the main ore stage. Sulfides at Bangpu yield δ34S values of − 2.3‰ to 0.3‰, indicative of mantle-derived S implying that coeval mantlederived mafic magma (e.g., diabase) simultaneously supplied S and Cu to the porphyry system at Bangpu. In comparison, the Pb isotopic compositions (206Pb/204Pb = 18.79–19.28, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.64–15.93, 208 Pb/204Pb = 39.16–40.45) of sulfides show that other metals (e.g., Mo, Pb, Zn) were likely derived mainly from an ancient crustal source (Zhao et al., 2015). Miocene porphyry Cu deposits are spatially confined to the Jurassic Gangdese arc, and the giant Miocene porphyry Cu deposits cluster in its eastern segment whereas no Jurassic porphyry Cu deposits occur. This suggests that the barren arc segment in the subduction-related porphyry Cu deposits could be fertile for collision-related porphyry Cu deposits. Miocene ore-forming porphyries have young Hf model ages and Sr–Nd–Hf isotopic compositions identical to those of the Jurassic rocks, like Bolong, in the eastern segment (Fig. 13), whereas contemporaneous barren porphyries outside the Jurassic arc have abundant zircon inheritance and crust-like Sr–Nd–Hf isotopic compositions. These data suggest that remelting of the lower crustal sulfide-bearing Cu-rich Jurassic cumulates, triggered by Cenozoic crustal thickening and/or subsequent slab break-off, led to the formation of giant Miocene porphyry Cu deposits (Hou et al., 2015a). More than 50 Sb–Au deposits and occurrences have recently been found in an E–W-striking structural-thermal dome zone, related to the South Tibetan detachment system in the Himalayan orogen. They are mainly distributed around the thermal domes intruded by mid-Miocene leucogranite bodies, and show a metallic zoning varying from Au, Sb–Au, to Sb mineralization from the domes outwards. At least three mineralization styles are recognized, i.e., Sb-, Sb–Au-, and Au-styles of deposits, all hosted in the Mesozoic, Tethyan passive continental-margin sequences (Yang et al., 2009). Zhang et al. (2011a) dated the diorite cut by stibnite-bearing quartz veins at Shalagang (24) using zircon SHRIMP method and reported an age of 23.6 Ma, thus constraining mineralization ages to post-23.6 Ma. 39 Ar– 40 Ar plateau age for the sericite formed in mineralization in the Zhaxikang (No. 1) Pb–Zn–Ag–Sb deposit is 17.9 ± 0.5 Ma. The Chaqupacha (No. 44) sediment-hosted deposit occurs in the Tuotuohe area of the Eastern Qiangtang (Song et al., 2015). The Pb and Zn mineralization in the deposit probably resulted from the same

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mineralizing event, which is younger than the youngest ore-hosting rocks, i.e., the early Miocene Wudaoliang Formation. Considering that thrusting in the Tuotuohe area had ceased prior to deposition of the Wudaoliang Formation, the mineralization at Chaqupacha post-dated the regional deformation. 3.5.4. Source of ore-forming granitoids In the Tibet orogenic belt (summarized in Supplementary File E), granites in the ~ 160 Ma Xiongcun Cu–Au deposit (No. 20) in the southern Lhasa block (Fig. 12) display zircon εHf(t) values near the DM evolution line, indicating that the primary magma was derived from juvenile crust or depleted mantle (Fig. 13). The Cu–Mo carrying granitoids generated at ~15 Ma in the same location show large zircon εHf(t) variation from elevated positive values to largely negative ones which concentrated mostly at 10 to − 5, suggesting a juvenile crustdominated source with involvement of older lower crust materials (Fig. 13). The ~120 Ma Bolong Cu–Au bearing granites in the northern Lhasa block yield zircon εHf(t) values between the DM and CHUR evolution lines, and show Sr/Y rations of 50 to 0 and metaluminous to peraluminous features, suggesting derivation from dominantly juvenile crust with minor involvement of ancient crustal components. In the central Lhasa block (Fig. 13), zircon εHf(t) values and Sr/Y ratios of mineralized granites are obviously lower than those in southern and northern parts of Lhasa block, and the magmatic sources were dominated by ancient lower or middle crust with diverse types of Fe–Pb–Zn–Mo ores. The Hf isotopic systematics indicate that the central Lhasa represents a long-lived micro-continent and the northern and southern Lhasa were young juvenile crustal blocks involving significant mantle materials (Zhu et al., 2011d; Hou et al., 2015a; Yang et al., 2016a,b). The spatial overlap and complementary metal endowment during the previous subduction- and later collision-related magmatic events in the Lhasa block provide important insights into mineral potential (Hou et al., 2015a). 3.6. Sanjiang orogenic belt The Sanjiang orogenic belt experienced Proto-, Paleo-, Meso-, and Neo-Tethyan evolution and the subsequent oblique continental collision (Deng et al., 2014a,b). Correspondingly, this belt has formed episodic and diverse metallogeny with the tectonics evolved from Tethyan accretionary orogenesis to collisional orogenesis. The metallogenic time lasted from Late Ordovician to Miocene (Fig. 14). 3.6.1. Metallogenesis related to Proto-Tethyan evolution The Huiming BIF ore deposit in the Changning-Menglian suture and Dapingzhang VMS deposit in the Simao block reveal a hitherto unknown early oceanic subduction and back-arc seafloor spreading event at the northeastern Gondwana margin related to the early evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean (Lehmann et al., 2013; Nie et al., 2015). The host rocks for the Fe layers in Huiming (No. 80) consist mainly of chert, shale, and intermediate-basic metavolcanic rocks in the southern Lancangjiang zone (Fig. 14). Three metavolcanic rock samples yielded zircon U–Pb ages of 96,459–456 Ma. These metavolcanics are characterized by sub-alkaline features, with high Al2O3 (12.45–17.68 wt%) and low TiO2 (0.60–0.96 wt%). The rocks are enriched in LREEs and LILEs with weakly negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.37–0.99) and depleted in HFSEs, which is geochemically similar to typical subduction-related arc volcanic rocks. Zircons in situ εHf(t) values are −4.36–3.30 and Hf model ages of 1.51–1.55 Ga, indicating that the Huimin metavolcanic rocks might have originated from a metasomatic mantle source (Nie et al., 2015).

The Dapingzhang (No. 74) dacite-hosted volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit is located in the western margin of Simao Block. Bulk-rock Nd isotope data give εNd (429 Ma) values of +2 to +5, and indicate a dominantly mantle source, or origin from young continental crust (TDM ~800–1000 Ma). The dacites have distinctly low abundances of Ti, Nb, Ta, Zr, Th, and REEs, which is typical of subduction related volcanism. U–Pb dating on zircon by LA–ICP–MS defines an age of 429 ± 3 Ma (2σ) (n = 19) for the dacite sequence. Re–Os isotope data on Mo-rich bulk ore samples define an isochron of 429 ± 10 Ma (2σ) (Lehmann et al., 2013). 3.6.2. Metallogenesis related to Paleo-Tethyan evolution The Laochang (No. 73) Pb–Zn–Ag–Cu VMS deposit, located within the Changning–Menglian Paleo-Tethyan suture, is an economically significant deposit with explored reserves of 866,000 metric tons (t) Pb at 4.5%, 336,000 t Zn at 3.3%, 1700 t Ag at 155 g/t, 116,000 t Cu at 0.5–0.9%, 2.84 Mt pyrite and accompany 0.8 t Au (Fig. 14) (Li, 2010). Zircon grains in a basaltic tuff from the ore deposit yielded U–Pb age of 323.6 ± 2.8 Ma (Chen et al., 2010b). The host andesitic tuff and basalt show fractionated rare earth element (REE) pattern and enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (LILE; e.g., Rb, Th, U and light REE) and most high field strength elements (HFSE; e.g., Nb, Ta, Hf and Zr). These features are similar to those of oceanic island basalt. The δ34S‰ (CDT) of the sulfides ranges from − 2.1 to 3.5‰ with an average of 0.2‰. The limited variation of δ34S‰ near zero implies that the sulfur was derived via leaching of the footwall volcanic rocks and/or degassing directly from a magma chamber. The 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb of sulfides are 18.486–18.684, 15.668–15.712 and 38.725–39.024, respectively, indicating an extremely radiogenic feature similar to that of the hosted OIB-like volcanic rocks (Li et al., 2015a). The Garzê–Litang branch ocean also underwent westward subduction from middle-Devonian to late-Triassic. Arc-related high Sr/Y porphyry intrusions and associated porphyry-skarn Cu–Mo–Au deposits are common in the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan region, especially in the Yidun arc which formed prior to Jurassic (Figs. 14 and 15) (Yang et al., 2016b). The Pulang deposit (No. 36) is the largest one in the eastern belt. The orebodies are hosted in a quartz monzonite porphyry dike that cut a quartz-diorite porphyry dike. From core to margin, silicic, potassic, phyllic (quartz-sericite), propylitic, and hornfels zones are present in the mineralized porphyry bodies. Outside the host porphyry body, chalcopyrite mineralization occurs in hydrothermal breccia zones, and small sphalerite-galena veins occur in the nearby fractures (Li et al., 2011a). Re–Os dating of molybdenite associated with chalcopyrite in the main ore bodies of the Pulang deposit gives 235.4 ± 2.4 to 221.5 ± 2.0 Ma. These ages are within the range of zircon U–Pb ages (228–206 Ma) of the associated porphyry bodies (Wang et al., 2008; Pang et al., 2009). The Xuejiping deposit (No. 37) is the largest one in the western belt. It is mainly hosted in quartz-dioritic and quartz-monzonite porphyry bodies that intruded the clastic-volcanic rocks of the late-Triassic Tumugou Formation. Re–Os dating of molybdenite from the deposit yields an age of 221.4 ± 2.3 Ma (Leng et al., 2012). The granitoid in the Pulang and Lannitang are high-K calcalkaline to shoshonitic (Fig. 15). To the north of the Yidun arc, the Gacun (No. 22) VMS ore deposit was generated in the back-arc basin (Hou et al., 2003). Copper mineralization in the Yangla skarn deposit (No. 32) in the Jinshajiang suture occurs as disseminated sulfides in the contact zones between granodiorite intrusion and country rocks (sandstone, marble, sericitic slate) and as veins in the fractures within the immediate country rocks. Sulfide minerals in the ore bodies are chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, chalcosite, pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite and magnetite.

Fig. 14. Geological map of Sanjiang orogenic belt showing the distribution of important ore deposits (modified after Deng et al., 2014a,b). Abbreviation: CMS, Changning– Menglian suture; ASS, Ailaoshan suture; ARSZ, Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone. The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A.


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Skarn-type mineral assemblages include garnet and diopside, quartz and calcite (Yang et al., 2011c). Re–Os dating of molybdenite from the deposit yields an age of 230 Ma (Yang et al., 2011c). These ages are similar to the zircon U–Pb age of 239–214 Ma for the associated peraluminous granodiorite intrusion (Fig. 15), that is believed to have formed by crustal anatexis in a post-subduction setting (Gao et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2010d; Yang et al., 2011c; Zhu et al., 2011b). 3.6.3. Metallogenesis related Meso- and Neo-Tethyan evolution The Mesozoic and early-Cenozoic evolution of the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks was largely influenced by eastward oceanic subduction of the Meso- and Neo-Tethys from late-Permian to middleCretaceous and from late-Cretaceous to ~50 Ma, respectively (Fig. 15) (Xu et al., 2012; Xie et al., 2016). Abundant early-Cretaceous granitoids and associated skarn-type Pb–Zn–Cu–Fe deposits in the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks were produced in the background of the Shan boundary oceanic subduction to the west and the break-off of the Nujiang-Bitu oceanic slab to the north. The subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic plate beneath the Tengchong Block from Late Cretaceous to Paleogene formed abundant S-type granitoids and many skarn-type and greisentype Sn–W deposits (Chen et al., 2014; Cao et al., 2016). Several Carlin-like Au deposits, such as Gala (No. 12) Ajialongwa (No. 29), Xionglongxi (No. 23), and Suoluogou (No. 34), occur within the Garzê–Litang suture, Sanjiang orogenic belt (Fig. 14) (Zhang et al., 2012e). The zircon fission–track ages of these deposits vary from 140 Ma to 80 Ma (Huan et al., 2011). Granitoids formed at 105 to 81 Ma and contemporaneous hydrothermal W, Mo, Ag and Au deposits, which temporally coincided with the subduction of the Neo-Tethys, are common in the Yidun arc terrane (representing the main mineralization stage; Yang et al., 2016b). The important Cretaceous hydrothermal deposits include the Xiasai Ag deposit (No. 28), Xiuwacu W–Mo deposit (No. 31), Tongchanggou porphyry Mo deposit (No. 39) and Hongshan porphyry Mo–Cu deposit (No. 35) (Fig. 14). The molybdenite Re–Os age of the Tongchanggou deposit is 88–82 Ma (Li et al., 2012c; Yang et al., 2016b) and that of the Hongshan deposit is 77 ± 2 Ma (Xu et al., 2006a), which are similar to the zircon U–Pb age of 81.1 ± 0.5 Ma for the associated porphyry bodies (Wang et al., 2011a). The metallogenic granitoids in the Hongshan and Tongchanggou ore deposits generally have higher NaO + K2O content than those in the Pulang and Lannitang (Fig. 15a), and they mostly fall into the shoshonitic domain (Fig. 15b) and range from metaluminous to peraluminous series (Fig. 15c). Rb–Sr isotopes of sulfides and co-existing quartz and K-feldspar from the Luziyuan deposit (No. 70) in the Baoshan block yield an isochron age of 141.9 Ma (Zhu et al., 2011c) and an isochron age of 116.1 ± 3.9 Ma for the Hetaoping deposit (No. 57) (Tao et al., 2010) in the Baoshan Block. LA–MC–ICP–MS dating of cassiterite samples and coexisting muscovite from the Tieyaoshan Sn deposit (No. 56) in the Tengchong block yielded ages from 119.3 ± 1.7 to 122.5 ± 0.7 Ma (Chen et al., 2014). LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating of igneous zircon and hydrothermal cassiterite from the Xiaolonghe Sn deposit yield ages of 71.4 ± 0.4 Ma and 71.6 ± 4.8 Ma, respectively (Cao et al., 2016). It has been suggested that the Cretaceous Sn mineralization in the Tengchong block, Sanjiang orogenic belt, might have taken place in a subduction environment (Chen et al., 2014; Xie et al., 2016). Similar work on cassiterite and coexisting muscovite from the Xiaolonghe Sn deposit (No. 55) shows ages from 71.6 ± 2.4 to 73.9 ± 2.0 Ma (Chen et al., 2014). Cassiterite and coexisting muscovite from the Lailishan Sn deposit (No. 63) yielded ages of 47.4 ± 2.0 to 52 ± 2.7 Ma (Chen et al., 2014). In comparison, the Lailishan granitoid show less peraluminous affinity than the Xiaolonghe granitoid, and they both belong to high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic series (Fig. 15). 3.6.4. Oligocene metallogenesis related to lithospheric mantle removal The lithosphere along the eastern and western margins of the Simao and Eastern Qiangtang blocks and that along the western margin of the

Yangtze Craton are characterized by metasomatized mantle with associated arc magmatism (e.g., Zhou et al., 2002b, 2006a; Li et al., 2012d). A thickened crust as expressed by the formation of S-type granitoids developed along the proximity of the sutures. Breakoff of Neo-Tethyan oceanic slab in 45–40 Ma together with the India–Eurasia continental hard collision triggered diachronous removal of lower lithospheric mantle with related porphyry-skarn Cu–Mo–Au mineralization during 42–32 Ma along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic zone (Chung et al., 2009; Deng et al., 2014b; Lu et al., 2013). The (ultra-) potassic intrusive rocks, dominantly extending along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan tectonic belt, constitute the Yulong porphyry orefield (Nos. 17–21) in the northern segment, the Beiya (No. 50), Machangqing (No. 60), and Yao'an (No. 61) ore deposits in the central segment, and the Habo (No. 79) and Tongchang (No. 78) ore deposits in the southern segment (Fig. 14). The Yulong porphyry orefield contains several ore deposits, among which the Yulong ore deposit (No. 17) with 6.3 Mt Cu metal is the largest (Fig. 14). Molybdenite Re–Os dating defines mineralization ages ranging between 42 and 32 Ma with two peaks at 40 Ma (e.g., the Yulong Cu–Mo) and 36 Ma (e.g., the Duoxiasongduo Cu–Mo ore deposit (No. 20). The monzogranitic porphyry emplaced in the Yulong ore deposit shows potassic adakite-like features. The monzogranitic porphyry emplaced in the Yulong ore deposit is characterized by SiO2 from 63.11 to 71.94%, Na2O from 2.87 to 4.39%, K2O from 4.27 to 6.24%, belonging to the shoshonite series (Fig. 15). The porphyry has depleted Y and Yb, enriched Sr corresponding to high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios, and no Eu anomaly (Jiang et al., 2006). These geochemical features indicate that the porphyry belongs to the adakite type, which was derived from a thickened crust with the presence of garnet. The granitoids associated with the Beiya, Yao–an, Machangqing and Habo ore deposits show more shoshonitic feature than those responsible for the mineralization in the Yulong (Fig. 15) (Lu et al., 2013). The first-order control of the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan Paleo-Tethyan sutures on the spatial distribution of the (ultra-) potassic rocks suggests metasomatism induced by the westward subduction of the PaleoTethyan slab. Abundant xenocrystic zircons with U–Pb ages clustered at about 840 Ma and εHf(t) ranging from largely negative to highly positive were entrained in the (ultra-) potassic felsic intrusive rocks in the western South China Block (Deng et al., 2015c). This supports the inference that metasomatism of the lithospheric mantle in the northwestern South China Block occurred at ~840 Ma. Based on the recent extensive geochronological data constraining the timing of ductile shearing and the emplacement of (ultra-) potassic rocks, it has been recognized that the ductile shearing postdated the magmatism (Lu et al., 2012, 2013). The tectonic history in the southern Tibet from 25 to 10 Ma suggests that as the underthrusting of continental lithosphere was initiated, the magmatic events tended to subside (Chung et al., 2005). Therefore, it is unlikely that the shearing movement and continental subduction generated the (ultra-) potassic magmatism. The mechanism of removal of lower lithospheric mantle appears to be the possible trigger. The asthenosphere upwelling after the removal is an efficient mechanism to trigger the partial melting of the enriched lithospheric mantle and juvenile crust. Adjacent to the Paleo-Tethyan Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan suture, the lithospheric mantle was metasomatized through oceanic subduction in Proterozoic and Paleozoic. Associated with the metasomatism, concomitant juvenile lower crust with possible preliminary metal enrichment formed as the arc magma underplated along the mantlecrust boundary. The partial melting of metasomatized lithospheric mantle and juvenile crust was responsible for the production of highly oxidized magma and corresponding formation of Cu–Au–Mo ore deposits upon the previous subduction zone. 3.6.5. Eocene metallogenesis related to crustal shearing The orogenic Au deposits are distributed in the low-grade metamorphic rocks west of the Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone. These ore deposits are represented by the Zhengyuan (No. 69 in Fig. 14) in the


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Fig. 15. Geochemical indices for the ore-forming granitoid in the Sanjiang orogenic belt in China. (a) plot of (K2O + Na2O) vs. SiO2; (b) plot of K2O vs. SiO2; (c) plot of A/NK vs. A/CNK. The I–S divided line is from White and Chappell (1977); (d) plot of εNd(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (e) plot of εHf(t) vs. U–Pb zircon ages; (f) plot of Sr/Y vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (g) tectonic evolution responsible for the felsic magma-related deposits (from Deng et al., 2014a,b). Geochemical data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File F.

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northern part and the Daping (No. 75) in the southern part. The fault control on the mineralization is in conformity with the Ar–Ar isochron age ~27 Ma of phlogopite from the mineralized lamprophyre, which intruded at ~35 Ma (Wang et al., 2001). In contrast, the Daping ore deposit (No. 75) consists of hundreds of auriferous polymetallic sulfide quartz veins controlled by the NWN-trending faults, which are developed within Late Proterozoic diorite stock (Zhang et al., 2011b). Ore minerals include scheelite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, bornite and sphalerite. The Daping ore deposit formed at about 33 Ma based on the 40Ar/39Ar ages of sericite from a representative auriferous sulfide quartz vein (Sun et al., 2009). The pattern of amalgamated small blocks confined by larger ones was essential for the rotation and associated shearing of Sanjiang. The welding boundaries of the amalgamated blocks with weak mechanical strength served as the deformation zones to adjust the movement of the smaller blocks. The movement and contraction of the small blocks have built up the Cenozoic lithospheric architecture and tectonic framework of the Sanjiang region. The Oligocene MVT Pb–Zn polymetallic deposits, with a variety of accompanying metals including Ag, Sr, Co, Mo, among others, were widely developed in the Mesozoic basin (Fig. 14). The most important among these is the Jinding Zn–Pb deposit (No. 47) located in the Lanping basin. This deposit is the largest Zn–Pb deposit in China with reserves of 12.84 Mt Zn and 2.64 Mt Pb. The tabular orebodies in this ore deposit are hosted in Paleocene Yunlong Formation and the overlying early-Cretaceous Jingxing Formation (Xue et al., 2000). The PaleoTethyan orogenic belts closed in Permo-Triassic bounded the nearly NS-trending Mesozoic basins (with modern orientation as reference) and thus provided the filling sediments for the basins. Since these orogenic belts carry metallic mineralization, such as the Yangla Cu polymetallic ore deposits (No. 37) in the Jinshajiang suture, the sediments could have been enriched in metals due to the exhumation and erosion of mineralized rocks. This is consistent with the development of several layers with high metal concentrations in the basins. The complex Pb and S isotopic compositions of the sediments might have been inherited from the orogenic belts composed of diverse components from crust to mantle (Song, 2009). These features of the sediments correspond to the anomalous metal enrichment, diverse accessory metals, and complex isotopic signature of the MVT ore deposits formed in Oligocene within basins. 3.6.6. Neogene metallogenesis related to crust extension Neogene metallogenesis related to the crustal extension formed the Dazhai germanium deposit (No. 68), which contains at least 1000 tons of Ge at an average grade of ~850 ppm Ge, and is one of the largest Ge deposits in the world (Fig. 14). The Ge deposit is hosted within coal seams of the Miocene Bangmai Formation, deposited on top of the Ge-rich Lincang S-type granite batholith (Hu et al., 2009). Germanium is mainly incorporated by the organic matter within the coal seams. It is proposed that the Ge was leached from underneath Ge-rich Lincang granites via circulating hydrothermal fluids. 3.6.7. Source of ore-forming granitoids In the Sanjiang orogenic belt (Fig. 14) (summarized in Supplementary File F), the zircon εHf(t) values of ore-forming granites associated with the ~230 Ma Pulang Cu–Modeposit (No. 36), generated in the Yidun arc, cluster at the 0.9 Ga evolution line and those in the nearly contemporaneous Yangla Cu deposit (No. 32), produced in the Jinshajiang arc, range from 0.9 Ga to 1.3 Ga (Fig. 15). The concentrated εHf(t) values could be interpreted as derivation of parental magmas from the mantle sources with minor input of subducted sediment-derived melt. The ~ 80 Ma metallogenic granitic porphyries of Hongshan (No. 35) and Tongchanggou (No. 39) Mo–Cu deposits in the Yidun arc (Fig. 14) have lower zircon εHf(t) values plotting within the 1.0 Ga to 1.8 Ga hafnium isotopic evolution lines and similar Sr/Y ratios, compared to those in the earlier arc environmental Pulang Cu deposit (No. 36). It is suggested that the Mo–Cu metallogenic magma was derived from the juvenile

crust formed during the oceanic subduction at ~230–220 Ma with involvement of the ancient lower crust materials. For the Beiya Au deposit (No. 50) formed at ~ 35 Ma in the western margin of the South China Block (Fig. 14), the most positive zircon εHf(t) values are concentrated at the hafnium evolution line of 0.9 Ga. The ~40 Ma Yulong Cu deposit (No. 17), in the same Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan porphyry deposit belt as the Beiya, shows higher zircon εHf(t) values than Beiya. The zircon εHf(t) values of ore-forming granites in the Yulong deposit are also obviously higher than those in the Yangla deposit (No. 32), both of which located in the same subduction zone (Figs. 14 and 15). Despite this, a large population of the εHf(t) values in Yulong cluster at the 0.9–1.0 Ga line. It is reasonable to consider that the incorporation of mantle melt, besides the juvenile crust contribution, accounted for the shift in εHf(t) values of the Yulong ore belt. In contrast to the ore deposits in the Yidun arc, Qiangtang Block and western margin of Yangtze Craton, numerous Sn deposits formed at 70–50 Ma occur in the Tengchong and Baoshan blocks. The zircon grains from the ore-forming granites in the Sn deposits possess εHf(t) values that broadly fall along the evolution line of 1.5 Ga with few highly negative values between 2.3 Ga to 2.8 Ga (Fig. 15). This suggests that ancient middle crustal components were involved in the formation of Sn-carrying parental magmas, which is in line with their peraluminous feature and the low Sr/Y ratios lower than 10. The western margin of Yangtze Block formed the Panxi-Hannan arc and associated juvenile crust at 900–1000 Ma as a result of oceanic subduction (Figs. 1 and 19). The Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan Paleo-Tethyan suture to the west of South China Block developed through the westward (present day orientation) oceanic subduction, whereas the western margin of South China Block remained in tectonic quiescence except for the activity of ~260 Ma Emeishan plume (Fig. 16). At ~35 Ma, as a consequence of the Indian-Eurasian continental collision, the thickened lithospheric mantle along the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan suture was removed, inducing hot asthenosphere upwelling and subsequent melting of the Neoproterozoic juvenile crust. As a result, the Beiya and other porphyry Au polymetallic ore deposits formed upon the former Neoproterozoic arc. Later at ~32 to 27 Ma, the large-scale continental underthrust resulted in the release of regional metamorphic fluid, bringing gold out of the juvenile crust and forming the orogenic Au deposits in the Ailaoshan shear system along the western margin of South China Block (Fig. 19). The Cu–Au– Mo metallogenic porphyries in the Beiya (No. 50) and Yulong (No. 17) deposits in the Sanjiang and those formed at ~ 15 Ma deposits in the Tibet, derived from previous juvenile crust and exclude the involvement of ancient crustal material during the Indian-Eurasian collision. They display more shoshonitic features as compared to those generated concomitantly during the oceanic, such as those in the southern Lhasa block. Further study was required to understand the mechanism behind. 3.7. South China Block The South China Block witnessed the amalgamation between the Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia Block at ca. 830 Ma along the Jiangnan Orogen (e.g. Zhou et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010, 2012; Wang et al., 2010e, 2011b, 2012c,d,e; Zhao et al., 2011c; Zhao, 2015). The western part was involved in the Tethyan orogenesis and Emeishan plume, and the eastern part has experienced the subduction of Paleo-Pacific plate. The metallogeny in the western part of South China Block is different from that in the eastern part. In the western part, the metallogeny was mainly related to large igneous province and the Carlin-like Au metallogeny; in contrast, in the eastern part, the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous granite-related metallogeny is dominated (Fig. 16). 3.7.1. Precambrian metallogenesis The gabbros from the Zhuqing Fe–Ti–V oxide ore-bearing mafic intrusions in western Yangtze Block are dated at 1494 ± 6 Ma (zircon U–Pb), 1486 ± 3 Ma (baddeleyite U–Pb) and 1490 ± 4 Ma (baddeleyite U–Pb). All the mafic rocks are high-Ti and alkaline in composition, and


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Fig. 16. Geological map of South China Block showing the location of important ore deposits (modified after Hu and Zhou, 2012). The deposit geology, geochronological data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File A.

exhibit light rare earth element enrichment and “humped” incompatible trace-element patterns with no obvious Nb–Ta depletion, similar to intraplate alkali basaltic rocks in continental flood basalt. Negative εNd(t) values (− 0.97 to − 3.58) and fractionation of the HREE of these rocks indicate that they were derived from a slightly enriched asthenospheric mantle source with minor crustal contamination. Like other Fe–Ti oxide mineralized rocks in plume-related layered intrusions or large igneous provinces around the world, the Zhuqing gabbros likely occurred in an intraplate setting. The ~ 1.5 Ga mafic magmatism was likely part of the global 1.6–1.2 Ga anorogenic magmatism related to

the break-up of the supercontinent Columbia, suggesting that the Yangtze Block may have been a component of the supercontinent (Fan et al., 2013). Major Fe–Cu deposits are present in the southwestern part where they form the Kangdian IOCG metallogenic province in southern China and northern Vietnam. Large Fe–Cu deposits include Lala (No. 73) and Xikuangshan (No. 76) to the north, Yinachang (No. 75) in the center, Dahongshan (No. 78) to the south (Fig. 16). These deposits are characterized by an association of Fe-oxides and Cu-sulfides with REE, Mo, Co, Ag, and Au as common by-products. The ore deposits are hosted in

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variably metamorphosed, late Paleoproterozoic rocks (~1.65–1.7 Ga) of the Dahongshan, Dongchuan, Hekou, Sin Quyen, and Shilu Groups, although the age of the Shilu Group is poorly constrained. Molybdenite separates from the Yinachang and the Lala deposits have Re–Os model ages of 1.66 and ~ 1.0 Ga. These ages suggest that the Fe–Cu deposits formed in multiple mineralization events over an exceptionally broad time range. The Shilu (No. 99) Fe ore deposit, a large-scale hematite-rich ore deposit in Hainan Province, South China, contains proven reserves of over 460 Mt Fe-ore at 51% FeO, 4.07 Mt Co-ore at 0.29% and 6.65 Mt Cu-ore at 1.18%. The deposit is largely hosted within the Meso- to Neoproterozoic (ca. 0.85–1.30 Ga) Shilu Group, a suite of metamorphosed neritic siliciclastic rocks and sedimentary carbonates. Fe-rich ores mainly reside in pyroxene-amphibole rocks, and the Co–Cu ores are primarily hosted by banded or impure dolostones 30–60 m below the Fe-ore horizons. The ages from the U–Pb SHRIMP, Sm–Nd isochron, and 40Ar–39Ar plateau yield three-stage metallogenic model: (1) deposition of the BIFtype ore source horizons between ca. 830 and 960 Ma, (2) formation of a metamorphic sedimentary-type ore deposit from ca. 830–360 Ma, and (3) superposed mineralizing stage formed by magma-related hydrothermal fluids between ca. 130 and 90 Ma. The Shilu Fe-ore deposit can thus be better regarded as a hydrothermally reworked BIF-type ore deposit (Xu et al., 2013). 3.7.2. Paleozoic metallogenesis There are several Au deposits in the eastern section of the regional Jiang–Shao Fault between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks in South China Block (Fig. 16). An Early Paleozoic orogenic Au belt in the eastern section of the Jiang–Shao Fault formed in response to the coeval northward underthrusting of the Cathaysia Block beneath the Yangtze Block during Caledonian (Ni et al., 2015). The Jinshan (No. 32) Au deposit is located in the Neoproterozoic Jiangnan orogen between the Yangtze Block and Cathaysia Block. Gold-bearing disseminated ores are associated with the earlier stage of NWW-trending ductile zone, and auriferous quartz vein-type ores show an intimate relationship with the later stage of NE-trending brittle-ductile zones. Geochronological studies on the Jinshan deposit have revealed at least three age groups, including Neoproterozoic, early Paleozoic, and Jurassic. The Neoproterozoic ages (717–838 Ma) were reported by Zhang (1994) and Mao et al. (2008c), and they include whole rock Rb–Sr age for ultramylonite and quartz veins (714–732 Ma), and the Rb–Sr isochron age for pyrite from the quartz veins (838 Ma). The early Paleozoic ages (379–406 Ma) were obtained from Rb–Sr isochron (406 ± 25 Ma) of fluid inclusions in the quartz veins (Wang et al., 2000b). Another Rb–Sr isochron age of 379 ± 49 Ma was also reported from fluid inclusions in auriferous quartz veins (Mao et al., 2008). The Woxi (No. 17) Au–Sb–W deposit, hosted by the Neoproterozoic low-grade metamorphic clastic rocks, is located in a brittle-ductile shear zone within the Xuefengshan Range, Jiangnan orogenic belt (Fig. 16). The Au, Sb, and WO3 metal reserves for the Woxi deposit amount to N50, 220,000, and 25,000 t, and the average grades of Au, Sb, and W in the ores are 9.77 ppm, 2.84%, and 0.3%, respectively. In general, the metallic minerals display an obvious lateral zoning, ranging from W–Au in the east, to W–Sb–Au in the middle, and Sb–Au in the west, accompanying W mineral phase from scheelite to wolframite (Gold Headquarters of Chinese People's Armed Police Force, GHCPAPF, 1996). Orebodies are predominantly banded quartz veins, which are strictly controlled by bedding faults. The Woxi Au–Sb–W deposit was considered as a typical orogenic Au deposit with significant W and Sb mineralization (Zhu and Peng, 2015). 3.7.3. Metallogenesis related to Emeishan LIP There are numerous magmatic Ni–Cu–PGE deposits associated with the ca. 260 Ma Emeishan LIP, SW China (Zhou et al., 2008). Three major types of magmatic Ni–Cu–PGE deposits have been discovered: the

Jinbaoshan (No. 77) deposit that represents a sulfide-poor PGE deposit (Tao et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2005); the Yangliuping (No. 69) deposit represents a sulfide-rich Ni–Cu–PGE deposit (Song et al., 2003); and the Limahe (No. 72) and Baimazhai (No. 79) deposits as best examples for sulfide-rich Ni–Cu deposits (Sun et al., 2008b; Tao et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2006b, 2007). Numerous ~260 Ma mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions, including Hongge (No. 74) and Panzhihua (No. 71) in the Emeishan LIP host world-class Fe–Ti–V oxide ore deposits (Fig. 16). The Hongge intrusion occurs as concordant layers in the central part of the intrusion, closely associated with clinopyroxenites. Titanomagnetite and Mg-rich ilmenite are the major ore minerals of the Hongge deposit. Coexisting clinopyroxene contains N 1.7 wt% TiO2. These data indicate high Ti parental magma for the Hongge ore-bearing clinopyroxenites. In contrast with the Hongge deposit, the most important host rocks of the Panzhihua deposit are gabbros. In addition, ilmenite is rare and titanomagnetite is predominant in the Panzhihua deposit. Coexisting clinopyroxene in the Panzhihua deposit contains b1.6 wt% TiO2. The contrasting lithologic and mineral compositions indicate that the parental magma for the Hongge deposit has higher TiO2, higher MgO/FeO ratios and more fractionated mantle-normalized trace element patterns than the Panzhihua parental magma. A petrogenetic model involving selective assimilation of newly subducted, stagnant oceanic gabbroic slab above the deep-seated Emeishan mantle plume has been proposed (Bai et al., 2014). This process and subsequent contamination with the upper crust played an important role in the variation of parental magma compositions between the Hongge and Panzhihua magmatic oxide ore deposits. Abundant Fe–Ti oxide ore deposits are associated with less evolved basaltic magma in the Emeishan large igneous province than elsewhere in the world and the difference is attributed to selective assimilation of newly subducted, stagnant oceanic lithospheric slab by the ascending mantle plume-derived picritic magma that was originally undersaturated with Fe–Ti oxides (Bai et al., 2014). 3.7.4. Triassic Au metallogenesis The Dian-Qian-Gui “Golden Triangle” with about 50,000 km2 area of significant Au endowment, developed primarily on the southwestern margin of the Yangtze Block. Several first-order structures, such as the Shizong–Panxian and Ziyun–Du'an faults, controlled basin subsidence during crustal extension and rifting beginning in the Early Devonian (Su et al., 2009). Re–Os isotopic dating of arsenopyrite from the Lannigou (No. 88), Jinya (No. 91) and Shuiyindong (No. 85) Au deposits yielded isochron ages of 204 ± 19 Ma, 206 ± 22 Ma, and 235 ± 33 Ma, respectively (Chen et al., 2015). The Re–Os dating of pyrite and 40 Ar–30Ar dating of hydrothermal sericite (Chen et al., 2007, 2009) for the Lannigou Au deposit are 193 ± 13 Ma and 194.6 ± 2 Ma, respectively (Fig. 16). The Carlin-like Au deposits in the Dian-Qian-Gui area formed under a post-collision transpressional regime during Late Triassic, similar to that of the Carlin-like Au deposits in West Qinling Block. The Baolun (No. 100) orogenic quartz-vein type Au deposit, located at the southwestern Hainan Island, is proximal to the Triassic ilmeniteseries/S-type syenogranite complex. The orebodies of auriferous quartz vein and wall rock alteration occur in NNW-striking fracture zones hosted by weakly metamorphosed turbidite of the Lower Silurian age. The 40Ar/39Ar plateau age for muscovite from the orebody is 219.4 ± 0.6 Ma, suggesting that the Au deposit is basically coeval to the granite pluton (Wang et al., 2006c). 3.7.5. Jurassic metallogenesis The giant Dexing (No. 31) porphyry Cu deposit is one of the largest porphyry Cu deposits in South China. The Dexing ore-related porphyries were emplaced during the Middle Jurassic (ca. 170 Ma), and are characterized by high-Mg adakitic geochemical features, including high MgO and Sr contents and high Mg#, Sr/Y and (La/Yb)N ratios (Fig. 17), low Y and Yb, and absence of negative Eu anomaly. The mafic microgranular enclave (MME) within the porphyry shows textural, mineralogical, and


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Fig. 17. Geochemical indices for the ore-forming granitoid in the South China Block. (a) plot of (K2O + Na2O) vs. SiO2; (b) plot of K2O vs. SiO2; (c) plot of A/NK vs. A/CNK. The I–S divided line is from White and Chappell (1977); (d) plot of εNd(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (e) plot of εHf(t) vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (f) plot of Sr/Y vs. zircon U–Pb ages; (g) tectonic evolution responsible for the felsic magma-related deposits (from Deng et al., 2016b). Geochemical data and corresponding references are enclosed in Supplementary File G.

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chemical evidence for magma mixing and mingling during the injection of mafic melts into the felsic magmas. These MMEs usually contain magmatic chalcopyrite, and have variable contents of Cu (up to 500 ppm). Their geochemical characteristics suggest that they were derived from an enriched mantle source, metasomatized by Proterozoic slabderived fluids, and a part of the Cu, Au, and S for the Dexing porphyry system were supplied during their injection into the felsic magmas. The Neoproterozoic two-stage Nd–Hf isotope model ages of the porphyry are similar to those of the Neoproterozoic subduction event occurred along the Jiangnan Orogen. It possibly implies that the giant Dexing porphyry Cu deposit formed by remelting of the copper-rich Neoproterozoic subduction-modified lithosphere (Fig. 20) (Wang et al., 2015b). The W–Sn polymetallic ore deposits of the late-Jurassic are mainly distributed in the Nanling and adjacent areas, forming a NE-trending cluster (Fig. 16). The Qin–Hang (Qinzhou–Hangzhou) fault zone (Fig. 1) marks the western boundary of the cluster, within which a large number of world-class deposits occur. These include the Shizhuyuan W–Sn–Mo–Bi polymetallic deposit (No. 44), Jinchuantang Sn–Bi (No. 40), Furong Sn (No. 41), Xintianling W (No. 42), Xianghualing Sn (No. 39), Yaogangxian W (No. 46), Baiyunxian W (No. 47), etc. Although the plutons show discrete exposures on the surface, they are connected at depth with a large batholith in the Pangushan–Tieshanlong W ore field in eastern Nanling region (Fang et al., 2015). The mineralization ages of the W–Sn ore deposits are mainly in the range of 160–150 Ma as constrained by cassiterite U–Pb, molybdenite Re–Os, and muscovite Ar–Ar ages (e.g., Yuan et al., 2008). These ages are consistent with SHRIMP and LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb ages and mica 40Ar–39Ar ages of associated granitic rocks, ranging from 152 to 165 Ma (e.g., Yao et al., 2007). The Taoxikeng (No. 50) W deposit is dominated by wolframite quartz-vein ore (Fig. 16). The deposit is located in Neoproterozoic to Permian strata at the contact with the buried Taoxikeng granite. SHRIMP zircon U–Pb analysis of the granite has yielded ages of 158.7 ± 3.9 and 157.6 ± 3.5 Ma. Molybdenite separated from orebearing quartz-veins yields a Re–Os isochron age of 154.4 ± 3.8 Ma, and muscovite separated from greisen yielded 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 153.4 ± 1.3 and 152.7 ± 1.5 Ma. The markedly low rhenium contents (4.9 to 13.0 × 10−3 ppm) in molybdenite from the deposit suggest that the ore was derived from a crustal source (Guo et al., 2013). The Hetai (No. 98) orogenic goldfield is located in the southern section of the Shi–Hang Metallogenic Belt (Fig. 16). It has been suggested that these Au deposits belong to the altered ductile shear zone-hosted type (Pirajno and Bagas, 2002). The Re–Os age of the pyrrhotites from Au-bearing sulfide-quartz veins is 175.5 ± 4.3 Ma (Wang et al., 2012f). 3.7.6. Cretaceous metallogenesis The E–W-trending Middle-Lower Yangtze Valley metallogenic belt, located in the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton (Fig. 16), hosts two major types of ore deposits: porphyry-skarn-stratabound Cu–Au–Mo–Fe deposits with an age range of 137–143 Ma and apatitemagnetite (or magnetite porphyry) deposits with ages of 125–123 Ma (Mao et al., 2006, 2011b). The former is largely found within several ore clusters at the intersections of NE- and EW-trending faults in southeastern Hubei, Jiurui, Anqing-Guichi, Tongling and Ningzheng provinces. These deposits are mainly located in the contact aureoles of high-potassium calc-alkaline granite plutons that intrude Devonian to Lower Triassic carbonate rocks. The apatite–magnetite deposits are restricted to the Cretaceous Ningwu, Luzhong and Fanchang volcanosedimentary basins and are typically associated with subvolcanic rocks of shoshonite affinity (Chang et al., 1991; Mao et al., 2011b). The Makeng Fe–(Mo) deposit (No. 61), hosted in Paleozoic strata (Zhang and Zhang, 2014) (Fig. 16), has a molybdenite Re–Os age of 133.0 ± 0.8 Ma, reported by Zhang et al. (2012f). The Zijinshan Cu–Au deposit (No. 59) is the largest in China with a resource of 305 t Au and 1.9 Mt Cu, and an annual production of around 16 t Au. The 40Ar/39Ar plateau age for biotite from the potassic alteration in the Luoboling

Cu–Mo deposit in the Zijinshan is 105 ± 2 Ma (Zhang et al., 2003b), which is the same as the Re–Os isochron age of 104.9 ± 1.6 Ma for molybdenite separates from the deposit (Liang et al., 2012). They belong to the high-K calc-alkaline, and are enriched in large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such as Rb, Ba, Th, U, and Pb, and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSEs), such as Nb, Ta. The Luoboling granodiorite porphyry has uniform initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.7064–0.7068, εNd(t) values of −4.0 to −2.6, and zircon εHf(t) of −5.8 to +0.7. Mineralization related to Late Cretaceous igneous rocks are also widespread in the western Cathaysia Block (Fig. 16). The Gejiu (No. 80) Sn-polymetallic deposits in the Western Cathaysia Block of South China comprise the world's largest primary Sn district, with a total resource of approximately 300 million metric ton ores, at an average grade of 1 wt% Sn (Fig. 16). Sn polymetallic mineralization occurs in five deposits and has four ore types, i.e., greisen, skarn, stratabound cassiterite-sulfide (mostly oxidized) and vein type ore. The ages of micas in ores from the different ore deposits range from 77.4 ± 0.6 Ma to 95.3 ± 0.7 Ma and are similar to the zircon U–Pb age of the granitic intrusions (77.4 ± 2.5–85.8 ± 0.6 Ma). Granites in the Gejiu district were derived from old crust with minor input from mantle materials, although crystal fractionation dominantly controlled the compositional variability in these rocks. The regional gabbro-MME association and alkaline rocks were derived from enriched lithospheric mantle although they experienced different evolutionary processes. The Dulong (No. 81) district, located in the western Cathaysia Block Sn–W province, is characterized by widespread Mesozoic granitoids and accompanying Sn-polymetallic ore deposit (~ 30 Mt of Sn). LA–ICP–MS U–Pb dating of zircon grains from coarse-grained granite, and fine-grained porphyritic granite yields ages of 90.1 ± 0.7 to 86.0 ± 0.5 Ma, respectively. Geochemically, the granites are strongly peraluminous, with high contents of alkalis, belonging to highly fractionated S-type granites (Fig. 17). The granites show bulk rock εNd(t) values in the range of −12.2 to −10.8 and zircon εHf(t) values from − 15.5 to − 2.5, with Meso-Paleoproterozoic TCDM ages for both Nd and Hf isotopes. Geochemical and isotopic data suggest that extreme fractional crystallization resulted in Sn enrichment in the evolved granitic magma, and the reduced magmas (fo2 below NNO) would efficiently remove Sn into a hydrothermal fluid, and lead to deposition of Sn-rich mineral phases (Xu et al., 2015a). In the western part of South China Block, the age of Kunlunguan granite is 93.0 ± 0.6 Ma (Tan et al., 2008), and the intermediate-acid rocks in Nandan–Dachang district yield ages of 90–98 Ma (Cai et al., 2006 and Wang et al., 2004). The age of the porphyry in Longtoushan (No. 96) Au-deposit is 96.2 ± 0.4 Ma (Duan et al., 2011) reported the age of the W–Sn deposit-related granite in Northeast Vietnam is 93.9 ± 3.0 Ma (Fig. 16). The Late Cretaceous magmatism in the central to eastern South China Block may likely mark the onset of back-arc extension or intraarc rift in the region during Late Cretaceous. The upwelling of asthenospheric mantle, associated with the flat subduction of Paleo-Pacific plate, may have triggered partial melting of metasedimentary rocks in the overlying crust to generate S-type granitic magmas (Xu et al., 2015a). An episode of lithospheric extension has also been suggested in the western Cathaysia Block during the Late Cretaceous. The regional lithospheric extension may have been the driving force for generation and emplacement of the mafic/crust derived magmas, which induced partial melting of the overlying crustal materials to produce felsic magmas (Cheng et al., 2012). 3.7.7. Cenozoic metallogenesis The Mianning–Dechang rare earth element belt in western part of South China Block, is approximately 270 km long and 15 km wide, and contains total reserves of N3 Mt of light REEs, comprising one giant (Maoniuping, No. 65), one large (Dalucao, No. 67), two smallmedium-sized (Muluozhai and Lizhuang), and numerous smaller REE deposits (Fig. 16). The belt is controlled by large-scale strike-slip faults and tensional fissure zones. Himalayan carbonatite-syenite complexes


consist predominantly of alkaline syenite stocks and carbonatite sills or dikes that host REE mineralization. Zircon U–Pb ages are 12.13 ± 0.19 and 11.32 ± 0.23 Ma for the Dalucao deposit, 22.81 ± 0.31 and 21.3 ± 0.4 Ma for Maoniuping, 26.77 ± 0.32 Ma for Muluozhai, and 27.41 ± 0.35 Ma for Lizhuang, which should be regarded as maximum ages for the REE mineralization in the study area (Liu et al., 2015a). In the Cenozoic, the epithermal Chikuashih (also named Jinguashi, No. 64) formed at 1.166 ± 0.02 Ma, according to the Ar–Ar plateau age of hydrothermal sericite, in the eastern margin of the block. This ore deposit was induced by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate underneath the Taiwan island. 3.7.8. Source of ore-forming granitoids In the South China Block (Fig. 16) (summarized in Supplementary File G), the Dexing Cu deposit (No. 33) formed at ~160 Ma in the southeastern margin of Yangtze Craton. Co-magmatic zircons in Dexing show εHf(t) values clustering along the evolution line of 0.8–1.2 Ga (Fig. 17). This is similar to those in the Beiya Au deposit (No. 50), produced at much younger time during ~ 35 Ma in the western margin of Yangtze Craton. The Yangtze Craton witnessed double-sided oceanic subduction in the Neoproterozoic as supported by the occurrence of arc magmatic

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rocks, resulting in the formation of juvenile lower crust along both sides and the production of Neoproterozoic Pingshui VMS Cu deposit along the southeastern margin (Wang et al., 2015b). The zircon εHf(t) values and whole-rock Sr/Y ratios concentrated at 100–10 of the Dexing metallogenic granites suggests that the magma was derived from the Neoproterozoic juvenile crust, formed through thickened lithospheric mantle delamination at ~160 Ma in an intracontinental setting (Hou et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2015b). The Gejiu Sn (No. 82) and Shizhuyuan W–Sn (No. 46) deposits (Fig. 16), both located in the Shi– Hang belt, formed at ~90 Ma and ~150 Ma respectively. The associated granitoids are predominantly peraluminous, possessing low Sr/Y ratios of b10 and εHf(t) values falling between the evolution lines of 1.4 to 2.0 Ga with several more negative plots from − 15 to − 20 in the Shizhuyuan (Fig. 17). This suggests that the metal-bearing magmas were sourced dominantly from the ancient middle crust. The oreforming granitoids in the Middle to Lower Yangtze River Cu–Au–Fe polymetallic metallogenic belt are metaluminous to peraluminous, with widely varying εHf(t) values between the evolution lines of 1.2 Ga and 2.8 Ga (Fig. 17). These features are consistent with melting of the mantle material or most likely the ~ 1.2 Ga juvenile crust with mixing of the melt from the ancient lower/middle crustal components.

Fig. 18. Spatial distribution of major ore deposits in China, most of which are located within the main orogenic belts and along the ancient craton margins.

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4. Superimposed orogeny in China 4.1. Types of superimposed orogeny Superimposed orogeny is defined that two or more types of tectonics, including accretionary orogeny and collisional orogeny, and other types of lithospheric activation, such as continental rifting, demantling, mantle plume, occurred successively or simultaneously in one tectonic unit (Fig. 1). The Tibetan region witnessed the accretionary orogenesis from Proto-, Paleo-, Meso- to Neo-Tethys (Zhu et al., 2013), and it was superimposed by the normal continental collision initiated from ~55 Ma (Figs. 4, 12, and 25). In comparison, the Sanjiang region experienced Tethyan accretionary orogenesis (Deng et al., 2014a) and oblique continental orogenesis afterwards (Deng et al., 2014b), resulting in crustal rotation and shearing (Figs. 4 and 14) as compared to the crustal thickening and thrusting in Tibet. The Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun belt commonly experienced the early-Paleozoic Proto-Tethyan and latePaleozoic Paleo-Tethyan evolution (e.g., Dong et al., 2011a; Dong and Santosh, 2016), and was locally affected by the flatslab subduction of Paleo-Pacific plate in its eastern segment (Figs. 2 and 4). The western segment of Paleo-Asian orogenic belt was superimposed by the early subduction system and Carboniferous orogenic system (Xiao et al., 2008). The initial amalgamation in NE China occurred through the closure of Xilinhot–Heihe, Ondor Sum–Yanji and Mudanjiang oceans in early-Paleozoic, followed by the two-sided subduction of Paleo-Pacific Ocean and Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean (e.g., Li, 2006; Wilde and Zhou, 2015). The North China Craton was superimposed by the Paleoproterozoic orogenesis and Jurassic–Cretaceous demantling and Pacific oceanic subduction (Figs. 1, 2, and 4). The southern margin was further overprinted by the Triassic Paleo-Tethyan orogenesis. The South China Block witnessed Neoproterozoic orogenesis and PaleoPacific oceanic subduction, and its western margin was affected by the Permian mantle plume and Cenozoic continental collision (Xu et al., 2001; Hou et al., 2003; Deng et al., 2014b). The superimposed orogenesis, including the superimposing between different episodes of accretionary orogeny, collisional orogeny, mantle plume, and demantling can be summarized into the following categories: (1) continental collision superimposed on the preCenozoic accretionary orogeny in the Tibet (Fig. 12) and Sanjiang (Fig. 14) orogenic belt; (2) the reactivation of early accretionary orogen in later oceanic subduction in the eastern part of Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun (Fig. 10) and Central Asian (Figs. 5 and 7) orogenic belts; (3) flat-slab subduction under the paleo-suture in the South China Block (Figs. 16 and, 18); (4) lithospheric thinning upon the paleo-suture in the eastern North China Craton (Figs. 8, 18); and (5) mantle plume rising through metasomatized lithospheric mantle or stagnant oceanic slab in the Emeishan large igneous province as described in Section 2.4 (Bai et al., 2014). Each episode of orogenic event resulted in a series of magmatic pulses and tectonic deformation. In the superimposed orogeny, the magmas derived during later events were sourced from the material formed or modified by the earlier events, and the pre-existing structures formed in the earlier event served as potential locales for crustal movements with significant overlap of the earlier and later structures. For instance, in the North China Craton (Figs. 2 and, 8), the Cretaceous metamorphic core complex formed as a result of demantling and Paleo-Pacific plate subduction (e.g., Sun et al., 2007), and mainly developed on the Paleoproterozoic suture (Li et al., 2012a; Deng and Wang, 2016).

margin from Cambrian to Ordovician, and they experienced subduction of Proto-Tethyan Ocean resulting in the long-lasting magmatism within the blocks. The opening of Paleo-Tethyan main ocean, i.e., Longmu Tso– Shuanghu and Changning–Menglian oceans (Fig. 4), detached the blocks including Indochina, E. Qiangtang, Zhongza, as well as South China (Deng et al., 2014a). The branches, Jinshajiang and Ailaoshan occurred as intervening oceans between the blocks (Fig. 4). The spreading of Meso-Tethyan Ocean separated the Western Qiangtang and Sibumasu blocks from late-Permian, and the closure of the main Paleo-Tethyan Ocean caused the amalgamation between the two blocks as well as the earlier separated blocks (Zhu et al., 2013). The subduction of the main Paleo-Tethyan oceanic crust and those of its branches generated arc magmatism as well as S-type granitoids (Fig. 4). A typical example is the Yidun arc which was formed by the subduction of PaleoTethyan Garzê–Litang oceanic crust. After the amalgamation of the blocks, a string of Mesozoic continental basins, including the Changdu in the Eastern Qiangtang Block, and Lanping and Simao basins in the Simao Block, were developed. Subsequently, the Neo-Tethyan oceanic

4.2. Example of superimposed orogeny The superimposed orogeny is best exemplified by the Tibet (Fig. 12) and Sanjiang (Fig. 14) orogenic belts, which comprise blocks separated from Gondwana through the opening of Paleo-, Meso-, and NeoTethyan oceans (Fig. 4). These blocks were located along the Gondwana

Fig. 19. Cenozoic Beiya porphyry Au mineralization (b) and Ailaoshan orogenic Au deposit (c) evolved from the previous metal enrichment in Neoproterozoic juvenile crust along the western margin of South China Block. Revised from Deng et al., 2014a (2015a,c), Lu et al. (2013) and Richards (2014).


crust transported the Lhasa and W. Burma from early-Triassic, and the subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust induced the widespread magmatism in the previously separated blocks and continental arc (Yidun arc). During the continental collision stage, after the lithosphere has been thickened, the lithospheric mantle was removed leading to the (ultra-) potassic magmatism in the northern margin of Tibet and Sanjiang belts during 45–30 Ma (Chung et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2013). At 30–20 Ma, the Sanjiang belt was rotated with several shear zones accommodating the movement (Deng et al., 2014b). Subsequently, southern Tibet witnessed the emplacement of potassic magmatic rocks. The superimposed orogeny in Tibet and Sanjiang is characterized by the spatial overlap between the accretionary orogenesis during the evolution of Tethyan oceans and the Indian-Eurasian continental collision (Figs. 12 and 14). It also includes the overlapping of magmatic domains produced by the subduction of Paleo-, Meso-, and Neo-Tethyan oceanic crusts. In the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts (Figs. 12 and 14), the accretionary orogenesis produced the ophiolite belt, continental arc, stitching granitoid plutons, as well as intracontinental basin. In Sanjiang, the oblique continental collision resulted in the (ultra-) potassic arc-like and S-type magmatism and related extensional volcanic basins, crust rotation with associated large-scale continental shears and pull-apart

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basins, and thrust-fold belt. The shearing disaggregated the ophiolite forming mélange zone, and the magmatism developed along the Tethyan or even earlier subduction zones developed with subduction-related igneous rocks. In Tibet, the normal collision belt, is illustrated by the lithosphere thickening, thrust fault parallel to and extensional fault perpendicular to the collision front, and (ultra-) potassic arc-like magmatism (Yin and Harrison, 2000). The lithosphere shortening and rotation, as well as lower lithospheric mantle removal, which was considered to have triggered the (ultra-) potassic magmatism (Deng et al., 2014b), has largely reshaped the lithospheric structure. The metallogenic types in these two types of orogenesis are also different. The accretionary orogenesis is characterized by subductionrelated porphyry Cu and skarn Cu–Mo deposit, skarn and greisen Sn deposit, and VMS ore deposit. In contrast, the continental collision setting is marked by intracontinental porphyry deposit, orogenic Au deposit, and MVT-like base metal deposit. The superimposed orogeny caused multiple episodes of magmatism and associated metallogeny at 230–210 Ma and 100–80 Ma in the Yidun arc, and roughly at 130 Ma, 80 Ma, and 50 Ma in the Tengchong arc. In the southern Lhasa, the magmatic pulses include 172–161 Ma, 65–48 Ma, 40–23 Ma, and 20–12 Ma.

Fig. 20. Jurassic Dexing porphyry Cu mineralization (b) evolved from the previous metal enrichment in Neoproterozoic juvenile crust (a). Revised from Hou et al. (2013) and Wang et al. (2015b).

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4.3. Triggers for superimposed orogeny There are various triggers for superimposed orogeny on the scale of global tectonics. These include stable mantle flow, consequent, continent underthrust, and formation of mantle superplume. It has been proposed that mantle flow was directed along the tectonic equator as shown in Fig. 1 (Crespi et al., 2007; Cuffaro and Doglioni, 2007; Doglioni et al., 2007). In this framework, the kinematics of W-directed subduction zones can be predicted to possess a much thicker asthenospheric mantle wedge, and larger volumes and faster rates of subduction with respect to the opposite slabs. Moreover, the larger volumes of lithospheric recycling, the thicker column of fluids-rich, hotter mantle wedge, all favor greater volumes of magmatism per unit time. The opposite, E–NE-directed subduction zones show a thinner, if any, asthenospheric mantle wedge due to a thicker upper plate and shallower slab. Along these settings, the mantle wedge, where the percolation of slabdelivered fluids generates melting, mostly involves the cooler lithospheric mantle. The subduction rate is smaller, andesites are generally dominant, and the lithosphere thickens, with a greater contribution to the growth of the continental lithosphere (Doglioni et al., 2007). The oceanic subduction was roughly coeval to the opening of later oceans from the evolution from Paleo-, Meso-, to Neo-Tethyan oceans. It was therefore considered that the consecutive ocean opening and northward migration of the blocks from the Gondwana margins was driven by the previous oceanic subduction (Deng et al., 2015a). It was further proposed that the subduction of Indian continent was the main drive for the buildup of Tibet plateau (Royden et al., 2008). In addition to the drive from oceanic or continental subduction, the Cretaceous Pacific superplume event may have generated a strong farfield push toward the East Asia continental margin, resulting in subduction of the Izanagi plate and causing rifting and magmatism accompanied by the formation of a variety of mineral systems (Pirajno and Zhou, 2015).

5. Control of superimposed orogeny on composite metallogenic system 5.1. Space–time location of newborn ore deposits The tectonic units in the orogenic belts are mostly small continental fragments separated by diverse subparallel sutures. This resulted in the close juxtaposition of multiple sutures formed as a result of a series of oceanic subduction events at different times. In addition, after the continental fragments were welded, these regions were involved in the largescale Indian-Eurasian continental collision in the southwestern China, the mantle plume in western margin of South China Block, or the Paleo-Pacific oceanic subduction almost perpendicular to the earlier sutures in the eastern China. These later processes inevitability affected the earlier sutures. Thus, the same tectonic unit experienced multistage and different styles of tectonic activities. The ancient sutures between blocks, craton margins, and arcs acted as favorable locations for the production of ore deposit during the later tectonic events (Fig. 18). The sutures in North China Craton include the Paleoproterozoic Inner Mongolia suture, Trans-North China Orogen and Jiao–Liao–Ji Belt, as well as those between the smaller Archean blocks (Fig. 8). The tectonic sutures, continental marginal rift, and arc in South China Block include the marginal Panxi–Hannan arc, Jiangnan orogenic belt, and Shi–Hang tectonic belt, as well as the rift along northern margin (Middle–Lower Yangtze River Reaches) (Fig. 16). The Central Asian (Figs. 5 and 7), Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun (Fig. 10), Tibet (Fig. 12) and Sanjiang (Fig. 14) orogenic belts include several small blocks separated by different sutures (Fig. 18). The spatial preferences are much related to important inheritance in metals from previous orogeny. For instance, in the western margin of South China Block, the Beiya porphyry Au deposit formed at ~35 Ma (Fig. 19b) and the orogenic Au deposit generated later in Ailaoshan shear zone (Fig. 19c) were considered to relate to the Neoproterozoic juvenile crust (Deng et al., 2014a, 2015a, c). The

Fig. 21. Early Paleozoic modification of the Mesoproterozoic metallogenesis the Bayan Obo REE giant ore deposit, northern margin of North China Craton. H1 to H18 were Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks. The rocks have undergone folding and metamorphism during Neoproterozoic. The H8 is the stratum-bearing orebody. Revised from Fan et al. (2015), Lai et al. (2015), Liu et al. (2015b), Sun (2013), Zhang et al. (2006, 2015a), Zhu and Sun (2012) and Zhu et al. (2015c).


remelting of Neoproterozoic juvenile crust resulted in the metalcarrying magma, (Fig. 19a) and the metamorphism of juvenile crust during continental lithospheric subduction of Yangtze Craton and concomitant crustal shearing was deduced to release gold-rich metamorphic fluid (Fig. 19c). Another important fact for the spatial preferences is the lithosphere structure vulnerable to tectonic reactivation and relatively high crust permeability. The reactivation of ancient deep faults or syn-depositional faults formed in the previous tectonic regimes was favorable for the transportation of metal-carrying magmas and fluids. The sediment-hosted base metals (Pb, Zn and Cu etc.) are distributed in the Lanping basin in the Sanjiang orogenic belt near the tectonic sutures (Fig. 14), where the sediments were mostly eroded from the arc and collision-related magmatic rocks along the sutures at both sides. The preliminary metal enrichment in these magmatic rocks and their erosion provides favorable fundamental setting for the later metallogenesis. For the Dian–Qian–Gui Carlin-like Au province, the important deposits were developed in the Youjiang basin filled with voluminous Triassic sandstones sourced from the Tethyan orogenic belts (Yang et al., 2012a) and adjacent to the western segment of the Neoproterozoic suture between Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia Block

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(Fig. 16). The ore fluid in the gold deposits is predominantly metamorphic fluid and circulating basinal fluid (Deng et al., 2016a). It is speculated that the Neoproterozoic basement formed during oceanic subduction or/and the orogen-derived sediments have contributed gold via metamorphic or basinal fluid. An analysis of the timeline shows that the mineralizations preferentially formed during the later events during the superimposed orogeny (Fig. 18). For instance, the two most important Au provinces, including the Xiaoqinling and Jiaodong in the North China Craton, are located in the Paleoproterozoic Trans-North China and the Jiao–Liao–Ji orogenic belts respectively (Fig. 8), and both are close to the Qinling–Qilian–Kunlun orogenic belt. The later Pacific subduction reworked the previous Paleoproterozoic and Triassic sutures and thinned cratonic lithosphere, which was considered as an important trigger for the production of world-class Au ore cluster. 5.2. Source of ore-forming granitoids The analysis on the geochemical characteristics of ore-forming granitoids from the different tectonic units displayed that the superimposed

Fig. 22. Overlapping of Cretaceous intraplate Mo deposit on Triassic arc-related porphyry deposit in the Yidun arc, Sanjiang orogenic belt. Revised from Yang et al. (2016b).

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orogeny exerted significant control on the source of metallogenic granitoid and the associated metal species (Figs. 6, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17). During the early orogenic phase of the superimposed orogenic system, mantle melt contributed to the formation of juvenile mafic lower crust, resulting in formation of Cu-dominant ore deposits. In the later orogeny, the juvenile lower crust, ancient lower crust, and middle crust were melted preferentially generating Cu–Au, Mo, and Pb–Zn–W–Sn deposits respectively. The different sources and proportions of magma mixing yielded three potential sources that caused a large variation in the metal species and their combinations. This generally explains the evolution of felsic magma-related ore metal associations proceeding during the superimposed orogeny. The intrusive rocks derived from the ancient basement with more sedimentary components tend to show more peraluminous features compared to those from the juvenile crust. The latter has the tendency to generate the metaluminous melt. In the case of Sanjiang and Tibet Tethyan orogenic belts, the metallogenic porphyry intrusions, produced from former juvenile crust during the later Indian-Eurasian collision, show more shoshonitic features than those generated via the oceanic subduction. The lithospheric stacking or crustal thickening could have occurred simultaneously with the formation of juvenile lower crust. Later lithospheric thinning, usually caused by delamination, resulted in the generation of granitoid magma characterized by varied and generally lower whole-rock Sr/Y ratios (e.g., Deng et al., 2015a; Hou et al., 2015a). The reactivation of ancient suture, craton margin and arc was evidently controlled by lithospheric mantle removal, eclogite delamination, and resultant ancient and juvenile crustal melting (e.g., Deng et al., 2016a). Precursor subduction-related magmatism is important because such processes leave ore-metal enriched residue in cumulate zones within the juvenile crust, which can be re-mobilized during

later partial melting. The partial melts from juvenile crust will be hydrous and oxidized, and will therefore have the potential to form magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits in the upper crustal levels. The granitoid-related intracontinental ore deposits have important involvement of juvenile crust in their sources, such as the Beiya (Fig. 19), Gejiu, and Dexing (Fig. 20). 5.3. Overlapping or modification of ore deposit The superimposed orogeny could induce the overlapping of diverse types of mineralization in one ore deposit (belt). Meanwhile, as one consequence of superimposed orogeny, the hydrothermal sedimentary ore deposits, including the BIF, VMS and IOCG formed in Neoarchean, Paleo- and Neoproterozoic, and Paleozoic commonly witnessed later modification, causing change in orebody shape and ore texture, input of extra metal species such as Cu, Mo and Au into the former mineralized layer, or formation of different types of ore deposits (Zhai et al., 2009). In the Bayan Obo super-large ore deposit, located in the northern margin of North China Craton (Fig. 8), the REE–Nb–Fe orebodies were produced by the intrusion of carbonatite along deep fault in the Mesoproterozoic continental rift (1400–1200 Ma). At ~ 440 Ma, the northern margin witnessed oceanic subduction, which formed Caledonian REE-Nb-Fe orebodies overlapping the Mesoproterozoic ones (Fig. 21). In the Yidun arc, Sanjiang orogenic belt, the Triassic arc-related Cu–Mo porphyry deposits were overlapped by the Cretaceous intracontinental Mo–Cu porphyry deposits (Fig. 22). In the Laochang VMS ore deposit (No. 73), Sanjiang belt, the stratiform VMS Ag–Pb–Zn orebody formed at ~320 Ma in an oceanic island setting within the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean and was preserved in the Changning– Menglian suture after the ocean closed. The syn-sedimentary faults in

Fig. 23. Overlapping of Cenozoic porphyry Mo ore deposit on Carboniferous Laochang VMS Ag-Pb-Zn, Sanjiang orogenic belt. Revised from Chen et al. (2010b), Deng et al. (2014b), Li et al. (2009a, 2015f) and Liu et al. (2015c).


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Fig. 24. Overlapping of Cretaceous stratiform skarn Cu on a primary sulfide horizon in the Middle and Lower Yangtze River. Revised from Chang et al. (1991), Xu et al. (2001), Lü et al. (2007), Ling et al. (2009); Jiang et al. (2010) and Deng et al. (2011).

the VMS mineralized system were important transport channels for ore-forming fluids. Subsequently, the suture was reactivated at ~ 45 Ma during India–Eurasia continental collision. During this time, the S-type granite and associated Mo–Cu mineralization were brought along the previous syn-sedimentary faults, producing Mo–Cu porphyry and skarn orebodies underneath the Carboniferous stratiform orebodies in the deposit (Fig. 23). In the Middle and Lower Yangtze River, the Cretaceous stratiform skarn Cu orebody was considered to have overlapped a primary sulfide horizon, which formed through sedimentary

process in Carboniferous (Fig. 24). The hydrothermal was considered to migrate along the previously formed syn-depositional fault associated with the sulfide horizon. 5.4. Composite metallogenic system The discussion above shows that the superimposed orogeny has played important role on the metallogenesis. In the superimposed orogen and its associated metallogenic unit on different scales, the mineralization

Fig. 25. Links between major characteristics of superimposed orogeny and composite metallogenic system.

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was characterized by multiple episodes and diverse genetic types, which was termed composite metallogenic system in this study. For instance, at least four major metallogenic events occurred at 172–161 Ma, 65–48 Ma, 40–23 Ma, and 20–12 Ma in the Gangdese porphyry Cu belt, Lhasa Block (Fig. 12). The metallogenic system was inevitably concomitant with one or more the following processes in the course of superimposed orogeny (Fig. 25): (1) the superimposed orogeny tends to generate large ore cluster as a result of the remobilization of preliminary metal enrichment formed in early orogeny; (2) the superimposed orogeny would make a complicated lithospheric structure with mantle metasomatized by various types of fluids and crust consisting of old basement, juvenile crust and other components. This lithospheric structure determined the source of metallogenic granitoid and associated metal species, causing diverse combinations of metal species in mineralization; (3) the previous ore deposits were modified or overlapped by later mineralization. In a few cases, different metallogenic processes proceeded simultaneously with spatial overlapping and possible mutual interference in one metallogenic belt under the same tectonic setting, one-period composite metallogenic system. The examples can be given by the sediment-host base metal ore deposits in the basin in the Sanjiang orogenic belt and the sediment-host gold deposits in the Dian-Qian-Gui ore cluster. In the former case, the ore fluid was composed of both basinal brine and magmatic hydrothermal, which take different percentage in different ore deposits in the fluid (Tao et al., 2011); and in the later case, the fluid components include metamorphic fluid and basinal brine, and these two kinds of fluid both formed independent ore deposit and participated in the same deposit (Deng et al., 2016c). The one-period metallogenic system needs more study. This composite metallogenic system lead to high possibility of production of large ore cluster area, and the increase of mineralization space, intensity, and metal species. The composite metallogenic system driven by the superimposed orogeny is one of the most salient features of the regional metallogeny in China (Fig. 25). 6. Concluding remarks The cratons and continental fragments in China witnessed a prolonged evolution through oceanic subduction in Paleoproterozoic in the North China Craton, Neoproterozoic around South China Block, and oceanic subduction and continental collision in early-Paleozoic along Gondwana margin. They were subsequently amalgamated after the closure of Paleo- to Meso-Tethyan and Paleo-Asian oceanic branches, resulting in the tectonic mosaic texture. The amalgamated blocks were intensely modified by the Mesozoic Pacific oceanic subduction and demantling in the eastern part and the Cenozoic Indian-Eurasian continental collision in the western part. The tectonics of China was thus characterized by the superimposing of multiple independent orogenic processes and other types of lithospheric movements within individual tectonic units, inducing superimposed orogeny. Superimposed orogeny has resulted in a delicate lithosphere that is susceptible for tectonic activation, controlling the geochemical features of the mineralized granitoid intrusions and the related ore metal species. The mixing between the different melts, generated from juvenile lower crust, ancient lower or middle crust, with a variation in Sr/Y ratio and zircon εHf(t), was considered to cause the wide variety of metal species in ore deposits. The superimposed orogeny has been proven to exert an important control on the space–time distribution of metallogenic belts. The ancient sutures and their environs between different blocks, including continental marginal arc and rift, served as favorable locales for the production of orogenic Au deposits, intracontinental porphyry–skarn ore deposits, and others, generated in later orogenesis during superimposed orogeny. The regional metallogeny driven by superimposed orogeny was represented by the composite metallogenic system, which was dominantly characterized by the multi-episodic and diverse mineralization concomitant with one or more features including mineralization evolved

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Zi, J.W., Cawood, P.A., Fan, W.M., Wang, Y.J., Tohver, E., Mccuaig, T.C., Peng, T.P., 2012. Triassic collision in the Paleo-Tethys Ocean constrained by volcanic activity in SW China. Lithos 144, 145–160. Zong, K.Q., Zhang, Z.M., He, Z.Y., Hu, Z.C., Santosh, M., Liu, Y.S., Wang, W., 2012. Early Palaeozoic high-pressure granulites from the Dunhuang block, northeast-ern Tarim Craton: constraints on continental collision in the southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt. J. Metamorph. Geol. 30 (8), 753–768. Jun Deng is a professor at the China University of Geosciences (Beijing). He received his B.Sc. (1981) and M.Sc. (1989) from the China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), and Ph.D. (1992) from Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. His research fields include tectonic evolution and metallogeny, as well as the gold resource prospect. Since 2009, he organized two National Key Basic Research Development Programs as the chief scientist funded by the Ministry of Sciences and Technology, China. These two multi-disciplinary programs contribute to the topic of “Accretionary and continentcollisional orogenesis and the associated diverse mineralization in the Tethyan orogenic belt, SW China”.

Qingfei Wang is a professor at the China University of Geosciences (Beijing). He graduated with a B.Sc. (2000) from China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), and received his Ph.D. (2005) from China University of Geosciences (Beijing). His research fields include Tethys evolution, gold metallogenesis, as well as tonnage-grade modeling for ore deposit. He is a recipient of the New Century Excellent Talents Supporting Plan award from the Ministry of Education and the Golden Hammer for Youth award from the Chinese Geological Association.

Gongjian Li is a lecturer at the China University of Geosciences (Beijing). He received his B.Sc. (2009) and Ph.D. (2014) from the China University of Geosciences (Beijing). His research fields include tectonic evolution of Tethyan orogen in SW China, VMS deposit and magmatic Cu-Ni deposit.