the archaeology of the levant

the oxford handbook of

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LEVANT

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the oxford handbook of

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LEVANT c. 8000–332 bce Edited by

MARGREET L. STEINER and

ANN E. KILLEBREW

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3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Oxford University Press 2014 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First Edition published in 2014 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available ISBN 978–0–19–921297–2 Printed in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

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Contents

List of figures List of tables List of contributors Map of the Levant

Introduction

xi xvii xix xxiii

1

Ann E. Killebrew and Margreet L. Steiner

PA RT I A RCH A E OL OGY OF T H E L EVA N T: BACKGROU N D A N D DE F I N I T IONS 1. Historical geography of the ancient Levant

9

Matthew J. Suriano

2. Peoples and languages of the Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages

24

Holger Gzella

3. History of research

35

Thomas Davis

4. Levantine chronology

44

Ilan Sharon

PA RT I I T H E L EVA N T A S T H E CROS SROA DS BET W E E N E M PI R E S : EGY P T, A NATOL I A , M E SOPOTA M I A , A N D PE R SI A 5. Egypt and the Levant

69

Gregory D. Mumford

6. Anatolia (Hittites) and the Levant

90

Horst Klengel

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vi

contents

7. Mesopotamia (Assyrians and Babylonians) and the Levant

98

Tammi J. Schneider

8. Achaemenid Persia and the Levant

107

Josette Elayi

PA RT I I I T H E A RCH A E OL OGIC A L R EC OR D A . T H E N EOLI T H IC PER IOD 9. Introduction to the Levant during the Neolithic period

123

Bill Finlayson

10. The northern Levant during the Neolithic period: Damascus and beyond

134

Peter M. M. G. Akkermans

11. The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Neolithic period

147

A. Nigel Goring-Morris and Anna Belfer-Cohen

12. The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Neolithic period

170

Alison Betts

13. Cyprus during the Neolithic period

183

Joanne Clarke

B . T H E CH A LC OL IT H IC PER IOD 14. Introduction to the Levant during the Chalcolithic Period: regional perspectives

203

Thomas E. Levy

15. The northern Levant during the Chalcolithic period: the Lebanese–Syrian coast

212

Gassia Artin

16. The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Chalcolithic period

223

Yorke M. Rowan

17. The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Chalcolithic period (c.4500–3500 bc)

237

Zeidan A. Kafafi

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contents

18. Cyprus during the Chalcolithic period

vii

252

Edgar Peltenburg

C . THE E A R LY A N D I N TER M EDI ATE BRONZE AGE S 19. Introduction to the Levant during the Early Bronze Age

269

Raphael Greenberg

20. The northern Levant (Syria) during the Early Bronze Age

278

Lisa Cooper

21. The northern Levant (Lebanon) during the Early Bronze Age

292

Hermann Genz

22. The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Early Bronze Age

307

Pierre de Miroschedji

23. The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Early Bronze Age

330

Suzanne Richard

24. Cyprus during the Early Bronze Age

353

Jennifer M. Webb

25. The northern Levant during the Intermediate Bronze Age: altered trajectories

367

Harvey Weiss

26. The southern Levant during the Intermediate Bronze Age

388

Kay Prag

D. T H E M I DDL E BRONZ E AGE 27. Introduction to the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age

403

Aaron A. Burke

28. The northern Levant (Syria) during the Middle Bronze Age

414

Daniele Morandi Bonacossi

29. The northern Levant (Lebanon) during the Middle Bronze Age

434

Hanan Charaf

30. The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Middle Bronze Age

451

Susan L. Cohen

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contents

31. The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Middle Bronze Age

465

Stephen J. Bourke

32. Cyprus during the Middle Bronze Age

482

David Frankel

E . T H E L AT E BRONZ E AGE 33. Introduction to the Levant during the Late Bronze Age

497

E. Susan Sherratt

34. The northern Levant (Syria) during the Late Bronze Age: small kingdoms between the supraregional empires of the international age

509

Marta Luciani

35. The northern Levant (Lebanon) during the Late Bronze Age

524

Marlies Heinz and Sabina Kulemann-Ossen

36 The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Late Bronze Age

541

Nava Panitz-Cohen

37. The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Late Bronze Age

561

Peter M. Fischer

38. Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age

577

Louise Steel

F. T H E I RON AGE I PER IOD 39. Introduction to the Levant during the Transitional Late Bronze Age/Iron Age I and Iron Age I periods

595

Ann E. Killebrew

40. The northern Levant during the Iron Age I period

607

Hélène Sader

41. The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Iron Age I period

624

Ayelet Gilboa

42. The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Iron Age I period

649

Larry G. Herr

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contents

43. Cyprus during the Iron Age I period (Late Cypriot IIC–IIIA): settlement pattern crisis (LC IIC–IIIA) to the restructuring (LC IIIB) of its settlement pattern

ix

660

Maria Iacovou

G. T H E I RON AGE I I PER IOD 44. Introduction to the Levant during the Iron Age II period

677

Margreet L. Steiner

45. The Aramean states during the Iron Age II–III periods

683

Stefania Mazzoni

46. Phoenicia during the Iron Age II period

706

María Eugenia Aubet

47. Philistia during the Iron Age II period

717

David Ben-Shlomo

48. Israel during the Iron Age II period

730

Ann E. Killebrew

49. Judah during the Iron Age II period

743

James W. Hardin

50. Ammon during the Iron Age II period

757

Randall W. Younker

51. Moab during the Iron Age II period

770

Margreet L. Steiner

52. Edom during the Iron Age II period

782

Piotr Bienkowski

53. Cyprus during the Iron Age through the Persian period: from the 11th century bc to the abolition of the city-kingdoms (c.300 bc)

795

Maria Iacovou

54. The Levant during the Babylonian period

825

Jeffrey R. Zorn

55. The Levant during the Persian period

841

Gunnar Lehmann Index

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853

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List of figures

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 13.1 13.2

Map of the northern Levant Map of the island of Cyprus Map of the southern Levant Map of the Negeb and the Arabah New Kingdom fort at Deir el-Balah LB IIB House 1500 at Beth Shean LB IIB Egyptian-style acropolis temple at Lachish Level VI LB IIB terracotta anthropoid coffin from Deir el-Balah Kurkar stele of Amunemwia before Osiris Phoenician/Egyptianizing Persian-period shrine at ‘Amrit Silver Persian shekel, Group IVb of Stronach Marble bull protome of the Sidonian temple of Echmoun Reverse of silver double shekel minted in Sidon Obverse of silver double shekel minted in Sidon Map of Neolithic sites in the northern Levant Subterranean architecture at Jerf al-Ahmar A group of four human skulls found at PPNB Tell Aswad Early seventh-millennium pottery found at Tell Sabi Abyad Tripartite architecture at Tell Sabi Abyad III Map of Neolithic sites in the southern Levant (Cisjordan) Public and ritual Neolithic architecture Characteristic elements of PPNA material culture Characteristic elements of PPNB material culture Desert architecture (PPN) Map of Neolithic sites in the southern Levant (Transjordan) Stone projectile points The LPPNB site of Ba’ja ‘Ain Ghazal LPPNB cult building ‘Ain Ghazal plaster statues Map of Neolithic sites in Cyprus Chronological chart showing concurrence of Cyprus and the Levant

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10 14 16 19 78 79 80 80 81 85 112 113 116 119 135 136 138 140 141 148 153 154 157 160 171 173 175 175 176 184 186

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list of figures

13.3 13.4 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 20.1 20.2 21.1 21.2 21.3

Indices of colonization of Cyprus from the mainland during the PPNB Fifth-millennium painted pottery from Cyprus Map of Chalcolithic sites in the northern Levant Rectangular habitation structure from Byblos, Lebanon Plan of the Chalcolithic settlement at Sidon-Dakerman, Lebanon Ellipsoidal habitation structure from Sidon-Dakerman, Lebanon The funerary context in Byblos: jar burials Map of Chalcolithic sites in the southern Levant (Cisjordan) Bir es-Safadi site plan Special vessels from Gilat Copper and ivory artefacts from the ‘Cave of the Treasure’ Chalcolithic clay ossuaries Map of Chalcolithic sites in the southern Levant (Transjordan) Excavated structures at Abu Hamid Pottery vessels excavated at Abu Hamid A clay vessel representing a ram or bull from Abu Hamid Fresco painting from Teleilat el-Ghassul Map of selected Chalcolithic sites in Cyprus Kissonerga Period 3B plan Mylouthkia burnt Building 200 Cruciform figurine from Souskiou-Vathyrkakas Tomb 85 Plan of Middle Chalcolithic Souskiou-Vathyrkakas cemetery Map of Early Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant (Syria) Diagnostic vessels of the Early Bronze Age of western Syria Map of Early Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant (Lebanon) Early Bronze Age I pottery from Lebanon Architecture of the Early Bronze Age III (Phases III and IV) at Tell Fadous-Kfarabida Cylinder seal impression on a sherd from Tell Fadous-Kfarabida Early Bronze Age II–III pottery from Lebanon Map of Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant Examples of domestic and public buildings Examples of EB II–III fortifications Examples of urban layouts Tel Yarmuth: plan of Palace B1 and adjacent domestic quarters Map of Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant (Transjordan) Bab adh-Dhra‘ EB I and II tombs plus EB III charnel house Tall as-Sa‘adiya plan of the palace

21.4 21.5 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 23.1 23.2 23.3

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190 194 213 215 216 217 217 224 225 226 230 232 239 240 242 245 245 253 256 257 259 260 279 282 293 297 299 301 302 309 310 315 316 318 335 337 340

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list of figures 23.4 23.5 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 32.1

Khirbat az-Zeraqun general plan Khirbat Hamrat Ifdan, Jordan Map of Early Bronze Age sites in Cyprus and plan of excavated areas at Marki Alonia View of excavations at Sotira Kaminoudhia Philia and EC I–III pottery Stone casting moulds from Marki Alonia Terracotta ‘shrine model’ from the Marki region Multi-proxy stack Mediterranean westerlies and Kilimanjaro Map of Intermediate Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant Leilan Region Survey histogram Stratigraphic profile from Tell Leilan A reconstruction of the settlement at Qatna Map of Intermediate Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant Red slipped and burnished cup, Phase 1, Iktanu Saddle quern from Iktanu Room, Phase 2, Iktanu, Area A14 Pits and silos above the food processing Area E, Iktanu Map of Middle Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant (Syria) Ebla during the Middle Bronze Age Aerial view of Qatna’s ramparts Schematic plan of Qatna’s Royal Palace ‘Temples of the Rock’, Ebla Map of Middle Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant (Lebanon) Monumental building/‘Palace’ 4 at Tell el-Burak Temple of the Obelisks at Byblos Firing pit from Tell Arqa, Level 14 Sidon, grave of a young individual Map of Middle Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant (Cisjordan) Gesher cemetery burial and associated grave goods Selected MB I pottery Selected MB II/III pottery Map of Middle Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant (Transjordan) Middle Bronze Age Jordan architecture Middle Bronze Age Jordan non-ceramic artefacts Middle Bronze Age Jordan Common Ware ceramic artefacts Middle Bronze Age Jordan non-standard ceramic artefacts Map of Middle Bronze Age sites in Cyprus

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xiii 342 343 354 356 360 362 363 369 371 375 377 378 390 391 392 393 394 417 421 423 425 426 435 439 440 444 445 454 456 457 461 466 467 470 472 474 483

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xiv

list of figures

32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 36.1 36.2 36.3 37.1 37.2

Looking northeast across the main excavated area at Marki, 1999 Isometric reconstruction of a house at Marki Middle Cypriot Bronze Age chamber tombs Middle Cypriot Bronze Age pottery Map of Late Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant (Syria) Plan of the Lower City Palace in Tell Mishrifeh/Qatna Painted pottery from Area K in Tell Mishrifeh/Qatna Imported pottery from Area K in Tell Mishrifeh/Qatna Elephant ivory face from the Lower City Palace in Tell Mishrifeh/Qatna Map of Late Bronze Age sites in the northern Levant (Lebanon) Kamid el-Loz, palace of Building Stage 4a Kamid el-Loz, Treasure House of Building Stage 4c Kamid el-Loz, temple of Building Stage T2c Kamid el-Loz, stone vessel with inscription (‘Prince Rawoser’) Map of Late Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant (Cisjordan) Different proposals for the division of Canaanite city-states Representative Canaanite pottery types Map of Late Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant (Transjordan) Late Middle Bronze and Late Bronze Age ceramics from Tell Abu al-Kharaz and Tell Deir ‘Alla (LB II) The Lion Box of wood with inlaid ivory from Pella Stamp-seal of calcite from Tell Abu al-Kharaz LB IC Male deity of bronze from Tell Abu al-Kharaz LB IC Map of Late Bronze Age sites in Cyprus White Slip and Base Ring pottery Plan of Building X, Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios Imported Mycenaean stirrup jar from Aredhiou Vouppes Plan of Myrtou Pigadhes Map of Iron Age I sites in the northern Levant Summary of archaeological evidence related to Iron Age I in Lebanon and Syria Iron Age I pottery from Kamid el-Lōz Iron Age I common and painted pottery from Syria Iron Age I small finds from Hama Map of Iron Age I sites in the southern Levant (Cisjordan) Plan of the Egyptian centre of Beth Shean (LB/Ir, Stratum Lower VI) Plan of Megiddo VIA (Ir1b) View of Tel Kinrot VI/V (Ir1b) View of storage building overlooking the southern lagoon at Dor (Ir1b)

37.3 37.4 37.5 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 40.5 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5

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484 485 487 490 511 514 516 517 519 526 530 531 532 533 544 546 551 562 566 567 569 569 577 578 581 583 585 608 609 612 617 619 625 629 631 632 633

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list of figures 41.6 41.7 41.8 41.9 41.10 41.11 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 48.5 48.6 49.1 49.2

Phoenician Bichrome containers from Yoqne‘am and Tel Kinrot (Ir1b) ‘Philistine Monochrome’ skyphos from Tel Miqne-Ekron, Stratum VII ‘Ashdoda’ figurine from Ashdod, Stratum XII Temple 350 at Tel Miqne-Ekron, Stratum V Plan of three-room pillared houses at Khirbet Radanna Iron I ceramic assemblage from Shiloh Map of Iron Age I sites in the southern Levant (Transjordan) Plan of Lehun Painting of the four-room house at Tall al-‘Umayri Faience vase mentioning Pharaoh Taousert from Deir ‘Alla Model shrine found in an open-air sanctuary at Tall al-‘Umayri Map of Iron Age I sites in Cyprus Palaepaphos: megaliths at the sanctuary of the Cypriot Aphrodite Department of Antiquities excavations at Kition Area II Proto-White Painted zoomorphic double-headed centaur Two female terracotta figurines from the Komissariato Sanctuary Map of Iron Age II sites in the Aramean states Plan of the citadel of Hama Reliefs at the Royal Buttress, Karkemish Iron II–III pottery Iron II storage jars Map of Iron Age II sites in Phoenicia Juglets from Al-Bass (Tyre) Reconstruction of Tyre in Iron Age II The glacis of Beirut Map of Iron Age II sites in Philistia The royal dedicatory inscription from Ekron Temple-Palace Complex 650, Ekron Main forms of Late Philistine Decorated Ware (‘Ashdod Ware’) The musician’s stand from Ashdod Map of Iron Age II sites in Israel General view of the Iron IIA apiary, Tel Rehov (Stratum V) Iron IIA altar, Tel Rehov (Stratum V) Iron IIA ceramic assemblage,Tel Rehov (Stratum V) General view of the Iron II high place at Tel Dan Assyrian-style administrative building at Megiddo (Stratum III) Map of Iron Age II sites in Judah Plan of typical three- and four-room houses

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xv 634 636 637 638 642 643 651 653 654 655 656 662 666 666 669 670 684 689 693 696 698 707 708 710 711 718 720 723 724 726 732 735 736 736 737 739 744 748

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list of figures

49.3 49.4 49.5 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 51.1 51.2 51.3 51.4 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 52.5 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.5 53.6 53.7a 53.7b 53.8 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 54.5 55.1

Large storage jars typical of the late 8th century bce Plan of domestic areas from Tell Beit Mirsim’s Stratum A Cultic remains from Tell Halif Map of Iron Age II sites in Ammon Ammonite fortified tower or farmstead Proto-Ionic capital found on the Amman Citadel Atef-crowned figurine found at Jalul Amman Citadel Inscription Map of Iron Age II sites in Moab Plan of the temple of Khirbat al-Mudayna ath-Thamad Pottery from Khirbat al-Mudayna ath-Thamad ‘Cypro-Phoenician’ juglet (P135) from Khirbat al-Mudayna Map of Iron Age II sites in Edom Bulla from Umm al-Biyara Plan of Busayra Area A ‘temple’ Decorated pottery from Busayra Neo-Babylonian relief at Sela Map of Iron Age II sites in Cyprus Greek Cypro-Syllabic inscription Bronze tripod stand from Kaloriziki T. 40 Proto-White Painted kalathos from Kouklia Salamis, ‘Royal’ Tomb No. 79 Terracotta statues from the sanctuary of Ayia Irene Idalion silver siglos (obverse) Paphos silver siglos (reverse) Limestone statue of Herakles-Milqar from Kition-Bamboula Map of Babylonian-period sites in the Levant Tell en-Nasbeh Stratum 2 Babylonian-era destruction at Ashkelon Assemblage 5 from Syria, c.580–540 bc Wild Goat Ware from Ashkelon Map of Persian-period sites in the Levant

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750 751 753 759 761 762 763 764 771 775 777 778 783 784 788 790 792 796 799 801 803 807 808 811 811 814 826 830 831 836 837 842

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List of tables

4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 8.1 11.1 14.1 21.1 21.2 24.1 28.1 29.1 33.1 36.1 37.1 37.2 38.1 47.1

The general framework for the chronology of the Levant Chronological scheme for Early Cypriot–Middle Cypriot Cyprus Chronological table synthesizing the disparate names for the period divisions General correspondence between Egyptian dynasties and Levantine periods Concordance of the reigns of Persian and Phoenician kings during the Iron Age III/Persian period Chronology and paleoenvironments of Neolithic entities west of the Rift Valley Pan-regional comparative chronology of the Levantine Chalcolithic period Chronological terminology of the Early Bronze Age in Lebanon Radiocarbon dates from Lebanon Phasing of Cypriot Early Bronze Age Archaeological phasing and chronology in western Syria Comparative stratigraphy of Middle Bronze Age sites in Lebanon Chronologies of the Late Bronze Age Levant Periodization of the Late Bronze Age The revised terminology of the southern Levant and synchronization with Egypt Calibrated radiocarbon dates from Tell Abu al-Kharaz Absolute chronology of the Late Cypriot Chronological comparison of the main sites in Iron Age I–II Philistia and its vicinity

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45 56 62 70 108 150 207 294 295 355 415 436 499 542 563 565 579 719

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List of contributors

Peter M. M. G. Akkermans Professor, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, The Netherlands Gassia Artin Associated Researcher, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée, Université Lyon II, France María Eugenia Aubet Director of Cuadernos de Arqueologia Mediterránea, Universidad Pompeu Fabra, Spain Anna Belfer-Cohen Professor, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel David Ben-Shlomo Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Alison Betts Professor, Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney, Australia Piotr Bienkowski Cultural Consultant, Tottington, UK Stephen J. Bourke Research Associate, Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney, Australia Aaron A. Burke Associate Professor, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures and the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Hanan Charaf Research Associate, UMR 7041, University of Paris I-Sorbonne, France Joanne Clarke Senior Lecturer, School of World Art Studies, University of East Anglia, UK Susan L. Cohen Associate Professor, Department of History and Philosophy, Montana State University, USA Lisa Cooper Associate Professor, Department of Classical, Near Eastern and Religious Studies, University of British Columbia, Canada Thomas Davis Professor, Tandy Institute for Archaeology, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, USA Josette Elayi Chercheur honoraire, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Bill Finlayson Director, Council for British Research in the Levant, UK Peter M. Fischer Professor, Department of Historical Studies, Gothenburg University, Sweden David Frankel Professor, Archaeology Program, La Trobe University, Australia

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list of contributors

Hermann Genz Associate Professor, Department of History and Archaeology, American University of Beirut, Lebanon Ayelet Gilboa Senior Lecturer, Department of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Israel A. Nigel Goring-Morris Professor, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Raphael Greenberg Associate Professor, Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near East, Tel Aviv University, Israel Holger Gzella Professor, Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University, The Netherlands James W. Hardin Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology and Middle Eastern Cultures, Mississippi State University, USA Marlies Heinz Professor, Department of Near Eastern Archaeology, University of Freiburg, Germany Larry G. Herr Professor, Department of Religious Studies, Canadian University College, Canada Maria Iacovou Professor, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus, Cyprus Zeidan A. Kafafi Professor, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, Yarmouk University, Jordan Ann E. Killebrew Associate Professor, Department of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Jewish Studies, and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, USA Horst Klengel Altorientalischen Seminar, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Sabina Kulemann-Ossen Associate Researcher, Department of Near Eastern Archaeology, University of Bern, Switzerland Gunnar Lehmann Associate Professor, Deptartment of Bible, Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel Thomas E. Levy Professor, Department of Anthropology and Qualcomm Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technology, University of California, San Diego, USA Marta Luciani Assistant Professor, Oriental Institute, University of Vienna, Austria Stefania Mazzoni Professor, Department of History, Archaeology, Geography, Fine & Performing Arts, University of Florence, Italy Pierre de Miroschedji Directeur de recherche émérite, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Daniele Morandi Bonacossi Associate Professor, Department of History and Preservation of Cultural Heritage, University of Udine, Italy Gregory D. Mumford Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

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list of contributors

xxi

Nava Panitz-Cohen, Research Associate, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Edgar Peltenburg Professor of Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, UK Kay Prag Research Affiliate, Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, UK Suzanne Richard Professor, Department of History and Archaeology, Gannon University, USA Yorke M. Rowan Research Associate, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, USA Hélène Sader Professor, Department of History and Archaeology, American University of Beirut, Lebanon Tammi J. Schneider Professor, School of Religion, Claremont Graduate University, USA Ilan Sharon Professor, Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel E. Susan Sherratt Lecturer, Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield, UK Louise Steel Senior Lecturer, School of Archaeology, History and Anthropology, University of Wales, UK Margreet L. Steiner Independent Researcher, Leiden, The Netherlands Matthew J. Suriano Assistant Professor, The Joseph and Rebecca Meyerhoff Center for Jewish Studies, University of Maryland, College Park, USA Jennifer M. Webb Research Fellow, Archaeology Program, La Trobe University, Australia Harvey Weiss Professor, Near Eastern Archaeology and Environmental Studies, Yale University, USA Randall W. Younker Professor, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University, USA Jeffrey R. Zorn Adjunct Associate Professor, Department of Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University, USA

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map of the levant

Turkey

Syria Cyprus Lebanon

Iraq Palestinian Territories

Israel Jordan

0km

250km

Egypt

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chapter 39

introduction to the levant during the transitional l ate bronze age/iron age i and iron age i peri ods ann e. killebrew

The end of the Bronze Age (c.1200–1130 bce) witnessed the demise of the Mycenaean palace system and the decline of the Late Bronze Age Hittite and Egyptian Empires, culminating in the collapse of the first ‘Age of Internationalism’ in the eastern Mediterranean. This Late Bronze ‘golden age of heroes’, romantically immortalized in the Iliad, is defined by economic, political, and cultural interconnectivity that was under the control of imperial networks and local royal palaces. Early scholarly treatments attributed the end of this era to a catastrophe or series of disasters—natural or man-made—that destroyed major Late Bronze Age centres. In this scenario, these destructions triggered migrations of displaced peoples, especially populations in the western Aegean. These groups, often referred to by the modern term ‘Sea Peoples’, were held responsible for the devastation of Late Bronze Age settlements further to the east that resulted in a ‘dark age’ lasting centuries (see e.g. Sandars 1978 and Wood 1996: 210–59 for overviews and bibliography)— a view that still prevails among some Aegeanists, particularly when dealing with the Levant. Recent studies reveal a far more complex network characterized by multidirectional cultural and socioeconomic interconnections that preceded and coincided with a more protracted demise of the Bronze Age that continued into the 12th century bce (see e.g. Sherratt 2003; Maran 2004; Killebrew 2005a: 21–49; 2006–7; Artzy 2006a; Knapp 2008; Ben-Shlomo 2011; Hitchcock 2011, Sherratt, Ch. 33 above). Continuity, discontinuity, change, appropriation, diffusion, creolization, hybridity, transculturalism, interculturality, catastrophe, collapse, crisis, dislocation, migration, colonization, ethnogenesis, nucleation, reoccupation, abandonment, and a new term I have proposed, Levantinism (see Killebrew and Steiner, Introduction, above) are all descriptive terms that have been employed to characterize the instability and fluidity of the late 13th– 11th centuries as evidenced in the archaeological record and reflected in the economic, political, and social structures of this period of time (see e.g. Ward and Joukowsky 1992; Drews 1993; Bachhuber and Roberts 2009).

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