Child Adolesc Soc Work J (2010) 27:395–403 DOI 10.1007/s10560-010-0213-x
The Association Between Social Competence in Adolescents and Mothers’ Parenting Style: A Cross Sectional Study on Iranian Girls Ashraf Kazemi • Hasan Eftekhar Ardabili Soheila Solokian
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Published online: 31 August 2010 Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
Abstract This study is to determine the association between parenting style of mothers and the social competence of their adolescent daughters in effective communication, problem solving skills and use of basic social skills dimensions. The data were gathered for the mean age of 11–15 years on 737 Iranian adolescent girls in a cross sectional study design. The parenting style of mothers was based on their demand and responsiveness. These scales classified mothers into four parenting styles as follows: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful. The social competence was also categorized into effective relationship, problem solving skills, use of basic social skills dimensions. The mean scores of the adolescents’ social competence whose mothers had permissive and authoritative parenting style was higher than that for the two other groups for all the dimensions (p \ 0.05). The results showed that with the expectation of controlling roles, the supportive role of mothers can be more effective in providing opportunities for social competence performance. Keywords Mothers’ parenting style Adolescents Iranian girls Social competence Effective relationship Problem solving skills Use of basic social skills
A. Kazemi (&) S. Solokian Maternal & Child Health Department, Nursing and Midwifery Faculty, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Hezarjarib St, Isfahan, Iran e-mail:
[email protected] A. Kazemi Reproductive Health Department, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Ghods St, Tehran, Iran H. Eftekhar Ardabili Health Promotion Department, Health Faculty, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Ghods St, Tehran, Iran
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Introduction Adolescence is a period in which significant changes happen in all its physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. These changes create a new feeling of identity in adolescents and lead them towards socialization with its entire emergence of developing an individual identity (Landry et al. 2009). More reasons indicate the importance of social competence in promoting the outcome of adolescents’ positive development. Social competence possesses certain specific abilities that enable the individual to perform competently in certain social environments (Walters and Sroufe 1983). Moreover, adolescents’ characteristics and their affiliation to the peer groups make them more vulnerable than any other age group to antisocial behaviors. Development of social skills which performs as social competence can protect adolescents from risk factors like abnormal behaviors, behavioral disorders, and depression (Botvin and Griffin 2002; Epstein et al. 2000). Therefore, creating the environment for development of social skills is one of the main goals of any plan in order to prevent antisocial behaviors. The social and psychological environments are the most important factors of their social development and have significant impacts on the process of their social development. Among the social environments, family is the main social institution and the first base which can affect development of self-esteem and internal control (Rockhill et al. 2009). Through interactions with their parents and other caregivers, children acquire social skills. One model of parent–child socialization reported by Parke et al. (1994), described the parent as taking on three roles: the child’s interactive partner, a direct instructor, and a provider of opportunities for the child. As an interactive partner, a parent helps the child to initiate and maintain social relationships with others. As a direct instructor, the parent educates the child on social, moral, and cultural norms, and provides support for handling new social situations. As a provider of opportunity, parents manage and regulate the child’s social experiences by deciding when and how often the child will interact with children and other sources of socialization outside of the family (Parke and Buriel 1998). It is through these different roles that parents shape the child’s social skills, such as emotion recognition (Cassidy et al. 2008; Parke et al. 1994) and self-regulation (Grolnick and Kurowski 1999) that contribute to effective social competence. Researchers typically find strong links between warm and supportive parenting practices and high levels of self-esteem and social behaviors in adolescence (Harter 1990; Lamborn et al. 1991). Previous study showed that different societies and complicated social relationships in different societies overshadow the impacts of parenting style and change their outcomes (Chen and French 2008). Moreover, cultural norms and values with respect to the dimensions of social competence may affect the exhibition, meaning, and development of specific social behaviors. According to some researches, authoritative parenting has been shown to be the most common parenting style among intact European American families. They have also found that authoritative parenting helps adolescents to attain better social competence (Abell et al. 1996; Querido et al. 2002). However, some studies have
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indicated mixed findings in which Asian American parents tend to fall into both authoritarian and authoritative parenting categories, revealing that both parenting styles are associated with academic achievement, lower depressive symptoms, and lower externalizing behavior problems (Kim et al. 2007; Xu et al. 2005). Moreover, Weis (2002) found that permissive parenting was also related to higher social competency scores. Therefore, the most effective parenting style should be determined for every culture and society in order to develop social competence. Like other Middle Eastern countries, the Iranian society has historically been patriarchal. Adolescents and young adults have been expected to sacrifice their personal aspirations to avoid conflict with parental expectations (Fathi 1985). During the past century the Iranian society has under gone drastic and yet highly uneven socioeconomic and cultural changes. The so-called ‘‘uneven development’’ has resulted in formation of a dual society with two conflicting (traditional and semi-modernized) socioeconomic systems (Abrahamian 1983). Due to these changes, the socioeconomic roles of Iranian women have changed so much so that they require high levels of self-direction. Hence, identifying the parenting style as a predictor of individual differences in adolescents’ social competence may help to shape the early interventions to facilitate more optimal outcomes later. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the parenting style of mothers which is associated with the best social competence for their adolescent daughters in Iran, taking into consideration the dominant culture. Hypothesis This study was structured around the following hypothesis. Authoritative parenting style is associated with higher social competence in effective relationships, problem solving skills and use of basic social skills dimensions.
Methods This research is a cross sectional study on 737 of girl adolescent high school prep students of Isfahan with a mean age of 11–15 years, during 2008–2009. The Ethics Committee of Medical Sciences of Isfahan University approved this study. Adolescents were briefed on the study and the eligibility criteria. Their mothers were required to be physiological mothers and the primary female caretakers of the adolescents for at least the five past years. Eligible adolescents were invited to participate in a baseline interview after being briefed on the study. They also signed a consent form.
Measures Social Competence Adolescents’ social competence was measured in three dimensions by a 27-item scale adapted from Merrell’s questionnaire for assessment of social development and the responses were based on Likert scale (Merrell and Boelter 2001). This
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questionnaire included questions related to evaluating effective relationships and problem solving skills when faced with social problems and effective use of the basic social skills. The questionnaire was first translated and edited by two separate teams. A pilot study leading to the final revision was conducted. A psychometric evaluation of the later version generally revealed a good criterion-related validity and internal consistency. To assess the validity of the final version, 10% of the final sample was randomly interviewed. The correlations between the scores on the questionnaire and the interviews were .88 for effective relationships, .81 for problem solving skills and .78 for using basic social skills. Cronbach’s alphas for evaluation of the internal consistencies were .82, .79, and .75 for effective relationships, problem solving skills and use of basic social skills, respectively. The respondents were asked to select from five possible responses on how they would react if they were confronted with the situation. Parenting Style Measure The parenting style evaluation was developed by the principal investigator to measure the adolescents’ perceptions of parental involvement and control. The items selected for the evaluation were derived from a review of the literature on parenting style and the work of Miller et al. (2002). The evaluation was composed of 40 items and the responses were based on the Likert Scale. An example of one item used to determine the involvement dimension was: ‘‘When you do something your mother likes, she gives you a smile, hug or kiss.’’ An example of an item used to determine the control dimension was: ‘‘Your mother would let you have a date.’’ To determine whether or not the selected items be measured on the involvement dimension were conceptually distinct from those selected to evaluate the control dimension of parenting, it was subjected to a factor analysis using the principal components analysis with varimax rotation. Two factors were extracted from the analysis. One factor included most of the items developed to evaluate the involvement, and the second factor included most of the items evaluating the control. To further refine the instrument, the items for each factor were retained to see whether they had a loading of .40 or higher on their primary factor to see whether the difference between the loadings on the primary factor and the secondary factor were greater than 20. Twenty-six items, 13 items for each factor, met these criteria and were retained for the primary analysis. The 13-item involvement scale had an alpha coefficient of .87, and the 13-item control scale had an alpha of .83, both demonstrating adequate reliability for internal consistency. The analysis was conducted into two stages. In the first stage, the adolescents were classified into parenting style groups. This was accomplished by using principle component analysis followed by cluster analysis. The component scores were computed based on the exploratory factor analysis by dividing the number of components into two parts (one for control and the other for involvement). These two component scores then were submitted to a K-Means Cluster Analysis to identify the categories of the respondents who because of their similarity of their pattern of scores were in agreement with the four-group parenting style structure proposed by Baumrind (1966).
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Table 1 Adolescents’ social competence in various dimensions of parenting style Social problem resolving
Effective communication
Basic social skills
Parenting style
Mean (±SD)
Mean (±SD)
Mean (±SD)
Authoritative
36.06 (±4.64)
29.32 (±3.62)
27.71 (±3.46)
Permissive
37.05 (±4.47)
29.52 (±3.90)
30.32 (±3.29)
Authoritarian
33.18 (±5.32)
27.41 (±4.45)
27.14 (±3.84)
Neglectful
31.02 (±6.36)
26.70 (±4.78)
27.05 (±4.14)
The second phase of the analysis was conducted to determine the social competence in three dimensions including effective relationships, problem solving skills when faced with social problems and effective use of basic social skills. Results The data were analyzed using SPSS software v.16.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, 2009). The mean age of the 737 students was 13 ± 1.02 years. The perception of mothers’ parenting style in 30% participants was authoritative, 7.9% authoritarian, 48.2% permissive and 13.2% neglectful. The mean score of the adolescents’ social competence in various dimensions is shown in Table 1. Social competence was compared on four mothers’ parenting styles. An ANOVA was conducted to determine the social competence on three dimensions and parenting styles, adolescents’ age, and mothers’ education. The results demonstrated that the parenting style was a main factor for problem solving skills (F = 26.55, p \ 0.001), basic social skills (F = 14.84, p \ 0.001) and effective communication (F = 11.26, p \ 0.001). These results indicated that the participants perceiving their mother to use permissive and authoritative parenting techniques tended to demonstrate a greater social competence than the participants indicating authoritarian and neglectful parenting styles. Therefore, analysis using the Scheffe test indicated that there were no differences in three dimensions of the social competence between participants who described their mothers’ parenting style as either authoritative or permissive. Also no differences between participants who described their mothers’ parenting style as either authoritarian or neglectful have been detected. But the results indicated that all the dimensions of social competence in adolescents who described their mothers’ parenting style as authoritative and permissive were higher than those of the two other groups (p \ 0.001). The correlation between the social competence on the dimensions of social problem solving and effective communication and basic social skills with mothers’ educational level made no significant differences (r = 0.01, r = 0.08 and r = 0.02). Discussion In this study, our purpose was to extend the studies on parenting and social competence by examining whether or not children grown up under different parenting styles differed in their social competence in some dimensions.
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The first finding of the present study showed that the most perceived parenting style in girls was permissive parenting style. Thus, most adolescent participants perceived that their mothers provided a higher involvement than control in their lives. Although according to many authors, authoritative parenting is the preferred parenting style and has been associated with the outcome of more positive childrearing (Miller et al. 2002; Assadi et al. 2007); we found that permissive parenting was also associated with high social competence scores in Iranian girls rather than with authoritarian and neglectful parenting style. Furthermore this study investigated the fact that the association between the parenting style and social competence in some dimensions was not affected by mothers’ demographic characteristics. The findings shows that authoritative parenting is related to adolescents’ social competence consistent with the existing evidence in other cultural settings (Chen and French 2008; Darling and Steinberg 1993; Endicott and Liossis 2005; Garcia and Gracia 2009; Noak et al. 1999), but the positive relationship between permissive parenting and adolescents’ social competence is in contradiction with some studies (Hickman et al. 2000; Groot 2009; Mc Wayne et al. 2008; Dong and Zhou 1997; Marsiglia et al. 2009; Miller et al. 2002). The findings show that in the Iranian society, warmth and motherhood–adolescent interactions rather than control over girls’ lives can provide more potential for development of social competence. Also Garcia and Gracia (2009) found that both the indulgent and authoritative parenting styles rather than authoritarian and neglectful parenting were associated with higher self-esteem and social competence. This contradiction could be related to the cultural differences. Parenting style and educational experiences are different in each society and culture cannot be generalized to all (Supple and Small 2006). Application of a parenting style in specific social and cultural conditions had different effects on social behaviors (Allen et al. 2002). In order to gain social development and appropriate social interaction, adolescents need to get familiar with the social and cultural norms of their society which they had acquired from their parents and social environments. Moreover, they need to have self-respect and self-worth. In the Iranian culture, the role of parents in training their children specially their daughters is different and distinct (Jalali 2005). Like many other societies of the same pattern as Iran, the father is generally the undisputed authority who has the responsibility to discipline the children (Dwairy et al. 2006; Hojat et al. 1999; Jalali 2005). Moreover, the parental authority in the Iranian culture, expectation of the Iranian society from girls and women to observe some of the cultural and social aspects in comparison with boys and men, can reduce high psychological control. Under these conditions, imposing maternal control cause girl adolescents to raise questions about their adequacy and competency, and ultimately resolving in lower self-efficacy, lower self-esteem and self-confidence in girl adolescents (Barber 2002; Peterson 2005). Also, previous research has supported that maternal warmth is positively related to social competence in their children (Zhou et al. 2002; Kim et al. 2007). Therefore, supportive mother-adolescent interactions can coordinate this condition with the secure emotional environment, exploring the environment with feelings of safety and security leading to healthy cognitive and social development.
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According to Ainsworth (1963) children can explore their environment best from the secure base furnished by responsive and supportive parent–child relationship. If parents are unsupportive or insensitive to the child’s signals or respond to them inappropriately, it will evoke a sense of insecurity in their child (Walter et al. 1991). Hence, in the cultural context of the Iranian families, a warm relationship between girls and their mothers may build a kind of social trust in adolescents which is necessary for their social success that can provide emotional and cognitive resources for early adolescents to explore social environments and enhance the problem solving skills. Supple and Small (2006) suggested that a supportive environment in the family can increase self-esteem in adolescents and provide the opportunity to have some experience which leads to adolescents’ acquaintance with various effective methods to solve their social problems. Since a broad social relationship in adolescence provides the background for developing basic social skills and effective relationships and finding effective solutions to problems, authoritative and permissive parenting provides the necessary opportunities for adolescent girls to develop their competence. In summary, the results of our study suggest that a secure affectionate environment created by permissive and authoritative parenting styles in mothers provides a background for social competence. Our study has a number of limitations that urge caution in interpreting the results. Although our findings indicated that the association between permissive and authoritative parenting style and social competence is positive, but it is noteworthy that the direction of causality cannot be determined clearly from the present study design. The correlation between the parenting style and adolescents’ social competence is a two-way correlation. Adolescents in high social competence can provoke the warmth behavior in their mothers and adolescents with high social competence can provoke the supportive and permissive behavior in their mothers. Also, adolescents with high levels of self-esteem and social development feel more competent in assisting others who are in need of it and are also more able to do so in comparison with adolescents who are low in self-esteem. This is because their own needs are being met already (Eisenberg and Fabes 1998). Besides, some mothers in Iran would exercise their control by using the parental authority and their adolescents could not perceive the maternal control and this study assessed only the adolescents’ perceptions of maternal parenting. Despite the above limitations, this study provides guidance for educators in schools and social workers to help mothers resolve some of the social behavioral problems of their daughters. Acknowledgments Special thanks go to the research advisory office of the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences for their funding support of this research.
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